Calculus I Notes

MATH 52-154/Richards/10.1.07

The Derivative The derivative of a function f at p is denoted by f (p) and is informally dened by f (p)= the slope of the f -graph at p. Of course, the above description only applies when f has a well-dened slope at p. If this is the case, the magnied f -graph should eventually look linear near the point (p, f (p)).

50

50

52 50 48 46 44 42 40 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

51.0 50.5 50.0 49.5 49.0 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 p, f p

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In turn, this visual description brings us to a simple way to approximate f (p): nd the slope of a secant line passing through (p, f (p)) and another nearby point (x, f (x)).

51.0 50.5

x, f x

rise p, f p 50.0 run 49.5 49.0 x p

f x

f p

3.9

4.0

4.1

4.2

Remembering that slope is rise , we nd that the secant line slope is run msec = f (x) f (p) f (p). xp

If f has a derivative at p, then we expect the above approximation to improve by choosing x closer and closer to p (with x = p). This is where the limit enters the picture... The Real Deal: A Precise Definition of the Derivative. Suppose f is a function dened on an open interval containing a number p. The derivative of f at p is denoted by f (p) and is dened by f (p) = lim provided this limit exists. Note: If x = p + h, then h = x p and h 0 as x p. This yields the alternative form f (p) = lim provided this limit exists. Now it becomes clear: a primary motivation for exploring limits earlier in the semester was to set the stage for the derivative... f (p + h) f (p) h
xp

f (x) f (p) xp

h0

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Calculus Under Construction: A Derivative Knowledge Base and Skill Set We are developing the skills to solve the following types of problems: Generate a qualitatively correct graph of f from a given graph of f or f . Identify local extrema, points of inection, and intervals on which a function is increasing, decreasing, concave up, or concave down by investigating its rst/second derivative. Use the limit denition of the derivative to directly nd derivatives of the following types of functions: f (x) = xn (n a positive integer or n = 1/2, 1/3), f (x) = (ax + b)/(cx + d), sin(x) & cos(x). Use the limit denition of the derivative to verify the product and quotient rules. Know the derivatives of polynomial, rational, power, trig., exponential, logarithmic, inverse trig. functions. Use the established derivative rules (power, sum, product, quotient, chain) to nd the derivatives of functions built from polynomial, rational, power, trig., exponential, logarithmic, inverse trig. functions. Find an equation of a tangent line (or secant line) to the graph of a function. Interpret the meaning of a derivative in a specic applied problem. (e.g., velocity, marginal cost, ...). Use tangent lines to approximate more complicated functions. Use derivatives to nd extreme values of a given function. Use implicit dierentiation to nd unknown rates of change by relating them to known rates of change. More to come...

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Limits: Approaching an Ultimate Destination Intuitive Definitions of Limit. Suppose f is a function dened on an open interval containing a number p except possibly at p. Then f is said to have a limit L R at p i f (x) can be made to be arbitrarily close to L by choosing x suciently close to p with x = p. In this case we write
xp

lim f (x) = L.

This can also be translated as f (x) approaches L as x approaches p with x = p. Intuitive Definitions of One-Sided Limits.
xp+

lim f (x) = L can be translated as f (x) approaches L as x approaches p from above. lim f (x) = L can be translated as f (x) approaches L as x approaches p from below.

xp

Connection: Suppose f is a function dened on an open interval containing a number p except possibly at p. It follows that lim f (x) = L i lim f (x) = L = lim f (x).
xp xp+ xp

Limit Laws. Suppose f and g are functions dened on an open interval containing a number p except possibly at p If f and g both have real limits at p, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
xp p

xp

xp

lim (f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

lim (f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

lim (f (x)/g(x)) = lim f (x)/ lim g(x),

where the last equation requires that lim g(x) = 0. Squeeze Theorem. Suppose g(x) f (x) h(x) for all x near p (except perhaps at x = p). If g and h have the same limit L at p, then f is squeezed into having the limit L at p. That is, if lim g(x) = L = lim h(x), then lim f (x) = L.
xp xp xp

(If the Limit Laws arent enough, it may be time to put on the Squeeze.)
Precise Denition of Limit. Suppose f is a function dened on an open interval containing a number p except > 0 there is some > 0 such that L < f (x) < L + for

possibly at p. Then f is said to have a limit L R at p i for every

all x = p satisfying p < x < p + . (Okay, maybe this denition seems a little technical, but it is something every calculus student should ponder if only to rene ones understanding and appreciate the simplicity of the above intuitive denition.) If you are still reading this, then you probably anticipated the fact that one-sided limits also have similar precise denitions.

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Continuous Functions As weve seen in several examples, a functions limit at a point p and its value at p dont always agree. When they do, we celebrate the property by giving it a special name: Suppose f is a function dened on an open interval containing a number p. Then f is said to be continuous at p i lim f (x) = f (p).
xp

Connection to Limits: By the Limit Laws, we nd that if f and g are continuous at p then so are f + g, f g and f /g (if g(p) = 0). This immediately expanded our library of known elementary continuous functions. Recall that we often applied this reasoning as a strategy for calculating limits by rst simplifying a given limit to one involving a function in our library of continuous functions. Continuity on Intervals: If f is continuous at each element of an open interval (a, b), then f is said to be continuous on (a, b). If f is continuous on (a, b) and satises lim f (x) = f (a) and
xa+ xb

lim f (x) = f (b), then f is said to be continuous on the closed interval [a, b].

This terminology came along at just the right time. Now we can state (and understand) theorems like the Intermediate Value Theorem and the Extreme Value Theorem. Intermediate Value Theorem. Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and is any number strictly between f (a) and f (b) (i.e., f (a) < < f (b) or f (a) > > f (b)). Then there is some input c (a, b) such that f (c) = . (The IVT serves as guarantee that solutions to certain equations exist.) Extreme Value Theorem. Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]. Then f has an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value on [a, b]. (Now the interesting question: How do we nd the absolute extrema for a given function that is continuous on [a, b]?)

Useful Miscellanea an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 b + ... + abn2 + bn1 ) sin(h) lim =1 h0 h cos(h) 1 lim =0 h0 h sin(A + B) = sin(A) cos(B) + cos(A) sin(B) cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B) (for positive integers n 2)