Graphics of

Communication
 Introductionk

► While graphics seems so strange and unnerves many students, we all have a
brush with basic principles of graphics early in primary school writing
classes with our 2D exercise books.
► There we’re taught the basics of legible writing to make our
communication readable to our readers.
► We interact with graphics daily in newspapers, magazines, books,
billboards, sign boards, road signs on our highways etc.
► Generally, graphics is any visual communication designed to create a clear
picture of a message in the mind of the recipient.
► Its main aim is to compel a desired action – to excite our interest or feeling
either to read a message or buy a product.
 Intro to Graphics Cont’d

► While writers generate words; photographers and artists images for

n/paper and magazine production, copy editors package them for readers.
► Art and design draw readers’ attention into a page, h/lines propel them to
choose which stories to read.
► Graphics of comm. dotes on the size, shape, colour and arrangement of
type and images on a page.
► Good graphics help to capture and retain readers’ attention, then lure
them to read the message.
► This entails packaging and presenting your message in appropriate type
sizes, type faces, layout and design styles to achieve your communication
objectives.
 Objectives of Graphics of Comm.

► Basically, graphics seeks to:

a) Attract attention to the message,
b) Quicken understanding of the message,
c) Arouse interest in the message,
d) Make a lasting impression, and
e) Compel a desired action, either to read or buy a product.
 Typography

► Typography is the arrangement of letters of alphabet into words and

sentences and printed or displayed electronically to pass messages to
readers/viewers.
► It’s the art or process of printing with type i.e. the general character or
appearance of printed matter.
► It’s the art, craft or process of composing type and printing from it.
► In essence, typography is the selection and planning of type for printed
text to for effective communication.
► It’s the art of using type effectively, which entails choosing a typeface and
type size, determining letter, word and line spacing and specifying type
size to type setter.
 Typography Cont’d

► Type (i.e. letter, symbol, figure or other character cast in metal, wood or
plastic for use in printing) is an integral part of the message in magazine,
n/paper or book publishing and advertising.
► In type selection, readability (i.e. how readable a text is) takes priority
over design, arrangement, style, colour and harmony.
► All production men must be conversant with the role type plays in
communication messages.
► Since type is central to the application of typographic technology, the
production man must understand the impact of different type
arrangements to the overall pictorial design of the page.
 Typography Cont’d

► Note also that the type selected has some emotional value and may convey
mood or feeling, hence a suitably selected type can give emphasis, colour,
harmony and design to the text.
► Effective combination of these factors will enhance the readability of the
text and clear expression of the message, which is vital to both readers
and editors.
Introduction to Type
 Type

► As noted earlier, type refers to a letter, symbol, figure or other characters

cast in metal, wood or plastic for use in printing.
► But a typeface is a collection of letters or symbols with similar traits.
► A n/paper can use the same typeface for h/line and text or choose a h/line
type that complements the text.
► You can think of a typeface as a family. Like families, typefaces have
names – some descriptive, like wedding text, others quirky, like Hobo or
Sphinx.
► Within a typeface are various styles that look a little different but still
resemble one another, just as members of a family do.
 Type Cont’d

► Every typeface family comprises both roman style (vertical letters) and
italic style in which letters are slanted.
► Every typeface is either serif or sans serif (sans is a French word, meaning
without).
► Serif type looks like typewriter type. Its letters have short perpendicular
lines (serifs) at their edges e.g. Garamond, Times Roman, Bodoni, Palatino
etc.
► Conversely, sans serif type has no such lines e.g. Frutiger, Helvetica,
Univers etc.
► A letter in a serif typeface sometimes occupies more space, while all sans
serif type faces are of the same width.
 Type Width

► Type width refers to the horizontal space each letter occupies.

► Many typefaces are in regular or light (normal-width letters), expanded
(wide letters) or condensed (narrow letters).
► While expanded typeface occupies more horizontal space, condensed type
gains more height in the process.
► Computers can be used to tighten or loosen the vertical spacing between
lines or adjust the horizontal space between letters (kerning), with
implications for type’s readability.
► So there’s a limit to which editors can go in squeezing excess h/line or text
into a small space or spreading out a too-short h/line or text to fill
available space.
 Type Weight

► Typefaces also have weight – a measure of the thickness of the strokes of

each letter.
► A particular typeface may be available in light, medium, bold, extra bold
and ultra bold. But no n/paper uses every weight.
► Many n/papers combine weights in predetermined ways – running main
headings in bold and others in light typeface in tandem with layout
contrast principle.
 Type Sizes

► Even more variable than weight of type is its size. But printers measure
type in units called points.
► A point is approximately 1/72 of an inch i.e. a 72 point h/line is one inch
tall.
► N/paper text or body type is usually 9 points or 10 points, while the
amount of space between lines of type is called leading – often one point
for text.
► While leading enhances readability, its excess makes a story less like a
coherent whole.
► Editors and designers seek daily to make n/papers more reader-friendly.
► But h/lines, which require more leading because of their large type sizes,
range from 14 points for briefs; 18 points and above for others, depending
on how big the story is and the house style.
 Type Classification

► While thousands of different typefaces and type families abound, they are
grouped into five, with each of them having distinct characteristics.
► These traits help editors to determine how to combine typefaces in the
production process, while also enhancing general understanding and
knowledge of type usage.
► Hymes (1958: 80-81) grouped types into five – modern, old style, sans serif,
script and venetian.
a) Modern
► The modern type family, exemplified by Bodoni and Times Roman, is still
in vogue today.
► They are good for both display and text when set in the right measure and
properly leaded.
 Type Classification Cont’d

b) Old style
► A wedged-shaped serif, and a graceful curve from the body of the letter,
distinguishes old style from modern. Calson exemplifies this typeface
family.
c) Sans serif
► Sans serif typeface emerged from the quest to modernise type forms. As its
name implies, it has no serif and it’s easy to identify.
► The even strokes of the letter, as in Futura, enables it to combine well
with other typeface or illustration.
► For text, sans serif typefaces come well in short paragraph format with
adequate leading between the lines.
 Type Classification Cont’d

d) Script
► Script enhances readability more than any other type style. Each letter’s
finishing stroke, picked up by the opening stroke of the next letter, should
not be broken by letter spacing.
► Ad copy writers employ it for the dignity, balance and freshness it adds to
a copy, a feat unrivalled by any other typeface.
► Bernhard cursive is a member of the script typeface family.
e) Venetian
► A slight curvature at the bottom of its descending serif hallmarks the
venetian old style.
 Spacing

► Every newspaper has spacing rules for section logos and heads, headlines,
photos, text, boxed stories/graphics and by-lines to enhance readability.
► Spacing is also required in three other ways – between letters, between
words and between lines.
a) Letter spacing
► To enhance readability and design, note the following:
► Avoid spacing between lower case letters to ensure text cohesion.
► Combination of caps and lower case letters in a line requires moderate
letter spacing to improve readability.
► Excess space between characters decreases legibility. To enhance
legibility, avoid all caps in a line and use lower case letters in a block of
text. All caps lines are harder to read than lower case lines.
b) Line Spacing

► Note these to enhance readability:

► Equal space between words and between lines improves legibility.
► Typefaces with short ascenders and descenders require less space between
lines.
► Large size lower case letters need more spacing between lines.
Leading
► Note that spacing between lines differs from letter spacing in terminology
and method.
► For spacing between lines, we use leads of slugs which are less than
type-high.
► Leads range in thickness from 1 point to 5 points.
c) Paragraph Spacing

► Paragraph spacing helps to give readers a fresh start at intervals in a long

reading text, while also breaking the monotony of type.
► Long printed matter without air or white space can put off readers.
► The correct amount of space between paragraphs can be determined by
the line leading, which can be raised from 2 points to 4 points.
► Book and n/paper typographers prefer indented paragraphs to flush
paragraphs for easier reading.
► Generally, paragraphs help to break monotony of text, sustain readers’
interest and adds to the decorative spirit of the thought.
► But always align each paragraph to the lines of the text.
 Readability and Type Selection

► Legibility and readability are important in selecting a particular typeface

to pass your idea, message or thought to your audience.
► So opt for a typeface that would be acceptable to your audience.
► Also ensure that the type harmonises the overall concept of the layout, art
work, idea or product to achieve unity with the paper on which it’s
printed.
► Typefaces come either in light or heavy designs to connote femininity or
masculinity.
► Futura, Bodoni, Lydian etc., are regarded as feminine, while Futura
display, Cropper black stymie extra bold or Franklin gothic are masculine
for their strength, boldness and weight.
Objectives of Good
Typography
 Introduction

► The aim of good typography is to select easy to read, familiar typefaces

that will help readers read faster than he would with less legible
typefaces.
► Legible typefaces spur readers to read more of the text when there are
few obstacles impeding them.
► Virtually all typefaces produced for text setting in books,
magazines/n/papers are legible.
► But display types, say, from 18 points and above, may or may not be
legible, especially when set in long lines.
► Ad copies may opt for unusual typefaces in one or two-word h/line if
there’s ample white space to make it legible.
 Objectives of Good Typography Cont’d

► But the same typeface may be difficult to read in n/paper h/line without
ample white space because the amount of air around the text affects
legibility.
► The main difference between legible and illegible types has more to do
with whether readers are familiar with them.
► Familiar typefaces quicken easier and faster reading.
► Using unusual typefaces forces readers to stop and look at the uniqueness
of the letter shapes and thus slows down reading.
► Note too that reading all caps letters is about 12 percent slower than the
same words appearing in caps and lower case letters.
► Remember that the amount of white space around type affects legibility.
Objectives of Good Typography Cont’d

► Finally, two questions to ask yourself when working with typography are:
► Does the type look good? If it doesn’t look good, it isn’t. So drop it as it
may hinder text legibility.
► Is the type easy to read? If it isn’t easy to read, or you just suspect it might
not be easy to read, then it isn’t. Choose another typeface.`
► Type is like fashion. What is considered fashionable and interesting varies
over time. To keep abreast of trending type, keep an eye on the kinds of
typefaces in use in the mass media – tv, movies, n/papers, magazines,
books and the internet.
 Width of Line

► The width of line or the length of a typed line can either enhance or hinder
reading.
► This is why n/papers and magazines go for short columns to spur faster
reading e.g. most n/papers come in six or seven grid format to reduce eye
sweeps while reading.
► Long lines of type with less space makes reading difficult, just as extra
white space between long lines of type can help the reader keep his place
and easily move to each succeeding line.
► Avoid extremely short or wide lines because they’re difficult to read.
 Correct Type Usage

1) Avoid using roman, italic and bold typefaces in the same line to reduce too
much contrast, which makes reading difficult.
► For good typography, stick to either roman and italic or roman and bold
typefaces in the same line.
2) Avoid too short or too long line width because it’s difficult to fit many
words into the former.
► Conversely, a width line of over 30 picas should be avoided to reduce too
many eye sweeps across the page to quicken reading.
► The only exception here is when the type being used is set in 18 points and
above.
 Correct Type Usage Cont’d

3) For h/lines, avoid using many different type sizes or faces on the same
page.
4) Use agate (5.5 points) only for box scores of athletic games and long list of
names, say, as in a graduating class. Never use it for body text.
5) A typeface change of pace for headlines can be attractive if not overdone.
► Thus, an italic or an ultra-bold face h/line may be used on a page
dominated by roman typeface h/lines.
6) While contrast is the key to beautiful typography, such contrast must be
relatively strong or not too obvious.
► When different h/line typefaces clash on a page, such page appears like a
‘wrong font’ rather than contrasting h/lines.
7) Note that narrow word-spacing is easier to read than wide word spacing.
 Some Typographic Terms

► Agate – this is the old name for 5.5 point type. It’s also a printer’s unit of
measurement for depths of n/paper ads.
► Agate line – this is a measurement standard for depth of columns of ad
space – 14 agate lines equal one column inch.
► Ascending letters – these are letters which, like l, b, d and h, occupy the
upper three quarters of the body type. The rising strokes above the
x-height of such letters are called ascenders.
► Block letter – this is a letter that is sans serif or gothic.
► Bold face – this is a type that is heavier in face than the text that goes with
it. It’s also called black-face or full-face.
► Case – this is a partitioned, wooden tray for storage of metal types and
other materials in the era of relief press.
 Typographic Terms Cont’d

► Composing room – this is a section of printing press where type is set and
forms locked up for the press.
► Composition – setting types either by hand or machine.
► Condensed type – a type that is narrower than normal or standard type.
► Descenders – the downward strokes of x-height of letters like g, j, p, q and
y are called descenders. They make up three-fourths of the type body.
► Display type – any type over 14 points falls into this category, as distinct
from text or body type.
► Expanded type – its width is greater than normal. It’s like stretching a
rubber to gain width, while losing height in the process.
► Face – this is the printing surface of a metal type. The term is also used for
type style.
 Typographic Terms Cont’d

► Flush – type is flush when it is set even with the column rule or margin, or
without indentation either on the left or right hand side of a copy.
► Flush-and-hang – a normal paragraph style indents the first line only. The
flush-and-hang doesn’t indent the first line (so the line remains flush left), but it
indents all the rest of the lines (hanging them). It’s often used for numbered or
bulleted lists.
► Font – this is a complete assortment or font of any size and style of type, which
contains all the characters – capitals, small caps, lower case letters, numerals,
punctuation marks, ligatures, etc. needed for ordinary composition.
► Italic type family – this is a letter family of calligraphic form which inclines to the
right from the vertical position.
► Justifying – this occurs when spaces are placed between words of a line of type
to fill or justify the column measure. The term also refers to spacing between
lines of paragraphs of a column or page to fill a given space.
 Typographic Terms Cont’d

► Ligatures – these are two or three letters cast on one slug or body with a
connecting stroke e.g. fi, ff, ffi etc.
► Light typeface – this is lighter in face than the text or body copy.
► Modern-face type family – this is a family of letters characterised by a
vertical emphasis and fine-backed bar serifs. It is an engraved rather than
a calligraphic letter.
► Pica – this is a printer’s unit of measurement; 1 pica equals 12 points, 1
pica is 1/6 inches.
► Point – this is a printer’s unit of measuring type height. One point is
approximately 1/72 of an inch.
 Typographic Terms Cont’d

► Script type family – script is any face other than italics, cut to resemble
contemporary, informal handwriting. Ad copy writers dote on them.
► Sans serif – this is a modern typeface family characterised by the absence
of a serif.
► Serif – a hairline or serif is a light line or stroke crossing or projecting from
the end of a main line or stroke in a letter, as at the top and bottom of the
letter II.
► Set solid – this is composing a text without leads between the lines.
► Space out – this occurs when spaces are inserted between words or letters
in order to make a line of type a specified measure.
 Typographic Terms Cont’d

► Three-line initial – this is an initial letter, usually at the beginning of a

story, having a depth equal to three lines of text matter.
► Type family – a name given to two or more series of typefaces, which are
variants of one design.
Mental Factors in
Reading
 Introduction
• It’s apt to understand the mental processes of reading before a page designer
or editor specifies setting instructions.
• Reading occurs not by identifying individual character after each other and
building a word at a time, but by recognising the shapes of words and group
of words.
• Reading requires recognising the external outlines and internal shapes of
words.
 Mental Factors in Reading Cont’d
• The eye doesn’t move smoothly along a line, but in a succession of short
jerks, looking at the line in a series of ‘eye-fulls.’
• Eye-fulls are separated by pauses of about a quarter second called fixations.
• It’s in these fixations that perception, the absorption of meaning, occurs.
• About 94 percent of reading time is reportedly devoted to fixation pauses.
• At the end of each line, the eye sweeps back swiftly to the next line in a
return sweep for a fresh fixation and perception processes.
 Mental Factors in Reading Cont’d
• The width of eye-full and the duration of a fixation depends on the reader’s
skill and simplicity of the material.
• A poor reader may move a word at a time with frequent regressive
movements as his eyes go back to what has been seen.
• But a skilled reader may absorb the meaning of six words in one fixation,
with fewer regressions.
• So a good typography seeks to reduce such regressions and fixations to spur
readers’ perception of a written text.
 Mental Factors in Reading Cont’d
• So, if reading occurs by recognising the configuration of groups of words, it’s safe
to note that:
a) We need to avoid excess letter-spacing that weakens the unity of words.
b) Lower case type is apt for the bulk of n/paper, magazine or book setting.
• All caps words form a similar shape, but lower case words have a variety of
patterns, especially with their ascenders and descenders.
• Besides, all caps setting occupies about 40 percent more space, with the number of
words perceived with each fixation also reduced.
 Mental Factors in Reading Cont’d
c) In reading by recognising configurations, the upper part of the lower case letter is
more important than the lower part.
d) The eye must not be distracted or the mind misled by letter shapes within the
words.
• While capitals must be big enough only to be noticed, they must be in harmony
with the lower case letters.
• If an unfamiliar element in typeface catches your attention, then that copy has
failed typeface’s readability test. Noticing such difference has slowed you down.
 Readability of N/paper/Magazine Text
• N/paper/magazine text readability can be affected by the nature of typeface, white
space, style of text type, measure of the text type and type size.
• Having earlier noted the import of selecting legible typeface and moderate use of
white space, we’d now focus on the other factors.
Text Type Style
• Two options are available in text style setting – justified and unjustified.
• The former means to set all type lines evenly, left and right, to ensure equal line
length.
 Readability of Text Cont’d
• A justified text setting comes with frequent hyphenations and variable word
and letter-spacing within the line.
• But lines can also be justified without hyphenation by simply increasing the
space between the words and letters to fill out the line.
• An unjustified text can be set ragged (set uneven) either on the left or on the
right. It may or may not have hyphen.
• The difference between this style and the justified style is that lines of type
have varying lengths.
 Readability of Text Cont’d
Type Size
• Some special and conflicting factors are considered to determine an ideal
n/paper or magazine type size.
• But note that arbitrary increase of type size does not enhance reading
efficiency.
• For a normal eye, the best type size for continuous reading is between 9 and
12 points, depending on the type’s x-height, degree of inter-linear white
space etc.
 Readability of Text Cont’d
• The eyes scan the words, in a series of starts and stops, while meaning is
absorbed during the stops (fixations).
• The eye then takes in the words on either sides of the focused central point.
• So the type size should be big enough to be seen clearly, but the bigger the
type, the fewer the words that can be absorbed at each fixation, due to an
early limit to our peripheral vision.
 Readability of Type Cont’d
Type Measure
• A direct link exists between the optimal type size and optimal type measure.
• The larger the type size, the wider the type measure required for reasonable number
of fixations to take place.
• But a text line must not be too wide to make eye movement from line to line
difficult.
• A ‘short’ or ‘long’ line is determined within limits by type size and the degree of
inter-linear white space. In summary, small type sizes require narrow measures.
Editing and Graphics
 Introduction
• Editing, a skilled art, is a quality control process in which all materials
– news stories, features, editorial, opinions, pictures, cartoons,
illustrations, maps etc. – billed for publication are professionally
treated for accuracy, brevity, coherence, objectivity, balance, fairness,
clarity, style consistency, while also ensuring compliance with societal
ethical, moral and legal demands.
• Editing goes beyond mere correction of spelling, grammar and
punctuation errors.
• It begins from when a reporter selects what information to include in
his story until the newspaper is ‘put to bed.’
 News Editing Cont’d
• Editing is a refining process that enables a media house to treat its
‘raw materials’ to quality standard that meets the needs of its
readers/audiences as well as societal ethical and legal demands.
• Just as raw cocoa beans are unattractive like processed cocoa
beverages to consumers, raw news stories are also unappealing to
readers until they are refined to meet readership standards.
 Purpose of Editing
Editing is important in media production for the following reasons:
a) To solve or manage the problem of space constraints in print and air
time in b/cast media. Editing helps to eliminate excess materials that
arrive the news room daily.
b) To improve the structure of stories, features, editorials, opinion
articles, which all have peculiar formats, to meet production standards.
c) To keep grammar, spelling and punctuation errors out of print. Only
an error-free media can sustain the loyalty of their readers/listeners
and win over non-readers.
 Purpose of Editing Cont’d
d) To ensure logical sequence and smooth flow of the copy. An
awkward arrangement of sentences, paragraphs, illogical reasoning and
faulty conclusions may hinder a story’s smooth flow.
e) To ensure that names, figures, addresses, facts etc. are accurate.
Inaccurate reports undermine media’s credibility and leads to loss of
readership.
f) To ensure balance and fairness. It’s unethical to publish or air a
one-sided story. Ensure to talk to both sides of a conflict before going
to press.
 Purpose of Editing Cont’d
g) To simplify language. Simplicity doesn’t mean weakness. Edit to meet
the taste of your target audience. Language simplicity is a virtue in
media writing.
h) To ensure objectivity. Objectivity, another ethical demand, teams up
with balance and fairness to make journalism tick.
• Objectivity entails a dispassionate presentation of facts without bias.
It requires separating facts from opinion. Remember, facts are sacred,
opinions are free.
i) To avoid legal pitfalls. Nigeria, like other nations, have extant laws
that spell out what the media can publish, how to publish it and what
can’t be published.
 Purpose of Editing Cont’d
• Any media that ignore such laws may be proscribed or pay heavy
damages that can end their operations.
• Libel and slander, privacy, sedition, contempt of court, copyright,
obscenity, official secret act, newspaper amendment act etc. are
some of the laws guiding what is fit to publish. It’s a world apart from
the lawlessness of the social media.
j) To make every copy conform to the house style. Each media house
has its own rules on news presentation.
• A consistent application of these rules, though sometimes uncodified,
separates The Guardian from Vanguard, The Punch or The Nation. The
house style gives each media outfit its uniqueness.
 Editing and Graphics

Sub desk Routine

 Sub desk Routine

► The job of the sub desk is threefold on every story that arrives the
table – to give it a comprehensive editing, cast appropriate headline
for the story and copy fit the stories going into a page, using design
elements.
► The desk is headed by a chief sub editor, who may have a deputy or
assistants who help him to discharge his duties effectively.
► He assigns specific page(s) to individual sub editors to handle on
daily basis.
► He attends editorial meetings, say, around noon with other line
editors to review the paper’s outing alongside other papers, and
plan for the next edition.
► He coordinates the activities of all copy editors on the desk.
 Sub desk Routine Cont’d

► Before the computerisation of newsroom, copy editors work on hard copies – rewriting copies if
need be, correcting spelling, grammar, logical and other errors to make the copy fit for print.
► He then marks the copy on the left margin, specifying the point size of the text, the width of
the text, as well as the headline and its point size, whether light or bold.
► But computer has simplified the process as stories are now accessed on the system, edited on
the screen, where all others materials e.g. pictures going into the page are assembled, using
design elements and design principles to make the page reader-friendly.
► A copy of the page is then printed and sent to production sub editors, proof readers and other
editors for correction before sending a clean copy to lithographic section, where adverts going
with the edition are inserted.
 Sub desk, other Editorial Units

► Our discussion so far reflects a scenario where the sub desk is saddled with only editorial or news pages
only.
► To quicken the production process, a sub editor may be attached to each desk e.g. features, business,
women, sports etc. to handle their editing and page planning problems.
► Sometimes each desk head may handle such editing and page planning, while also training others on
the desk the basics of the job.
► All the desks in the newsroom maintain a healthy relationships with the sub desk, which sometimes
helps to showcase their big stories on the front page or give such stories some promotion to whet
readers’ appetite for increased sales.
► All the units are deadline conscious as certain pages have definite time to arrive lithographic section
for processing.
► Any unit’s failure to meet such deadline will lead to delayed production, unsold copies and job cuts.
 Copy Editing

Introduction
 Introduction

► Copy editors work on stories, features, editorials, etc. to improve them. To do a good job, a
copy editor must first read a story assigned to him/her one or more times to understand what
the reporter is saying.
► Beyond editing for grammar (including correct punctuation and spelling), (s)he also edits for
accuracy, style, objectivity, balance and fairness to meet societal legal and ethical demands.
Grammar
► In editing for grammar, the copy editor must ensure the tenses are correct, while also watching
out for homophones (words that sound alike) and homographs (words that spell alike), which
can be confusing, as well as polysemous, which are words that can have more than one
meaning.
► This calls for proper diction, an apt choice of words to express clear thought.
Copy Editing Cont’d

► (S)he must ensure proper punctuation and rid the copy of comma splices, run-on sentences,
dangling modifiers and sentence fragments, and look out for proper usage of parallel structures.
► It also entails tenses are properly used, subject-verb agreement, while also avoiding split verbs,
redundancies, clichés, faulty parallelism, generalisations and faulty conclusions.
► Pronouns must have a clear antecedents; agree in number with its antecedents
► In essence, this ensures every word counts and earns its space in the copy.
Copy Editing Cont’d

Editing for Style

Good grammar alone is not what makes a copy tick. Style is what distinguishes a writer’s piece from his
fellow’s.
What constitutes a good style ranges from a publication’s ‘rules’ on spelling and diction to what makes a
good sentence, a good paragraph, or a good story.
Style seeks to make a writing concise and lively, while avoiding clichés and simplifying complicated
concepts to ensure smooth flow to move readers forward.
Editing for style entails eliminating redundancies, unnecessary synonyms and clichés from the copy.
It entails substituting jargons and pompous or flowery language (purple prose) with concrete, familiar
words, explaining unusual or complex terms, limiting prepositional phrases, while simplifying negative
constructions.
It is also coordinating and subordinating ideas, varying sentence length and structure as well as proper
quotes usage.
 Copy Editing Cont’d

Editing for Accuracy

► Copy editors must strive for accuracy in the copy because all published materials in print and b/cast
media are future books of record. This is why responsible media run ‘Our Error’ or ‘Yesterday’s Error’
to correct errors that inadvertently crept into the copy to set the records straight.
► It entails ensuring that names featuring in a copy is properly spelt. Ditto for a town or city’s name,
geographical places are well located in their proper regions, states, streets, councils, etc.
► Accuracy is important to avoid libel/slander, which could ruin a media house. Why? Because a
particular name, say, Mohammed Abdullahi, could refer to more than 10 people. This is why those
featuring in a story are located with an address or by profession.
► Unlike social media that foul media laws, the rule here is to check to ascertain the facts. But if you’re
still unsure after checking, spike or kill the copy.
 Copy Editing Cont’d

Objectivity, Balance and Fairness

These three primers of news writing are the three legs on which a good story
rests and they make a copy tick.
Objectivity entails being dispassionate in news gathering and processing. If a
reporter turns in a subjective and biased copy, it’s the duty of the copy editor
to rid the copy of personal or group sentiments.
Balance and fairness entails speaking to all parties in a dispute before running
the copy. It’s unfair to run a one-sided copy in a bid to sell. Such a story may
put a whole nation on fire.
Western media’s failure to stick to this principles led to American-led Iraq
war over Saddam Hussein’s alleged stockpiling of weapons of mass
destruction. After the fray, no evidence to prove such allegation. That war
left Iraq prostrate and in quandary till date.
Nearer home, has there been adequate proof of the alleged massacre at Lekki
toll gate over #EndSARS protest beyond social media’s digital retouching?
Digital retouching is a process of doctoring a digital photo.
 Copy Editing Cont’d

Ethical and Legal Demands

There’s no absolute press freedom anywhere in the world. Each nation has laws to check the
excesses of media operators. But social media operators flout these laws to cause troubles in
the society.
All trained journalists are enjoined to embrace the ethical codes of the profession to enhance
their personal and professional integrity.
Many extant laws such as libel/slander, obscenity, copyright, sedition, pornography, contempt
of court, privacy, official secrets act etc. are put in place to safeguard personal and public
peace/morals.
A copy editor must keep abreast of these laws to avoid legal pitfalls that could easily ruin a
media house.
Copy Editors as Media’s Gatekeepers
 Introduction

► Except for occasional news drought, no print or b/cast media has enough space or air time to
accommodate news torrents pouring into the newsroom daily.
► While some copies are rejected for lack of substance, some are dropped for space or air time
constraints.
► So the onus is on copy editors, who act like gatemen in a well guarded house, to go through the deluge
of copy flow to allow some stories in, while shutting the gate on others.
► Just as a gateman can reconsider a visitor who has cogent reason(s) to go in, an editor may reassess a
story initially dropped to later make his list.
► The copy editor’s gatekeeping role here stems from the need to copy taste the stories to assess their
fitness for publication.
► This process is tagged news evaluation or news judgement, which inadvertently leads to agenda setting
function of mass media.
 News Evaluation/News Judgement

► Stories billed for publication are picked based on their news value or worthiness.
► The process is based on three broad factors – general factors, organisational factors and
personal value system of the gatekeeper.
General Factors
The general factors comprise the basic primers of news writing i.e. what makes a story news
worthy.
These include prominence, proximity which could be geographical or psychological, magnitude,
consequence or significance of development of event, human interest, novelty, newness or
innovation, conflict and oddity.
A story that fails to meet any of these qualities cannot earn its space in print or make air time.
 News Evaluation Cont’d

Organisational Factors
Important factors to note here are:
a) Ownership influence – Nobody or outfit floats a media house for
fun. Media outfits are set up to make money, wield influence,
political or economic power or both. Editors are often aware of
these interests and seek to protect them.
b) Ideology of the publication – A media may be set up to promote
a certain cause often spelt out in its debut editorial. Such
principles guide its operations.
c) Advertisers’ interest – Every media need advertisement revenues
to keep afloat. Advertisers are aware of this and may threaten
to withdraw their support if it runs a damaging story. But a
stable media can damn such threats and run its story in public
interest.
 News Evaluation Cont’d

► The quality of editorial personnel – The education, skill and experience of

the workers come to play in news evaluation and packaging of their
product.
► Cultural environment – No media house operates in isolation of its environment of operation.
They cultivate symbiotic relationships with their hosts and factor the prevailing morals, laws
and political considerations into their outputs.
► Audience’s changing needs – A media house must keep pace with the changing needs of the
audience to remain in business. Editors now keep news short, use colour and other graphics to
woo young readers.
► Need to increase circulation – When a paper seeks increased circulation, it goes for exclusive
stories that will attract more readers.
 News Evaluation Cont’d

Gatekeeper’s Personal Value System

The gatekeeper’s perception, how he sees things, may also affect how he handles a story.
His personal beliefs – as a Christian or Muslim may affect his decision(s) on story selection and
treatment.
His attitudes to various issues of life will determine which side of the divide may sway him.
But a good copy editor must be dispassionate in copy handling, while seeking objectivity,
balance and fairness in the process.
Text Typesetting
 Introduction

Typesetting, the art of composing types (letters) into words and sentences to
pass across a printed text, has evolved since the advent of printing as
technology improved over the years. From its crude, labour-intensive
beginning, computer technology has removed its drudgery and simplified the
process.
a) Hand setting
This is one of the oldest forms of text setting methods. Here, the compositor or
type setter assembles the types into words and lines on a composing stick
(Agba and Okoro, 1995).
The compositor hand picks each type in the headline, phrase, sentence and
paragraph according to the style, size and arrangement specified in the
layout (Hymes, 1958).
Hand setting also comes handy when special typefaces are specified for
dignity, individuality, emphasis or the expression of unusual thought.
 Text Typesetting Cont’d

The compositor uses a metal tray in which the type is arranged by word
and line, with one side open for adjustment to the desired line width.
The type is set to read from right to left, but this is reversed in actual
printing as obtains in a rubber stamp used in offices.
The compositor uses leads, metal strips less than type-height, about 1 to 5
points, to create the desired white space between words and text lines.
Proper usage of leads in the copy enhances text readability as it enables
the page to breathe.
When a text is set without using leads, the copy is known as type-set solid.
 Text Typesetting Cont’d

b) Hot Metal Typesetting

Letter press technology ushered in hot metal typesetting. Linotype,
Intertype and Ludlow typesetting machines held sway here to ease the
burden of hand setting.
The machines had a keyboard, which when operated released molten
leads from a matrix to form a line of text.
Monotype is another variant of this machine that cast a letter at a time.
When information is fed on to a tape as a perforated code, the machine
then cast the characters individually.
The advent of this technology fast-tracked n/paper, magazine and book
production process.
 Text Typesetting Cont’d

c) Cold Typesetting
The advent of photographic printing process ushered in cold typesetting
method.
The cold type process uses a ‘strike on’ technique of the conventional
typewriter to compose the text.
Once the point size, typeface with the proper inter-character spacing
and justified lines are set, the compositor is good to go, thus speeding up
the production process.
 Text Typesetting Cont’d

d) Electric/Computer Typesetting
This is the latest typesetting technique, which operates on the principle of
electric character generation (ECG).
The system stores type fonts on computer software as digital intelligence
i.e. as figures instead of spatial images.
The character in the desired faces and sizes are accessed from the
software, then the text set and laid out on a visual display unit (VDU),
which creates openings on the page inside the circuitry. These openings
are called ‘windows.’
Page make up terminals (PMTS) enable graphics and photograph
paste-up to be laid in proper position with the text electronically.
 Text Typesetting Cont’d

Artworks i.e. illustrations, colour transparencies, etc. are scanned,

transformed into digital data and fed into the system.
During page make-up, the copy editor can crop i.e. technically remove
the unwanted portion of the digitised artworks to produce the desired
page layout.
Proofreading
Proofreading is an essential step in the publishing industry to produce an
error-free copy.
After a copy has been set, a print-out or proof is printed for the
proof-reader or production sub-editor to identify and correct spelling
errors, omissions, unnecessary additions, typographical errors etc.
 Proof-reading Cont’d

While checking the proof against the manuscript in the era of hard copy,
he uses proof-reading symbols to note mistakes for correction in the
margins – top, bottom, left and right hand side of the page.
The compositor or typesetter would then correct the errors.
With the advent of computer, the proof-reader may effect such
corrections on his computer screen.
The proof-reader is an essential quality control man in the mass media
production process to make their output error-free.
Power of Arts in Communication
 Introduction

► In print production, art refers to anything that is not type, such as pictures, charts, maps,
photo illustrations and informational graphics or info-graphics.
► These arts are used to help readers better understand their world and developments around
them.
► The arts are quick attention grabbers on a page, which lure readers to take a look at a paper or
magazine to buy or read them.
► Just as n/papers and magazines are awash with arts of all kinds, advertising and public relations
also package words and images to sway their audiences to buy a product, use a service or
persuade them to take a course of action.
► We’d now take a look at these arts.
 Photos

► Words and arts work together in print to impact readers with their messages.
► Studies show that people are thrice more likely to look at a given n/paper pix than to read any
particular text.
► Virtually any reader who picks up a n/paper looks at the pix first, every time.
► These findings underscore the import of using pix in print – n/papers, magazines, books,
posters, brochures etc.
Functions of Pix
a) Pix attract readers’ attention to the publication. Pix is one of the most effective
attention-getting devices in print production. When printed in full colour, they’re the
greatest attention grabber on a page.
 Power of Arts in Comm. Cont’d

b) Good pix easily convey ideas sometimes difficult to express in words e.g. the excitement
of a team celebration victory.
c) Pix can help readers build an understanding of a news, feature, sports story or any other story
that may look too abstract to grasp.
d) Pix move readers closer to the news. Good pix can literally move readers to the scene of an
event. So pix are part of the story, not just an appendage.
► But to do these effectively, pix must be technically good in terms of subject (content) and
composition.
► Strong pix minimise distractions to easily make what’s important obvious.
► Technically, the pix’s composition helps viewers isolate the ‘figure’ (focal point) from the
‘ground’ (background or foreground).
 Colour Pix

► While pix attract attention, colour pix do it much better. And colour is that property of light
that gives objects different appearances to the eye.
► When looked through a prism, light has seven colours – violet, indigo, green, blue, yellow,
orange and red. Primary colours comprise red, yellow and blue, while orange, green and violet
are tagged secondary colours. Other colour hues are a combination of two or more of these
primary and secondary colours.
► But we need to grasp three concepts for a proper understanding of colour dimensions.
a) Hue – this denotes the name of colour e.g. blue, green, red, etc. to alter the hue of a colour,
another colour must be mixed with the original colour.
 Colour Pix Cont’d

b) Value - this is the relationship of a colour to white or black e.g. a light blue would signify a blue
that is higher in value than the normal spectrum blue, dark blue would be a lower value.
► To change a colour value, a lighter or darker colour must be mixed with it. Black or white will
change the value, but not the hue. White raises the value and black lowers it.
c) Intensity (for Chroma i.e. the degree to which a colour is pure or strong) – this is the colour
strength of hues in contrast to colourless grey. A greyer quality mixed with any other
colour will alter its intensity, not the value or the hue.
Basically, colour performs the following functions:
 Colour Pix Cont’d

a) To Attract Attention
► This is the main function of colour. Studies show that bright colour gets instant attention, while
a two-colour job attracts more attention than a one-colour job.
► Multiple colours enhance contrast that grabs readers’ attention. Where black and white will
fail, colour will catch the eye and hold it, if used properly.
► Despite its attractive power, colour can also be distractive when not properly used in the
layout.
b) To Produce Psychological Effect
► Psychologically, colour is a peculiar stimulant. A careful combination of different colours can
arouse specific emotions.
 Colour Pix Cont’d

► For example, red, yellow and brown colours exude an aura of warmth, while blue, green and
grey relate varied degrees of coldness.
c) To Develop Associations
► Colours invoke specific associative forces, which make people to link or associate certain
symbols, products or images with specific colours.
► Communication succeeds better if rooted in the foundation of association.
► For instance, green stands for life and growth, yellow and orange typify light and gaiety, red –
aggression, roses or cherries, while purple means pomp and power.
 Colour Pix Cont’d

d) To Enhance Retention
► Words or symbols are not often retained in the memory as are colours.
► Colour has a high memory value.
► Studies show that messages rendered in colours are more effective and remembered more than
those in black and white.
e) To Create a Pleasing Atmosphere
► Colour commands interest in drawings or photographs.
► But colour elements must not fight each other to avoid ‘colour riot.’
► You need a sense of aesthetics, cleverness and strategy in colour application.