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Human Anatomy & Physiology

TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC

Learning Outcomes
1 Identify the four major types of tissues in the body, and
describe their roles.
2 Discuss characteristics of epithelial tissue and the types
and functions of epithelial tissue.

3 Describe the relationship between structure and function

for each type of epithelium.

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What is a Tissue
• Collections of specialized cells and cell products that perform specific
functions
• group of cells with similar structure (Anatomy) and function

• Different organs sometimes need to

accomplish similar functions, so those
organs might contain similar tissues, even if
the organs themselves seem distinct.
Can you give an example?

1 Four Types of Tissue

Learning Outcomes: Identify the four major types of tissues
in the body, and describe their roles.

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1 Four Types of Tissue

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2 Epithelial Tissue
Learning Outcomes: Discuss characteristics of epithelial
tissue and the types and functions of epithelial tissue.
• Epithelial tissue includes epithelia and glands
– Epithelia (singular, epithelium)
▪ Layers of cells covering internal or external
surfaces
– Glands
▪ Structures that produce fluid secretions

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2 Epithelial Tissue
• Functions of epithelial tissue
1. Provide physical protection
2. Control permeability (filters or absorbs)
3. Provide sensation
4. Produce specialized secretions or exceretions

Where in the human body are

these functions performed?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC
BY-NC-ND

Where in the human body are these functions performed?

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Sensory reception

Characteristics of epithelia
1. Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
2. Connections (cell junctions)
3. Attachment (basement membrane)
4. Avascularity (avascular)
5. Regeneration

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Characteristics of Epithelia
1. Polarity

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2 Epithelial Tissue
How does the structure of an epithelium fit its
function?

1. Polarity
– Apical surface
▪ Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
▪ Cilia on a ciliated epithelium move fluids

• Specializations of epithelial cells

1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messaging)

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2 Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

2. Intercellular connections
Support and communication
1. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)-Transmembrane proteins
2. Proteoglycans (intercellular cement)
3. Cell junctions (Form bonds with other cells or extracellular
material)
Gap junctions
Tight junctions
Desmosomes

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2 Epithelial Tissue

What is cell adhesion?

• A process by which cells form contacts with each other or with

their substratum through specialized protein complexes.

• adhesion refers to the joining of different or dissimilar

substances or the attraction between the surfaces of contacting
bodies.

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Why do epithelial tissues have to be so strongly attached?

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Pathological state- cancer

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2. Cell Junctions - Intercellular connections

Prevent passage of water and solutes

Tie cells together

Allow bending and twisting

Attach cells to the basement membrane

(a) View of an epithelial cell, showing the major types of intercellular connections.

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Cell Junctions- Tight junctions

What is the importance of having tight

junctions in the digestive system
epithelium?

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Attachment (basement membrane)

• Defines the boundary
• Help resist stretch and tearing of epithelial tissue
• Supports the epithelium

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Homeostatic Imbalance

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcb.2022.151220 European Journal of Cell Biology

Volume 101, Issue 2, April 2022, 151220

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4. Avascularity (avascular)
- Nutrients diffuse from blood vessels in the connective tissue

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Fujii, M., Sato, T. Somatic cell-derived organoids as prototypes of human epithelial tissues and diseases. Nat. Mater. 20,
156–169 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-020-0754-0

5.High Regeneration capacity

Frequent cell division- high mitotic rate

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Classification of Epithelia
Learning Outcomes: Describe the relationship between
structure and function for each type of epithelium.
• Classification of epithelia
1. Based on shape
– Squamous—thin and flat
– Cuboidal—square shaped
– Columnar—tall, slender rectangles
2. Based on layers
– Simple epithelium—single layer of cells
– Stratified epithelium—several layers of cells

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Classifying Epithelia

Absorption and diffusion Protect against mechanical

Mesothelium stresses
Lines body cavities Keratin adds strength and
Endothelium water resistance
Forms inner lining of
heart and blood vessels

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Classifying Epithelia

Secretion and absorption Relatively rare

Ducts of sweat glands and
mammary glands

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Transitional Epithelia

• Transitional epithelia
– Tolerate repeated cycles of stretching without damage
– Permits storage of large urine volumes
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Columnar Epithelia

– Simple columnar epithelia

▪ Absorption and secretion
▪ Found in stomach, small intestine, large intestine

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Columnar Epithelia

In part c, note that when viewing sections of tissues, the superficial layer is closest to the
lumen.

– Pseudostratified columnar epithelia

▪ Typically have cilia
▪ Found in nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi

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Classification of Epithelia
• Glandular epithelia
– Glands are collections of epithelial cells that produce
secretions
– Endocrine glands
▪ Release hormones that enter bloodstream
▪ No ducts
– Exocrine glands
▪ Produce exocrine secretions
▪ Discharge secretions through ducts onto epithelial
surfaces

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This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC

BY-NC-ND

1. Epithelial Tissue is the only tissue type that has polarity, that is
an apical and basal surface. Why is this important?

2. Which of the following properties apply to epithelial tissues?

a. Has blood vessels

b. Can regenerate
c. Cells joined by lateral contacts

3 keratin is detected, in biopsied lymph nodes of a patient. What is

Keratin? Is the biopsy normal?

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Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue distribution in organs can vary

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4 Connective Tissue
• Functions of connective tissues
– Establishing a structural framework for the body
– Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
– Protecting delicate organs and defending the body from
invading microorganisms
– Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other
types of tissue
– Storing energy reserves, especially triglycerides

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Connective Tissue- Structure

• Matrix consists of extracellular components of connective tissue
(fibers and ground substance)
• Majority of tissue volume
• Determines specialized function

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Connect and
Transport Structural strength
protect

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The Cells and Fibers of Connective

Tissue Proper

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Loose Connective Tissues

– Least specialized
– Open framework
– Viscous ground substance
– Elastic fibers
– Holds capillary beds
▪ Example: under skin (subcutaneous layer)

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Loose Connective Tissues

– Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)

▪ Adipocytes in adults do not divide
– Expand to store fat
– Shrink as fats are released
▪ Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate
– To produce more fat cells
– When more storage is needed
– May be removed (temporarily) via liposuction in cosmetic surgery

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Dense Connective Tissues

• Tendons &
• The deep part of your skin (dermis) • Large numbers of elastic fibers-
ligaments
• fibrous capsule around joints and elastic stretch and recoil.
• provides greater
various organs. • Arteries, lungs , elastic ligaments
strength against
• collagen fibers lie in all different in neck & spinal vertebrae
tension, in one
directions.
direction.
• can tolerate unpredictable forces.

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Fasciae (singular, fascia)

Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support and
surround organs

• Fasciae- provides internal structure

1. Provide strength and stability
2. Maintain positions of internal organs
3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
and nerves

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6. Blood and Lymph- Tansport

• Learning Outcomes: Describe the fluid connective tissues
blood and lymph, and explain their relationship with
interstitial fluid in maintaining homeostasis.

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Physical Characteristics of blood

 pH of blood can range
from 7.35 to 7.45 in a
healthy person.
 Blood is therefore
somewhat more basic
(alkaline).
 Blood contains buffers
that help to regulate pH.
 Blood volume (liters) = 7
% of adult body
weight(kg)

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4.6 Blood and Lymph

• Lymph
– Forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels
– Monitored by immune system
– Returned to veins near the heart

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7.Supporting Connective Tissues

Learning Outcomes: Describe how cartilage and bone

function as supporting connective tissues.

• Supporting connective tissues include cartilage and bone

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Cartilage -Functions
• Absorbing shock: Cartilage cushions bones and joints. It
absorbs force and reduces how much stress an impact puts on
your bones.
• Reducing friction: It helps bones slide past each other without
rubbing together. Reduces wear and tear on them.
• Supporting structures in your body: Cartilage helps your joints
keep their shape while moving.

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Cartilage Structure
– Matrix is a firm rubbery gel -chondroitin sulfates
– Cells in the matrix are chondrocytes
– Avascular
▪ Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor that
discourages formation of blood vessels
– Perichondrium
▪ Outer, fibrous layer (for support and protection)
▪ Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)

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Supporting Connective Tissues- Hyaline Cartilage

• Tough and somewhat
flexible
• Reduces friction between
bones
• Location-
synovial joints,
rib tips,
sternum,
trachea

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4.7 Supporting Connective Tissues- Elastic Cartilage

• Supportive but
bends easily
• Found in external
ear and epiglottis

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Articular cartilage has two primary purposes:

• Smooth movement. Extremely slippery, articular cartilage allows

bones to glide over each other as a joint flexes and straightens.
• Shock absorption. Articular cartilage acts as a shock absorber,
cushioning bones against impacting each other during a weight-
bearing activity, such as walking or jogging.
Avascular
80% water
Cartilage looses ability to regenerate

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Novel stem cell therapy for repair of knee cartilage

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4.7 Supporting Connective Tissues- Fibrocartilage

• Very durable and tough

• Limits movement
• Prevents bone-to-bone
contact
Joints
Between pubic bones, and
between spinal vertebrae

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Degenerative Joint Disease-(Osteoarthritis)

• Characterized by progressive loss of cartilage and reactive changes at
the margins of the joint
• usually begins in 40s
• Primarily affects weight-bearing joints such as the knees, hips, and
lumbosacral spine

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Herniated disk
Disks have soft, gel-like centers and a
firmer outer layer, like a jelly doughnut.
With time, the outer layer weakens and
can crack. A herniated disk happens
when the inner “jelly” substance
pushes through the crack.

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Supporting Connective Tissues- Bone

• Bone (osseous tissue)
– weight support
– Rigidity - Calcified -
calcium salts
– Resists shattering-flexible
collagen fibers

• Osteocytes (bone cells)

• Arranged around central
canals within matrix

– Periosteum covers
bone
▪ Fibrous (outer) and
cellular (inner)
layers

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8.Tissue Membranes
Learning Outcomes: List 4 types of tissue membranes, and
specify the functions of each.

• mucous membranes
– Physical barriers
– Line or cover body
surfaces/cavities that open to the
outside
– Consist of an epithelium supported
by connective tissue

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Types of Membranes

• These membranes line most of the digestive and respiratory

tracts and portions of the urinary and reproductive tracts.

What type of epithelial tissue?

Which part is connective tissue?

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Figure 4.18b Types of Membranes

2. Serous membranes
– Line cavities that do not
open to the outside
– Parietal portion lines inner
surface of cavity
– Visceral portion (serosa)
covers the organs
– Serous fluid reduces friction

What are the serous membranes that line the

lungs, heart and abdominal organs?

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4.8 Tissue Membranes

3. Cutaneous membrane
– Skin that covers the body
– Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry
4. Synovial membranes
– Line synovial joint cavities
– Movement stimulates production of synovial fluid for
lubrication

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Types of Membranes

• The synovial membrane has no

basement membrane or tight
junctions.
• The epithelial cells are located
within a loose and porous bed of
collagen fibrils and other matrix
proteins.

(d) Synovial membranes line joint cavities and

produce the synovial fluid within the joint.

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What is the difference between

connective tissue membrane and
epithelial membrane?

• The connective tissue membrane is formed only from

connective tissue. These membranes encapsulate
organs, such as the kidneys, and line our movable
joints.
• The epithelial membrane is composed of epithelium
attached to a layer of connective tissue

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