Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Family Vibrionaceae
Genus Vibrio
Bacterium

Characteristics and sources

of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Main microbiological characteristics
V. parahaemolyticus is a rod-shaped or curved Gram-negative bacteria,
0.5 to 1 µm in diameter, halophilic (grows in 0.5 to 10% NaCl), oxydase
positive, sucrose negative and facultatively anaerobic. Foodborne
V. parahaemolyticus infections are mostly present in the form of
gastroenteritis.
The conditions influencing the growth of this species of bacteria are given
in the Table 1.

Table 1.Characteristics for survival/growth of

Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Parameters Optimum Extremes
Temperature (°C) 37 5-43
pH 7.8-8.6 4.8-11
Vibrio parahaemolyticus © CDC/ Janice Carr

Water activity (aw) 0.981 0.940-0.996

NaCl (%) 1.5-3 0.5-10 Sources of the hazard
It has been shown that the pathogenicity of enteropathogenic strains is The natural habitat of V. parahaemolyticus is in estuaries and coastal waters
related to the presence of at least one of the two following haemolysins, throughout the world. This bacterial species is often found in sediments,
TDH (Thermostable Direct Haemolysin) and TRH (TDH-Related plankton, fish, crustaceans and bivalve molluscs, especially oysters and
Haemolysin), produced in the human digestive tract. They have similar mussels. Water temperature and salinity play an important role in the
lytic, cytotoxic and enterotoxic activity. In the natural environment, growth of V. parahaemolyticus. The highest densities of this bacterium are
strains carrying haemolysin genes are rare and usually account for only encountered in water temperatures above 18-20°C and in intermediate
0.2 to 2% of V. parahaemolyticus strains isolated, although this figure salinities (i.e. between freshwater and saltwater). Peaks of Vibrio counts
can reach 15% in certain particular ecosystems. On the other hand, are observed during the hottest months. In the cool season, some vibrios
genes coding for at least one of the two haemolysins are found in subsist in sediments and plankton as "viable non-culturable" forms.
95% of strains of V. parahaemolyticus isolated in the stools of patients
suffering from gastroenteritis. To date, 13 O antigens and 71 K antigens Transmission routes
have been identified in strains of clinical origin. A pandemic clone of
V. parahaemolyticus, belonging to the serotype O3:K6, appeared in V. parahaemolyticus food infections are mainly caused by consuming raw
Bangladesh in 1996 and spread rapidly in India, South-East Asia, Japan, or undercooked fish or shellfish, or by cross-contamination after cooking.
North America and Europe. New pandemic clones derived from this O3:K6 Exceptional cases of extra-intestinal infections by the dermal route have
clone have been identified since 1996. been reported, following contamination of open wounds by seawater,
or injuries while handling seafood.

Data sheet on foodborne

biological hazards
July 2012
 Epidemiological data
Recommendations for primary production Outbreaks have been reported, mainly during the hottest months, in South-
• Observe good hygiene practice. East Asia and North America. V. parahaemolyticus represents a serious
public health problem in these countries because of the high consumption
• Ensure that shellfish spend as little time as possible out of
of seafood, especially raw, and is recognised to be the principal cause of
water at ambient temperatures.
gastroenteritis associated with the consumption of seafood.
• Fully comply with regulatory temperatures during handling
and transport. Inversely, V. parahaemolyticus infections are reported less frequently in
Europe:
• a few sporadic cases have been recorded in Spain, where an outbreak
(64 patients) related to the consumption of oysters occurred in 1999;
Foodborne human illness more recently, in July 2004, an outbreak was reported associated with
the consumption of boiled crab involving 80 people;
Nature of the disease (Table 2) • in France, V. parahaemolyticus was detected in the Arcachon Basin
The vast majority of V. parahaemolyticus infections manifest by in 1988. An epidemic of V. parahaemolyticus was recorded in 1997
gastroenteritis. The TDH and/or TRH haemolysins may contribute to the in an army regiment in the Var département, probably related to the
poisoning but only if they are produced in the human digestive tract. consumption of mussels or shrimps in a sauce. In 2001, an outbreak (100
cases) was linked to the consumption of mussels from Ireland. In 2009,
Susceptible population group(s) (1): Clinical manifestations can be severe
four people were affected by an outbreak linked to the consumption of
(dysentery-like syndrome, septicaemia) in very young children, the elderly,
mussels, and the strains isolated carried the gene coding for the TDH
and subjects with an underlying disease (especially liver disease) or with a
haemolysin and belonged to the O3:K6 serogroup.
suppressed immune system.
Between 1995 and 2012, the National Reference Centre for Vibrio and
cholera at the Institut Pasteur recorded 20 cases of gastroenteritis, 3 septic
Dose-effect and dose-response(2) (3)
shocks and 2 superinfections of a wound, due to this bacterium (Table 3).
relationships All the strains responsible for gastroenteritis carried the gene coding for
either the TDH or TRH haemolysin, one strain carried both. Seven cases
A dose-response relationship established by the FDA indicates that the
of gastroenteritis were associated with the O3:K6 clone.
dose of V. parahaemolyticus pathogens causing illness in 1% of people
exposed is in the order of 105 bacterial cells.

Epidemiology
Surveillance systems
The number of cases observed can vary significantly, depending on the
surveillance system set up in each country. For example, several cases
are reported every year in the United States, where non-cholera Vibrio (1) Susceptible population group: people with a higher than average probability of developing
symptoms of the disease, or severe forms of the disease, after exposure to a foodborne hazard
infections are notifiable illnesses. In France, as in the other European [definition used in ANSES data sheets].
countries, it is difficult to know their incidence, especially for the less severe (2) Relationship between the dose (the quantity of microbial cells ingested during a meal) and
the effect on an individual.
forms, as these infections are not notifiable and are also probably under-
(3) For a given effect, the relationship between the dose and the response, i.e. the probability of
diagnosed. As a result, their frequency is likely to be underestimated. this effect appearing in the population

Table 2.Characteristics of the illness

Duration of
Mean incubation Target Duration Asymptomatic
Main symptoms contagious period Complications
period population of symptoms forms
(excretion)
Abdominal pains, cramps, watery Some cases require
Because of the
diarrhoea, in some cases bloody hospitalisation.
Anyone absence of systematic
diarrhoea. Exceptionally,
12 – 24 hours consuming raw screening or
1 to 3 days on V. parahaemolyticus
(may vary or insufficiently Nausea, vomiting and fever may investigation, there
average, but can Not applicable causes septicaemia
between 4 cooked seafood also occur. is no information
extend to 7 days in immune-suppressed
and 96 hours) is potentially The illness is frequently benign or available concerning
subjects or those
exposed. moderate, although some cases asymptomatic human
suffering from underlying
have required hospitalisation. carriers.
diseases.

Table 3.Strains of non-cholera Vibrio responsible for human infections in mainland France. National Reference Centre (NRC) 1995-2012
Number of strains Clinical forms Number
Species Context of contamination
received at the NRC (number of cases) of fatalities
Gastroenteritis (20) - Consumption of seafood (13), ND (6), NE (1)
Vibrio Septicaemia (2) 1 ND (2)
25
parahaemolyticus Various forms of suppuration (2) - Consumption of seafood (1), contact with seafood (1)
Wound + septicaemia (1) 1 Contact with seafood (1)

ND: non-documented, NE: context of the contamination not established. These data were obtained as part of the activities of the National Reference Centre for Vibrio and cholera, commissioned
by the Ministry of Health and funded by the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance and the Institut Pasteur. All rights reserved.

2 Data sheet on foodborne biological hazards / Vibrio parahaemolyticus

 Role of food Methods for detection and counting
There is currently no standard reference method available for counting
Vibrio in seafood.
Main foods to consider
In France, analytical laboratories generally use either a "provisional
Conditions leading to the contamination of produce protocol" drafted jointly by the ANSES laboratory at Boulogne-sur-Mer, the
The sources of contamination are: the natural environment, cross- NRC for Vibrio and Cholera, and the EHESP at Rennes, which is particularly
contamination during handling, contamination by washing with suitable for the analysis of crustaceans and fresh fish (but which has not
contaminated seawater, and recontamination after cooking. Any break in been validated for live shellfish) or the technical specification ISO/TS
the cold chain can contribute to the development of V. parahaemolyticus 21872 for the detection of potentially enteropathogenic Vibrio spp.. The
present in produce and therefore to an increase in the contamination level. ISO technical specification is currently being reviewed. The intention is to
The time taken to process produce and the temperature of the premises give a broader role to molecular biology techniques in this standard.
play an important role in the development of this bacterium: when exposed
for 2-3h at ambient temperature, V. parahaemolyticus can be observed to Methods involving conventional or real-time PCR for the detection,
grow at 102-103 cfu/g and even above 105 cfu/g. quantification and characterisation of V. parahaemolyticus have been
developed or are under development. These methods are based on
Foods implicated screening for genes characteristic of the species V. parahaemolyticus
Most cases of gastroenteritis are related to the consumption of seafood: (especially the toxR gene or the R72H sequence) and genes coding for the
TDH and TRH haemolysins.
• shellfish: oysters, mussels,
• crustaceans: shrimps, crabs,
Recommendations to operators
• raw fish. • Minimise the time between removing oysters from water
and refrigeration.
Inactivation treatments in industrial • Fully comply with good hygiene practice. In applying HACCP
principles, consider the hazard regarding Vibrio, including
environments studies of the prevalence of the hazard.
Different methods have been shown to be effective and can be applied in • Fully comply with regulatory temperatures during handling
industry (Table 4). and transport, and also for presentation at points of sale.
Recommendations for shellfish include maintaining them at
Table 4.Inactivation treatments in industrial environments temperatures below 10°C.
Disinfectants Thermal treatments
Heat

Domestic hygiene
These bacteria are extremely heat-sensitive and are
destroyed rapidly in temperatures higher than the
Vibrio are sensitive to maximum temperature for growth; the bacterium can
many disinfectants therefore be inactivated effectively by cooking the produce
authorised in the sufficiently. However, the time necessary for total
agro-food industry, on inactivation by cooking depends on the size of the initial
condition users follow bacterial population. At 52°C for 7.8 min, a 5 log10 Recommendations to consumers
the instructions for reduction is observed in oyster flesh. • Bear in mind that the consumption of seafood in summer
use. Cold increases the risk of Vibrio-related gastroenteritis.
Cold storage limits growth but does not eliminate
V. parahaemolyticus. After 1 month at 20°C, a single log10 • In summer, transport shellfish and seafood in isothermal
reduction is observed in oyster flesh. containers (iceboxes) and transfer rapidly to the refrigerator
High Pressures Ionisation (4°C).
High pressure • Respect good hygiene practice when handling and preparing
treatment destroys foods:
the bacteria without
altering the nature Ionisation treatment (irradiation) has been shown to be --consume within two hours of removing them from the
of the food. effective in reducing the number of bacteria. refrigerator;
Oyster flesh subjected At 1 kGy, a 6 log10 reduction is observed in oyster flesh.
to 345 MPa for --avoid contact between cooked and raw seafood to limit
2 minutes undergoes cross-contamination.
a 5 log10 reduction.
• Patients suffering from underlying diseases, chronic liver
conditions (hepatitis, cirrhosis, alcoholism) or diseases
resulting in iron overload, and immunosuppressed patients
Monitoring in food (diabetes, cancer) with increased susceptibility to infection
Regulations in force by Vibrio, should avoid consuming raw or insufficiently
cooked seafood (e.g. oysters, mussels, clams or shrimps).
European legislation (Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 and the acts amending
it) does not currently propose specific microbiological criteria in food
regarding human pathogenic Vibrio, but recommends that reliable methods
be developed for assessing the risk related to Vibrio parahaemolyticus in
seafood. In France, however, the Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries can
demand that seafood to be imported be screened for Vibrio pathogenic to
humans. A memorandum (DGAL SSA373/72 of October 2004) addressed
to the veterinary services, especially those responsible for border inspection
stations, lays down that "batches of imported fishing produce found to be
contaminated by a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus carrying haemolysin
genes (TDH and/or TRH) must be withdrawn and destroyed in compliance
with Regulation (EC) 1774/2002". Only the quality aspect is considered.
It should be noted, however, that no systematic surveillance or inspection
plan is specified by the Directorate General for Food (DGAL) or the
Directorate General for Competition Policy, Consumer Affairs and Fraud
Control (DGCCRF) for bacteria of the genus Vibrio.

3 Data sheet on foodborne biological hazards / Vibrio parahaemolyticus

 References and links
General references
• ANSES (2012). Avis et rapport de l’Anses relatifs à une demande
d’évaluation du risque lié à Vibrio parahaemolyticus via la consommation
de produits de la mer. [Risk assessment of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in
seafood]
http://www.anses.fr/sites/default/files/documents/BIORISK2010
sa0301Ra.pdf
• FAO/WHO [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/
World Health Organization]. 2002. Risk assessment of Campylobacter
spp. in broiler chickens and Vibrio spp. in seafood. Report of a Joint FAO/
WHO Expert Consultation (Bangkok, Thailand). 59p.
http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/aug2002.pdf
• FAO/WHO [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations/World Health Organization]. 2011. Risk assessment of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in seafood: interpretative summary and technical
report. Microbiological Risk Assessment Series No. 16. Rome. 193pp
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2225e/i2225e00.pdf
• Lesne J., Fournier J.M.(1998). Dans « Manuel de bactériologie alimentaire »
(Chapitre Vibrio). Coordonnateurs : L. Sutra, M. Federighi et J.L. Jouve.
Éditions Polytechnica, Paris, 261-304.
• Quilici ML, Robert-Pillot A (2011). Infections à vibrions non cholériques.
EMC (Elsevier Masson SAS, Paris), Maladies infectieuses 8-026-F-15.
• Thompson, F.L., Austin, B., Swings, J. (eds). 2006. Biology of Vibrios. ASM
Press, Washington, DC.

Useful links
• Public Health Agency of Canada, pathogen safety data sheet:
http://w w w.phac-aspc .gc .ca/lab-bio/res/psds-f t ss/vibrio-
parahaemolyticus-eng.php
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, general information on
bacteria:
http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/vibriop/
• New Zealand Food Safety Authority, datasheet on Vibrio parahaemolyticus:
ht tp://w w w.foodsafet y.gov t .nz /elibrar y/industr y/ Vibrio_
Parahaemolyticus-Science_Research.pdf
• US Food and Drug Administration, “Bad Bug Book”:
ht tp://w w w.fda .gov/Food/FoodSafet y/Foodbor neIllness/
FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/
ucm070452.htm
• Soochow University (Taiwan), datasheet on Vibrio parahaemolyticus:
http://www.scu.edu.tw/microbio/vp-eng.htm

Reference laboratories (NRC, EURL, NRL)

• National Reference Centre for Vibrio and Cholera: Institut Pasteur, Paris.
• National Reference Laboratory for Vibrio spp. in fishery products: ANSES,
Boulogne-sur-Mer Laboratory for fishery products.
• National Reference Laboratory for shellfish microbiology: French Research
Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) – Nantes.
• European Union Reference Laboratory for monitoring the viral and
bacteriological contamination of bivalve molluscs: The laboratory of
the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas)
Weymouth, United Kingdom.

4 Data sheet on foodborne biological hazards / Vibrio parahaemolyticus