BCSE306L-ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE

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COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To impart artificial intelligence principles, techniques and its history.

2. To assess the applicability, strengths, and weaknesses of the basic

knowledge representation, problem solving, and learning methods in
solving engineering problems.

3. To develop intelligent systems by assembling solutions to concrete

computational problems.

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COURSE OUTCOMES
On completion of this course, student should be able to:
1. Evaluate Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods and describe their
foundations.
2. Apply basic principles of AI in solutions that require problem-
solving, inference, perception, knowledge representation and learning.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of reasoning, uncertainty, and knowledge
representation for solving real-world problems
4. Analyze and illustrate how search algorithms play a vital role in
problem-solving

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MODULE 1

TOPICS
• Introduction- Evolution of AI, State of Art -Different Types of
Artificial Intelligence-Applications of AI-Subfields of AI-Intelligent
Agents- Structure of Intelligent Agents-Environments

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INTRODUCTION

Intelligence Artificial Artificial Intelligence

• Branch of computer Science

• Imitate the roles of human brain

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INTRODUCTION
• What is Artificial?
• Made or produced by human beings rather than occurring naturally, especially
as a copy of something natural.

• What is Intelligence?
• The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence, is the ability of a computer to
act like a human being.

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WHERE WE ARE?

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EVOLUTION OF AI

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 THE TURING TEST
1950 – Alan Turing devised a test for
intelligence called the Imitation Game
• Ask questions of two entities, receive
answers from both
• If you can’t tell which of the entities is
human and which is a computer
program, then you are fooled and we Questions
should therefore consider the computer Answers Answers
to be intelligent

Which is the person?

3 January 2024 Which is the computer?
A Brief History of AI: 1950s
• Computers were thought of as an electronic brains
• Term “Artificial Intelligence” coined by John McCarthy
• John McCarthy also created Lisp in the late 1950s
• Alan Turing defines intelligence as passing the Imitation Game
(Turing Test)
• AI research largely revolves around toy domains
• Computers of the era didn’t have enough power or memory to solve useful
problems
• Problems being researched include
• games (e.g., checkers)
• primitive machine translation
• blocks world (planning and natural language understanding within the toy domain)
• early neural networks researched: the perceptron
• automated theorem proving and mathematics problem solving
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• McCulloch and Pitts (1943)
• Neural networks that learn
History of AI
• Minsky (1951)
• Built a neural net computer

• Darmouth conference (1956):

• McCarthy, Minsky, Newell, Simon met,
• Logic theorist (LT)- proves a theorem in Principia
Mathematica-Russel.
• The name “Artficial Intelligence” was coined.

• 1952-1969
• GPS- Newell and Simon
• Geometry theorem prover - Gelernter (1959)
• Samuel Checkers that learns (1952)
• McCarthy - Lisp (1958), Advice Taker, Robinson’s
resolution
• Microworlds: Integration, block-worlds.
• 1962- the perceptron convergence (Rosenblatt)

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 History of Artificial Intelligence
• 1950: Alan Turing publishes Computing Machinery and Intelligence.
• 1956: John McCarthy coins the term 'artificial intelligence' at the first-ever AI conference at
Dartmouth College.
• 1967: Frank Rosenblatt builds the Mark 1 Perceptron, the first computer based on a neural
network that 'learned' though trial and error.
• 1980s: Neural networks which use a backpropagation algorithm to train itself become
widely used in AI applications.
• 1997: IBM's Deep Blue beats then world chess champion Garry Kasparov, in a chess match
(and rematch).
• 2011: IBM Watson beats champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter at Jeopardy!
• 2015: Baidu's Minwa supercomputer uses a special kind of deep neural network called a
convolutional neural network to identify and categorize images with a higher rate of
accuracy than the average human.
• 2016: DeepMind's AlphaGo program, powered by a deep neural network, beats Lee Sodol,
the world champion Go player, in a five-game match
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Shakey-AI First Robot-1960s

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 4 Categories of Definition for AI
• Systems that act like humans
• Systems that think like humans
• Systems that think rationally
• Systems that act rationally

Systems that think Systems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

like humans rationally

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1. Acting Humanly
• Also called Turing Test Approach
• The art of creating machines that perform functions that require
intelligence when performed by people
• i.e., making computers to act like humans.
• Example : Turing Test

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 Turing Test Approach
• Provides satisfactory operational definition for intelligence.

• Provided by conducting Turing Test

• The Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI)

for determining whether or not a computer is capable of thinking
like a human being. The test is named after Alan Turing, the founder
of the Turing Test

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 The Turing Test Approach

• Woman, Machine & Judge.

• Pass the test ?
• if the interrogator cannot tell
Which one’s the computer? • if there is a computer or
• a human at the other end.
A
B

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Qualities required to pass Turing Test
• The system requires these abilities to pass the test

• Natural language processing

• for communication with human
• Knowledge representation
• to store information effectively & efficiently
• Automated reasoning
• to retrieve & answer questions using the stored information
• Machine learning
• to adapt to new circumstances

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Total Turing Test
• Can test subject’s perceptual abilities

• To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need

• Computer Vision to perceive objects

• Robotics to manipulate objects and move about

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2. Thinking Humanly
• Making computers to think like humans
• Goal is to build systems that function internally in some way
similar to human mind
• Also called cognitive modeling approach

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Cognitive Modeling Approach
• If we are going to say that a
• given program thinks like a human,
• Give a way of determining how humans thinks;
• We need to get inside the actual workings of human minds.
• Precise theory of the mind =>becomes possible to express the theory
as a computer program.

• Example GPS(General Problem Solver)

• comparing the reasoning steps of the program and human solving
the same problems.

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Cognitive Science
• Combines computer models of AI and experimental techniques of psychology.

• Try to construct precise and testable theories of working of human mind.

• Cognitive Science

• Is an interdisciplinary science

• draws on many fields (as psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics, and

philosophy) in developing theories about human perception, thinking, and
learning

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3. Thinking Rationally
• Also called Laws of Thought approach
• Thinking “Right Thing”
• Making computers to think the “Right Thing”
• Relies on logic(to make inferences) rather than human to measure correctness.
• Logic: provide a precise notation for statements about all kinds of things in the
world and the relations between them.
• Syllogism: Provide patterns for argument structures
• Always give correct conclusion given correct premises.
• For example,
• Premise: John is a human and all humans are mortal
• Conclusion: John is mortal
• Can be done using logics. Example Propositional and predicate logic.

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Two obstacles: Laws of Thought of
Approach
• It’s not easy to take informal knowledge and state it in the formal
terms required by logical notation, particularly when the knowledge
is less than 100% certain.
• Being able to solve a problem “in principle” and doing so “in
practice” are very different.
• i.e., 1. Informal Knowledge is not precise.
2. Difficult to model uncertainty
3. Theory and practice cannot be put together.

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4. Acting Rationally
• Also called Rational Agent Approach.
• Doing “Right Thing”
• Rational Agent – acts to achieve the best outcome.
• An agent acts rationally if it selects the action that maximizes it
performance measure.

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Rational Agent Approach
• Design of rational agent
• Advantages
• More general than laws of thought approach
• Concentrates on scientific development

Limited Rationality
• acting appropriately when there is not enough time to do all
computation

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STATE OF THE ART

Robotic vehicles
• A driverless robotic car named STANLEY sped through the
rough terrain of the Mojave desert at 22 mph, finishing the 132-
mile course first to win the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge

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 2004: Barstow, CA, to Primm, NV

• 150 mile off-road robot race

across the Mojave desert
• Natural and manmade hazards
• No driver, no remote control
• No dynamic passing
• Fastest vehicle wins the race
(and 2 million dollar prize)

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 ROBOTICStanley
VEHICLES
Robot
Stanford Racing Team www.stanfordracing.org

• Robotic vehicles: A driverless robotic car named STANLEY sped

through the rough terrain of the Mojave dessert at 22 mph,
finishing the 132-mile course first to win the 2005 DARPA Grand
Challenge

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 SENSOR INTERFACE PERCEPTION PLANNING&CONTROL USER INTERFACE

RDDF database corridor

Top level control Touch screen UI

pause/disable command
Wireless E-Stop
Laser 1 interface
RDDF corridor (smoothed and original) driving mode
Laser 2 interface

Laser 3 interface road center

Road finder Path planner
Laser 4 interface laser map

map trajectory
Laser 5 interface Laser mapper VEHICLE
Camera interface Vision mapper
vision map INTERFACE
obstacle list Steering control
Radar interface Radar mapper
vehicle state (pose, velocity) Touareg interface
vehicle
state Throttle/brake
GPS position UKF Pose
control Power server
estimation
vehicle state (pose, velocity) interface
GPS compass

IMU interface Surface

velocity limit

assessment
Wheel velocity

Brake/steering
heart beats Linux processes start/stop emergency stop

health status
Process controller Health monitor
power on/off
data

GLOBAL Data logger File system

SERVICES
Communication requests Communication channels clocks

Inter-process communication (IPC) server Time server

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Planning = Rolling out Trajectories

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 Game playing
IBM's DEEP BLUE became the first computer program to defeat the
world champion in a chess match when it bested Garry Kasparov by a score of 3.5
to 2.5 in an exhibition match

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 • Some of the applications are given below:
• Business : Financial strategies, give advice
• Engineering: check design, offer suggestions to
create new product
• Manufacturing: Assembly, inspection & maintenance
• Mining: used when conditions are dangerous
• Hospital : monitoring, diagnosing & prescribing
• Education : In teaching e-tutoring
• household : Advice on cooking, shopping etc.
• farming : prune trees & selectively harvest mixed
crops.

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Applications of AI
• Robots
• Chess-playing program
• Voice recognition system
• Speech recognition system
• Grammar checker
• Pattern recognition
• Medial diagnosis
• Game Playing
• Machine Translation
• Resource Scheduling
• Expert systems (diagnosis, advisory, planning, etc)
• Machine learning

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Subfields of AI

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 What are Agent and Environment?
• An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and
acts upon that environment through effectors(actuators).
• A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for
effectors.
• A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors,
and various motors and actuators for effectors.
• A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

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 Agents and environments

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• Percept: the agent’s perceptual inputs
• Percept sequence: the complete history of everything the agent has
perceived
• Agent function maps any given percept sequence to an action [f: p*
A]
• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to produce f
• Agent = architecture + program

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 Agent Function and Agent Program
• The agent function that maps any given percept
histories(sequence) to an actions:
[f: P* 🡪 A]
Agent: Percept* 🡪 Action *
The ideal mapping specifies which actions an agent to take
at any point in time
• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to
produce agent function f
• Agent = Architecture + Program

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Vacuum-cleaner world

• Percepts: location and contents, e.g., [A,Dirty]

• Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp

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A vacuum-cleaner agent
• \input{tables/vacuum-agent-function-table}

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 Rational agents-The Concept of rationality
• A rational agent is an agent whose acts try to maximize
some performance measure.
• An agent should strive to "do the right thing", based on
what it can perceive and the actions it can perform.
• The right action is the one that will cause the agent to be
most successful
• Performance measure: An objective criterion for success of
an agent's behavior
• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could
be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken,
amount of electricity consumed, amount of noise
generated, etc.
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Rational agents
• Rational Agent: For each possible percept sequence, a
rational agent should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given the evidence
provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in
knowledge the agent has.

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 Rational agents
• Rationality is distinct from omniscience (all-knowing
with infinite knowledge)

• Agents can perform actions in order to modify future

percepts so as to obtain useful information
(sometimes called information gathering, exploration)

• An agent is autonomous if its behavior is determined

by its own experience (with ability to learn and adapt)

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 • The rationality of an agent depends on four
things
• the performance measure defining the agent's
degree of success
• the percept sequence, the sequence of all the
things perceived by the agent
• the agent's prior knowledge of the
environment
• the actions that the agent can perform

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Task environment
• To design a rational agent we need to specify a task
environment
• a problem specification for which the agent is a solution

• PEAS: to specify a task environment

• Performance measure
• Environment
• Actuators
• Sensors

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PEAS: Specifying an automated taxi driver

Performance measure:
•?
Environment:
•?
Actuators:
•?
Sensors:
•?

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PEAS: Specifying an automated taxi driver

Performance measure:
• safe, fast, legal, comfortable, maximize profits
Environment:
•?
Actuators:
•?
Sensors:
•?

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PEAS: Specifying an automated taxi driver

Performance measure:
• safe, fast, legal, comfortable, maximize profits
Environment:
• roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
Actuators:
•?
Sensors:
•?

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PEAS: Specifying an automated taxi driver

Performance measure:
• safe, fast, legal, comfortable, maximize profits
Environment:
• roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
Actuators:
• steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors:
•?

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PEAS: Specifying an automated taxi driver

Performance measure:
• safe, fast, legal, comfortable, maximize profits
Environment:
• roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
Actuators:
• steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors:
• cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS

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 Properties of task environments
• 1.Fully observable vs. Partially observable
• If an agent’s sensors give it access to the complete state
of the environment at each point in time then the
environment is effectively and fully observable
• if the sensors detect all aspects
• That are relevant to the choice of action

Task environment-Choice,Action and Outcome

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• Partially observable
An environment might be Partially observable because of noisy and
inaccurate sensors or because parts of the state are simply missing
from the sensor data.
Example:
• A local dirt sensor of the cleaner cannot tell
• Whether other squares are clean or not

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 Properties of task environments

• 2.Deterministic vs. stochastic

• next state of the environment Completely determined
by the current state and the actions executed by the
agent, then the environment is deterministic,
otherwise, it is Stochastic.

-Cleaner and taxi driver are:

• Stochastic because of some unobservable aspects 🡪 noise or
unknown

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Properties of task environments
• 3.Episodic vs. sequential
• An episode = agent’s single pair of perception & action
• The quality of the agent’s action does not depend on other
episodes
• Every episode is independent of each other
• Episodic environment is simpler
• The agent does not need to think ahead
• Sequential
• Current action may affect all future decisions
-Ex. Taxi driving and chess.

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Properties of task environments
• 4.Static vs. dynamic
• A dynamic environment is always changing over time
• E.g., the number of people in the street
• While static environment
• E.g., the destination
• Semidynamic
• environment is not changed over time
• but the agent’s performance score does

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Properties of task environments

• 5.Discrete vs. continuous

• If there are a limited number of distinct states, clearly
defined percepts and actions, the environment is discrete
• E.g., Chess game
• Continuous: Taxi driving

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Properties of task environments
• 6.Single agent VS. multiagent
• Playing a crossword puzzle – single agent
• Chess playing – two agents
• Competitive multiagent environment
• Chess playing
• Cooperative multiagent environment
• Automated taxi driver
• Avoiding collision

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Properties of task environments
• 7.Known vs. unknown
This distinction refers not to the environment itself but to the agent’s
(or designer’s) state of knowledge about the environment.
-In known environment, the outcomes for all actions are
given. ( example: solitaire card games).
- If the environment is unknown, the agent will have to learn how it
works in order to make good decisions.( example: new video game).

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Examples of task environments

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 Structure of agents

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 Structure of agents
• Agent = architecture + program
▪ Architecture = some sort of computing device (sensors + actuators)
▪ (Agent) Program = some function that implements the agent mapping = “?”
▪ Agent Program = Job of AI

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 Agent programs
• Input for Agent Program
• Only the current percept
• Input for Agent Function
• The entire percept sequence
• The agent must remember all of them
• Implement the agent program as
• A look up table (agent function)

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 Agent programs
• Skeleton design of an agent program

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 Agent Programs

• P = the set of possible percepts

• T= lifetime of the agent
⮚The total number of percepts it receives
• Size of the look up table

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 Agent programs
• Despite of huge size, look up table does what we
want.
• The key challenge of AI
• Find out how to write programs that, to the extent
possible, produce rational behavior
• From a small amount of code
• Rather than a large amount of table entries
• E.g., a five-line program of Newton’s Method
• V.s. huge tables of square roots, sine, cosine, …

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 Types of agent programs

• Four types
• Simple reflex agents
• Model-based reflex agents
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agents

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Reflex Agent Diagram

Sensors

Environment
What the world is like now

Condition-action rules
What should I do now

Agent
Actuators

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 Reflex Agent Diagram 2

Sensors
What the world is like now

Condition-action rules
What should I do now

Agent Actuators

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Environment
 Reflex Agent Program
• application of simple rules to situations

function SIMPLE-REFLEX-AGENT(percept) returns

action
static: rules //set of condition-action rules

condition := INTERPRET-INPUT(percept)
rule := RULE-MATCH(condition, rules)
action := RULE-ACTION(rule)

return action

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 Simple reflex agents

• It uses just condition-action rules

• The rules are like the form “if … then …”
• efficient but have narrow range of applicability
• Because knowledge sometimes cannot be stated explicitly
• Work only
• if the environment is fully observable

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Simple reflex agents

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 A Simple Reflex Agent in Nature
percepts
(size, motion)

RULES:
(1) If small moving object,
then activate SNAP
(2) If large moving object,
then activate AVOID and inhibit SNAP
ELSE (not moving) then NOOP

needed for
completeness Action: SNAP or AVOID or NOOP
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 Model-based Reflex Agents

• For the world that is partially observable

• the agent has to keep track of an internal state
• That depends on the percept history
• Reflecting some of the unobserved aspects
• E.g., driving a car and changing lane
• Requiring two types of knowledge
• How the world evolves independently of the agent
• How the agent’s actions affect the world

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Model-based reflex agents

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 Example Table Agent
With Internal State
THEN
IF

Saw an object ahead, Go straight

and turned right, and
it’s now clear ahead
Saw an object on my Halt
right, turned right, and
object ahead again
See no objects ahead Go straight

See an object ahead Turn randomly

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 Example Reflex Agent With Internal State:
Wall-Following

start

Actions: left, right, straight, open-door

Rules:
1. If open(left) & open(right) and open(straight) then
choose randomly between right and left
2. If wall(left) and open(right) and open(straight) then straight
3. If wall(right) and open(left) and open(straight) then straight
4. If wall(right) and open(left) and wall(straight) then left
5. If wall(left) and open(right) and wall(straight) then right
6. If wall(left) and door(right) and wall(straight) then open-door
7. If wall(right) and wall(left) and open(straight) then straight.
3 January 2024 8. (Default) Move randomly
 Model-Based Reflex Agent Program
• application of simple rules to situations

function REFLEX-AGENT-WITH-STATE(percept) returns action

static: rules //set of condition-action rules
state //description of the current world state
action //most recent action, initially none

state := UPDATE-STATE(state, action, percept)

rule := RULE-MATCH(state, rules)
action := RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action

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 Goal-based agents

• Current state of the environment is always not enough

• The goal is another issue to achieve
• Judgment of rationality / correctness
• Actions chosen 🡪 goals, based on
• the current state
• the current percept

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 Goal-based agents

• Conclusion
• Goal-based agents are less efficient
• but more flexible
• Agent 🡪 Different goals 🡪 different tasks
• Search and planning
• two other sub-fields in AI
• to find out the action sequences to achieve its goal

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Goal-based agents

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 Utility-based agents

• Goals alone are not enough

• to generate high-quality behavior
• E.g. meals in Canteen, good or not ?
• Many action sequences 🡪 the goals
• some are better and some worse
• If goal means success,
• then utility means the degree of success (how
successful it is)

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Utility-based agents

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Utility-based agents
• it is said state A has higher utility
• If state A is more preferred than others
• Utility is therefore a function
• that maps a state onto a real number
• the degree of success

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Utility-based agents (3)
• Utility has several advantages:
• When there are conflicting goals,
• Only some of the goals but not all can be achieved
• utility describes the appropriate trade-off
• When there are several goals
• None of them are achieved certainly
• utility provides a way for the decision-making

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Agents
Some general features characterizing agents:

• Autonomy
• goal-orientedness
• collaboration
• flexibility
• ability to be self-starting
• temporal continuity
• character
• adaptiveness
• mobility
• capacity to learn.
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Classification of agents
🔾 Interface Agents
AI techniques to provide assistance to the user
🔾 Mobile agents
capable of moving around networks gathering information
🔾 Co-operative agents
communicate with, and react to, other agents in a multi-agent
systems within a common environment
🔾 Reactive agents
“reacts” to a stimulus or input that is governed by some state or
event in its environment

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Distributed Computing Agents
🔾 Common learning goal (strong sense)
🔾 Separate goals but information sharing
(weak sense)

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 Learning Agents
• After an agent is programmed, can it work
immediately?
• No, it still need teaching
• In AI,
• Once an agent is done
• We teach it by giving it a set of examples
• Test it by using another set of examples
• We then say the agent learns
• A learning agent

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 Learning Agents
• Four conceptual components
• Learning element
• Making improvement
• Performance element
• Selecting external actions
• Critic
• Tells the Learning element how well the agent is doing with
respect to fixed performance standard.
(Feedback from user or examples, good or not?)
• Problem generator
• Suggest actions that will lead to new and informative
experiences.

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Learning agents

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 Automated taxi example
• Performance element-whatever collection of
knowledge and procedures the taxi has for selecting
its driving actions.
• The taxi goes out on the road and drives, using this
performance element

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 Automated taxi example
• Critic-observes the world and passes information
along to the learning element.
• For example, after the taxi makes a quick left turn
across three lanes of traffic, the critic observes the
shocking language used by other drivers.
• From this experience, the learning element is able to
formulate a rule saying this was a bad action, and the
performance element is modified by installation of
the new rule.

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 Automated taxi example
• The problem generator- might identify certain areas
of behavior in need of improvement and suggest
experiments, such as trying out the brakes on
different road surfaces under different conditions.
• The Learning element-if the taxi exerts a certain
braking pressure when driving on a wet road, then it
will soon find out how much deceleration is actually
achieved.
• Clearly, these two learning tasks are more difficult if
the environment is only partially observable.

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 Automated taxi example
• The situation is slightly more complex for a utility-
based agent that wishes to learn utility information.
For example, suppose the taxi-driving agent receives
no tips from passengers who have been thoroughly
shaken up during the trip.
• The external performance standard must inform the
agent that the loss of tips is a negative contribution to
its overall performance; then the agent might be able
to learn that violent maneuvers do not contribute to
its own utility.

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 Automated taxi example
• In a sense, the performance standard distinguishes
part of the incoming percept as a reward (or penalty)
that provides direct feedback on the quality of the
agent’s behavior.
• Hard-wired performance standards such as pain and
hunger in animals can be understood in this way.

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How the components of agent programs
work?
• Question for a student of AI is, “How on earth do these components
work?

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How the components of agent programs
work?
• Agent’s organization
a) Atomic Representation: In this representation, each state of the
world is a black box that has no internal structure. E.g., finding each
state is a city. AI algorithms: search, games, Markov decision processes,
hidden Markov models, etc.
b) Factored Representation: In this representation, each state has
some attribute value properties. E.g., GPS location, amount of gas in
the tank. AI algorithms: constraint satisfaction, and Bayesian networks.
c) Structured Representation: Relationships between the objects of a
state can be explicitly expressed. AI algorithms: first-order logic,
knowledge-based learning, natural language understanding.

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 The major points to recall are as follows:
• An agent is something that perceives and acts in an environment.
• The agent function for an agent specifies the action taken by the
agent in response to any percept sequence.
• The performance measure evaluates the behavior of the agent in an
environment.
• A rational agent acts so as to maximize the expected value of the
performance measure, given the percept sequence it has seen so far.
• A task environment specification includes the performance measure,
the external environment, the actuators, and the sensors. In
designing an agent, the first step must always be to specify the task
environment as fully as possible.

3 January 2024
The major points to recall are as follows:
• The agent program implements the agent function. There exists a
variety of basic agent-program designs reflecting the kind of
information made explicit and used in the decision process.
• The designs vary in efficiency, compactness, and flexibility. The
appropriate design of the agent program depends on the nature of
the environment.
• Simple reflex agents respond directly to percepts, whereas model-
based reflex agents maintain internal state to track aspects of the
world that are not evident in the current percept.
• Goal-based agents act to achieve their goals, and utility-based
agents try to maximize their own expected “happiness.”
• All agents can improve their performance through learning.
3 January 2024