BIOLOGY TENTH EDITION

Global Edition

Campbell • Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson

26
Introduction to
Viruses

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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A Borrowed Life

a) A virus is an infectious particle consisting of genes

packaged in a protein coat
b) Viruses are much simpler in structure than even
prokaryotic cells
c) Viruses cannot reproduce or carry out metabolism
outside of a host cell

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Figure 26.1

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Figure 26.1a

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Concept 26.1: A virus consists of a nucleic acid
surrounded by a protein coat

a) Viruses were detected indirectly long before they

were actually seen

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The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry

a)Tobacco mosaic disease stunts growth of tobacco

plants and gives their leaves a mosaic coloration
b)In the late 1800s, some researchers hypothesized
that a particle smaller than bacteria caused the
disease
c) In 1935, Wendell Stanley confirmed this
hypothesis by crystallizing the infectious particle,
now known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

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Figure 26.2
Experiment

1 Extracted sap 2 Passed sap 3 Rubbed filtered

from tobacco through a sap on healthy
plant with porcelain filter tobacco plants
tobacco mosaic known to trap
disease bacteria

4 Healthy plants
became infected
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Figure 26.2a

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Figure 26.2b

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Figure 26.2c

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Structure of Viruses

a) Viruses are not cells

b) A virus is a very small infectious particle consisting of
nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and, in some
cases, a membranous envelope

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Viral Genomes

a) Viral genomes may consist of either

a)Double- or single-stranded DNA, or
b)Double- or single-stranded RNA

b) Depending on its type of nucleic acid, a virus is called

a DNA virus or an RNA virus
c) The genome is either a single linear or circular
molecule of the nucleic acid
d) Viruses have between three and several thousand
genes in their genome

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Capsids and Envelopes

a) A capsid is the protein shell that encloses the viral

genome
b) Capsids are built from protein subunits called
capsomeres
c) A capsid can have a variety of structures

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Figure 26.3

Membranous RNA
RNA Capsomere Head
DNA envelope
Capsid DNA

Capsomere Tail
of capsid sheath
Tail
fiber
Glycoprotein Glycoproteins

18  250 nm 70–90 nm (diameter) 80–200 nm (diameter) 80  225 nm

20 nm 50 nm 50 nm 50 nm
(a) Tobacco mosaic (b) Adenoviruses (c) Influenza viruses (d) Bacteriophage T4
virus

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Figure 26.3a
RNA Capsomere DNA

Capsomere
of capsid

Glycoprotein
18  250 nm 70–90 nm (diameter)

20 nm 50 nm
(a) Tobacco mosaic (b) Adenoviruses
virus
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Figure 26.3aa

20 nm
(a) Tobacco mosaic virus

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Figure 26.3ab

50 nm
(b) Adenoviruses

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Figure 26.3b
Membranous RNA
envelope Head
Capsid DNA

Tail
sheath

Tail
fiber
Glycoproteins

80–200 nm (diameter) 80  225 nm

50 nm 50 nm
(c) Influenza viruses (d) Bacteriophage T4
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Figure 26.3ba

50 nm
(c) Influenza viruses

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Figure 26.3bb

50 nm
(d) Bacteriophage T4

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 a) Some viruses have accessory structures that help
them infect hosts
b) Viral envelopes (derived from membranes of host
cells) surround the capsids of influenza viruses and
many other viruses found in animals
c) Viral envelopes contain a combination of viral and
host cell molecules

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 a) Bacteriophages, also called phages, are viruses
that infect bacteria
b) They have the most complex capsids found among
viruses
c) Phages have an elongated capsid head that encloses
their DNA
d) A protein tail piece attaches the phage to the host
and injects the phage DNA inside

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Concept 26.2: Viruses replicate only in host cells

a) Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, which

means they can replicate only within a host cell
b) Each virus has a host range, a limited number of
host cells that it can infect

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General Features of Viral Replicative Cycles

a) Once a viral genome has entered a cell, the cell

begins to manufacture viral proteins
b) The virus makes use of host enzymes, ribosomes,
tRNAs, amino acids, ATP, and other molecules
c) Viral nucleic acid molecules and capsomeres
spontaneously self-assemble into new viruses

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Figure 26.4
VIRUS
DNA
Capsid 3 Transcription and
1 Entry and manufacture of
uncoating capsid proteins

HOST
CELL
2 Replication
Viral DNA

mRNA

Viral DNA

Capsid
proteins

4 Self-assembly of
new virus particles
and their exit from
the cell

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Animation: Simplified Viral Reproductive Cycle

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Replicative Cycles of Phages

a) Phages are the best understood of all viruses

b) Phages have two alternative reproductive
mechanisms: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle

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The Lytic Cycle

a) The lytic cycle is a phage replicative cycle that

culminates in the death of the host cell
b) The lytic cycle produces new phages and lyses
(breaks open) the host’s cell wall, releasing the
progeny viruses
c) A phage that reproduces only by the lytic cycle is
called a virulent phage
d) Bacteria have defenses against phages, including
restriction enzymes that recognize and cut up
certain phage DNA
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Figure 26.5-1

1 Attachment

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Figure 26.5-2

1 Attachment

2 Entry of phage
DNA and
degradation
of host DNA

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Figure 26.5-3

1 Attachment

2 Entry of phage
DNA and
degradation
of host DNA

3 Synthesis of viral
genomes and
proteins

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Figure 26.5-4

1 Attachment

2 Entry of phage
DNA and
degradation
of host DNA
Phage assembly

3 Synthesis of viral
Head Tail Tail 4 Self-assembly
genomes and
fibers proteins

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Figure 26.5-5

1 Attachment

2 Entry of phage
DNA and
degradation
5 Release of host DNA
Phage assembly

3 Synthesis of viral
Head Tail Tail 4 Self-assembly
genomes and
fibers proteins

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Animation: Phage T4 Lytic Cycle

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The Lysogenic Cycle

a) The lysogenic cycle replicates the phage genome

without destroying the host
b) The viral DNA molecule is incorporated into the host
cell’s chromosome
c) This integrated viral DNA is known as a prophage
d) Every time the host divides, it copies the phage DNA
and passes the copies to daughter cells

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Figure 26.6

Phage Daughter cell

DNA The phage injects its DNA. with prophage
Many cell
divisions
Phage DNA create many
Tail fiber infected
circularizes.
Phage bacteria.
Bacterial Prophage exits
chromosome chromosome.

Lytic Lysogenic
cycle cycle
Prophage is copied
The cell lyses, with bacterial
releasing Prophage chromosome.
phages.

Phage DNA and proteins Phage DNA integrates

are synthesized and into bacterial
assembled. chromosome.

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Figure 26.6a
Phage
DNA The phage injects its DNA.

Phage DNA
Tail fiber
circularizes.
Phage
Bacterial
chromosome

Lytic
cycle

The cell lyses,

releasing
phages.

Phage DNA and proteins

are synthesized and
assembled.
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Figure 26.6b
Daughter cell
with prophage
Many cell
divisions
create many
infected
bacteria.
Prophage exits
chromosome.

Lysogenic
cycle
Prophage is copied
with bacterial
Prophage chromosome.

Phage DNA integrates

into bacterial
chromosome.
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Animation: Phage Lambda Lysogenic and Lytic Cycles

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 a) An environmental signal can trigger the virus genome
to exit the bacterial chromosome and switch to the
lytic mode
b) Phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles
are called temperate phages

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Replicative Cycles of Animal Viruses

a) There are two key variables used to classify viruses

that infect animals
a)An RNA or DNA genome
b)A single-stranded or double-stranded genome

b) Whereas few bacteriophages have an envelope or an

RNA genome, many animal viruses have both

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Table 26.1

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Table 26.1a

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Table 26.1b

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Viral Envelopes

a) Many viruses that infect animals have a membranous

envelope
b) Viral glycoproteins on the envelope bind to specific
receptor molecules on the surface of a host cell
c) Some viral envelopes are derived from the host cell’s
plasma membrane as the viral capsids exit

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 a) Other viral membranes form from the host’s nuclear
envelope and are then replaced by an envelope
made from Golgi apparatus membrane

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Figure 26.7

Capsid

RNA
HOST CELL

Envelope (with
glycoproteins) Viral genome
Template (RNA)

mRNA

Capsid
proteins Copy of
genome
ER
(RNA)

Glyco-
proteins
New virus

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RNA as Viral Genetic Material

a) The broadest variety of RNA genomes is found in

viruses that infect animals
b) Retroviruses use reverse transcriptase to copy
their RNA genome into DNA
c) HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the
retrovirus that causes AIDS (acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome)

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 a) The viral DNA that is integrated into the host genome
is called a provirus
b) Unlike a prophage, a provirus remains a permanent
resident of the host cell
c) RNA polymerase transcribes the proviral DNA into
RNA molecules
d) The RNA molecules function both as mRNA for
synthesis of viral proteins and as genomes for new
virus particles released from the cell

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Figure 26.8
Viral envelope Membrane of
Glycoprotein
HIV white blood cell
Capsid
RNA (two
identical HOST
strands) CELL
HIV
Reverse Reverse
transcriptase Viral RNA
transcriptase
RNA-DNA
hybrid
0.25 µm
DNA
HIV entering a cell
NUCLEUS
Provirus
Chromosomal
DNA
RNA genome
for the progeny
viruses mRNA

New virus New HIV leaving

a cell
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Figure 26.8a

Viral envelope
Glycoprotein
Capsid
RNA (two
identical HOST
strands) CELL
HIV
Reverse Reverse
transcriptase Viral RNA
transcriptase
RNA-DNA
hybrid
DNA

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Figure 26.8b

NUCLEUS
Provirus
Chromosomal
DNA
RNA genome
for the progeny
viruses mRNA

New virus

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Figure 26.8c

Membrane of
HIV white blood cell

0.25 µm
HIV entering a cell New HIV leaving
a cell
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Figure 26.8ca

Membrane of
HIV white blood cell

0.25 µm
HIV entering a cell

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Figure 26.8cb

0.25 µm
HIV entering a cell

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Figure 26.8cc

0.25 µm
New HIV leaving
a cell

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Figure 26.8cd

0.25 µm
New HIV leaving
a cell

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Figure 26.8ce

0.25 µm
New HIV leaving
a cell

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Animation: HIV Reproductive Cycle

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Evolution of Viruses

a) Viruses do not fit our definition of living organisms

b) Since viruses can replicate only within cells, they
probably evolved as bits of cellular nucleic acid
c) Candidates for the source of viral genomes include
plasmids and transposons
d) Plasmids, transposons, and viruses are all mobile
genetic elements

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 a) The largest virus yet discovered is the size of a small
bacterium, and its genome encodes proteins involved
in translation, DNA repair, protein folding, and
polysaccharide synthesis
b) There is controversy about whether this virus evolved
before or after cells

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Concept 26.3: Viruses, viroids, and prions are
formidable pathogens in animals and plants

a) Diseases caused by viral infections affect humans,

agricultural crops, and livestock worldwide
b) Smaller, less complex entities called viroids and
prions also cause disease in plants and animals,
respectively

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Viral Diseases in Animals

a) Viruses may damage or kill cells by causing the

release of hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes
b) Some viruses cause infected cells to produce toxins
that lead to disease symptoms
c) Others have molecular components such as envelope
proteins that are toxic

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 a) Vaccines are harmless derivatives of pathogenic
microbes that stimulate the immune system to mount
defenses against the harmful pathogen
b) Vaccines can prevent certain viral illnesses
c) Viral infections cannot be treated by antibiotics
d) Antiviral drugs can help to treat, though not cure, viral
infections

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Emerging Viruses

a) Emerging viruses are those that suddenly become

apparent
b) In 2009, a general outbreak (epidemic) of a flu-like
illness appeared in Mexico and the United States,
caused by an influenza virus named H1N1
c) Flu epidemics are caused by new strains of influenza
virus to which people have little immunity

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 a) Viral diseases in a small isolated population can
emerge and become global
b) New viral diseases can emerge when viruses spread
from animals to humans
c) Viral strains that jump species can exchange genetic
information with other viruses to which humans have
no immunity

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 a) These strains can cause pandemics, global
epidemics
b) The 2009 flu pandemic was likely passed to humans
from pigs; for this reason it was originally called the
“swine flu”

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Figure 26.9

1 µm

(a) 2009 pandemic H1N1 (b) 2009 pandemic screening

influenza A virus

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Figure 26.9a

1 µm

(a) 2009 pandemic H1N1

influenza A virus

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Figure 26.9b

(b) 2009 pandemic screening

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Viral Diseases in Plants

a) More than 2,000 types of viral diseases of plants are

known and cause spots on leaves and fruits, stunted
growth, and damaged flowers or roots
b) Most plant viruses have an RNA genome
c) Many have a helical capsid, while others have an
icosahedral capsid

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Figure 26.UN02

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 a) Plant viruses spread disease in two major modes
a)Horizontal transmission, entering through damaged cell
walls
b)Vertical transmission, inheriting the virus from a parent

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Viroids and Prions: The Simplest Infectious Agents

a) Viroids are small circular RNA molecules that infect

plants and disrupt their growth
b) Prions are slow-acting, virtually indestructible
infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in
mammals
c) Prions propagate by converting normal proteins into
the prion version
d) Scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease in humans are all caused by prions

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Figure 26.10

Prion Original
prion

Aggregates
of prions
New
Normal prion
protein

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Figure 26.UN01a
A/California/07/2009 Group 1
A/Taiwan/1164/2010 Group 3
A/Taiwan/T1773/2009 Group 6
A/Taiwan/T1338/2009
A/Taiwan/T0724/2009
A/Taiwan/T1821/2009
A/Taiwan/937/2009
A/Taiwan/T1339/2009 Group 7
A/Taiwan/940/2009
A/Taiwan/7418/2009
A/Taiwan/8575/2009
A/Taiwan/4909/2009
A/Taiwan/8542/2009
A/Taiwan/1018/2011
Group 9
A/Taiwan/552/2011
A/Taiwan/2826/2009
A/Taiwan/T0826/2009
A/Taiwan/1017/2009
A/Taiwan/7873/2009
A/Taiwan/11706/2009
Group 8
A/Taiwan/6078/2009
A/Taiwan/6341/2009
A/Taiwan/6200/2009
A/Taiwan/5270/2010
Group 8-1
A/Taiwan/3994/2010
A/Taiwan/2649/2011
Group 10
A/Taiwan/1102/2011
A/Taiwan/4501/2011
A/Taiwan/67/2011
A/Taiwan/1749/2011
A/Taiwan/4611/2011
A/Taiwan/5506/2011 Group 11
A/Taiwan/1150/2011
A/Taiwan/2883/2011
A/Taiwan/842/2010
A/Taiwan/3697/2011
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Figure 26.UN01aa

A/California/07/2009 Group 1
A/Taiwan/1164/2010 Group 3
A/Taiwan/T1773/2009 Group 6
A/Taiwan/T1338/2009
A/Taiwan/T0724/2009
A/Taiwan/T1821/2009
A/Taiwan/937/2009
A/Taiwan/T1339/2009 Group 7
A/Taiwan/940/2009
A/Taiwan/7418/2009
A/Taiwan/8575/2009
A/Taiwan/4909/2009
A/Taiwan/8542/2009
A/Taiwan/1018/2011
Group 9
A/Taiwan/552/2011
A/Taiwan/2826/2009
A/Taiwan/T0826/2009

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Figure 26.UN01ab

A/Taiwan/1017/2009
A/Taiwan/7873/2009
A/Taiwan/11706/2009
Group 8
A/Taiwan/6078/2009
A/Taiwan/6341/2009
A/Taiwan/6200/2009
A/Taiwan/5270/2010
Group 8-1
A/Taiwan/3994/2010
A/Taiwan/2649/2011
Group 10
A/Taiwan/1102/2011
A/Taiwan/4501/2011
A/Taiwan/67/2011
A/Taiwan/1749/2011
A/Taiwan/4611/2011
A/Taiwan/5506/2011 Group 11
A/Taiwan/1150/2011
A/Taiwan/2883/2011
A/Taiwan/842/2010
A/Taiwan/3697/2011

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Figure 26.UN01b

Wave 1 Wave 2 Interwave Wave 3

800
Number of viral isolates

700 Key
600 Groups 1, 3, 6
500 Group 7
400 Group 8
Group 8-1
300 Group 9
200 Group 10
Group 11
100
0
M J J A SON DJ F MAMJ J A SON D J FMA
2009 2010 2011

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Figure 26.UN01c

H1N1 flu vaccination

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Figure 26.UN03

The phage attaches to a

host cell and injects its DNA.
Phage DNA

Prophage
Bacterial
chromosome

Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle

• Virulent or temperate phage • Temperate phage only
• Destruction of host DNA • Genome integrates into bacterial
• Production of new phages chromosome as prophage, which
• Lysis of host cell causes (1) is replicated and passed on to
releases of progeny phages daughter cells and
(2) can be induced to leave the
chromosome and initiate a lytic
cycle

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Figure 26.UN04

A B
Number of bacteria

Time Number of viruses Time

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Figure 26.UN05

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