Final CS Notes

Topic no:`10

What is negotiation?

• Negotiation takes place when two or more people, with differing views, come together to
attempt to reach agreement on an issue. It is persuasive communication or bargaining.

• “Negotiation is about getting the best possible deal in the best possible way.”

• Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise,

or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.

• Negotiating is the process by which two or more parties with different needs and goals work to
find a mutually acceptable solution to an issue. Because negotiating is an inter-personal process,
each negotiating situation is different, and influenced by each party’s skills, attitudes and style. It
is a process by which compromise, or agreement is reached.

• Negotiation is back and forth communication designed to reach agreement while leaving the
other side intact and positive.

(EXTRA)

• Negotiation isn’t limited to “big decisions.”

• When you’re working with other people, much of your time is spent negotiating – even if it’s just
deciding whose turn, it is to collect the coffees! For projects to be successful, roles, strategies,
targets, and deadlines all need to be agreed, ideally to everyone’s satisfaction.

Importance of Negotiation in Daily Life

1. Negotiation is essential everywhere. It is not only the corporates where negotiation is important
but also in our daily life. We all must try our level best to adopt negotiation skills to avoid
misunderstandings and lead a peaceful and a stress-free life.

2. Conflict has never benefitted anyone, instead it adds to one’s tensions and anxiety. It is better to
discuss things and reach to an alternative benefitting all. Issues must not be dragged
unnecessarily, and efforts must be made to conclude involving the interests of all.

3. No point in being adamant and rigid. One should strive hard to negotiate with each other and
consider the needs, interests and expectations of all.

4. Negotiation also helps in effective buying. Every individual needs to save money for the rainy
days. One must try his level best to negotiate with the second party to reduce the costs to the
best extent possible. If you do not negotiate well, you will end up spending more than required.
Always remember the shop owner keeps a profit margin on almost all selected products. Quote
 a price little less than what he quotes but do not forget to calculate the shop owner’s profits as
well. If you intend buying some expensive brand, it is better to check out the prices of its
competitors as well.

5. Negotiation is important but do not forget to be polite and dignified.

Convince the shopkeeper as to why the price of a particular item should be a little less than
what he has quoted. Discuss with the store owner. He will feel happy after all he needs to sell
his products and even, he looks forward to a loyal customer. It is better if both the parties
negotiate with each other and come to a price which would satisfy both of them. (The customer
as well as the store owner). The customer would afford to buy his product at a reasonable price
and the store owner would also manage to earn his profits. Ask for discounts when you go out
for shopping.

6. Negotiation reduces conflicts and improves the relation among individuals.

We are human beings and unlike animals we live in societies and need people around. How
would you feel if your next-door neighbors don’t talk to you? People can’t stay all alone. They
need the company of others to share happiness, sorrows and take each other’s help whenever
required. Don’t always find fault in others. It is okay if your next-door neighbor has parked his
car in front of your house. Don’t go and fight with him. You might even need him some day.
Don’t get hyper or overreact. Try to understand the other person as well.

How to negotiate?

§ React sensibly - A good negotiator must react sensibly. He should never lose his temper or
overreact. If you are unhappy with the deal, show your displeasure. Don’t keep things to
yourself or assume that the others will understand it on their own. One has to voice his
opinions. Make the other person realize that you are not satisfied with the deal, and it must be
revised. Show your unhappiness to others.
For Example:If your boss assigns you a project you are not very comfortable with, show your
displeasure to your boss in a polite way and ask for something else. But make sure you are not
rude; otherwise, your job might be at risk.

§ Patience - One needs to be patient enough for a good negotiation. It is not always that the other
person will accept your suggestions in the first attempt itself. You need to convince him and it
needs patience. Never be in a hurry to close the deal.

§ Confident - One needs to be confident enough for an effective negotiation. You might need
something but never show your desperation to anyone. They will take undue advantage of your
helplessness. Take care of your facial expressions. Never be nervous in front of the second party.
Don’t start sweating.
Negotiation Techniques

 well informed: the first and the foremost technique for an effective negotiation is one should be
well informed with everything related to the deal. Find out even the minutest detail you think is
important and you might require at the time of negotiation. Be prepared for everything.
Remember the second party might ask you anything.
Example:Janet wanted to purchase a new laptop. She checked out the prices of almost all the
leading brands along with their features before going to the outlet. She went well prepared and
thus managed to crack the best deal and took the best quality laptop with the maximum possible
discount.
 Take good care of your posture as well as your body movements. Look confident. While
speaking, don’t look around or play with things. It’s just a discussion, no one will kill you if you
are not able to close the deal. Don’t stammer in between or start sweating in front of others. The
second party will take undue advantage if they find you nervous. Take care of your dressing as
well. Don’t wear anything which is too casual. If you dress casually people will not take you
seriously.
 Be very focused. One should be very specific what he wants. First ask yourself what is the
purpose of this negotiation? What do you actually want? What is the affordable price for you? Be
firm and stick to it. Be very specific and clear.

All negotiations share four common characteristics:

1.The parties involved are somehow interdependent

2.The parties are each looking to achieve the best possible result in the interaction for themselves
3.The parties are motivated and capable of influencing one another
4.The parties believe they can reach an agreement

TYPES OF NEGOTIATION

There are essentially two kinds of negotiation: distributive negotiation and integrative
negotiation. Most negotiations combine elements of both types, but for the purposes of understanding,
it's important to examine each type in its pure form.

Distributive (win-lose)
Integrative (win-win)

1.Distributive negotiation

• In a distributive negotiation, parties compete over the distribution of a fixed sum of value. The
key question in a distributed negotiation is "Who will claim the most value?" A gain by one side
is made at the expense of the other. This is also known as a zero-sum negotiation.

• Examples of distributive negotiations include the sale of a car and wage negotiations.
1.First, in the sale of a car, there is no relationship between the buyer and seller, and all that
matters is the price. Each side works for the best deal, and every gain by one party represents a
 loss for the other.
2.Second, in wage negotiations between business owners and their union employees, the
owners know that any amount conceded to the union will come out of their own pockets—and
vice versa.

• Often, there is only one issue in a distributive negotiation: money.

The seller's goal is to negotiate as high a price as possible; the buyer's goal is to negotiate as low
a price as possible. A dollar more to one side is a dollar less to the other. Thus, the seller and the
\buyer compete to claim the best deal possible for themselves, and the bottom line defines
what is possible.

(Extra)

• In a distributive negotiation, it is impossible to make trade-offs based on differing preferences.

Because there is only one issue at stake, you can't trade more of what is highly valued by one
party against a different item or issue highly valued by the other party. Thus, the deal is
confined: There are no opportunities for creativity or for enlarging the scope of the negotiation.

• Similarly, relationship and reputation are irrelevant—the negotiators are not willing to trade
value in the deal for value in their relationship with the other negotiator.

2.Integrative negotiation

• The second kind of negotiation is integrative negotiation. In this type of negotiation, parties
cooperate to achieve maximum benefits by integrating their interests into an agreement. This is
also known as a "win-win" negotiation.

• You probably conduct many integrative negotiations with your friends or neighbors.For
example, you might negotiate with a neighbor about the boundary between your properties.

• In an integrative negotiation, there are many items and issues to be negotiated, and the goal is
to "create" as much value as possible for yourself and the other side.

• Each side makes trade-offs to get the things it values most, while giving up other, less critical
factors.

• Sometimes your interests are not the same as those of the party with whom you're
negotiating.This means that your ability to claim what you want from the deal does not
necessarily detract from the other party's ability to claim what he or she wants from the deal.

• Finding opportunities for mutual benefit requires cooperation and disclosure of information.
Both parties need to understand their own key interests and the key interests of the other side.

• As a result, opportunities for creativity abound and the relationship between you and the other
party becomes highly valued.
 • In business, integrative negotiations tend to occur in three instances:
1.First, they occur during the structuring of complex, long-term partnerships or other
collaborations.
2.Second, they occur after financial terms (or the competitive aspects) of a deal have been set.
3.Third, they occur between professional colleagues or superiors and direct reports whose long-
term interests benefit from the other's satisfaction.

Steps of Negotiation Process

Negotiation process permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and organizations.
The 5 steps of the negotiation process are;

1. Preparation and Planning.

2. Definition of Ground Rules.
3. Clarification and Justification.
4. Bargaining and Problem Solving.
5. Closure and Implementation.

1. Preparation and Planning

Before the start of negations, one must be aware of the conflict, the history leading to the
negotiation of the people involved and their perception of the conflict, expectations from the
negotiations, etc.Before starting the negotiation, it needs to do homework.

 What’s the nature of the conflict?

 What’s the history leading up to this negotiation?
 Who’s involved and what are their perceptions of the conflict?

Moreover before any negotiation takes place; a decision needs to be taken as to when and
where a meeting will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend.

2. Definition of Ground Rules

Once the planning and strategy are developed, one has to begin defining the ground rules and
procedures with the other party over the negotiation itself that will do the negotiation.

 Where will it take place?

 What time constraints, if any will apply?
 To what issues will negotiations be limited?
 Will, there be a specific procedure to follow in an impasse is reached?

During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.

3. Clarification and Justification

When initial positions have been exchanged both the parties will explain amplify, clarify, bolster
and justify their original demands. This need not be confrontational.
Rather it is an opportunity for educating and informing each other on the issues why they are
important and how each arrived at their initial demands.This is the point where one party might
want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support its position.

4. Bargaining and Problem Solving

The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an
agreement, a proper bargain. It is here where concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by
both parties.

5. Closure and Implementation

The final step in the negotiation process is a formalization of the agreement that has been
worked out and developing and procedures that are necessary for implementation and
monitoring.For major negotiations – this will require hammering out the specifics in a formal
contract.

Six stages of negotiation

 Establish your objectives

 Establish other party’s objectives
 Frame negotiation as a joint search for a solution
 Identify areas of agreement
 Trouble shoot disagreements: bargain & seek alternative solutions, introduce trade offs
 Agreement and close: summarise and ensureacceptance

Negotiating skills

 Tact& diplomacy
 Awareness of body language
 Effective listening skill
 Assertiveness
 Empathy
 Patience
 The ability to remain calm & deal with conflict
 Accurate note taking/record keeping

What is conflict resolution, and how can you use it to settle disputes in your
workplace?
Conflict resolution can be defined as the informal or formal process that two or more parties use to find a peaceful
solution to their dispute.
 A number of common cognitive and emotional traps, many of them unconscious, can exacerbate conflict and
contribute to the need for conflict resolution:

• Self-serving fairness interpretations.

• Overconfidence.
• Litigation.
• Negotiation.
• Mediation.
• Arbitration.

TOPIC:11
Presentation skills:
Presentation skills can be defined as a set of abilities that enable an individual to: interact with
the audience; transmit the messages with clarity; engage the audience in the presentation; and
interpret and understand the mindsets of the listeners. These skills refine the way you put
forward your messages and enhance your persuasive powers.

Importance of Presentation Skills

Interaction with others is a routine job of businesses in today’s world. The importance of good
presentation skills is established on the basis of following points:

 They help an individual in enhancing his own growth opportunities. In addition, it also grooms
the personality of the presenter and elevates his levels of confidence.
 In case of striking deals and gaining clients, it is essential for the business professionals to
understand the audience. Good presentation skills enable an individual to mold his message
according to the traits of the audience. This increases the probability of successful transmission
of messages.
 Lastly, business professionals have to arrange seminars and give presentations almost every
day. Having good presentation skills not only increases an individual’s chances of success, but
also enable him to add greatly to the organization.

5 ESSENTIAL PRESENTATION SKILLS TO DEVELOP

Presentations are a part of most jobs in the business world; you must be able to give a solid,
informative presentation. Though they may seem simple, there are many aspects of a
presentation and skills that you need to deliver a successful one.
1. Enthusiasm and Honesty
One of the most painful things in a presentation is listening to a presenter who is clearly bored
and uninterested in the topic. For a presentation to be effective, you need to get the audience
excited. Show enthusiasm about the topic and people are more likely to be engaged.
Along with being enthusiastic, you need to be honest. A great presenter is honest and
transparent with the audience, while simultaneously showing enthusiasm about everything.

2. Focused on the Audience

Effective presenters build and deliver presentations centered around the audience, not
themselves. Focus on what the audience can get out of your presentation.
The key to any great presentation is engaging and appealing to your audience. Each audience
is different, so it is important to keep in mind the people you are talking to and what interests
them. You are more likely to gain their attention if the topic is relevant and helpful for them.

3. Ability to Keep Things Simple

Great presenters know how to make complex topics simple. Often, you will give a presentation
to a group of people who do not have any previous knowledge about the topic. If you use
complex language or concepts, you will confuse your audience and they will not listen as
attentively.A presentation is essentially a teaching tool. You are teaching your audience about
the topic. Effective presenters can do this for their audience.

4.Being Personable
Being personable is a great quality for every aspect of business, including presentations. People
will listen more intently if they like you and see you as relatable. Some good ways to be
personable are by making eye contact with your audience and smiling.

5. Great Body Language

Your body language says more than you think. More than three-quarters of communication is
non-verbal. Though your speaking holds the meaning, body language could determine whether
an audience listens to you and how they interpret your speech.
Great presenters stand up straight and confidently.Keep your body language open and
welcoming, and your audience will see you as more credible and trustworthy.

(EXTRA)

The areas that are important in the workplace:

https://lhagenda.com/career/public-speaking/importance-presentation-skills-workplace/

https://www.speakwithpersuasion.com/6-types-of-goals/

https://www.cleverism.com/skills-and-tools/presentation-skills/
TOPIC:7

What is nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal communication sends cues to others using actions rather than

words. This can include communication using hand gestures, eye contact,
body language, appearance, facial expressions and tone of voice. Nonverbal
communication can be one of the strongest forms of communication between
coworkers. It can take place in many workplace situations including during
meetings, interviews or casual conversations.

Nonverbal communication is a way to express thoughts or emotions without

words. People c\an express happiness, engagement, concern, gratitude and
confidence by responding nonverbally.

Nonverbal communication in the workplace

At work, you may find yourself communicating with colleagues throughout the day without
saying a word. Think about how your body language, facial expressions, posture and eye
contact can enhance and reinforce your workplace conversations.

Whether you are leading a presentation at a meeting, chatting with co-workers in the hallway, or
talking to your boss in his or her office, nonverbal communication affects the interaction.
Nonverbal communication also plays a role in social settings like lunches, office parties and
after-work activities.

In fact, approximately 93 percent of communication is nonverbal, while words account for only 7
percent. Tone of voice makes up 38 percent of communication, and body language and facial
expressions constitute 55 percent, according to Albert Mehrabian,

Example:To help you become more aware of nonverbal communication in the

workplace, here are a few examples:

Maintaining proper eye contact

This is your primary tool for establishing nonverbal connections with others, as eye contact
conveys interest, involvement and emotions. People often attribute trustworthiness to those who
speak while maintaining eye contact. For example, if a coworker approaches you with
an idea to increase collaboration in your department, show that you are actively
listening by maintaining eye contact and nodding in agreement.

Using a positive tone of voice

Though the act of speaking is a part of verbal communication, how you speak
can be considered nonverbal communication. Whether you are communicating
in person or participating in a video conference call, always be aware of your
tone of voice so it reflects your intended message. Maintaining a positive tone
while talking with a coworker or supervisor can affect the energy of your whole
conversation. For example, if an employee is giving a presentation proposing a
new client engagement plan, an energetic and positive tone can spark
enthusiasm for the project. This may increase the level of interest from senior
management as they notice the employee express excitement and passion for
the project.

Being mindful of personal appearance

The way you present yourself can create an impact greater than words might
say. Your workplace appearance such as looking neat and prepared—even if
you are in the comfort of your own home office—or keeping a tidy workstation
can convey your self-confidence and make a positive impression on coworkers.
For example, if you’re hoping to speak with a supervisor to ask for a raise or
promotion, you may choose to dress in business attire to showcase your
dedication to both the position and professionalism in the workplace.

Standing or sitting with a good posture

The way you stand or sit at work can often display your attitude or
attentiveness toward certain situations. Sitting or standing up straight can
show you’re engaged in the conversation while also portraying a confident
appearance during an interview. Or, if you’re explaining a new idea to your
supervisor and want to communicate effectively, you can sit or stand with
your shoulders back to convey your confidence and why you believe your
idea will benefit the company.

Expressing kindness or professionalism through appropriate touch

Communicating through touch has evolved from the pre-COVID workplace.

Even without social-distancing protocols, people have always varied in their
comfort levels with touch. Developing your cultural intelligence can be a
useful, rapport-building skill in the workplace.

For example, in the U.S., shaking a person’s hand firmly is a way to show
respect or that you’re pleased to meet them, whereas that might be
misconstrued as a sign of aggression in other cultures. If you sense that it’s
appropriate, a slight touch on the arm or pat on the shoulder can also be a
way to show your support or encouragement without vocally expressing it.
Displaying courteous facial expressions

As people communicate with you, they will often be anticipating a nonverbal

response by watching your facial expressions. Keep in mind, even during
a virtual interview, your face can communicate what you’re feeling or
thinking without using any words. Smiling, nodding along and using your
eyebrows can indicate a positive reaction when having a conversation. For
example, if a coworker is telling you about their recent vacation, you can
smile and nod along while you listen to show you’re enjoying their story.

Respecting personal space

During one-on-one conversations, you may move closer to a person rather

than remain far apart. For example, if you’re sitting down before a meeting
with a large group of people and notice a coworker interested in talking, you
can get up and sit near them. This shows that you’re interested in having a
conversation and want to hear them clearly. Try to make sure you’re allowing
enough space to maintain a comfortable environment for both of you.

Using hand gestures to express a feeling

The gestures or positioning of your hands during conversations can convey

to others how you’re feeling. If you move your hands to build expression
throughout stories, people can become more engaged in what you’re saying.

Hand gestures can also express friendliness or appreciation, like waving to

someone from across the room to greet them or giving them a thumbs up to
express a job well done after a presentation.

Paying attention to body language

Your overall body language can showcase your feelings during a meeting or
while carrying on a conversation. Keeping your arms relaxed at your sides
while talking expresses openness and a willingness to listen, whereas
crossing your arms in front of you might indicate to others that you’re closed
off. You can also express politeness and undistracted attention by leaning
forward in your seat.

Your body language can also demonstrate how engaged you are throughout a
conversation. For example, if you’re watching a coworker give a presentation
and are sitting upright with your arms on the table, this can show you’re
engaged in their presentation. Slouching in your seat might imply that you’re
disinterested.
Why is nonverbal communication important?

By accurately interpreting the nonverbal cues of your coworkers, you can

gain a shared understanding of their feelings, emotions and attitudes toward
certain situations. Your ability to communicate with shared meaning can
encourage collaboration with team members, which may boost productivity,
enhance engagement and strengthen your cultural competence.

Being aware of your own communication strategies can also help you
convey your feelings on various subject matters or situations. It can also
help you exude confidence when talking with supervisors or express
empathy when listening to a coworker.

TOPIC:8
Listening:

Listening is the most vital part of communication. If there is no listener there is hardly any point in
speaking. Listening is receiver’s ability to listen to the sender properly and decode the message to have
clear understanding of ideas, thoughts or information, which sender wants to share.

Listening is a skill that needs to be practised. Ability to listen is the most critical skill required in
managers and leaders. It provides them with all the information they need. Listening enables us to
participate effectively in discussions and other interactions. Unless we listen to the points made or views
expressed by the other participants in a speech, we would not be able to react rightly and to put
forward our views. In nutshell, Listening means art of understanding others; it helps in climbing the
ladder of success and is a great source of wisdom in life.

Importance of Listening:

“Give thy ear to all but your tongue to a few” - The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
(1.3.71).
Listening is very important part of everyone’s life, as through listening we can comprehend the
language; understand the people around us it may be interacting to customers or with subordinates or
even to the whole world at large. Whether in business or personal life, listening is extremely important.

The time spent on listening is always substantial. In fact listening is an important everyday means of
gathering information and acquiring knowledge, it is even vital for socializing, for relaxation, for
inspiration, and even for gaining new ideas officially or by listening to friends and peers.

As a student one has to listen to lectures, seminars, presentations, discussions & instructions. Similarly
as a professional listening takes place with boss, colleagues, subordinates within the organization.
Stephen Covey identifies listening as one of the seven habits of effective people, therefore if one wishes
to become a successful manager, it is essential to adopt and improve listening skills.

According to Adler, R. et al. (2001) Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of
communication, of this an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking, 16% reading and
9% writing.

Importance of Listening at Workplace:

Listening has vast importance not only at a personal level in life but also at workplace. Business owners
of any segment, entrepreneurs, and the employees, who so ever develop attentive listening skills and
encourage this ability for others too, will be the most likely to keep their organizations progressing.

Listening is a lively process that involves focusing on what is said without allowing erstwhile beliefs to
obstruct the process. It is true that if people would concentrate on listening at work, they will gain
profitable results such as increased productivity, more rapid progress towards target and more pleasant
relationships between co-workers.

The below mentioned are some points which further elaborate importance of listening at workplace:

1. Knowing your organization :Careful listening to the grapevine helps to know the members of the
staff, about the company’s activities and policies. Therefore, it leads to better understanding of
organization, it also facilitates in predicting what changes are required for growth.
2. Calming complaining employees: Harvey Mackay, a businessman said, “You can win more
friends with your ears than with your mouth”. Very often employees have certain grievances, all
that they need is a listener. If a manager or a leader listens to them patiently their anger will be
drained out and it will lead to calmness & peace of mind.
3. Formulating better policies: If a manager listens to his/her subordinates carefully, he/she will
know that which policies are acceptable to all other members and are better suitable for the
organizational success. This step may also accomplish the willing support of employees.
4. Open door strategy: Some managers use open door strategy and keep the doors open for
employees to walk in and talk. It leads to better understanding and better upward communication.
Sometimes it also happens that their doors are open but their ears are closed. This bad listening of
managers leaves the employees in distress. Despite of this, if a manager listens patiently,
employees will be encouraged to talk, and there will be free upward communication.
5. Spotting sensitive areas: Problems if not resolved could lead to serious disputes. It is important
for managers and leaders to spot the sensitive areas and resolve complaints by finding better
solutions to avoid serious disputes. Mahatma Gandhi as a leader was like an expert therapist, by
analyzing the problems he listened patiently to the grievances of the people, and helped them to
live a better life.
6. Increasing confidence: People, who listen well and carefully, tend to have better knowledge and
clear understanding. Therefore, they are more confident in day to day activities and even while
taking major decisions.
7. Forming a bond: True listening generates respect and trust between speaker and listener.
Employees like to respond to those bosses who they think are listening to them.
8. Boosting productivity: Instead of only giving an advice, if a manager listens carefully to the
explanation of problems and start working towards solution, employees will be more dedicated
towards work and the productivity will rise.
 9. Advancing innovations: If a leader or a manager listens properly to the ideas of people, and
motivates them to implement it instead of controlling or curbing. This technique will show the
way of new and innovative tactics of work. Listening makes employees feel better as it
recognizes not only the value of the employee viewpoint but also the value to the employee of
being listened to.
10. Enhancing accuracy: Listening in a better way leads to a huge recollection of important facts and
issues, resulting in more accuracy while solving complex issues, with lesser miscommunication
and faults.

A wise man once said, “We never learn anything with our mouth open. We can only learn by reading, by
listening, by observing and by doing” (Rega, M.). Thus, the importance of listening is at the core of
communication, it may be anywhere with anyone. In business it is important for a manager to
encourage employees to listen one another in order to build an environment that promotes cooperative
team work and innovative problem solving.

Brown, M. (2004) wrote, that “Listening is a learned behaviour. Just as decoding the written word is not
the same as comprehending its meaning, hearing a sound is not the same as understanding what is
being said”. Proper listening is again very important in making a comfortable environment, to attract
and retain good people in an organization, to develop healthy relationships and for the growth of the
organization.

Types of Listening:

Listening is not a single term which says that listener clearly understood what the speaker conveyed i.e.
it is not necessary that every time there is same understanding of the content. The response of the
listener depends on the way listening. There are some listeners who focus too much on people, some on
technical points and some on other aspects of message. Some are so impatient that they finish your
statement instead of giving time to formulate the ideas and communicate them in their own easy way.
Therefore, recognizing the types of listening is essential, as this understanding will help mould us as
listeners and make us aware which type of listening we should adopt in various instances of our life.

There may be some particular instance when we have to listen to get information, another can be while
discussing a certain experience, or while listening to a demonstration from a sales agent. For
understanding all these aspects we need different approaches of listening .

The major types of listening are discussed below:

 Partial Listening :Partial - the word itself suggest that this type of listening is one sided or incomplete,
i.e. when partial listening takes place people do not listen to the full content, or do not show interest
in the message.
This type of listening is further divided into:
1. selective listening,
2. passive listening &
3. discriminative listening.
1.Selective Listening: This is the way where the listening is done partially. People listen to that part of
communication which they really want to listen. They listen primarily for those things with which they
agree or feel are important while filtering out those points which don’t echo.

2.Passive Listening: Silent and patient listening without interfering or participating in a talk is known as
passive listening. The listener is physically present but not participating in the communication process.
The message is not absorbed and the passive listener will not be able to recall the message in future.
This type of listening takes place due to many constraints like tiredness, ill health, lack of interest etc.
Passive listening is merely hearing the words and not the message. It leads to misunderstanding as the
sender would be under the impression that the receiver has grasped the message as intended.

3.Discriminative Listening: It is an attempt by the listeners to listen to a particular sound which is

important for them and ignores other sounds. For Example while the teacher in the class is taking
attendance at the same time students are talking to each other, despite of so many sounds in the class
room, each student waits for his/her name to be announced for attendance as they are required to
respond for their presence.

 Analytical Listening: The word “analytical” is defined as “using or skilled in using analysis”.
Analytical listening offers fast and simple way to feedback. People use this listening skill when they
want to critically evaluate the message, or need to extract some information, or required to highlight
the content. These uses of analytical listening are discussed below:
1.Critical Listening: When a listener requires specific information from the entire speech or an external
speaker is invited to share the message, one has to critically analyse the content in order to make best
use of it. Therefore, the task is to actively scrutinize the reliability, clarity and accuracy of that particular
information only.
For example when a sales person describes about his company’s product and only discusses its benefits,
or might deliver positive feelings of that product and at the same time try to associate negative feelings
with what the competitor has to offer. At this point the listener should be cautious and need not to take
decisions on the basis of immediate feelings, but rather take time before concluding or before taking
any actions. One needs to analyze and evaluate the message in order to determine whether to accept or
reject it.

2.Comprehensive Listening: This involves understanding of the complete substance conveyed by the
speaker. The problem is that many people often interpret the same conversation in different ways,
depending on their individual and social backgrounds. The value of this type of listening is that the
listener needs to remember the matter. It is useful when the purpose is to extract information from the
speaker. Mostly this skill is used in classrooms by students and even at the workplace, when we listen to
understand new practices or procedures for better performance. In order to properly use
comprehensive listening and to gain understanding the listener first needs suitable vocabulary and
language proficiency. Using overly difficult language or technical terminology, therefore, can be a barrier
to comprehensive listening. The ultimate goal of comprehensive listening is to understand the message
the speaker is communicating.
3.Content Listening: It describes a situation when one has to pay attention to the content for receiving
some information like highlights of your organization or learning some technical or creative aspects.
While getting information it would not be good on the listener’s part to challenge the speaker. The focus
in this type of listening should be on gathering information, rather than making judgement. Taking notes
and asking questions is important to make the listening interactive.

 Full Body Listening: It is to listen not only with your ears but by keeping full body in a listening
mode. Full body listening is very important and is required to adapt in day to day activities. This type
of listening can be done by keeping mind & heart open, by openly using the five senses of body, and
even by building an open posture while interacting. The components of full body listening are active
listening, attentive listening, visual listening & empathetic listening.
1.Active Listening: Complete involvement of the listener in speaker. He/ She make the conscious efforts
to listen attentively, decode the message and use it through properly participating. “Active listening is a
process in which a listener receives messages, processes them, and responds so as to encourage further
communication”
Here the listener not only listens to the words but also understands the body language too, even shows
regard for the speaker, concentrates on what is being conveyed and in a way helps speaker to
meaningfully deliver the message. It also includes suggestions by the listener, and speaker is provided by
the space to agree or disagree with the suggestions. This type of listening is required at the time of
discussions & interview process when it is important to recall comprehend and response to the
message.

2.Attentive Listening: It means, being fully aware of speakers; what they are saying; how they are saying
it, i.e. the tone, pitch of voice, what they are doing, i.e. gestures, movements, postures, etc., and
receiving and interpreting the message they are sending (Bentley, 1993). Attentive listeners have
relational goals like giving a positive impression, advancing the relationship, or demonstrating care. It is
difficult and very tiring to maintain a state of attentive listening.

3.Visual listening: This kind of listening is used when words are strange. It generally happens when we
do not understand the language, as it may be a foreign language. Visual listening also takes place when
the message is unspoken, here the messages are understood through body movement, facial
expressions, gestures, and especially with eye contacts. Visual listening may also be the next step in
online reputation management. Visual listening is the practice of observing and tracking images and
attracting customers by using creative logos with perfect colour combinations. Visual listening opens up
a world of image-centric conversation, and, with it, a world of possibilities for engaging customers more
perfectly and efficiently.

4.Empathetic listening: Empathy means to ‘Put your foot in another’s shoe’, i.e. to keep yourself at other
persons place to understand and realize the feeling of the speaker. Raman & Singh(2006) said,
“Empathic listener is able to go into the world of another- to see as others sees, hear as other hears, and
feel as the other feels”. It involves comprehending what kind of mental state the speaker is at the time
of conversation. There may be some personal issues, or overloading at workplace or something else, an
empathetic listener will analyze the situation and respond accordingly.
The Importance of Listening in Effective Communication
We sometimes think that listening means we only have to sit back, stay barely awake, and let a speaker’s
words wash over us. While many Americans look upon being active as something to admire, to engage in,
and to excel at, listening is often understood as a “passive” activity.

You may have heard the adage, “We have two ears but only one mouth”—an easy way to
remember that listening can be twice as important as talking. As a student, you most likely spend
many hours in a classroom doing a large amount of focused listening, yet sometimes it is
difficult to apply those efforts to communication in other areas of your life. As a result, your
listening skills may not be all they could be. In this chapter, we will examine listening versus
hearing, listening styles, listening difficulties, listening stages, and listening critically.
Listening vs. Hearing
Listening or Hearing

Hearing is an accidental and automatic brain response to sound that requires no effort. We are
surrounded by sounds most of the time. For example, we are accustomed to the sounds of
airplanes, furnace blowers, the rattling of pots and pans, and so on. We hear those incidental
sounds and, unless we have a reason to do otherwise, we train ourselves to ignore them. We learn
to filter out sounds that mean little to us, just as we choose to hear our ringing cell phones and
other sounds that are more important to us.

Listening, on the other hand, is purposeful and focused rather than accidental. As a result, it
requires motivation and effort. Listening, at its best, is active, focused, concentrated attention for
the purpose of understanding the meanings expressed by a speaker. We do not always listen at
our best, however, and later in this chapter we will examine some of the reasons why and some
strategies for becoming more active critical listeners.

Benefits of Listening
Listening should not be taken for granted. Before the invention of writing, people conveyed
virtually all knowledge through some combination of showing and telling. Elders recited tribal
histories to attentive audiences. Listeners received religious teachings enthusiastically. Myths,
legends, folktales, and stories for entertainment survived only because audiences were eager to
listen. Nowadays, however, you can gain information and entertainment through reading and
electronic recordings rather than through real-time listening. If you become distracted and let
your attention wander, you can go back and replay a recording. Despite that fact, you can still
gain at least four compelling benefits by becoming more active and competent at real-time
listening.

You Become a Better Student

When you focus on the material presented in a classroom, you will be able to identify not only the words
used in a lecture but their emphasis and their more complex meanings. You will take better notes, and you
will more accurately remember the instructor’s claims, information, and conclusions.
You Become a Better Friend
When you give your best attention to people expressing thoughts and experiences that are
important to them, those individuals are likely to see you as someone who cares about their well-
being. This fact is especially true when you give your attention only and refrain from interjecting
opinions, judgments, and advice.

People Will Perceive You as Intelligent and Perceptive

When you listen well to others, you reveal yourself as being curious and interested in people and
events. In addition, your ability to understand the meanings of what you hear will make you a
more knowledgeable and thoughtful person.

Good Listening Can Help Your Public Speaking

When you listen well to others, you start to pick up more on the stylistic components related to
how people form arguments and present information. As a result, you have the ability to analyze
what you think works and doesn’t work in others’ speeches, which can help you transform your
speeches in the process. For example, really paying attention to how others cite sources orally
during their speeches may give you ideas about how to more effectively cite sources in your
presentation.

Listening Styles
If listening were easy, and if all people went about it in the same way, the task for a public
speaker would be much easier. Even Aristotle, as long ago as 325 BC, recognized that listeners
in his audience were varied in listening style. He differentiated them as follows:

Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three
elements in speech-making—speaker, subject, and person addressed—it is the last one, the hearer, that
determines the speech’s end and object.

Thus Aristotle classified listeners into those who would be using the speech to make decisions about past
events, those who would make decisions affecting the future, and those who would evaluate the speaker’s
skills.

International Journal of Listening,. identified four listening styles:

people,
action,
content,and
time.

People
The people-oriented listener is interested in the speaker. People-oriented listeners listen to the message in
order to learn how the speaker thinks and how they feel about their message. For instance, when people-
oriented listeners listen to an interview with a famous rap artist, they are likely to be more curious about
the artist as an individual than about music, even though the people-oriented listener might also
appreciate the artist’s work. If you are a people-oriented listener, you might have certain questions you
hope will be answered, such as: Does the artist feel successful? What’s it like to be famous? What kind of
educational background does he or she have?

Action
Action-oriented listeners are primarily interested in finding out what the speaker wants. Does the
speaker want votes, donations, volunteers, or something else? It’s sometimes difficult for an
action-oriented speaker to listen through the descriptions, evidence, and explanations with which
a speaker builds his or her case.

Action-oriented listening is sometimes called task-oriented listening. In it, the listener seeks a clear
message about what needs to be done, and might have less patience for listening to the reasons behind the
task.

(EXTRA)

. For example, when you’re a passenger on an airplane waiting to push back from the gate, a
flight attendant delivers a brief speech called the preflight safety briefing. The flight attendant
does not read the findings of a safety study or the regulations about seat belts. The flight
attendant doesn’t explain that the content of his or her speech is actually mandated by the Federal
Aviation Administration. Instead, the attendant says only to buckle up so we can leave. An
action-oriented listener finds “buckling up” a more compelling message than a message about
the underlying reasons.

Content
Content-oriented listeners are interested in the message itself, whether it makes sense, what it
means, and whether it’s accurate. When you give a speech, many members of your classroom
audience will be content-oriented listeners who will be interested in learning from you. You
therefore have an obligation to represent the truth in the fullest way you can. You can emphasize
an idea, but if you exaggerate, you could lose credibility in the minds of your content-oriented
audience. You can advocate ideas that are important to you, but if you omit important
limitations, you are withholding part of the truth and could leave your audience with an
inaccurate view.

Time
People using a time-oriented listening style prefer a message that gets to the point quickly. Time-
oriented listeners can become impatient with slow delivery or lengthy explanations. This kind of
listener may be receptive for only a brief amount of time and may become rude or even hostile if
the speaker expects a longer focus of attention. Time-oriented listeners convey their impatience
through eye rolling, shifting about in their seats, checking their cell phones, and other
inappropriate behaviors. If you’ve been asked to speak to a group of middle-school students, you
need to realize that their attention spans are simply not as long as those of college students. This
is an important reason speeches to young audiences must be shorter, or broken up by more
variety than speeches to adults.

Why Listening is Difficult

Noise
Noise is one of the biggest factors to interfere with listening; it can be defined as anything that
interferes with your ability to attend to and understand a message. There are many kinds of noise,
but we will focus on only the four you are most likely to encounter in public speaking situations:
physical noise, psychological noise, physiological noise, and semantic noise.

Physical Noise
Physical noise consists of various sounds in an environment that interfere with a source’s ability
to hear. Construction noises right outside a window, planes flying directly overhead, or loud
music in the next room can make it difficult to hear the message being presented by a speaker
even if a microphone is being used. It is sometimes possible to manage the context to reduce the
noise. Closing a window might be helpful. Asking the people in the next room to turn their music
down might be possible. Changing to a new location is more difficult, as it involves finding a
new location and having everyone get there.

Physiological Noise
Physiological noise consists of distractions to a speaker’s message caused by a listener’s own
body. Maybe you’re listening to a speech in class around noon and you haven’t eaten anything.
Your stomach may be growling and your desk is starting to look tasty. Maybe the room is cold
and you’re thinking more about how to keep warm than about what the speaker is saying. In
either case, your body can distract you from attending to the information being presented.

Semantic Noise
Semantic noise occurs when a receiver experiences confusion over the meaning of a source’s
word choice. While you are attempting to understand a particular word or phrase, the speaker
continues to present the message. While you are struggling with a word interpretation, you are
distracted from listening to the rest of the message.

Attention Span
A person can only maintain focused attention for a finite length of time. The limits of the human attention
span can interfere with listening, but listeners and speakers can use strategies to prevent this interference.

Receiver Biases
Good listening involves keeping an open mind and withholding judgment until the speaker has completed
the message. Conversely, biased listening is characterized by jumping to conclusions; the biased listener
believes, “I don’t need to listen because I already know what I think.” Receiver biases can refer to two
things: biases with reference to the speaker and preconceived ideas and opinions about the topic or
message. Both can be considered noise.

The first type of bias listeners can have is related to the speaker. Often a speaker stands up and an
audience member simply doesn’t like the speaker, so the audience member may not listen to the speaker’s
message.

The second type of bias listeners can have is related to the topic or content of the speech. Maybe the
speech topic is one you’ve heard a thousand times, so you just tune out the speech. Or maybe the speaker
is presenting a topic or position you fundamentally disagree with.

Listening or Receiver Apprehension

Listening or receiver apprehension is the fear that you might be unable to understand the message or
process the information correctly or be able to adapt your thinking to include the new information
coherently.

Stages of Listening
Receiving
Receiving is the intentional focus on hearing a speaker’s message, which happens when we filter out
other sources so that we can isolate the message and avoid the confusing mixture of incoming stimuli. At
this stage, we are still only hearing the message.

Understanding
In the understanding stage, we attempt to learn the meaning of the message, which is not always
easy. For one thing, if a speaker does not enunciate clearly, it may be difficult to tell what the
message was. So much of the way we understand others is influenced by our own perceptions
and experiences. Therefore, at the understanding stage of listening we should be on the lookout
for places where our perceptions might differ from those of the speaker.

Remembering
Remembering begins with listening; if you can’t remember something that was said, you might not have
been listening effectively.

Evaluating
The fourth stage in the listening process is evaluating, or judging the value of the message

Responding
Responding—sometimes referred to as feedback—is the fifth and final stage of the listening process. It’s
the stage at which you indicate your involvement. Almost anything you do at this stage can be interpreted
as feedback.
TOPIC:16
A paraphrase is...
your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented
in a new form

one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a source

a detailed restatement which focuses concisely on a single main idea

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

it is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.

it helps you control the temptation to quote too much.

the mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full meaning of
the original.

5 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.

2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.

3. Check your version with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the
essential information in a new form.

4. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the
source.

5. Record the source (including the page number) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you
decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Some examples to compare

The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in
the final [research] paper. Probably only about 30% of your final manuscript should appear as directly
quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials
while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.
An unacceptable paraphrase:

Students often use too many direct quotations in taking notes, resulting in the overuse of quotations in
the final paper. Only approximately 30% of your final paper should be direct quotes. Consequently, you
should try to limit how many quotes you write when taking notes.

A legitimate paraphrase:

In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable
level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material
recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

A shorter version:

Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of
quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).

QUOTATION:

Whenever you use someone else’s words to convey information, you are quoting. Enclosing the words in
quotation marks signals that the words are quoted. The citations for quotes include page numbers when
applicable. Generally, if more than four words are in the same order as the original source, it is
considered a quote.

Keep these points in mind while quoting:

 If a quote ends with an exclamation point or question mark, include it in the quotation and
include a period after the citation. For example: Allbaugh encourages students with the
motto, “Write like you mean it!”.
 Signal omitted text with an ellipsis (…). If you omit a sentence or more, use four periods.
 Quotes always need to fit grammatically into the sentence. You can use brackets to keep a
quote grammatical by altering verb tense or adding or taking away capitalization.
 When paraphrasing in APA, do not include the page number

What Is Summarizing?
In contrast, a summary is a brief overview of an entire discussion or argument.
You might summarize a whole research paper or conversation in a single
paragraph, for example, or with a series of bullet points, using your own words
and style.

People often summarize when the original material is long, or to emphasize

key facts or points. Summaries leave out detail or examples that may distract
the reader from the most important information, and they simplify complex
arguments, grammar and vocabulary.

Used correctly, summarizing and paraphrasing can save time, increase

understanding, and give authority and credibility to your work. Both tools are
useful when the precise wording of the original communication is less
important than its overall meaning.
Main idea:

The main idea is the essence of a given passage, which is often expressed in a key word or phrase.