RATIONALISM

“Cogito, ergo sum"

 Rationalism
o Rationalism is a philosophical movement which gathered momentum during the Age of
Reason of the 17th Century
o Rationalism is any view appealing to intellectual and deductive reason as the source of
knowledge or justification as apposed to any sensory experience, tradition or religious
faith.
o Rationalists believe that the mind is capable of arriving at knowledge through the use
of reason and intuition, without the need for sensory experience
o There are certain truths that are self-evident or innate, and that these truths can be
known through reason alone
o The mind is structured by, and responds to, mathematical methods of reasoning,
rather than being a "tabula rasa" to be imprinted with sense data
Key Proponents of Rationalism:
René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz
 Main Claims of Rationalism

Intuition/Deduction
o Some propositions are known to us by intuition alone, some
through the deduction of intuited prepositions
o Some rationalists take intuition to be infallible, while others
allow for the possibility of false intuited propositions
o Some claim that only mathematics can be knowable by intuition
and deduction; some that ethical truths can also be intuited
o Some radical rationalists maintain that metaphysical claims,
like the existence of God, free will and the mind-body duality,
may be proved through intuition and deduction
 Main Claims of Rationalism
Innate Knowledge
o We’ve knowledge of some truths as part of our innate rational nature
o Experiences may trigger a process to bring this knowledge to
consciousness, but they do not give us the knowledge itself, which
has always been with us
o Some rationalists claim that we gained this innate knowledge in an
earlier existence, some that God provided us with it at creation,
and others that it is part of our nature through natural selection
Innate Concepts
o Some of the concepts, unlike the actual knowledge, are part of our
innate rational nature
o However, innate concepts are entailed by innate knowledge, because
a proposition can only be innate if its concepts are innate
 René Descartes

o René Descartes was a 17th century French Philosopher and Mathematician

o The founder of Modern Rationalism
o Descartes believes that the universe us governed by rational principles
o Mind and body are independent entities that interact through the pineal gland
o Mind is a thinking thing (Conscious), while the body is an extended thing
(Unconscious)
o Mind is capable of independent thought(Beyond Space & Time), while the body is
subject to the laws of physics (exist in Space & Time)
o Mind is immaterial & it cannot extend, whereas Body is material and it can extend
 René Descartes

o Mind: Only thinking. Cannot Exist

o Body: Only Extension. Cannot Think
• Both Mind & Body are dependent upon God
• Human are imperfect then how is idea of perfection in our minds?
• The idea of perfection was implanted in our minds by God himself
• The external world exists, but it cannot be proven with certainty
• We have a natural inclination to believe that the external world
exists, since our senses have never deceived us before
• Existence of God can be proven through Reason
 René Descartes
o In his "Meditations on First Philosophy," Descartes sought to
establish a secure foundation for knowledge by subjecting all
knowledge to doubt and subsequently reconstructing it on the
basis of irrefutable truths deduced solely through reason alone.
o Descartes held that some ideas (innate ideas) come from God;
others ideas are derived from sensory experience; and still
others are fictitious (or created by the imagination).
o Therefore, for him, the only ideas which are certainly true are
innate ideas
o Descartes famously articulated the phrase "Cogito ergo sum" ("I
think, therefore I am") as an indubitable truth that forms the
foundation of his philosophy.
o "Cogito ergo sum" is a conclusion reached a priori and not through an
inference from experience.
 "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum)

o Descartes employed TheMethodOfDoubt(CartesianDoubt)inhis"MeditationsonFirstPhilosophy”

o The Method of Doubt is a systematic process of being skeptical about the truth of one's beliefs
o He presented a series of skeptical arguments to challenge his existing beliefs
o Wanted to rid himself of any preconceived notions or false beliefs that could compromise the
reliability of his knowledge
o Cartesian Doubt is Threefold = Three Arguments – Steps to Doubt - Knowledge
Three Arguments of The Cartesian Doubt
❖The Sense Perception Argument: Descartes doubts the truth of all of his beliefs that are
based on Sensory Experience
o argues that our senses sometimes present us with misleading information, such as optical
illusions, weight illusions so their reliability as a source of knowledge is doubtful.
❖The Dream Argument: Descartes doubts the possibility that we are still dreaming. Not Reliable
 "I think, therefore, I am" (Cogito, ergo sum)

❖The Evil Demon Argument: Descartes doubtsthetruthofallofhisbeliefsthatarebasedonREASON

o He argues that even if the senses cannot be trusted, reason could still be deceiving him.
o Imagines an evil demon is deceiving him into believing everything he knows is true, when it
is actually false e.g. PUBG, Free Fire, VX Box
o By entertaining this extreme skeptical scenario, Descartes doubts even the most fundamental
beliefs he holds, i.e. the existence of the external world and the reliability of his own thoughts.
o Yet, Descartes finds one indubitable truth that resists doubt: the fact that he is doubting
o He argues that even if an evil demon is deceiving him, there must be a thinking thing—an "I" or
a Mind—that is being deceived
o Doubt (Think) - Doubter(Thinker)= { to doubt is to think = to think is to exist) Cogitoergosum
o This leads him to the famous conclusion, "I think, therefore I am" which establishes his
existence as a thinking thing beyond any doubt
 Key Steps of the Method of Doubt

✓Start by Doubting Everything

➢ This includes all of your beliefs about the world, your own
existence, and even the laws of logic.
➢ Accept nothing that is not self evident
✓Try to find any way to doubt your beliefs
This could involve imagining that you are dreaming, or that you are
being deceived by an evil demon
✓Divide problems into simple and complex parts
✓ Analyse them separately, start from simple to complex
✓If you cannot find any way to doubt a belief, then it is
probably true
o However, be careful not to fall into the trap of believing something
just because you cannot doubt it
✓Repeat the process until you have found some beliefs that you
are certain are true
 Knowledge

Intuition
o An intellectual activity or vision of such clarity that removes all doubts
from mind
o Sense perception = false Imagination = Confusion/Doubts
o Intuition = Cartesian Knowledge & Truths = Beyond Doubts
o By Intuition truth can be grasped completely
Deduction
o All necessary inferences from the facts that known with the certainty
o Syllogism = Relationship of Facts to each other
o Cartesian Deduction = Relationship of Truth to each other
o Moving from one truth that is known to us with certainty to new truth
 Existence of God
The Ontological Argument
• a purely a priori argument for the existence of God.
• God's existence is necessary because it is more perfect to exist than not to exist.
• God is a supremely perfect being. > Perfection includes existence. > Therefore, God exists.
The Cosmological Argument
• an a posteriori argument for the existence of God.
• God must exist as the first cause of the universe.
• Everything that exists has a cause. > The Universe exists > Hence, the Universe has a cause.
• This cause must be something that is not part of the universe, because if it were part of the universe, it would
need a cause itself
• This cause must be a being that is eternal, omnipotent, and omniscient. > This Being is God.
The Teleological Argument
• Intelligent design of the universe implies its purposeful designer
• There are order & design in the world, e.g. the laws of nature & the intricate workings of organisms.
• Such order and design cannot be the result of random chance. Not a Meaningless Creation
• Order & design indicate the presence of an intelligent and purposeful Creator. This Creator is God.
 Baruch Spinoza
o Baruch Spinoza was a 17th century Dutch philosopher
o Was influenced by Descartes
o Believed that reason is the highest form of knowledge and
that the universe is ultimately intelligible to reason.
o Rejected Descartes’ Dualism
Spinoza’s Monism
o If mind and body are dependent on God, how can they be
substances?
o There is only one substance in the universe i.e. God/Nature
o God is the sum of natural and physical laws, certainly not individual
o It is self-caused and independent of anything else for its existence
o It is the cause of all things in the universe
o It is infinite, eternal, and immutable
 Spinoza’s Monism

o It has infinite attributes, incl. Thought & Extension

o Two parallel aspects of the same substance
o Modes are finite entities that are modifications of these
attributes
❖Modes of Thought: Beliefs, Desires
❖Modes of Extension: Size, Shape
oMind is the expression of the infinite consciousness of
God
oMatter is the unlimited extension of God
oEverything in this world is the modification of God
oGod is immanent and not transcendent
oEverything is inside God nothing is outside Him. All is
God
oSpinoza identified God as Nature and Nature as God.
 Ethics / Amor Intellectualis Dei

o Ethics should be based on reason, not on emotions or

religious beliefs
o The goal of Ethics (the highest form of human
happiness) is to achieve a state of perfect
understanding, which he called "Intellectual Love of
God.” "Amor Intellectualis Dei“
o This love is achieved by understanding the universe as
a rational and orderly system
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
o Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a 17th century German philosopher and mathematician
o was influenced by Descartes & Spinoza, but his rationalism also developed in its own unique way
o Agreed with Descartes that reason was the only reliable source of knowledge, but he disagreed with
Descartes' dualism.
o Instead, Leibniz argued that mind & body are two different kinds of substances (Monads)
o Disagreed with Spinoza's Monism but believed that the universe is a rational and orderly system
o Instead, Leibniz argued that there are an infinite number of Monads, each of which is a unique
expression of the universe's underlying rationality. Pluralism
Monads
❖The universe is made up of an infinite number of simple substances called monads.
❖Monads are mind-like entities
❖Monads are the basic building blocks of reality
❖Each is unique & expresses the universe's underlying rationality
 Monads
❖The "ultimate units of existence in nature“
❖Are the only true substances in the universe. Pluralism
❖Are simple, immaterial, and indestructible entities
❖Unextended: No essential quality of matter i.e. shape, size
❖Windowless: do not affect with each other
❖Specific Function: Eachhasitsownuniqueperspectiveontheworld
❖Aggregate at different degrees b/c they are forces
❖ Perceive the world around them through the process of
"appetition" & "perception.“
❖Interact with each other through a pre-established harmony
❖No Causal Relation with each other, Fully Independent
❖Monad is a Metaphysical point. Not Mathematical or Physical
❖Differ in Clarity
 Kinds of Monads
❖Unconscious/Naked Monads
o Unconscious with no capacity for perception. State of material world
o Lifeless Objects. No Clarity. e.g. Lifeless Objects
❖Subconscious Monads
I. Have Sub Conscious with less Clarity e.g. Plants
II. Queen Monad as less guiding principle e.g. Birds and Animals
o Slightly better in clarity
❖(Self) Conscious Monads
o Are able to reflect on their own perceptions & appetites, and learn & grow over time.
o Queen Monad as less guiding principle. Have better clarity. e.g. Humans
❖Super Conscious Monad or Queen Monad
o The monad of monads, God is the only necessary monad & the cause & creator of all
other monads & has the most perfect perception with super conscious.
o ABSOLUTE CLARITY. God is completely an active Mind
o Every monad’s ultimate goal is to become supreme Monad.
 Mind-Body Pre-established Harmony

❖Mind : The Monads of mind are the psychic Forces: Thought

❖Body: The Monads of Body are the mechanical Forces: Extension
❖No interaction between the two is possible because Monads are windowless
❖This Mind & Body harmony is pre-established by God
❖God has arranged the Mind & Body in such a way that they shall go together
The Principle of Sufficient Reason
o Leibniz argued that everything that happens has a reason for happening
o This principle is also known as The Principle Of Causality
o There is no such thing as chance or randomness
 Theodicy

o Leibniz argued that God created the best possible

world that could exist
o The world we live in is the best of all possible
worlds, the most perfect and orderly, even though it
may not seem perfect to us
o Leibniz's argument for the best of all possible worlds
is known as Theodicy
o Theo is the attempt to reconcile the existence of
evil with the existence of a good & all-powerful God
o Leibniz argued that evil exists in the world because
it is necessary for the greater good
 Feature Descartes Spinoza Leibniz

Existence Of Substance Two Substances: Mind & Body Only One Substance: Nature Many Substances: Monads
Mind/Body Relationship Dualism Monism Pluralism
Interactionism Parnellism Pre-established Harmony
Innate Ideas Believed in Innate Ideas Did not believe in Innate Believed in all Ideas being
Ideas Innate

Free Will Believed in Free Will Did not believe in Free Will Believed in Compatibilism

The Existence of God God Exists God does not exist God Exists
Dr. Ali Raza Fahad