Numerical Problems

1.Draw impedance, reactance and MHO

characteristics to protect 100% of the line
having (2.5 + J6)) ohm impedance. A fault may
occur at any point of line through an arc
resistance of 2 ohms. Determine the
maximum percentage of line section which
can be protected by each type of relay.
[ Ans. : 83%, 100% and 77%]

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 Need for Staring MHO unit for Reactance Relay
Under normal operating
condition, with a load of high
power factor, the reactance
measured by the relay may be
less by its setting. To prevent
false tripping under such
condition the reactance relay
should be supervised by a
staring unit of MHO relay
Typical Distance Relay characteristics
Distance Protection : Phase Relay and
Ground Relay
 Protection Scheme of Transmission Line
• Earlier Over current relays were used for transmission line protection. However
over current relays have numerous shortcomings.

• So for transmission lines exceeding 50 KV, only distance relaying schemes are used.

• For phase faults involving two or more phases, phase relays are used and for
ground faults i.e. LG fault, ground relays are used. Phase relays are supplied with
delta voltage i.e. line to line voltage and delta current i.e. difference of line
currents.

• Ground relays are supplied with star i.e. phase voltage, phase current and residual
current. With such connections, the reach of the distance relaying schemes do not
shift with the change in types of faults, change in generation level or due to
switching.

• MHO relay is preferred for phase faults in a long and heavily loaded lines while
Reactance relays are preferred for ground fault. However reactance relay is always
associated with a directional starting MHO relay. Tripping is done within the zone
between the MHO relay and the reactance relay.

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Voltage and current combinations used
for detecting phase-to-phase faults
Voltage and current combinations used
for detecting phase-to-ground faults
Numerical / Digital Protection

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Evolution of Protective Relays
 Why Numerical Relays??
• To improve reliability as well as security
• Self checking facility
• Immune to variation in parameters of individual
components
• Very low burden
• More flexibility because of programmable capability
• . Fiber optical communication with substation LAN
• Adaptive relaying schemes
• Permit Historical data storage
• Allow GPS (Geographical Positioning System) Time
stamping

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 Merits of Numerical Relays
Features Numerical Solid State Electromagnetic

Self Checking and

Reliability

System Integration
and Digital
Environment
Multifunctional

Functional Flexibility
and Adaptive
Relaying

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 Challenges in Designing Numerical
Relays
• Economy and performance
• Dependability and security
• Complexity and simplicity
• Speed and accuracy
• realistic and conceivable

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 Advantages of Digital Relaying

• Less sensitive to temperature, aging, noise

• Economical because can be produced in
volumes
• Accuracy Using Digital implementation the
realization Polygon in R-X plane for distance
relaying is possible
• Signal storage is possible
• Ease of communication
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 Block Schematic of Numerical Relay

Binary
Signal Anti Aliasing Microprocess
Conditioner Filter
S/H Circuit ADC
or//DSP Decision/
Trip Signal

Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or

more analog signals in three steps:
• Conversion of analog signal to digital form
• Processing of digital form
• Boolean decision to trip or not to trip
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 Anti Aliasing Filter
• Post-fault power system signals contain DC offset and harmonic
components, in addition to the major fundamental power
frequency component.
• If these signals are not sampled with appropriate rate, these high
frequency component in the input signal may be interpreted as low
frequencies. This kind of manifestation is known as ”aliasing“ effect
• Anti Aliasing filter is a low pass filter, which removes most of the
high frequency components from the relaying signals to avoid
aliasing effect

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 Analog Interface
• Analog interface makes the signal compatible with the processor

•It consist of S/H circuit, Analog multiplexer and ADC

• Analog voltage and current signals would be sampled at appropriate

frequency, converted into digital form and acquired by a micro processor or
a DSP.

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 Sampling :
Non Simultaneous VS Simultaneous

•For relaying decision making we need to estimate the voltage and current
phasors.
•Presence of noise in any measurement is unavoidable.
•Effect of noise in phasor estimation can be minimized if redundant
measurements exist.
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 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Effect

According to the “Shanon sapling Theorem” or “ Nyquist sapling Theorem” the signal
must be sampled at a frequency at least twice the largest frequency component present
in the sampled signal to preserve the information contain in a signal. Anti aliasing filter
plays a vital role to make the sampling rate lower by removing the higher harmonics and
noise from the relaying signals.
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Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Effect
(cont.)

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 Data Window
• For simplicity, imagine a single phase circuit and assume that the
frequency of the supply only.
• The concept of data window for phasor estimation. This window
contains the ‘active’ set of samples which are currently being
processed for phasor estimation.
• Each consecutive window, differs from the previous window by
adding a new sample and by removing the oldest active sample.

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 Digital Protection
• Digital protection scheme aims to extract the
fundamental power frequency components of
voltage and current signals from the complex
post-fault waveform using suitable filters.

• From the fundamental components the apparent

impedance seen by the relay is calculated.

• Based on the magnitude of the impedance

relaying decision ( block/trip) is taken

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 Phasor Estimation
Main objective of the digital relaying is the phasor
estimation of fundamental frequency current and
voltage from the sampled values of complex post
fault current and voltage signals containing transient
DC offset component and harmonic frequency
components in addition to fundamental power
frequency component.

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Phasor Estimation
 Fourier Representation of Signals
• Fourier Series are used to decompose periodic
signals into sum of sinusoidal components of
appropriate amplitude.

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 Fourier Based Algorithms
• Discrete Fourier Transform(DFT)
DFT is used to evaluate the Fourier coefficients from N samples of x(t) taken at
a time t=0, 2Ts, 3Ts, …..(N-1) Ts, where Ts is the sampling frequency.
In the complex from the Fourier coefficients can be written as:
Therefore,

Where ,

The DFT eqs. (2) & (3) can easily be implemented on microprocessor or other
embedded platforms in order to obtain the Fourier coefficients
corresponding to any frequency component.

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 DFT Algorithms
• Full cycle Data Window DFT Algorithm:
A sequence of N uniformly spaced data samples obtained over
full cycle data window is used to compute the real and
imaginary components of any frequency phasor.
• Half cycle Data Window DFT Algorithm:
Half cycle data window DFT Algorithm is used on the basis of
the assumption that the relaying signals i.e. current and
voltage signals contain only odd harmonics and transient
DC offset component is filtered out from the incoming raw
data samples, prior to they are being processed. Here only
N/2 samples are acquired over half cycle data window are
used for computation of real and imaginary components.

Distance protection scheme prefers half cycle data window algorithm, as the
relay’s operation within a cycle after the fault inception is desirable.

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Recursive and Non Recursive updating
of DFT
DFT of data sequence xm, m = 0, 1, 2, ….., (N-1)

DFT of data sequence xm, m = 1, 2, 3, ….., N

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 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
FFT is the fast algorithm for efficient
computation of DFT. This algorithm drastically
reduces the arithmetic operations and
memory requirement to compute DFT. For
FFT we have to take the number of total
number of samples in a period of fundamental
cycle N = 2n , where n is an integer
The FFT has accelerated the application of Fourier Techniques in digital signal processing in
many applications other than digital relaying. In relaying application N is small( 4 to 20). So
A very few coefficients are required.
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 Distance Relay and Extraction of
Fundamental Frequency Components
• The distance relay aims to calculate the apparent
impedance of the line from the relay location to
the fault point to determine whether the fault lies
within the protection zone or not.
• Impedance of the linear system is defined in
terms of the fundamental frequency voltage and
current sinusoidal waves .
• It is necessary to extract the fundamental
frequency components from the complex post
fault voltage and current signals
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 Computation of Apparent Impedance

Estimation of voltage Compute Apparent

Removal of DC offset and current phasor of Impedance by half
from current samples fundamental cycle window DFT
frequency component algorithm

The exponentially decaying DC offset present in the relaying signals gives rise to fairly large
errors in the phasor estimation unless offset terms are removed prior to the execution of the
algorithm. In practice, decaying DC component in the voltage signal is so small that it can be
neglected. The DC offset component of the current signal is filtered out by employing replica
impedance filtering technique. The conventional method of eliminating the Dc offset
component is with the use of a mimic or replica impedance across the CT secondary terminals.
This mimic impedance plays a role of analog filter to remove the decaying DC component
when x/r ratio of the mimic impedance matches with the X/R ratio of the fault circuit or
primary circuit. However in other hand, it increases the high frequency noise. The best way is
to remove the decaying dc by digital replica impedance filtering technique.
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 Computation of Apparent Impedance
(Cont. )
The real and imaginary components of fundamental frequency voltage phasor is Vs and Vc
The same for the current is Is and Ic. Z is the apparent impedance. R is the resistance; X is
the reactance

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