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Oil Spills and Sustainable Cleanup Approach

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 Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

AENSI Journals
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences

Journal home page: www.ajbasweb.com

Oil Spills and Sustainable Cleanup Approach

1
Jamaliah Idris, 2Gaius Debi Eyu, 3Zamani Ahmad, 4Christian Sunday Chukwuekezie
1,2,4
Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
3
Department of Marine Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,81310,Skudai, Johor Bahru,
Malaysia.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: The need for extensive study o improving and developing viable natural absorbents in
Received 13 November 2013 recent years is increasing due to the enormous negative environmental impact of oil
Received in revised form 20 spill to the surroundings and the inhabitants. This paper reviews the negative effect of
December 2013 oil spill in the past, how oil spills affects plants and animals, different adopted control
Accepted 23 December 2013 and cleanup techniques which include mechanical devices and the use of sorbent
Available online 1 February 2014 materials, it also emphasized on the necessity for the development of available
materials in diverse parts of the World especially in the tropical region. Therefore
Keywords: proposes eco-friendly materials such as raffia palm fibres, palm fruit wastes, kenaf as
Oil Spill; Environment; Natural promising oil absorbent materials.
Sorbents; Palm Fibres; Adverse
Effects
© 2013 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved.
To Cite This Article: Jamaliah Idris, Gaius Debi Eyu, Zamani Ahmad, Christian Sunday Chukwuekezie., Oil Spills and Sustainable
Cleanup Approach. Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 7(14): 272-280, 2013

INTRODUCTION

Oil spills seemed to be the highest sea and river pollution. Generally, oil is accidentally discharged during
extraction, distribution, storage, and usage. The British Petroleum (BP) explosion on 20th April, 2010 in the Gulf
of Mexico covered 790km of shoreline within 36 months, which resulted to several casualty's (Welch and
Joyner,2013; Polson,2011).The discharges of 260,000 barrels by Exxon Valdez in the gulf of Alaska, 24,000
barrels spills in River Monongahela due to storage tank rupture, oil tanker failure in the Strait of Malacca, the
978 Amoco Cadiz super tanker accident; Arabian Gulf incidence in 1991as a result from the release of huge
barrels of oil in the operation Desert Storm (Kapoor andRawat,1994), the Prestige oil tanker incident that
resulted to 12000 tonnes of oil spilled in Galicia, Spanish coastlines in 2002, are but a few case's oil spill
accident in the previous years. It can be stated in recent years that the trend has changed greatly. About 22 oil
spills incidence along the Norwegian coastline alone in the last two decades has been reported (wwf.no/dette).
Oil spill has a great negative influence on the ecosystem by putting the marine lives at high risk. However,
the extent of risk is dependent on the type and volume of the oil in addition to other abiotic factors such as the
sensitivity limit of the marine habitat. Oil spill on river or sea envelopes the water surface and consequently,
shields the diffusion of sunlight that enhances photosynthesis. Aquatic lives rely mainly on Phytoplankton and
seaweed for existence. Majority of crude oil discharge occurred in the water ways. About 5millions tons of
unrefined oil products are transported per annum averagely across the ocean globally (Anisuddin et al., 2005,
Fominyen, 2010). Oil consists of wide range of organic (hydrocarbon) based constituents which might be crude
oil, refined, edible and non-edible oil. However, crude oil may contain other elements such as sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide and oxygen (Wang and Fingas, 2003).
Oil spill effects have attracted several researchers from different disciplines involving petroleum
engineering, biology, environment engineering, marine engineering, chemical engineering, materials
engineering (Espeda and Johannessen, 2000; Stephanie, 1994; Mario, 2000; Vendrell, 1993; Price, 1991; Fingas
and Fieldhouse, 1994; Fingas, 1995). However, sustainable oil clean up approach is still a huge and challenging
task due to high cost and environmental impact of the current practices. The traditional techniques that have
been used over time include; the use of chemical dispersants, containment (oil booms), mechanical recovery
(skimmers and separators) and bioremediation. The strategies and efforts for cleanup activities depend upon
various factors such as water temperature, nearness to shoreline, spill volume, oil type and density, waves,
weather, currents and response speed (Graham, 2010). These factors create limitations, which possess
challenges in recent years. The need for eco- friendly and cost effective natural sorbents cannot be
overemphasized in recent times. Diverse agricultural products such as peat, leaves and wood products have been
Corresponding Author: Eyu Gaius Debi, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering 81310, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected], Phone number: +60167980766
273 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

employed. Cotton, straws, kenaf, corn cob, wood fibre, milkweed floss, peat moss, kapok fibre was reported
(Choi and Cloud, 1992; Scharzberg, 1971).
These materials for absorbents need to fulfil several criteria before they can be considered to be viable
oil spill clean-up absorbents. The material should be hydrophobic and oleophilic, possess high rate of uptake
and retention, and be able to release absorbed oil (John, 2001). The hydrophobicity and oleophilicity enhance oil
absorption capacity with little or no water uptake. The high uptake capacity facilitates large amount of oil pick
up relative to the weight of material. The high rate of uptake shows that the material absorbs the oil quickly. The
retention over time confirms that oil does not leak from the material after absorption. On the other hand, it is
also essential to cheaply and easily remove absorbed or adsorbed oil from the material; otherwise, it becomes
cumbersome and inefficient in the long run. Preferably, the material should be reusable and biodegradable
(McLeod and McLeod, 1974).

Table 1: Oil spill history (www.marine group).

Year Country Incident Quantity (tonnes)
1967 UNITED KINGDOM. Torrey Canyon ran aground
off Cornwall spilling 125,352
1970 SWEDEN collision involving Othello in Tralhavet Bay. 59,743
1972 OMAN collision of Brazilian tanker Horta Barbosa
with the South Korean tanker Sea Star. 114, 576
1976 USA Argo Merchant ran aground off Nantucket 24,961
1978 FRANCE Amoco Cadiz ran aground near Portsall 218, 240
1979 MEXICO Gulf of Mexico. 454,667
1979 TRINIDAD a collision off Tobago between the Atlantic 300,080
& TOBAGO Empress and the Aegean Captain
1983 SOUTH AFRICA Spanish tanker Castillo de Bellver Fire 245,520
1989 USA Exxon Valdez hit rocks in Prince William Sound 32, 736
1990 USA The tanker, American Trader 974
1991 KUWAIT final phase of the Iraqi attack of Kuwait. 7,557,935
1992 INDONESIA Nagasaki Spirit collided with container Ocean Blessing
in the Malacca Straits spilling some 1993 12,000
1993 SINGAPORE / INDONESIA / Singapore-registered tanker Maersk
MALAYSIA Navigator collided with the empty tanker Sanko 272,800
Honour in the Andaman Sea
1995 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Panamanian-flagged supertanker Seki 15,900
1996 AUSTRALIA Iron Baron, ran aground on a reef 500
1998 NIGERIA ruptured pipeline to one of Mobil's terminals 5,456
1999 FRANCE registered tanker Erika breaks up in stormy seas 15,000
2000 BRAZIL leaked from a refinery 31,491
2000 MALAYSIA A sunken Chinese cargo ship at Tanjung Po 5,000
anchorage point at the Sarawak River mouth
2003 PAKISTAN An oil tanker has broken up off Pakistan's Arabian 10,000
Sea port, Karachi
2004 CANADA occurred at the Terra Nova offshore oil platform 1,386
2005 USA Murphy oil refinery spill 2,660
2006 LEBANON Jiyeh power station oil spill 20,000
2007 NORWAY Statfjord oil spill 4000
2008 USA New Orleans oil spill 8,800
2009 AUSTRALIA Montara oil spill 4,000
2010 NIGERIA Exxon Mobil oil spill 3,246
2011 CANADA Little Buffalo oil spill 3,800
2012 USA Arthur Kill storage tank oil spill 1,090
2013 USA Magnolia refinery spill 680
2013 THAILAND Rayong oil spill 43

2. Adverse effect of oil spill:

Marine oil spills pose a great and severe threat to our coastal environment as shown in Fig. 1. The
contaminants (oil) are often discharged into the water bodies as a result of accidental discharge. For example,
demolition of oil storage tanks and sometime from oil rig drilling, war, natural occurrence and vandalized
pipelines which, consequently, cause harm to the ecosystem.
274 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

Fig. 1: Oil spill effect (Salbu, 2009).

Estimated figures of 25,000 birds died in the 1967 Torrey Canyon incidence, more than 3450 sea birds were
reported killed including other aquatic animals in the Amoco Cadiz oil spill. However, there was no recorded
evidence of adult fish killed (Simpson, 1968), open sea oil spill does not always have significant toxic effect on
adult fish. The Buzzard Bay incidence in Massachusetts in 1968 resulted to the killing of large numbers of fish;
in this case, the oil was light with high toxicity and was spilt into shallow turbulent water (Baker et al., 1980).
The British Petroleum Gulf of Mexico's incidence claimed estimated lives of 997 birds, 400 sea turtles and 47
Mammals (Polson; Kapoor and Rawat, 1994). Furthermore, oil spill may result to oxidative effect that affected
biomolecules, drastic reduction of sea plants, because any negative effects on photosynthetic organisms [Bott et
al.; O’ Brian and Dixon, 1976), will influence the population of others, which will consequently, affect other
species in the ecosystem (Salbu, 2009; Varela et al., 2006; Stekoll and Deysher, 2000).However, this effect is
dependent on the toxicity, the volume of oil discharged and species tolerant. Residue of oil spill over a long
period of time hinders the possible recovery of the ecosystem (Peterson et al., 2003). The negative impact of oil
spill is not peculiar to aquatic lives alone but also affects the soil if discharged on land and the coastline. This
drastically renders the soil unfertile which will result to shortage of agricultural produce supply. Table 2 shows a
comparison of the number of dead sea birds due to Exxon Valdez and Braer oil spills.

Table 2: The effects of the Exxon Valdez and Braer oil spills on seabirds (Kingston, 2002).
Species Shetland spill Alaskan spill
Loons 14 395
Sea ducks 167 1440
Grebes 0 462
Heron 3 1
Mergansers 1 121
Geese 0 9
Kittiwakes 133 1225
Gulls 74 696
Cormorants 864 836
Shear waters 0 3399
Murres 220 20562
Other auks 29 2174
Bald eagles 0 125
Fulmars 31 870
Other birds 0 3152

3. Factors limiting oil spill mitigation:

Oil spill clean-up is a rigorous exercise due to several factors that influence its control. Some of these
factors are discussed briefly as follows:

Salinity:
Salinity of ocean is 1g of salt per 1kg of water. The influence of salinity on oil clean-up has been studied.
Increase in salinity increases water density and thus reduce the interfacial tension. The decrease in surface
tension, therefore, enhances oil recovery from the water (Mazindouh and Omar, 2003) as shown in Table 3 and
Fig.2.

Table 3: The effect of salinity on density and surface tension (Mazindouh and Omar, 2003).
Simulated Seawater Density Interfacial Surface
(kgNaCl/m3) (kg/m3) Tension (mN/m)
0.0 996 48.0
10.0 998 45.0
20.0 1010 27.2
30.0 1020 25.5
275 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

a. b.
Fig. 2: The rate of oil spill clean up using vaccum technique (Mazindouh and Omar, 2003):
a- Effect of salinity on oil spill clean-up for still water;
b- Effect of salinity on oil spill clean-up for circulated water.

3.1 Temperature:
Temperature is an essential factor to consider in oil spill clean-up because of its variation from a region to
region and seasons. High temperature enhances evaporation of lighter part of oil because, increase in
temperature reduces oil viscosity; however, the nature of the oil also plays a significant role [Kuclick et al.,
2001). At a low temperature, the solubility of oil in water is relatively lowered. The heavier fraction on the
water surface tends to hinder combustion and the effectiveness of surfactant (Satish et al., 2003).

3.2 Wave height:

Sea conditions affect's oil clean-up enormously, when the weather is rough, the water surface is agitated.
This churning hinders the effectiveness of containment using a boom. This is because during this period, some
of the oil escapes from the confinement (Koda, 2013).

3.3 Surfactants:
These are chemical additives that lower the interfacial surface tension between oil and water. It is used as
dispersant for oil spill clean-up. Thus, the oil droplets are reduced to smaller droplets, which become denser and
consequently, sink to the sea bed (Graham, 2010).

4. Oil spill confinement and clean-up measures:

In the past, containment and recovery measures have been utilized for oil spill mitigation. The conventional
techniques include: containment and mechanical recovery; burning; bioremediation; chemical dispersant and the
use of absorbent. The recovery techniques are dependent on various factors such as weather conditions, sea
condition, oil type and environmental considerations, which could necessitate the combinations of these
measures for clean-up. These techniques are briefly outlined as follows:

4.1 Oil booms:

Booms are structured normally used to confine oil spill from spreading before using skimmers and
separators for oil recovery. Booms have been used extensively in the past during the oil spill incident. This
method is eco-friendly [Castro et al., 2010). However, weather conditions possess an adverse effect on
efficiency. Skimmers are mechanical devices for recovering oil from the surface of rivers, lakes, canals,
harbours or open sea. Skimmers can be grouped under five categories (Wardley, 1983) as;
Group A: Skimmers who depend on the adhesion of oil to a solid medium that revolves in a vertical plane with
part of the bottom half of the medium (metal discs or other materials) below the water surface.
Group B: Skimmers who rely on the attachment of oil on a continuous belt pulled between the oil-water
interfaces. The adhered oil can then be scraped from the belt otherwise squeezed if the belt is an absorbent
material.
Group C: Skimmers function by incorporating centrifugal devices that create a vortex to raise the viscosity of
the oil to a point from which it can be trapped and pumped out.
Group D: This group involves devices which separate oil from water through a weir. The weir ranges from a
few centimetres to about ten metres in length.
Group E: This group function by combining one or more devices mentioned above.

4.2 In-situ burning:

This method involves burning slick of oil on the water surface. This technique was first implemented and
recorded in northern Canada in 1958 and have been used extensively in some of the Scandinavian countries. It is
generally subject to the approval of government agencies because of the flammability of hydrocarbon products
(crude oil, gasoline and kerosene). Fresh crude oil on the water surface will burn when ignited, though; this
276 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

depends on the percentage of volatility content. Oil on the water surface with thickness less than about 2.5
millimetres cannot be burnt successfully (Wardley, 1983).

4.3 Dispersants:
These are chemical compositions made from surfactants and other additives that help to reduce the
interfacial surface tension between oil and water. For effectiveness, dispersants need to be sprayed uniformly
with reasonable concentration (Marine board, 1989). The following basic criteria are essential for effective
dispersal of oil to take place chemically (Butler, 1989): (i) Dispersant must be deposited on the oil slick, (ii)
Dispersant must diffuse to the oil/water interface or mix with the oil, (iii) It must have an optimum
concentration that will initiate a maximum decrease in water-oil surface tension and (iv) It must be able to
disperse the oil into droplets. The uses of dispersants are restricted or regulated because of their toxic nature
(EPA, 2013; Bly et al.,2007). More so, it is recommended that its application should be in the deep sea with
vigorous agitation (Ladd and Smith, 1970). This tends to reduce the negative impact on the sea bed.

4.4 Absorbent:
Oil is removed by sorbent materials in two modes or mechanisms. These are: (i) adsorption and (ii)
absorption. Adsorption involves the adherence of the oil to the sorbent material. The removal of oil is dependent
on the viscosity of the oil. The more viscous the oil, the thicker the layer that will adhere to a given material. On
the other hand, absorption relies on capillary attraction; oil fills the pores within the material and migrates
upward (uptake) into the material due to capillary force. The rate of penetration (P) is directly proportional to
the radius of the capillaries (r) and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the oil.

P = (1)

P (2)

Where P = rate of penetration of oil, K = surface boundary, d = diameter of capillaries, µ = viscosity.

However, Darcy’s law shows flow rate phenomenon in porous materials as given in [Decamps, 2003,
Zhong et al., 2002).

u=- (3)

where u is the average velocity; K, the permeability of the porous materials, µ viscosity and , the pressure
gradient.
Sorbents are materials with high affinities for oil and repellent for water. They can be classified as;
inorganic minerals, synthetic, organic and organic (agricultural) products. Sorbents are cheap, efficient,
environmentally friendly and easy to deploy. However, efficiency is dependent on sorption capacity, density,
wettability, retention rate and recyclability (Sun et al., 2003; Lehr, 1971). Examples of sorbents are; inorganic
minerals (organoclay, activated carbon, zeolites, and graphite), polymeric materials (rubber tires, plastics),
synthetic organic products e.g. open cell polyurethane, and agricultural products (cotton, straws, corn cobs,
coconut shells, kenaf, kapok fibres, rice husk, and silkworm cocoon (Johnson, et al., 1973; Smith, 1983;
Anthony, 1994; Tsai et al., 2001).
Different types of sorbent's materials have been studied in previous years as discussed below:

4.4.1 Synthetic materials:

The most widely and satisfactory sorbent materials are synthetic polymeric materials. The properties of
these materials can be varied by altering their micro-pores. Foams of polyurethane, urea formaldehyde,
polyethylene, nylon, polyester materials have been used. Most of the synthetic sorbents can absorb as much as
60 to 100 times their weight. For instance, it has been reported that open-cell polyurethane foams can absorb oil
100 times their weight (Jarre et al., 1979). Some of these synthetic materials tend to absorb more water in
preference to oil due to their large pores. However, polyethylene fibre roving are highly hydrophobic
(Wardley,1983). Tire powder efficiency for oil cleanup has been studied (Lin et al., 2008), the studied revealed
that tire is oleophilic and can withstand 100 times cycles without losing its sorption potency. Polyethylene and
polypropylene plastic waste powder and sheets as oil sorbents have been reported [Dia et al.,], PE powder and
sheet were effective in heavy oil uptake than light oil. However, PP powder only showed considerably oil
sorption in heavy oil. Despite good hydrophobic and oleophilic nature of these materials, their non-
biodegradable nature is a great disadvantage (Decamps, 2003).
277 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

4.4.2 Inorganic materials:

These are small size-granules, generally used to sink spilled oil on the water surface. These include organic
ash, glass wool, vermiculite, clay, sand, perlite, activated carbon, etc. One of the more successful inorganic
manufactured materials used in the past, though expensive was ekoperl. This material is in form of fine granule,
therefore, can absorb light oil much more than oil with high viscosity. Organoclay has been reported to have
high sorption and retention quality and can be equally used to synergize activated carbon in order to improve the
efficiency of activated carbon (Carmody et al., 2007; Alther, 2001; Beall, 2003).

4.4.3 Natural organic materials:

Natural or agricultural products are widely distributed and largely used in most parts of the world for oil
spill cleanup. The materials include, hay, straw, sawdust, reeds, peat, bagasses, gorse, dried palm fronds, etc.
Most of these materials are oleophilic because of their waxy nature, they become light weight when dried, which
improves their buoyancy in water, and usually oil is trapped in the mat of criss-cross strands or fibre rather than
absorption by capillary force. Straw has been the most widely and probably the most efficient of all these
materials. Straw fibres can float on the water surface for a very long period of time to collect oil adequately. It
has been reported that straw sorption capacity is higher than commercial synthetic organic material from
propylene (Choi, 1996). Similarly, kapok, rice husk, banana trunk fibre, acetylation of raw cotton, cotton grass
fibre, has been reported to be efficient as oil sorbent (Lim and Huang, 2007; Abdullah and Rahmah, 2010;
Kumagi et al, 2007; Sathasivam, 2010; Adebajo et al., 2006, Sun et al., 2004).

5. The future study guidelines:

Agricultural products have been proven to be effective as oil spill sorbent from the reviewed literature.
However, for sorbent to be highly efficient, it must meet the conditions itemized below and above all, their
availability and environmental friendliness are essential. This paper proposes some guidelines for further studies
of palm fruit's fibre, palm kernel shell and raffia palm fibre. These products are easily available in Malaysia and
some other tropical countries. The use of date palm activated carbon as sorbent has been studied [36]. However,
little studies on raffia palm fibre, activated carbon from palm kernel shell and fibre as sorbent for oil spill clean-
up has been reported to the best of my knowledge. Fibres from raffia palm and palm fruit fibres are promising
environmentally friendly sorbent for oil spill clean-up. More so, addition of acetic anhydride by way of
chemical modification can further enhance their efficiencies.
The following characteristics must be considered when choosing sorbent materials for oil cleanup:
i. Availability (the sorbent materials should be readily available and accessible)
ii. Eco-friendly (the materials should be bio-degradable or cheaply recyclable)
iii. Cost (cost of acquisition, processing, recovery, etc., should be relatively cheap)
iv. Ease of application (their application should not be cumbersome)
v. Oil retention (good quality to retain recovered oil without deformation)
vi. Rate of adsorption or absorption (should be able to adsorb oil to fibre surface, especially heavy oil and large
pores for absorption of light oil).
vii. Re-usability (the ability to be used many times, i.e. cycle and still able to retain sorbent capacity is
desirable).

6. Conclusions:
The study reviewed the adverse effect of oil spill and control measures. From the review, it is evident that
oil spill is detrimental to the environment; therefore, the need for cost-effective and environmental friendly
sorbents for oil spill clean-up is imperative. Straw and Kapok have more sorbent capacity than commercial
polypropylene. However, these materials are not readily available to every part of the world. Therefore, the use
of palm fruit fibres, raffia palm fibres, palm fruit wastes, kenaf as natural sorbent has been proposed for oil spill
clean-up in the tropical region, especially, because of their boundless abundance. Moreso, chemical
modification of these materials will further enhance their performance as oil absorbents.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors express their appreciation to the staff in the department of Materials,Manufacturing and
Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and ISI Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for their
financial and technical support. This work was partially supported by the Ministry of Higher Education of
Malaysia (MOHE), Research Management Centre Universiti Teknologi Malaysia through GUP grant under
grant No. 04H73.
278 Jamaliah Idris et al, 2013
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7(14) December 2013, Pages: 272-280

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