International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing

Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 (10pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad23ef

Perspective

3D printing in space: from mechanical

structures to living tissues
Mao Mao1,2,3,6, Abstract
1,2,3,4,6 3D printing stands at the forefront of transforming space exploration, offering
Zijie Meng ,
Xinxin Huang1,2,3, Hui Zhu1,2,3, unprecedented on-demand and rapid manufacturing capabilities. It adeptly
Lei Wang1, Xiaoyong Tian1,2,3, addresses challenges such as mass reduction, intricate component fabrication, and
Jiankang He 1,2,3,∗
, resource constraints. Despite the obstacles posed by microgravity and extreme
Dichen Li 1,2,3,∗ environments, continual advancements underscore the pivotal role of 3D printing
and Bingheng Lu1,2,3,5 in aerospace science. Beyond its primary function of producing space structures,
1
State Key Laboratory for 3D printing contributes significantly to progress in electronics, biomedicine, and
Manufacturing Systems Engineering, resource optimization. This perspective delves into the technological advantages,
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an environmental challenges, development status, and opportunities of 3D printing in
710049, People’s Republic of China
2 space. Envisioning its crucial impact, we anticipate that 3D printing will unlock
National Medical Products
Administration (NMPA) Key
innovative solutions, reshape manufacturing practices, and foster self-sufficiency
Laboratory for Research and in future space endeavors.
Evaluation of Additive Manufacturing
Medical Devices, Xi’an Jiaotong Keywords: 3D printing in space, space manufacturing, microgravity
University, Xi’an 710049, People’s
Republic of China With the increasing ambitions of deep space exploration, extending to celestial
3
National Innovation Platform bodies such as the Moon and Mars, there is an unprecedented demand for
(Center) for Industry-Education
innovative manufacturing solutions. In this context, 3D printing technology has
Integration of Medical Technology,
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an
emerged as a leading in-situ space manufacturing innovation. This transformative
710049, People’s Republic of China technology facilitates the on-demand production of intricate and customized
4
Frontier Institute of Science and components and structures in the space environment, employing layer-by-layer
Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong additive manufacturing processes. Its revolutionary capability has garnered global
University, Xi’an 710049, People’s attention, driven by the imperative for innovative solutions to address challenges
Republic of China posed by extended space missions and the need for resource-efficient
5
National Innovation Institute of manufacturing beyond Earth [1, 2].
Additive Manufacturing, Xi’an
710000, People’s Republic of China
To date, 3D printing has revealed promising opportunities across diverse space
E-mail: [email protected] applications, including the production of space devices and food, advancements
and [email protected] in space biomedicine, repairs of electronics and sensors, and the recovery and
utilization of space resources. While global space leaders have recently explored
3D printing technologies in space (figure 1), the field is currently in the early
stages of technology validation, requiring extensive foundational research and key
technological advancements. This perspective aims to delve into the fundamental
characteristics of 3D printing within space manufacturing, emphasizing its
potential to revolutionize our approach to manufacturing processes in space
exploration.

6
These authors contributed equally.
∗
Authors to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the
author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

1 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd on behalf of the IMMT
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

Figure 1. The representative advancements in the global aerospace industry’s exploration of 3D

printing in space. (a) Reproduced from [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013464/downloads/
20080013464.pdf]. Image stated to be in the public domain. (b) Reproduced from [https://ntrs.nasa.
gov/api/citations/20190005004/downloads/20190005004.pdf]. Image stated to be in the public
domain. (c) Reproduced with permission from [3]. Image credit: Novespace Air ZeroG. (d) [4] John
Wiley & Sons.© 2019 The Authors. Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim. (e) Reproduced from [5].CC BY 4.0. (f) [6] John Wiley & Sons.© 2019 The Authors.
Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (g) Reprinted from [7], © 2022
Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society (CMES).

1. Why is 3D printing essential in space exploration?

3D printing in space is essential because it can manufacture intricate and

customized structures locally, offering unparalleled design flexibility while
concurrently reducing time and development costs [8, 9]. The primary objective is
to fabricate and assemble large structures in orbit, substantially decreasing
mission expenses by launching only raw materials and essential components [10].
Current endeavors mainly focus on utilizing 3D printing to minimize space
components’ mass, complexity, part count, and welds. The technology is gaining
traction for its remarkable mass savings, ranging from 40% to 90%, directly
translating to cost reduction. Additionally, it expedites the production of complex
parts, reducing fabrication times from a year to just 4 months [11, 12].
In addition to fabricating mechanical structures, 3D printing excels at
manufacturing components for emergency repairs in space, offering a versatile
and adaptive solution for unforeseen events such as the absence of tools or
electronic malfunctions [13]. The inherently challenging space environment,
marked by resource constraints and the impracticality of conventional resupply
mechanisms, underscores the strategic importance of on-demand manufacturing
capabilities [14]. Historical examples highlight the effectiveness of rapid
fabrication in addressing critical technical challenges. For instance, during the
1970 Apollo 13 mission, the crew had to resort to the lifeboat due to
discrepancies in lithium hydroxide canisters between the Command Module and
the Lunar Module. Fast forward to 2013, Made In Space, Inc. promptly
engineered a 3D-printed adapter for a similar issue, demonstrating its operational
success within a day [15]. This capability enhances mission autonomy and
reduces reliance on Earth-bound logistics for unforeseen technical difficulties.
Furthermore, 3D bioprinting extends the capability to generate 3D tissue and
organs in space, establishing a technological platform for studying the impact of
the space environment on humans [16]. This innovation facilitates regenerative
and sustainable clinical healthcare in space, addressing the adverse effects of
prolonged exposure to the space environment, such as microgravity and increased
radiation [17]. While the biological mechanisms require further exploration, 3D
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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

bioprinted tissue models can replicate human body characteristics, as a tool to

study the long-term effects of space conditions [18]. Besides, in cases of severe
trauma or illness in space, where immediate return to Earth for treatment may be
impractical, 3D bioprinting holds the potential to provide timely sources of
functional tissues for astronauts.
Many crucial elements for astronaut well-being, such as food, daily necessities,
and lunar living accommodations, have the potential to be fabricated through 3D
printing [19]. Food 3D printing, for instance, has the potential to revolutionize
space food manufacturing by addressing challenges related to nutrition, variety,
and personalization for long-duration human-crewed space missions [20].
Advancements in 3D printing technology offer solutions to improve food options,
reduce waste, and enable on-demand preparation in space [21]. For extending
manned missions to the Moon and Mars, 3D printing becomes invaluable for
utilizing in-situ resources. Given the challenging lunar and Martian environments,
constructing artificial habitats from local materials, such as regoliths, through 3D
printing is pivotal for sustainable deep space exploration, ensuring human
survival, and minimizing environmental impact on Earth [22, 23].

2. Challenges of 3D printing in extreme space environments

The advancement of 3D printing technology in space encounters numerous

challenges due to the harsh environmental conditions beyond Earth’s atmosphere.
These challenges encompass the vacuum of space, significant temperature
differentials, and the impact of cosmic and solar radiation [24].
Microgravity poses formidable challenges to space-based 3D printing,
affecting both the printing and post-production phases. The absence of gravity
leads to molten materials forming spherical droplets during printing, causing
disruptions and compromising print quality [25]. Extrusion 3D printing
encounters difficulties in layer deposition, potentially resulting in print failures.
Specialized printers designed for microgravity and process adjustments are
essential to address these issues. Proper layer adherence becomes challenging in a
microgravity environment, resulting in uneven thickness [26]. Altered heat flow
due to microgravity introduces thermal issues, affecting part quality in fluctuating
space temperatures. The influence of zero gravity extends beyond process
parameters and 3D printing techniques, shaping the mechanical properties and
topography of the final product. To overcome these challenges, comprehensive
research on fluid dynamics and flow control in zero-gravity environments is
imperative.
The vacuum of space, characterized by the absence of an atmosphere,
fundamentally alters the heat transfer dynamics essential for the 3D printing
process. The lack of convection as a heat dissipation mechanism in a vacuum
requires innovative thermal management strategies. Without the ability to
dissipate heat through convective processes, maintaining optimal printing
temperatures becomes intricate, necessitating the development of advanced
thermal control systems [27]. The vacuum environment introduces challenges in
layer deposition, demanding meticulous adjustments to printing parameters to
ensure the adhesion and structural integrity of printed objects.
Extreme temperature differentials in space, ranging from intense solar
radiation to frigid shadowed regions, complicate material selection and process
optimization for 3D printing. Rapid temperature fluctuations can induce thermal
stress and differential expansion within printed structures, potentially
compromising their mechanical properties. Unfiltered exposure to solar and
cosmic radiation threatens the stability of printed materials, necessitating the
exploration of radiation-resistant materials and shielding strategies. Researchers
are actively developing adaptive printing techniques and material formulations
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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

Figure 2. The representative polymer 3D printing process in space. (a) Schematic of fused filament
fabrication—suitable for highly viscous polymers. (b) The 3D-printed polymer structures. Image
credit: NASA. (c) Reprinted from [7],© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Chinese
Mechanical Engineering Society (CMES).

capable of withstanding the harsh thermal and radiative conditions inherent to the
space environment, ensuring the reliability and functionality of 3D printed objects
in space.

3. Current status of 3D printing in space

Numerous initiatives are currently in progress, aiming to 3D print functional

components in microgravity environments, thereby showcasing the vast potential
of in-space manufacturing. These endeavors encompass a range of activities,
including parabolic flight campaigns, satellite experiments, and demonstrations
conducted aboard the International Space Station. Regarding materials, the
existing in-space 3D printing technology can be broadly categorized into three
categories: polymers, metals, and cell-laden substances.

3.1. Polymer 3D printing in space

Polymer 3D printing in space has evolved significantly, demonstrating

technological advancements, expanded material capabilities, and the successful
on-demand manufacturing of functional components. The National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) introduced the pioneering fused filament
fabrication-based 3D printer for polymer materials, known as 3D Printing in
Zero-G Technology Demonstration, in 2014 (figure 2) [28, 29]. Delicate
adjustments to the manufacturing process settings were implemented to ensure
that specimens of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) produced under orbital
conditions exhibited no discernible microgravity-induced effects on their
morphology and mechanical properties. In 2016, the first commercial Additive
Manufacturing Facility installed on the International Space Station marked a
significant milestone, enabling on-demand manufacturing and providing scientific
support for research and industrial institutions [30]. Various functional polymer
components have been successfully fabricated, including a tow hitch connecting
two spheres from a synchronized position to hold, engage, and reorient
payloads [31].
Moreover, the range of materials available for in-space polymer 3D printing
has experienced substantial growth, now encompassing a variety of substances
such as ABS, polylactic acid [32], high-density polyethylene,
polyetherimide/polycarbonate, and even advanced fiber-reinforced composites. In
May 2020, our team achieved a significant milestone by successfully developing a
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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

Figure 3. The representative metal 3D printing processes in space. (a) Schematic of directed energy
deposition utilizes electron beams for controlled material fusion in space. (b) The directed energy
deposition system and the printed metal tools. Reproduced from [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/
20080013464/downloads/20080013464.pdf]. Image stated to be in the public domain. (c) Schematic
of powder bed fusion incorporates gas-flow-assisted powder deposition for precision. (d) [4] John
Wiley & Sons.© 2019 The Authors. Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim. (e) Schematic of plasma jet printing employs high-energy plasma jets to achieve precise
and efficient deposition of aerosolized ink. (f) Reproduced from [38]. © 2022 IOP Publishing Ltd.

3D printer capable of producing continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic

composites, demonstrating the feasibility of manufacturing high-performance
plastic components in space (figure 2(c)) [7, 33].

3.2. Metal 3D printing in space

Metal 3D printing in space originated from the manufacturing of tools. The

exploration was initiated by the directed energy deposition-based 3D printing
process, which utilizes focused thermal energy for controlled material fusion
(figure 3(a)). NASA adopted a commercial electron beam welder for electron
beam freeform fabrication of aluminum specimens, with feasibility assessed
through aircraft parabolic flight campaigns (figure 3(b)) [34]. Despite differences
in gravitational conditions, no discernible disparities were observed between
microgravity and normal gravity fabrications [35]. However, implementing
directed energy deposition in space faces challenges due to cumbersome
equipment, low limited resolution, and the need for significant post-processing
[36]. Our team successfully utilized a low-power laser to melt metal filaments,
employing an anti-gravity configuration on the ground to simulate space
conditions. In this environment, we achieved the manufacturing of high-quality
metal cylindrical components with a smooth surface, maintaining a vacuum
degree of 10–3 Pa and a temperature variation range of ±100 ◦ C. Alternatively,
the powder bed fusion-based 3D printing process selectively fuses specific
regions within a powder bed, producing fully dense components with excellent
mechanical properties. To address microgravity challenges, a gas-flow-assisted
powder deposition technique was proposed (figure 3(c)). This novel technique
successfully fabricated the world’s first metal tool, demonstrating powder bed
fusion’s feasibility for producing ready-to-use metal parts in space (figure 3(d))
[4].
The focus has shifted from large mechanical structures to precision crafting
high-resolution electronic components. Techniques like direct ink writing are
used to explore the potential of metal 3D printing in space for circuit board repair.
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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

Figure 4. The representative bioprinting processes in space. (a) Schematic of magnetic levitational
printing—two magnetic fields drive the cells toward the minimum magnetic field strength region.
(b) Reproduced from [5]. CC BY 4.0. (c) Schematic of Extrusion Bioprinting—cell inks were
extruded through the multiple printing heads. (d) [6] John Wiley & Sons.© 2019 The Authors.
Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Colloidal suspension ink enables the creation of uniform structures in weightless

conditions, overcoming the challenges of zero/microgravity [37]. Additionally,
solutions like plasma jet printing (figure 3(e)) have proven effective in printing
intricate metal features, including submillimeter-resolution silver lines, pads,
interdigitated electrodes, and a Wi-Fi antenna (figure 3(f)) [38].

3.3. Bioprinting in space

Prolonged exposure to the space environment, marked by microgravity and

increased radiation, leads to detrimental effects such as muscle and bone mass
loss, reduced cardiovascular activity, altered motor functions, and impaired wound
healing [31, 39, 40]. To comprehend these impacts and develop patient-specific
tissue constructs for astronauts, 3D bioprinting has emerged as a powerful tool.
The magnetic bioassembler Bioprinter Organ. AUT, delivered to the
International Space Station in February 2019, achieved the world’s first
bioprinting in microgravity, producing 3D cartilage tissue constructs via magnetic
levitation (figures 4(a) and (b)) [5, 41]. This milestone study confirms the
feasibility of bioprinting under microgravity conditions. In the same year, the 3D
Biofabrication Facility on the International Space Station, equipped with four
ink-extrusion systems, generated complex tissue structures, including cardiac
tissue-like structures with specific cell types and components (figures 4(c) and (d))
[6, 42]. Recently, a Chinese space-based 3D bioprinting system with a cultivation
unit using microgel printing ink was launched. This breakthrough is anticipated to
advance anti-tumor therapy research and other disease treatments in space.
However, further exploration of high-resolution bioprinting techniques in space is
essential for creating more biomimetic models and tissue analogs in the future.
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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 6 (2024) 023001 Perspective

4. Perspective: manifesting space 3D printing—a gradual revelation

Advancing intravehicular 3D printing in space (inside the spacecraft) hinges on

mastering controlled material deposition in microgravity. Current strategies
involve imparting initial velocity to material droplets or utilizing forces such as
electric fields and magnetic forces [5, 43]. Notably, using high-pressure
electrostatic driving forces in electrohydrodynamic printing provides the
necessary driving force and enables precision printing of materials at the micro
and nanoscales, including electronic structures [44]. This approach proves
particularly advantageous in circuit manufacturing, offering a promising avenue
for enhancing the efficiency and functionality of space-based additive
manufacturing. As we delve deeper into these innovative driving mechanisms, the
prospects for achieving controlled material deposition in microgravity
environments expand, opening new frontiers for applying 3D printing technology
in space exploration.
Extravehicular 3D printing (outside during spacewalks) and planetary 3D
printing (on celestial bodies), potentially integrated with remote sensing and
control systems, pose notably more significant challenges than intravehicular 3D
printing in space. However, the anticipated benefits make these initiatives
exceptionally promising. Lunar regolith simulants have been employed to create
intricate structures through digital light processing-based 3D printing in a
microgravity environment. The rheological properties of the ceramic slurry were
precisely regulated by integrating thickening agents, thereby ensuring the ceramic
paste’s resilience against fluctuations in gravity [45]. This initial endeavor
exemplifies humanity’s ambition for planetary 3D printing as we explore using
in-situ resources. The prospect of fabricating structures and conducting research
in the harsh environments of space holds immense potential, paving the way for
groundbreaking advancements in space exploration and technology. While the
complexity underscores the ambitious nature of these missions, the potential
rewards make them endeavors worth anticipating.
Considering the limited availability of platforms for experimental work in
space or simulating space environments [46], anti-gravity 3D printing research is
a more accessible means for validating and refining technologies intended for
space applications on Earth [44]. Besides being cost-effective, this terrestrial
experimentation offers iterative testing and continuous improvement
opportunities before actual deployment in space. Serving as a practical platform
for mission preparation and team training, it ensures the successful adaptation of
technology to the unique challenges posed by the absence of gravity in space.
When utilized strategically, space challenges can transform into opportunities,
fostering innovative approaches and broadening the horizons of 3D printing
technology. Microgravity, for instance, stimulates inventive designs that surpass
Earth’s constraints. In a vacuum, restrictions in convective heat transfer lead to
heightened crystallinity in materials, especially polymers and metals, enhancing
their mechanical properties [33]. The absence of atmospheric influences
simplifies processes, eliminating the need for protective atmospheres and
reducing system complexity inherent in on-ground 3D printing. Additionally,
extreme temperatures and vacuum conditions open up possibilities for handling
specific materials.
Anticipating the future, the prospects for 3D printing in space are promising
and challenging. The capacity to fabricate intricate structures in the distinctive
space environment unfolds new horizons for exploration and sustainability. Yet,
substantial obstacles, including microgravity, material constraints, and the
demand for heightened precision, necessitate focused attention. Ongoing research
endeavors aim to broaden the technology’s applications, enhance efficiency, and
uncover novel materials, fostering optimism about its potential to revolutionize

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manufacturing practices and contribute to industry advancements. As space 3D

printing continues evolving, it is critical to unlock innovative solutions and foster
self-sufficiency in future space endeavors.

Acknowledgments

This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (52125501 and 52205317), the Key Research Project of Shaanxi
Province (2021LLRH-08), the Program for Innovation Team of Shaanxi Province
(2023-CX-TD-17), the Natural Science Basis Research Plan in Shaanxi Province
of China (2022JQ-523), the High-Level Talent Recruitment Program of Shaanxi
Province, the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, and
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation.

ORCID iD

Jiankang He  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9386-5833

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