Mobile Communications

Module - II

Wireless LANs

7.1
 Mobile Communication Technology
according to IEEE (examples)
WiFi
Local wireless networks 802.11a 802.11h
WLAN 802.11 802.11i/e/…/n/…/z/aa
802.11b 802.11g

ZigBee
802.15.4 802.15.4a/b/c/d/e/f/g
Personal wireless nw
WPAN 802.15 802.15.5, .6 (WBAN)
802.15.2 802.15.3 802.15.3b/c
802.15.1
Bluetooth
Wireless distribution networks
WMAN 802.16 (Broadband Wireless Access) WiMAX
+ Mobility
[802.20 (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access)]
802.16e (addition to .16 for mobile devices)
7.2
Wireless Local-Area Network
(WLAN)
• A wireless local-area network (WLAN) is a group of co-
located computers or other devices that form a network
based on radio transmissions rather than wired
connections.
• WLANs are restricted in their diameter to a campus and
are operated by individuals.
• A Wi-Fi network is a type of WLAN.
How does a WLAN work?
• WLAN transmits information over radio waves.
• Data is sent in packets.
• The packets contain unique MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses of the endpoints, that enable routing to
intended locations.

7.3
Advantages of wireless LANs
• Advantages
• Flexibility: very flexible within the reception area
• Planning: Ad-hoc networks without previous planning
possible
• Design: (almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings,
firewalls). Allow for the design of small, independent devices.
• Robustness: more robust against disasters like, e.g.,
earthquakes, fire - or users pulling a plug
• Cost: Adding additional users to a wireless network will not
increase cost. Wireless connections do not wear out.

7.4
Disadvantages of wireless LANs
• Disadvantages
• Quality of service: Typically very low bandwidth compared to
wired networks due to limitations in radio transmission,
higher error rates due to interference, higher delay due to
extensive error correction and detection mechanism.
• Proprietary solutions: Especially for higher bit-rates,
standards take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11n). Additional
features only work in a homogenous environment.
• Restrictions: Products have to follow many national
restrictions if working wireless, it takes a vary long time to
establish global solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000. WLANs are
limited to low power senders and certain license-free
frequency bands, which are not the same worldwide.
• Safety and Security: Radiation has to be low. All standards
must offer encryption, privacy mechanisms, and support for
anonymity etc.

7.5
Design goals for wireless LANs
• global, seamless operation
• low power for battery use
• no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN
• robust transmission technology
• simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings
• easy to use for everyone, simple management
• protection of investment in wired networks
• security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy
(no one should be able to collect user profiles), safety
(low radiation)
• transparency concerning applications and higher layer
protocols, but also location awareness if necessary

7.6
Basic Transmission Technologies used
for WLANs

The transmission technologies used in WLAN are:

1. Radio transmission
2. Infrared transmission

7.7
Comparison: infrared vs. radio
transmission
Infrared transmission Radio Transmission
• uses infrared light to carry the • uses radio waves to transmit the
audio signal audio signal
• Infrared waves are shorter than • Infrared waves are shorter than
radio waves radio waves
• the frequencies of IR are higher • the frequencies of IR are higher
than microwave frequencies than microwave frequencies
• No licenses are required for • Licenses required for radio wave
infrared
• Electrical devices cannot interfere • Electrical devices interfere with
with infrared transmission radio transmission
• it cannot penetrate through walls • Radio waves can penetrate non-
conducting materials, such as
wood, bricks, and concrete, fairly
well. They cannot pass through
electrical conductors, such as
water or metals.

7.8
Comparison: infrared vs. radio
transmission
• Infrared • Radio
• uses IR diodes, diffuse light,
• typically using the license
multiple reflections (walls,
free ISM band at 2.4 GHz
furniture etc.)
• Advantages • Advantages
• simple, cheap, available in many
• Radio transmission can cover
mobile devices
larger areas.
• no licenses needed • Can penetrate (thinner)
walls, furniture, plants
• Disadvantages
• interference by sunlight, heat
sources etc.
• Disadvantages
• very limited license free
• many things shield or absorb IR
frequency bands
light
• low bandwidth
• Interference with other
electrical devices
• Example
• Example
• PDAs, laptops, notebooks,
mobile phones etc have IrDA • Many different products such
(Infrared Data Association) as cell phone network, wifi.
interface.

7.9
Two Basic settings for WLANs
The two basic settings used for WLANs are:
1. Infrastructure-based WLAN
2. Ad-hoc mode WLAN

7.10
Comparison: infrastructure vs. ad-
hoc networks
Infrastructure network Infrastructure network:
A home or office Wi-Fi network is an
example of a WLAN set up in
infrastructure mode.
The endpoints are all connected and
AP AP: Access Point communicate with each other through a
base station, which may also provide
AP wired network internet access.
AP
A wireless router, which acts as the
base station, and endpoints, which can
be computers, mobile devices, printers,
and other devices.

Ad-hoc mode WLAN:

In this setup, a WLAN connects
endpoints such as computer
workstations and mobile devices
without the use of a base station.
Use of Wi-Fi Direct technology is
common for an ad hoc wireless
network.
An ad hoc WLAN is easy to set up and
ad-hoc network can provide basic peer-to-peer (P2P)
communication.

7.11
802.11 - Architecture of an
infrastructure network
Components:
802.11 LAN • Station (STA)
802.x LAN • terminal with access mechanisms to the
wireless medium and radio contact to the
access point
• Basic Service Set (BSS)
STA1 • group of stations using the same radio
BSS1 frequency

Portal • Access Point

Access • station integrated into the wireless LAN and
Point the distribution system
• Portal
Distribution System • bridge to other (wired) networks
• Distribution System
Access • interconnection network to form one logical
ESS Point network (EES: Extended Service Set) based
on several BSS

BSS2 A basic infrastructure WLAN can be set up

with just a few parts: a wireless router,
which acts as the base station, and
endpoints, which can be computers,
mobile devices, printers, and other
STA2 802.11 LAN STA3 devices. In most cases, the wireless router
is also the internet connection.

7.12
802.11 - Architecture of an ad-
hoc network
• Direct communication within a
802.11 LAN limited range
• Components:
• Station (STA):
terminal with access mechanisms to
STA1
the wireless medium
IBSS1 STA3
• Independent Basic Service Set
(IBSS):
group of stations using the same
radio frequency
STA2
In this setup, a WLAN connects
endpoints such as computer
workstations and mobile devices
IBSS2 without the use of a base station.
Use of Wi-Fi Direct technology is
common for an ad hoc wireless
STA5 network.
An ad hoc WLAN is easy to set up
STA4 and can provide basic peer-to-peer
802.11 LAN (P2P) communication.

7.13
IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture
and bridging
fixed
mobile terminal terminal

infrastructure
network
access point
application application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY

The WLAN behaves like a slow wired LAN. Consequently, the higher layers
(application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless nodes as for wired nodes.
The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium
access layer MAC like the other 802.x LANs do.
Logical link control (LLC) covers the differences of the MAC layers needed
for the different media.

7.14
802.11 - Layers and functions
• MAC • PLCP (Physical Layer
• access mechanisms, Convergence Protocol)
fragmentation, encryption • clear channel assessment
signal (carrier sense)
• MAC Management • PMD(Physical Medium
• synchronization, power Dependent)
management, Authentication,
• modulation, coding
Encryption, roaming, maintains
MIB • PHY Management
• channel selection, MIB(MAC
management information
base) maintenance.
• Station Management
Station Management
LLC • coordination of all
DLC

management functions
MAC MAC Management
(control of bridging and
PLCP interaction with the
distribution system in the
PHY

PHY Management
PMD case of an access point).

7.15
802.11 - Physical layer (legacy)
• Supports 3 versions of Physical layer: 2 radio based (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1
IR based.
• data rates 1 or 2 Mb/s
• Uses FHSS, DSSS
• FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• FHSS allows for the coexistence of multiple networks in the same area by
separating different networks using different hopping sequences.
• Bandwidth of 1 MHZ in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
• Uses GFSK modulation in the FHSS PHY.
• DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
• Alternative spread spectrum method, separating by code and not by
frequency.
• DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbit/s (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying),
DQPSK for 2 Mbit/s (Differential Quadrature PSK)
• In the case of IEEE 802.11 DSSS, spreading is achieved using the 11-chip
Barker sequence (+1, –1, +1, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1, –1, –1).

7.16
FHSS PHY packet format (legacy)
• Synchronization: 80 bit synchronization pattern used
• SFD (Start Frame Delimiter): Indicate the start of the frame and
used for frame synchronization.
• PLW (PLCP_PDU Length Word): Indicates the length of the
payload in bytes including the 32 bit CRC at the end
of the payload.
• PSF (PLCP Signaling Field): Indicates the data rate.
• HEC (Header Error Check): PLCP header is protected by a
16 bit checksum.

80 16 12 4 16 variable bits
synchronization SFD PLW PSF HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

7.17
DSSS PHY packet format (legacy)
• Synchronization
• synch., gain setting, energy detection, frequency offset compensation
• SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
• Indicates start of the frame.
• 1111001110100000 pattern used as SFD
• Signal
• data rate of the payload
• Service
• Reserved for future use
• Length
• length of the payload
• HEC (Header Error Check)
• protection of signal, service and length
128 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits
synchronization SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

7.18
802.11 - MAC layer
DFWMAC(Distributed Foundation Wireless Medium Access Control)

• Types of Basic Traffic services provided by MAC layer

1. Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory)
1. exchange of data packets based on “best-effort”
2. support of broadcast and multicast
2. Time-Bounded Service (optional)
1. implemented using PCF (Point Coordination Function)

• 802.11 only offers the asynchronous service in ad-hoc network mode.

• Both service types can be offered in infrastructure-based network.
• Access methods defined for IEEE 802.11
• DFWMAC-DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized „back-off“ mechanism
• minimum distance between consecutive packets
• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
• DFWMAC-DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
• Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC
• avoids hidden terminal problem
• DFWMAC- PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list
NOTE: DCF (Distributed Coordination Function) only offers asynchronous service
PCF (Point Coordination Function) offers both asynchronous and time-bounded service
RTS/CTS (request to send / clear to send)

7.19
IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame format
• Ethernet framing is a simple matter: add a preamble,
some addressing information, and track on a frame check
at the end. But 802.11 framing is much more involved
because the wireless medium requires several
management features and corresponding frame types,
which are not found in wired networks.
• 802.11 Frame Types
• There are basically three frame types defined in the IEEE
802.11 standard: Data frame, Management frame and
Control frame.
• Management frames: are used to mange the BSS, i.e. for
joining and leaving a wireless cell.
• Control frames: control access to the medium. Used to
acknowledge when data frames are received.
• Data frames: Frames that contain data or payloads.

7.21
IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame format
• 802.11 Frame Addresses
• An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields
• receiver, transmitter (physical), BSS identifier, sender
(logical)
• There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of
source, immediate destination, and final endpoint
respectively.
• Three address fields are needed for internetworking
purposes— specifically, for moving the network-layer
datagram from a wireless station through an AP to a router
interface. The fourth address field is used when APs forward
frames to each other in ad hoc mode.
• The four address fields vary according to the To DS/From DS
sub-field in the Frame Control field. E.g., the values of the
four address fields are different when a frame is sent from a
STA to an AP and when a frame is sent from an AP to a STA.
7.22
802.11 - Frame format

bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4
Frame Duration/ Address Address Address Sequence Address
Data CRC
Control ID 1 2 3 Control 4

bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Protocol To From More Power More
Type Subtype Retry WEP Order
version DS DS Frag Mgmt Data

7.23
7.24
NOTE:
 The virtual carrier sense is based on the network allocation
vector (NAV) in the MAC header indicating the time period that
the MAC frame will occupy the WLAN channel. When an STA see
the NAV in a frame, it cannot send any packets.
 Beacon frames consist of an 802.11 MAC header, body and FCS.

7.25
7.26
MAC address format

scenario to DS from address 1 address 2 address 3 address 4

DS
ad-hoc network 0 0 DA SA BSSID -
infrastructure 0 1 DA BSSID SA -
network, from AP
infrastructure 1 0 BSSID SA DA -
network, to AP
infrastructure 1 1 RA TA DA SA
network, within DS

DS: Distribution System

AP: Access Point
DA: Destination Address
SA: Source Address
BSSID: Basic Service Set Identifier
RA: Receiver Address
TA: Transmitter Address

7.27
Ad-hoc network
• Ad-hoc network: If both DS bits are zero, the MAC frame
constitutes a packet which is exchanged between two
wireless nodes without a distribution system.
• DA indicates the destination address, SA the source
address of the frame, which are identical to the physical
receiver and sender addresses respectively.
• The third address identifies the basic service set
(BSSID), the fourth address is unused.

7.28
Infrastructure network, from AP
• Infrastructure network, from AP: If only the ‘from DS’ bit
is set, the frame physically originates from an access
point.
• DA is the logical and physical receiver, the second address
identifies the BSS, the third address specifies the logical
sender, the source address of the MAC frame.
• This case is an example for a packet sent to the receiver
via the access point.

7.29
Infrastructure network, to AP
• Infrastructure network, to AP: If a station sends a packet
to another station via the access point, only the ‘to DS’ bit
is set. Now the first address represents the physical
receiver of the frame, the access point, via the BSS
identifier.
• The second address is the logical and physical sender of
the frame, while the third address indicates the logical
receiver

7.30
Infrastructure network, within DS
• Infrastructure network, within DS: For packets
transmitted between two access points over the
distribution system, both bits are set.
• The first receiver address (RA), represents the MAC
address of the receiving access point.
• Similarly, the second address transmitter address (TA),
identifies the sending access point within the distribution
system.
• Now two more addresses are needed to identify the
original destination DA of the frame and the original
source of the frame SA.
• Without these additional addresses, some encapsulation
mechanism would be necessary to transmit MAC
frames over the distribution system transparently.

7.31
Special Frames: ACK, RTS, CTS
• Acknowledgement bytes 2 2 6 4
ACK Frame Receiver
Duration CRC
Control Address

• Request To Send bytes 2 2 6 6 4

Frame Receiver Transmitter
RTS Duration CRC
Control Address Address

• Clear To Send bytes 2 2 6 4

Frame Receiver
CTS Duration CRC
Control Address

7.32