Understanding

Water Quality Management

TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

W. Wesley Eckenfelder
Brown & Caldwell, Inc.

William Ney Hansard

EMSI Solutions, Inc.
Understanding Water Quality Management

DEStech Publications, Inc.

1148 Elizabeth Avenue #2
Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17601 U.S.A.

Copyright © 2004 by DEStech Publications, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

Chapter photographs from USEPA National Water

Quality Inventory reports 1992–2000.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Entry under main title:

Understanding Water Quality Management: Technology and Applications

A DEStech Publications book

Bibliography: p. 175
Includes index p. 177

ISBN: 1-932078-21-5
 Preface

the past decade there has been increased awareness of the importance
Oof water
VER
quality. Many municipalities and industrial facilities have
upgraded or installed new technologies to meet the demand for clean water.
Advances in water quality science show that further improvements are needed
to ensure a plentiful water supply and to protect the natural environment.
Water quality management is a complex field that requires participation by
many diverse disciplines. People from all walks of life, including government
workers, attorneys, engineers, scientists, business managers, educators,
economists, politicians, environmental advocates and the general public need
to know more about water quality management.
This volume has been prepared to provide an understanding of the basic
concepts and principles of managing surface water and industrial wastewater
quality.
Many universities currently offer introductory courses in environmental
management, primarily for environmental professionals. This book represents
a primary text for courses in water pollution.
It is our hope that this volume will provide a greater understanding of the
challenges facing, and the solutions to, effective water pollution control.

xiii
 Table of Contents

Foreword xi

Preface xiii

Acknowledgements xv

CHAPTER 1: SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Progress in Water Quality 1
1.2 Leading Sources of Water Quality Impairment 2
1.3 Pollutant Loadings to Receiving Streams:
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Program 3
1.4 General Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems 5

CHAPTER 2: POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS

ON SURFACE WATERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Leading Causes of Water Quality Impairment 15
2.2 Pollution of Surface Waters 15

CHAPTER 3: CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT

OF POLLUTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Conventional Pollutants 31
3.2 Other Pollutants 33

CHAPTER 4: WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT

TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1 Wastewater Treatment Unit Operations 41
4.2 Screening and Grit Removal 43
4.3 Equalization 44

vii
viii Table of Contents

4.4 Primary Clarification 47

4.5 Neutralization 48
4.6 Oil Removal 49
4.7 Flotation 54

CHAPTER 5: BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1 Activated Sludge Treatment 60
5.2 Other Suspended Growth Biological
Treatment Systems 70
5.3 Attached Growth Systems 75
5.4 Anaerobic Biological Treatment Systems 76

CHAPTER 6: PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT

TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption 87
6.2 Ion Exchange Systems 92
6.3 Stripping 95
6.4 Coagulation and Flocculation 99
6.5 Heavy Metals Removal 104
6.6 Chemical Oxidation and Reduction 106
6.7 Hydrothermal Oxidation 108

CHAPTER 7: PHYSICAL SEPARATION

TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1 Filtration 111
7.2 Membrane Technologies 113

CHAPTER 8: DISINFECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

CHAPTER 9: NUTRIENT REMOVAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

9.1 Phosphorus Removal 125
9.2 Nitrogen Removal 128

CHAPTER 10: SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . 133

10.1 Types of Sludges 135
10.2 Sludge Thickening 135
10.3 Sludge Dewatering 137
10.4 Sludge Disposal 141
 Table of Contents ix

CHAPTER 11: LAND TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

11.1 Spray Irrigation and Overland Flow Systems 147
11.2 Wastewater Characteristics and Design Considerations 149

CHAPTER 12: WASTE MINIMIZATION AND

WATER REUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
12.1 Waste Minimization Techniques 153
12.2 Waste Minimization Assessment 154
12.3 Pollution Reduction Methods 154
12.4 Case Histories and Examples 157
12.5 Recycle/Reuse and Treatment Cost Considerations 161

CHAPTER 13: ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER

TREATMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.1 Capital Cost Estimates 165
13.2 Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates 168
13.3 Present Value Cost Analysis 168

References 173

Bibliography 175

Index 177

About the Authors 192

 CHAPTER 1

Surface Water Quality and

Aquatic Ecosystems

1.1 PROGRESS IN WATER QUALITY

the 1970s, much of Lake Erie was little more than a eutrophied cesspool.
IAgricultural
N
runoff and organic and nutrient loadings from untreated or
partially treated sewage and industrial waste caused dissolved oxygen levels in
the lake to drop, introduced toxic effects, and stimulated an explosion in algal
growth, leading to eutrophication and strangulation of the lake’s aquatic
ecosystems. In the early 1970s, anglers could only catch “trash” fish such as
carp and eel in many sections of the lake, and much of the lake was posted
against swimming due to the presence of pathogens and toxic chemicals.
Around the same time, the Cuyahoga River in Ohio caught fire due to
pollution from chemical plants and refineries. The Kanawha River at
Charleston, West Virginia was essentially an open chemical sewer in the early
1970s. Severely mutated fish and other aquatic organisms were frequently
found. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found in polar bear flesh in the
Arctic Circle and in mothers’ milk in the United States. The pesticide DDT
weakened eggshells in the brown pelican, bald eagle, and other birds feeding at
the top of their food chain, and threatened them with extinction.
Loss of habitat and the effects of pollution have significantly endangered
America’s aquatic wildlife. In the Illinois River, for example, approximately 66
percent of the indigenous fish species have vanished because of water
pollution. In Muscle Shoals, Alabama, 30 of 63 mussel species disappeared
after the construction of a major dam. In the Chesapeake Bay, fish and shellfish
harvests have been off dramatically since the 1960s—a 96 percent decline for
hickory shad catches alone.
As governmental regulation has clamped down on point sources of water
pollution, significant progress towards recovery has been made. Yet, much
remains to be done.
Every two years, EPA submits its National Water Quality Inventory report to

1
2 SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

TABLE 1.1. Summary of Quality of Assessed Rivers,

Lakes and Estuaries [1].
Good but
Amount Good Threatened Polluted
Assessed (% of (% of (% of
Total Size (% of Total) Assessed) Assessed) Assessed)
Rivers and 3,692,830 699,946 367,129 59.504 269,258
Streams (miles) (19%) (53%) (8%) (39%)
Lakes, Ponds and 40,603,893 17,339,080 8,026,988 1,348,903 7,702,370
Reservoirs (acres) (43%) (47%) (8%) (45%)
Estuaries (square 87,369 31,072 13,850 1,023 15,676
miles) (36%) (45%) (<4%) (51%)

Congress. This report summarizes water quality data collected by all 50 states,
Interstate Water Commissions, American Indian Tribes, and the District of
Columbia. By 2000, government agencies had surveyed approximately
700,000 miles of rivers and streams (approximately 19 percent of the nation’s
total); 17,339,080 acres of lakes (43% of the total); and 31,072 square miles of
estuaries (36% of the total).
Table 1.1 summarizes some of the results of EPA’s 2000 National Water
Quality Inventory [1], and indicates whether the surface waters surveyed
support their intended uses. As can be seen from this table, only 53 percent of
the nation’s rivers and streams, 47 percent of lakes, and only 45 percent of
estuaries surveyed are considered to be of good quality, supporting most or all
of the water quality needs and objectives.

1.2 LEADING SOURCES OF WATER QUALITY IMPAIRMENT

Table 1.2, reproduced from the 2000 National Water Quality Inventory,
summarizes the leading causes and sources of water quality impairment in the
United States today.
The public has the general impression that industrial plants are the major
cause of water pollution. Thus, many people are surprised to find that the
current leading causes of surface water pollution are from agriculture,
municipal wastewater point sources, hydrologic modification (channelization,
flow regulation and dredging), and urban runoff/storm sewers. This is because
industrial wastewater point sources of pollution are now treated prior to
discharge, due primarily to enforcement of the Clean Water Act. Prior to that
act, this was not the case.
Later chapters of this book describe the various technologies that have been
driven by the Clean Water Act’s massive regulatory regime for point sources.
This regime will continue to impose more stringent limits as the technology
 Pollutant Loadings to Receiving Streams 3

TABLE 1.2. Leading Causes and Sources* of Impairment in Assessed

Rivers, Lakes and Estuaries [1].
Lakes, Ponds, and
Rivers and Streams Reservoirs Estuaries
Causes Pathogens (Bacteria) Nutrients Metals (Primarily
mercury)
Siltation Metals (Primarily mercury) Pesticides
(Sedimentation)
Habitat Alterations Siltation (Sedimentation) Oxygen-Depleting
Substances
Sources Agriculture Agriculture Municipal Point
Hydrologic Modification Hydrologic Modification Sources
Urban Runoff/Storm
Habitat Modification Urban Runoff/Storm Sewers
Sewers Industrial Discharges
*Excluding unknown, natural, and “other” sources.

continues to advance. But the results will yield declining returns, particularly
compared to the significant problems currently caused by agricultural and
urban non-point source runoff. Many of the techniques that will be required to
remedy these challenging problems are much simpler, technically speaking, but
far more challenging politically to impose. Nonetheless, this difficult work
must be continued to bring all of the nations’ waterways to the desired level of
quality.

1.3 POLLUTANT LOADINGS TO RECEIVING STREAMS:

TOTAL MAXIMUM DAILY LOAD (TMDL) PROGRAM

Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each state to identify
the sections of lakes, rivers and streams that are impaired; i.e., they do not meet
at least one water quality standard established for them. (It does not necessarily
mean that the pollution is so bad that it represents a threat to human health or a
serious threat to the environment.) The states are then required to establish a
total maximum daily load (TMDL) for each pollutant affecting each impaired
aquatic ecosystem.
A TMDL is the amount of a pollutant that a water body can receive in a day
and still meet water quality standards. The TMDL has been termed a “pollution
budget.” The TMDL is a calculated amount that must account for seasonal
variability in water quality, and include a margin of safety to ensure that the
water body can meet the water quality standards the state has designated. By
establishing TMDLs, it is believed, states and communities can identify the
causes and sources of the specific pollutants impairing each water system, and
develop plans to stop the pollution.
4 SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

The EPA is then charged with approving or disapproving State submissions.

If the EPA is not satisfied with the state’s submissions, § 303(d) of the Act
authorizes the agency to develop a priority list for the state and make its own
TMDL determinations.
Currently, the EPA estimates that about 21,000 polluted river segments,
lakes and estuaries—comprising over 300,000 river and shore miles and five
million lake acres—are impaired. Excess nutrients, sediments and harmful
microorganisms are the leading reasons for impairment. The 1998 303(d) list
reports that 43% of the impairment is caused by non-point source pollution,
10% is caused by point sources, and that 47% of the impaired waters are
impacted due to a combination of non-point and point sources of pollution.
TMDLs have been approved by the EPA for the following pollutants and
parameters, among others:
∑ Sediments
∑ Pathogens
∑ Nutrients
∑ Metals
∑ Dissolved Oxygen
∑ Temperature
∑ pH
∑ Pesticides
∑ Mercury
∑ Organics (measured as oxygen-demanding substances or as the actual
organic compounds)
When TMDLs are established, wastewater treatment plants for communities
and industry may need new technologies to meet more stringent discharge
standards. States and EPA enforce the TMDLs through NPDES and Industrial
User permits.
The CWA does not regulate non-point source runoff, and there are no other
Federal regulatory programs specifically designed to control these sources of
pollution. The primary implementation measures for non-point pollutants are
expected to be state-run non-point source management programs, coupled with
state, local, and federal land management and agricultural programs and
authorities.
Implementation of the TMDL program could cause major changes in
traditional methods of agriculture, construction, recreation, urban
development, and many other areas of human endeavor. Farmers and ranchers
may be asked to use alternative methods in their operations to prevent fertilizers
and pesticides from reaching rivers. Golf courses may be required to reevaluate
their intensive fertilization and pesticide/herbicide programs. Cities may be
required to control and treat storm water runoff from their communities and
streets.
 General Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems 5

As of this writing, the TMDL program has not been approved and may be
withdrawn or substantially modified. In any case, it is likely that some form of
TMDL scheme will eventually be implemented to minimize impairment of
surface water quality.

1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

The simplest aquatic ecosystem involves enormous complexity in its

interactions of chemistry and life. In order to comprehend the dynamic
imperatives of an aquatic ecosystem, one needs to understand three
fundamental biological concepts: food webs, energy and material transfer, and
population dynamics. These three concepts are inextricably interrelated. An
effect upon one usually causes significant changes in the others.

1.4.1 Food Webs

Most people are familiar with the term food chain. It is useful for portraying,
in a very gross fashion, the concept of trophic, or nutritional, relationships. The
term food chain demonstrates the concept that higher organisms are dependent
on lower organisms for nutrition and survival. A common food chain describes
humans as being at the top, as carnivores or omnivores, who feed on herbivores,
which in turn feed upon plants, which derive their nutrition directly from the
sun and the earth. This very simple food chain is representative of only a few
organisms, as most rely upon multiple sources of nutrition. Trophic
relationships between two separate organisms, for example, might be separated
by hundreds of other species or other energy inputs into the system.
The term food web is used to describe these more complex relationships.
Food Web: A simplified food web for the herring Clupea harengus is
presented in Figure 1.1. Even this simplified food web represents an extremely
complex trophic system. At the bottom of the food web are diatoms, flagellates,
and other phytoplankton. These are fed upon by zooplankton represented in
large part in this food web by copepods. Proceeding up the food web, the
organisms are progressively more complex.
In examining the food web, one can observe that the herring’s diet changes as
it grows. As it grows, it feeds on a larger variety of organisms. This food web
stops with the adult herring. It could be extended to show the myriad trophic
relationships among organisms that depend principally or in part on the herring
for nutrition, including humans.
Most trophic relationships between organisms in aquatic ecosystems are
extremely complex and sensitive to outside interruption. Pollution can affect
the food web in several ways. One of the most common effects can be
6 SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Figure 1.1. Partial Herring Food Web (After Hardy, 1959) [2].

illustrated in the following scenario, using the herring food web as an example.
A toxic pollutant (vinyl chloride, for example) is discharged in the effluent of a
plastic pipe manufacturing company into a river. The pollutant enters an
aquatic ecosystem and exerts mutagenic (i.e., DNA-damaging) effects on
developing copepod larvae resulting in a brood reduction of 50 percent. This
will correspond later to an approximate total reduction of available zooplankton
biomass of about 80 percent.
The effects on the food web community would be catastrophic. The herring
fry would have very little to eat (since most of the copepods are no longer
present) and would become weakened and subject to disease and increased
predation. The larger herring can shift their eating habits to include other
organisms, thereby placing additional strain on these populations. Eventually,
the adult herring populations would be affected, perhaps significantly. The
effects of pollution are most seriously felt by organisms during their critical life
stage (usually early in the organism’s life cycle; e.g., egg, embryo, larval, sac
fry, etc.).
There are literally thousands of instances where fish harvests at numerous
locations have declined significantly or have been eliminated altogether
because of pollutant impacts in the food web. A seemingly minor amount of
pollutant could cause the elimination of a single species or entire classes of
organisms, resulting in serious impacts on community organisms that depend
upon them for nutrition.
In the past, environmental engineers and scientists were concerned about
removing gross contamination, in the belief that the assimilative capacities (the
 General Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems 7

ability of aquatic systems to rejuvenate themselves by dilution, degradation,

and biological uptake of pollutants) would be sufficient to restore the systems
to near pristine conditions.
Much more needs to be done to improve the quality of wastewater discharges
if the objective is to restore our rivers, lakes, oceans, and streams to their natural
condition. One of the primary challenges is to halt or minimize disruptions to
the food web so that the natural system dynamic can be allowed to express
itself.
The first step in this process is to understand the trophic state of a particular
water body. Conventionally, there are five such states:

Trophic States of Surface Waters

Oligotrophic Clear waters with little organic matter or sediment and
minimum biological activity.
Mesotrophic Waters with more nutrients and, therefore, more biological
productivity.
Eutrophic Waters extremely rich in nutrients, with high biological
productivity. Some species may be choked out.
Hypereutrophic Murky, highly productive waters, closest to the wetlands
status. Many clearwater species cannot survive.
Dystrophic Low in nutrients, highly colored with dissolved humic
organic matter. (Not necessarily a part of the natural trophic
progression.)

The next step in improving one’s understanding of water quality and effects
of pollution is to address the interplay between trophic states and the balance
and transfer of mass and energy in a water body.

1.4.2 Energy and Material Transfer

It is useful to view a receiving stream, lake, ocean, or any aquatic

environment as a dynamic system, much as the human body is a dynamic
system. The human body receives nutrition, is exposed to sunlight, exerts
energy, respires, produces heat and biomass, excretes wastes, and eventually
dies and decomposes. An aquatic ecosystem expresses this same dynamism for
millions of living organisms. Some of this activity is represented by the trophic
relationships of the food web. The food web expresses only a portion of the
biochemical, chemical, and physical activity occurring in an aquatic
ecosystem, however.
Figure 1.2 represents energy and material transfers in riffle communities of
the Berry Creek Experimental Stream under studies conducted by Warren, et
al., in the mid-1960s [3]. These energy and mass balance diagrams illustrate
the dynamic interdependence of organisms in an aquatic ecosystem. In the
Figure 1.2. Differences in Biomass and in Energy and Material Transfer in Riffle Communities of
Berry Creek Experimental Stream, Oregon, Occasioned by Continuous Enrichment with Sucrose
[3].

8
 General Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems 9

experiment, light energy and leaf fall (the principal sources of input energy and
chemicals) are maintained at fairly even levels for both Riffles A and B. This is
to establish that the primary external energy inputs to the two systems are the
same. Other researchers have shown that doubling light energy levels results in
an approximate doubling of plant biomass production and a corresponding
doubling in insect and fish biomass [4]. Obviously it is important to control
these critical input values so that the experimental effect can be observed
without interference from control inputs.
The experimental effect was the introduction of low concentrations of a
simple organic compound, sucrose (a sugar). Riffle A is the control unit and
Riffle B is the experimental unit in which sucrose was continuously introduced
at a concentration of about 4 mg/l. This low concentration could not exert
oxygen depletion of any significance in this system, nor have any other
significant impacts on water quality. Yet researchers were surprised at the
results of the experiment. Over the period of a year the seemingly low, 4 mg/l,
concentration of sucrose added up to an energy input into the Riffle B system of
130,000 kcal/m2.
Refer to the bottom left portion of the Riffle B diagram. The introduction of
sucrose stimulated a rapid growth of bacteria, primarily Sphaerotilus, a
bacterium familiar to wastewater scientists and engineers. The Sphaerotilus
became a major source of previously unavailable nutrition for protozoa,
copepods, insects, snails, and other organisms. Herbivorous insect biomass
increased by 250 percent, carnivorous insects by 400 percent, and snail biomass
by nearly 650 percent over the control Riffle A. The new food source
reverberated throughout the food web, resulting in significantly increased
production of biomass for vertebrates and other complex organisms, as well as
for lower organisms.
Increases are also to be expected in community respiration, waste
production, heat output, decompositional biomass, and export of materials. In
other ecosystems, this overabundance of input energy could exceed the
assimilative capacity of the system and possibly result in anaerobic (without
oxygen), eutrophic, or other undesirable conditions that could cause massive
fish kills, declining populations of desirable organisms, and increasing
populations of undesirable organisms.
Pollution can cause many detrimental effects on the energy and material
ecosystem balances. Even trace concentrations of pollutants can have
cumulative effects that can negatively impact ecosystem stability.

1.4.3 Population Dynamics

As the foregoing shows, the principal consequence of changes in trophic

state and in energy/material balance is change in populations of living
creatures. The two principal constituents of population dynamics are species
10 SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

diversity and population density. Healthy ecosystems generally have a high

species diversity of organisms, reflecting the diversity of the trophic levels in
the ecosystem. Healthy systems with numerous trophic levels are expected to
have good species diversity. Unhealthy systems with fewer trophic levels
generally do not. Population density refers to the number of organisms per unit
of living space.
Bacteria and more complex microbes such as protozoans (rotifers,
vorticella, amoeba, ciliates, etc.) occupy the bottom of the food web, feeding on
dissolved chemical constituents in the water and on solid/semi-solid matter
such as fish slime, detritus, decomposing organisms, benthic (bottom) material,
and other sources of nutrition.
Algae populations directly reflect the chemistry of the water in which they
live. Too much nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to excessive algal growth,
resulting in algae-choked streams, massive fish kills, and eutrophied lakes. To
be in equilibrium in a natural system, the growth of algae must be the same as
the loss by death, over the period of the growing season. Also, a system with
good diversity will exhibit representatives from more than one of the algae
groups (red, green, and blue-green).
The plankton (free-floating organisms) exist at the next level of the web, with
the phytoplankton (plants) deriving their principal source of nutrition through
photosynthesis, and the zooplankton (animals) feeding on living and
decomposing plant and animal material.
Further up the food web are the macro-organisms, those organisms that can
be readily seen without the benefit of a microscope. These are represented by
crustacea, insects, oligiochetes (worms), fish, and other higher organisms.
A healthy system exhibits good species diversity and population density as
determined by the trophic and environmental dynamics of the system.
Unhealthy aquatic ecosystems generally exhibit low species diversity and
relatively high populations of organisms resistant to pollution.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the effects of pollution on macro-organism diversity
and populations caused by wastewater discharge into a clean stream. Referring
to Figure 1.3, at miles 24 to 0 upstream, the water column and benthic dwelling
organisms are represented by excellent diversity in species. At mile 0, the point
of wastewater discharge, water quality is rapidly degraded, resulting in a
correspondingly sharp decrease in species diversity but an increase in
populations of pollution-resistant organisms, notably sludge worms and other
benthic creatures.
As one would expect, waste discharges also affect the populations and
diversity of microorganisms, as illustrated in Figure 1.4. This figure illustrates
the enormous population shifts at the point of waste discharge (river mile 0),
where a sudden increase in pathogens and sewage bacteria is seen. The sewage
bacteria degrade the sewage and decline in numbers as their food source
disappears. They, in turn, are fed upon by the ciliates, which are themselves
Figure 1.3. Changes in Population of Macro-Organisms Caused by Waste Discharge into a Clean
Stream [5].

Figure 1.4. Effects of Waste Discharge on Population Distribution of Microorganisms [5].

11
 Figure 1.5. Present State and Desired Future State of the Lower Green Bay Ecosystem [6].

12
 General Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems 13

prey for the rotifers and crustaceans, and so on up and through the food web.
Waste discharges can exert profound effects on the food web and population
dynamics by seriously altering the trophic opportunities and relations in the
aquatic ecosystem.
Water pollution can affect species diversity and population densities of
aquatic organisms in a very significant fashion.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the difference in species diversities and population
densities of a polluted and a healthy aquatic ecosystem. Note the significantly
increased species diversity in the “Future State” illustration, and the
significantly lower species diversity in the “Present State” illustration.
Ken Gilland, Long Beach, CA
 CHAPTER 2

Pollutant Categories and Effects

on Surface Waters

2.1 LEADING CAUSES OF WATER QUALITY IMPAIRMENT

Wqualitypollution
ATER is a general term used to describe the degradation of water
resulting from the loss of the productive or aesthetic uses of the
receiving stream. Water pollution causes water quality impairment. However,
there are several broad categories of pollution, arising from a number of
chemicals, combinations of chemicals, or other polluting factors. Some
chemicals can cause or contribute to more than one type of pollution.
Ammonia, for example, can contribute to oxygen depletion and eutrophication.
At elevated concentrations, and in certain water quality situations, ammonia
can also exert acute toxic effects on aquatic organisms.
The 1996 National Water Quality Inventory [7] ranked the five leading
causes of water quality impairment (Table 2.1) for surface waters.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the effects of certain pollutant categories (nutrients,
sediments, and toxicants) on the aquatic flora and fauna of Chesapeake Bay.
Note the ecological differences between the healthy and the polluted systems
and the effects of the different pollutant categories on stream health.

2.2 POLLUTION OF SURFACE WATERS

This section provides a description and some examples of each of the

principal adverse effects caused by the following types of pollution:

∑ Oxygen Depletion
∑ Eutrophication
∑ Temperature Effects
∑ Toxicity and Radiological Effects
∑ Pathogens
∑ Siltation/Turbidity
∑ Salinity

15
16 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

TABLE 2.1. Five Leading Causes of Water Quality Impairment [7].

Rank Rivers Lakes Estuaries
1 Siltation Nutrients Nutrients
2 Nutrients Metals Bacteria
3 Bacteria Siltation Priority Toxic Organic Chemicals
4 Oxygen-Depleting Oxygen-Depleting Oxygen-Depleting Substances
Substances Substances
5 Pesticides Noxious Aquatic Plants Oil and Grease

2.2.1 Oxygen Depletion

Oxygen depletion is brought about by the introduction of oxygen-demanding

wastewaters into aquatic ecosystems. This results in lowered dissolved oxygen
concentrations, and in extreme cases, anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions
that completely alter ecosystem chemistry, food webs, population dynamics,
and energy and materials transfer, making conditions uninhabitable for many
organisms. Most fish require a minimum of 2.0 mg/l dissolved oxygen for

Figure 2.1. Effects of Pollutants in the Chesapeake Bay [6]. Source: Redrawn from Alice J.
Lipson. In: Maryland Tributary Strategies—Restoring the Chesapeake. Overview. Maryland
Department of the Environment, Baltimore, MD.
 Pollution of Surface Waters 17

survival, and some (trout for example) cannot survive without much higher
oxygen concentrations.
Fish existing in large zones of oxygen-depleted water will suffocate if
they cannot swim out of those zones. Most fish kills are caused by oxygen
depletion.
Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) is molecular oxygen (O2) dissolved in water. The
solubility of D.O. depends on atmospheric pressure, temperature, and stream
salinity. At 15∞C and 1 atm pressure the solubility limit of oxygen, i.e., when it
is at saturation, is only about 10 mg/l or 0.001 percent—very little, when one
considers that ambient air contains approximately 21 percent O2.
In a receiving stream, oxygen is replenished via atmospheric reaeration
(incorporation of air into water by splashing, etc.), dynamic equilibrium (direct
dissolution of oxygen from air into water due to atmospheric pressure), and
photosynthesis. The rate of reaeration is generally just enough to sustain D.O.
concentrations at near saturation levels on the surface of the water column, and
at progressively lower levels down to the bottom (or benthic) level. The
introduction of millions of gallons per day (MGD) of oxygen-demanding
wastewater is sufficient to cause oxygen depletion or suppression in many large
receiving streams.
Wastewaters that cause oxygen depletion are said to exert an oxygen demand
on the receiving stream. There are two main ways of describing oxygen demand
in receiving streams: biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD). BOD is expressed as mg/l of oxygen consumed in a bioassay
test procedure, whereas COD is a measurement of the amount of oxygen
consumed in a wet chemistry laboratory procedure. Most wastestreams exhibit
both types of oxygen demand.

2.2.1.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Most oxygen demanding wastes contain biodegradable compounds. These

wastewaters contain organic and inorganic constituents that act as a food or
energy source to microorganisms in the receiving stream. The wastewater
constituent chemicals dissolve in the stream and come into contact with
microbes, which absorb them or attack them biochemically to break complex
molecules down into simpler molecules that can be metabolized by the
microbes. Oxygen is used in this metabolic process, known as biochemical
oxidation, and is thus extracted from the river or stream.
Organic carbon compounds are the most important category of these
constituents, and organic enrichment is a term used to describe this type of
pollution. BOD exerted by such compounds is referred to as carbonaceous
oxygen demand. Compounds built around elements other than carbon can also
feed microorganisms and thus give rise to BOD. For example, nitrogen
compounds can yield significant amounts of nitrogenous oxygen demand as
18 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

organisms degrade them in a process called nitrification (see discussion on

“Nitrogen Removal”).
The degree of degradation and associated oxygen consumption can be
extensive enough to cause oxygen depletion in the stream. It can take from 1 to
1.5 lbs of oxygen to completely degrade 1 lb of BOD, or about 600 gallons of
wastewater containing 200 mg/l BOD. A spill of only 100 lbs of BOD can
deplete the oxygen in about 3 to 12 million gallons of water. The low solubility
of oxygen in water (averaging about 6 to 10 mg/l for most surface streams)
contributes to its ready depletion. The oxygen balance in aquatic ecosystems is
one of the more sensitive limiting factors in maintaining system health and
viability.

2.2.1.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Some waste streams contain inorganic chemicals that consume oxygen

directly without the involvement of living organisms. These substances engage
in oxidizing reactions in water. A simple example is iron which, when in
contact with water, will consume oxygen while oxidizing into iron oxide or
rust. Waste streams containing such substances are said to exert a chemical
oxygen demand. The COD test procedure measures wastewater chemical
oxygen demand and, for most but not all wastewaters, includes biochemical
oxygen demand.
Figures 1.3 and 1.4, shown earlier, represent the effects of oxygen depletion
on aquatic organisms in a flowing stream (these figures are representative of
any flowing stream, rivers, creeks, etc.).
Figure 2.2 shows a classic depiction of oxygen depletion, or D.O. sag
(pronounced “doe sag”). Upstream of the Town and Sewage Plant (river miles
-25 to -10), stream D.O. is near saturation at 8.0 mg/l. Storm water runoff from
the Town (river mile -15) causes a slight increase in stream BOD, but exerts no
discernible effect on river D.O. The stream is able to assimilate this relatively
light pollutant loading.
At river mile -10, effluent from the Sewage Plant enters the stream and has
an immediate effect. The sewage exerts a strong oxygen demand, as stream
BOD increases from about 5 mg/l to 25 mg/l, and stream D.O. drops from 8
mg/l to zero mg/l, all in less than 5 stream miles. Most fish cannot tolerate D.O.
concentrations of much less than 2.0 mg/l. If they are able, they will leave the
area and seek D.O. in order to respire properly. If they are unable to escape the
D.O. sag, they will perish.
The stream begins a slight recovery, reducing BOD somewhat, between river
miles -5 and zero, but this improvement is largely overcome by pollutant
loadings from the Industrial Plant at river mile five. BOD in the Industrial Plant
discharge introduces a BOD spike and the BOD loadings continue to suppress
 Pollution of Surface Waters 19

Figure 2.2. Typical Dissolved Oxygen Sag.

dissolved oxygen until gradual recovery is evidenced between river miles 10 to

25.
Some streams have sufficient assimilative capacity to absorb
oxygen-depleting wastewaters. That is, these streams possess sufficient flow
rate to dilute and distribute the wastewater, and sufficient reaeration
(oxygenation) capacity, bacteria, and other environmental factors, to allow the
degradation of the wastes without significant impacts to the aquatic
ecosystem.

2.2.2 Eutrophication

Eutrophication encompasses a number of processes that lead to the decline in

productivity of desirable species and aesthetic value of an aquatic system.
These processes include an accumulation of organic matter and nutrients
(especially nitrogen and phosphorus), an increase in total biomass production
(especially algae and microorganisms) and respiration, and a decrease in depth
of the system (due to buildup of sediments).
Increased nutrient loadings generate increases in both plant and animal
20 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

biomass. Animal biomass exerts BOD, as just explained. Plants, on the other
hand, consume CO2 and expel O2, the reverse of animals. At first glance,
therefore, the increasing plant growth in eutrophied water bodies (mostly algae)
would seem to satisfy the BOD caused by increasing animal biomass. However,
such plant growth is often runaway, the most notable example being algae
blooms, as illustrated in Figure 2.3. The decomposition of such large quantities
of dead plant matter can exert massive BOD, causing dramatic D.O. sag and
catastrophic animal die-offs.
Eutrophication is a natural process for lakes and streams, although the
completion of a natural eutrophication cycle can take hundreds to thousands of
years. However, the introduction of concentrated industrial wastewaters and
sewage effluents to surface waters has accelerated this process a thousand-fold
in some systems.
Figure 2.4 illustrates the gradual effects of natural stream aging compared to
the accelerating effects of pollution on the process.
Eutrophication leads to a reduction in species diversity and, generally, an
increase in population densities of a relatively few species. One of the most
widely investigated instances of eutrophication has been that of the Great Lakes
beginning in the 1950s. During the post-war industrialization and population
explosion in this region, significant increases of untreated or partially treated
industrial wastes and sewage were introduced into the Great Lakes, most
notably Lake Erie. Oxygen-demanding and nutrient-rich wastewaters
accelerated the eutrophication process to the extent that it became necessary to
introduce regulations forbidding the untreated discharge of wastes into the
lakes. Figure 2.5, Commercial Production of Selected Fish in Lake Erie,

Figure 2.3. Lake Impairments Caused by Excessive Nutrient Loadings [7].

Figure 2.4. The Progression of Eutrophication [8]. (left column) The progression of natural lake
aging or eutrophication through nutrient-poor (oligotrophy) to nutrient-rich (eutrophy) sites.
Hypereutrophy represents extreme productivity characterized by algal blooms or dense
macrophyte populations (or both) plus a high level of sedimentation. The diagram depicts the
natural process of gradual nutrient enrichment and basin filling over a long period of time (e.g.,
thousands of years). (right column) Cultural eutrophication in which lake aging is greatly
accelerated (e.g., tens of years) by increased inputs of nutrients and sediments into a lake, as a result
of watershed disturbance by humans. Source: NC Lake Assessment Report. NCDEHNR, DEM.
Report No. 92-02. June 1992.

21
 Figure 2.5. Commercial Production of Selected Fish in Lake Erie [9].

22
 Pollution of Surface Waters 23

illustrates the decline of commercial fish stocks in Lake Erie from the turn of
the century to the mid-1960s, due principally to the effects of eutrophication.
As can be seen in Figure 2.5, the commercial stocks of some species were
wiped out altogether. Carp, eel, and other undesirable fish populations
increased dramatically. The eutrophied lake evidenced classical symptoms of
eutrophic pollution: high production of undesirable biomass (algae, sludge
worms, trash fish, and bacteria), low species diversity, and a decline in
population of desirable species.
Since the advent of modern wastewater treatment facilities and discharge
restrictions, the Great Lakes have recovered considerably, but have far to go to
reach the aquatic quality of the early 20th century. Notably, many of the
pollution problems still afflicting the Great Lakes can be traced to air
deposition of metals and other bioaccumulative compounds, rather than to
wastewater discharges.

2.2.3 Temperature Effects

Thermal pollution is associated with large industrial facilities that use great
quantities of water for cooling purposes. These include fossil and nuclear
power plants, and pulp and paper mills. Discharge of this water adds heat to
receiving streams.
Parker and Krenkel [10] summarized the effects of thermal pollution on
aquatic organisms in their report entitled Thermal Pollution: Status of the Art.
Research by Laws [11] in his book Aquatic Pollution also contributes
significantly to the understanding of thermal pollution. Both sources were used
to develop the following summary of the effects of thermal pollution. Thermal
pollution has been found to result in:

∑ A shift in population structure of the ecosystem. Reduced diversity and

shifts in the predominant species have been observed.
∑ Death beyond certain temperatures. Many organisms throughout the
food web are intolerant of elevated temperatures and die upon exposure.
∑ Sublethal functional response. “Extreme temperature is a killer, of
course; but within the zone of tolerance, temperature is a catalyst, a
depressant, an activator, a restrictor, a stimulator, a controller.
Temperature is one of the most important and influential water quality
characteristics to life in water (Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, 1967).”
∑ Decreased resistance to toxic substances. Toxicity usually increases with
increased temperature, and specimens subjected to toxic materials are
less tolerant of temperature extremes.
∑ Increased respiratory demand of aquatic organisms.
∑ Reduced solubility of oxygen in water.
24 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

∑ Stratification or further stratification of the water column so that

reoxygenation of subsurface water is inhibited. As any scuba diver will
attest, water often forms thermoclines, stratified layers of warmer water
underlain by layers of colder water. These thermoclines inhibit
movement of water in the vertical direction, to the detriment of
inhabitants of the lower layers.
∑ Attracting fish to thermal plumes and then trapping and killing them in
water intake systems.

2.2.4 Toxicity And Radiological Effects

The effects of exposure of aquatic organisms to toxic chemicals and radiation

are similar and include acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) effects. The
effects of exposure to toxic chemicals and radionuclides include death,
increased susceptibility to disease, development of cancers and lesions, and
behavioral changes. Both exposure to toxic chemicals and radiation have been
observed to result in genetic damage and higher incidence of teratogenic
effects (non-genetic damage to embryos) in fish and other aquatic organisms.
Acute toxicity often results in the death of aquatic organisms. For example, in
soft water, lead is lethal to fathead minnows at a concentration of 5 to 7 mg/l.
Other acute effects include paralysis, muscle spasms, and unconsciousness.
Acute toxicity can be defined in terms of the Lethal Concentration50 (LC50), or
Median Tolerance Limit (TLm) bioassay test. The LC50 is the concentration at
which 50 percent of test organisms die within a specified period of time, usually
96 hours or less. In addition to assessing the acute toxicity of a particular
pollutant such as lead, this test can also be used to assess the toxicity of an
effluent stream generally; the test organisms are introduced into effluent of
some specified dilution, and their survival over time is measured. This process,
called the whole effluent toxicity or WET test, is increasingly specified as an
independent permit limitation that a waste stream must meet before discharge.
Table 2.2 presents 96-hr LC50 data for fathead minnows, daphnia (waterfleas),
and rainbow trout exposed to a number of the priority pollutant organic
compounds, metals, and ammonia.
Concentrations of pollutants that have no observable acute effects on test
species may nonetheless exert chronic, or sublethal, effects on them. Chronic
effects can include growth or behavioral effects, mutation, reduced or impaired
reproduction, disease, and eventual death. While the effects of chronic toxicity
can be subtle and highly variable, chronic stresses can eventually be just as
destructive to aquatic communities as acute effects.
Bioaccumulation is a chronic effect experienced by aquatic organisms
exposed to certain chemicals. Heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, PCBs, and
radioactive materials are all categories of substances known to
bioaccumulate—the body does not metabolize or excrete them. Instead, the
 TABLE 2.2. Acute Toxicity of Selected Compounds (96-hr LC50)a [12].
Fathead Rainbow
Units Minnow Daphnia Trout
Organicsb
Benzene mg/l 42.70 35.20 38.70
Carbon tetrachloride mg/l 17.30 15.20 14.50
Chlorobenzene mg/l 13.20 11.60 11.10
1,1-Dichloroethane mg/l 120.00 96.40 113.00
1,1,2-Trichloroethane mg/l 88.70 72.60 81.10
2-Chlorophenol mg/l 21.60 18.60 18.40
1,4-Dichlorobenzene mg/l 3.72 3.46 2.89
1,2-Dichlorobenzene mg/l 87.40 71.10 80.50
2,4-Dinitrophenol mg/l 5.81 5.35 4.56
4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol mg/l 2.79 2.65 2.10
Pentachlorophenol mg/l 170.00 – –
Ethylbenzene mg/l 11.00 9.97 9.47
Methylene chloride mg/l 325.00 249.00 325.00
Toluene mg/l 31.00 26.00 27.40
Trichloroethylene mg/l 55.40 46.20 49.50
Phenol mg/l 39.60 33.00 35.40
1,4-Dinitrobenzene mg/l 1.68 1.61 1.24
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol mg/l 5.91 5.45 4.62
2,4-Dichlorophenol mg/l 9.27 8.35 7.49
Naphthalene mg/l 5.57 5.07 4.44
Nitrobenzene mg/l 118.00 95.40 110.00
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane mg/l 31.10 26.70 26.70
Metalsb
Arsenic 15,600 5,278 13,340
Chromium, hexavalent 43,600 6.400 69,000
Cadmium 38.2 0.29 0.04
Copper 3.29 0.43 1.02
Lead 158.00 4.02 158.00
Mercury – 5.00 249.00
Nickel 440.00 54.00 –
Selenium 1,460.00 710.00 10,200
Silver 0.012 0.00192 0.023
Zinc 169.00 8.89 26.20
Inorganics
Unionized ammonia (Total
Ammonia)c
PH 7.0 mg/l 0.093 (23) 0.093 (23)
PH 8.5 mg/l 0.260 (6.8) 0.260 (6.8)
aEstimation of 96 hour LC in mg/l for common aquatic test organisms based on the primary mode of action
50
and structure-activity relationship.
bFrom: EPA/Montana State QSAR (Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship) system.
cHighly variable depending on pH and Temperature (Federal Volume Register 50, No. 185, Monday, July 29,

1985, pp. 10786). Data represent criteria to protect aquatic life at pH 7.0 and 20∞C and pH 8.5 at 20∞C, one
hour average, mg/l.

25
26 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

substances continue to accumulate in the tissues and/or bones of receptor

organisms. When these organisms are, in turn, consumed by other organisms,
these substances bioaccumulate still further, contributing to enhanced or
amplified bioaccumulation up through the food web.
Fish that have accumulated mercury or pesticides, for example, do not
ordinarily acquire the chemicals through direct ingestion or exposure, but
rather consume them in their daily diet of a variety of organisms which have
themselves acquired the toxins through the consumption of plants and prey
animals exposed to the toxicants. These chemicals travel up and through the
food web (enhanced bioaccumulation) through consumption by predator
species, including humans. A well-known example of enhanced
bioaccumulation is the bald eagle’s brush with extinction due to DDT that had
concentrated up the food web dominated by the eagle.
Toxic chemicals can bioaccumulate in organisms until a threshold
concentration is reached that can exert acute or chronic effects. Certain toxins
accumulated in tissue or fat can be released into the vascular system during
periods of stress, thereby causing acute or chronic effects.

2.2.5 Pathogens

Infectious organisms enter surface water supplies by the discharge of

untreated wastewater, diluted sewage bypassed into receiving streams from
overflowing sanitary sewers or overloaded treatment plants, from wildlife, and
from animal feedlot runoff. For the most part these organisms die soon after
exposure to surface water because they are enteric organisms; i.e., organisms
that live inside the intestines (or bodies) of warm-blooded host organisms.
Four classes of pathogens are of most concern: bacterial pathogens, viral
pathogens, protozoan pathogens, and parasitic worms. Some of these
pathogens affect aquatic organisms as well as humans, and some, such as the
hepatitis virus, can infect shellfish, which are later consumed by humans who
may then contract hepatitis. The principal pathogens found in surface waters
are summarized in Table 2.3.
The primary route of exposure to pathogens for humans is by the ingestion of
contaminated water or shellfish. Infection by some of these organisms may
result in acute effects, even fatality. Cholera, tuberculosis, and polio are the
three most dangerous common waterborne pathogens and have been
responsible for the deaths of millions of people in numerous epidemics around
the world.
Ingestion is not the only route of exposure for some pathogens. Leptospira
enters the blood stream through skin abrasions or mucus membranes. This
bacteria can cause acute infections in the kidney, liver, and central nervous
system. Humans are most often exposed when swimming in waters in which
 Pollution of Surface Waters 27

TABLE 2.3. Pathogens in Surface Water [13].

Bacteria Viruses Protozoans Parasitic Worms
Salmonella Poliovirus Entamoeba histolytica Beef tapeworm
Shigella Echovirus Giardia lamblia Ascaris
G. instestinalis lumbricoides
(round worm)
Enteropathogenic Coxsackievirus A Naegleria gruberi Schistosoma
E. coli Coxsackievirus B
Vibrio cholera
Leptospira Enteroviruses Trypanosoma
the Tularemia Hepatitis type A
pathogen
Tuberculosis Gastroenteritis type A
bacteria Rotavirus
Reovirus
Adenovirus
Parvovirus

infected warm-blooded animals have urinated. Exposure to leptospira often has

severe and sometimes fatal effects.
Another deadly organism is the Naegleria gurberi amoeba. This odious
organism enters the body through the nasal membranes and migrates to the
brain, spinal fluid, and blood stream, causing the fatal disease amoebic
meningocephalitis. Swimming in polluted waters is the most common form of
exposure. Figure 2.5 depicts some of the causes and effects of pathogen
pollution.
Of potential concern to the environmental scientist is the release into nature
of genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) from agricultural, industrial
and domestic wastewater treatment operations. No ill effects have yet been
noted, but the potential for very serious environmental effects, and impacts on
humans, does exist. In addition to scientifically modified organisms, mutated
bacteria and higher organisms have been observed in nature whose genetic
alterations have been attributed to residual hormones, antibiotics, pesticides
and other xenobiotic (man-made) compounds present in aquatic ecosystems. In
addition to natural pathogens, the possibility exists for the formation and
introduction of mutated destructive organisms that could potentially exert
pathogenic effects on an unknown scale. It is likely that, in the future, more
attention will be placed on the release of bioactive xenobiotic compounds and
genetically altered organisms.

2.2.6 Siltation/Turbidity

Siltation generally refers to the loading of suspended, but generally

28 POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND EFFECTS ON SURFACE WATERS

settleable, particulates to a receiving stream. The leading cause of siltation is

soil erosion caused by agricultural practices, although land development is also
an increasingly important source. Siltation disrupts benthic activity at the
bottom of receiving streams by covering habitat and creating a layer of
sediment over the original benthic system. It can interfere with the feeding
activities of animals that feed by filtration, affect the vision of other organisms,
and may be abrasive to sensitive structures like the gills of fish. Siltation has
been known to cause fish kills and to destroy fish spawning beds.
Turbidity generally refers to the loading of colloidal/suspended solids to a
receiving stream. Turbidity can also indicate the density of algae in a water
body. Solids that produce turbidity have a specific gravity close to that of water,
such that the particles remain in suspension in the water column and do not
readily settle. Turbidity can impact photosynthesis in algae and aquatic plants
by shading sunlight. Figure 2.7 depicts some of the causes and effects of
siltation/turbidity.

2.2.7 Salinity

Salinity is a measurement of the amount of dissolved inorganic salts in

solution. Industrial wastes high in salinity, such as effluent from pulp and paper
mills, petroleum refining, and coke and chemical plants can exert a deleterious
effect on the receiving stream by altering stream salinity or total dissolved
solids. Salinity is also a problem in estuaries, where salinity incursions from
ocean tidal currents occurs, or generally, wherever dams, irrigation diversion,
and other man-made changes in natural river courses and drainage patterns
have reduced or increased natural salinity levels.

Figure 2.6. Pathogen Indicators [9]. Some bacteria, such as fecal coliforms, provide evidence that
an estuary is contaminated with fecal material that may contain pathogenic bacteria and viruses
harmful to people. Often, the pathogenic viruses and bacteria do not adversely impact aquatic life
such as fish and shellfish. However, shellfish may accumulate bacteria and viruses that cause
human diseases when ingested. Therefore, officials restrict shellfish harvesting in contaminated
waters to protect public health. Bacteria also impair swimming uses because come pathogenic
bacteria and viruses can be transmitted by contact with contaminated water.
 Pollution of Surface Waters 29

Figure 2.7. The Effects of Siltation in Rivers and Streams [14]. Salination is one of the leading
pollution problems in the nation's rivers and streams. Over the long term, unchecked siltation can
alter habitat with profound adverse effects on aquatic life. In the short term, silt can kill fish directly,
destroy spawning beds, and increase water turbidity resulting in depressed photosynthetic rates.

The natural salinity of a receiving stream is a critical factor in the support of

aquatic life. Altering the natural salinity content, by either increasing or
decreasing it, can have extremely deleterious effects on water quality. For
example, an industrial discharge that increases receiving stream salinity
increases the concentration of sodium, sulfate, calcium, chloride, or potassium
ions.
Both fresh and salt water fish are constantly challenged to regulate the
amount of water and salts in their bodies. They accomplish these tasks by
osmoregulation, ionic regulation, and excretion, primarily through the gills and
kidneys. Many fish can only accomplish these balances in water and salt
content within narrow ranges of salinity and cannot adapt to sudden
fluctuations in stream salinity. Organisms other than fish are also affected by
salinity. Decreases in coastal estuary or bay salinities have been known to
cause severe coral kills and to decrease the reproduction and growth of oyster
larvae.
 CHAPTER 3

Classification and Measurement

of Pollutants

pollutants are generally classified under the Clean Water

WAct as conventional,
ASTEWATER
non-conventional, and toxic or priority pollutants.
Each of these three categories is discussed below. In most cases, the “pollutant”
being regulated corresponds to one of the pollutant categories discussed above.
For example, ammonia, nitrogen, temperature, and turbidity are specific
conventional pollutants. In other cases, however, the regulated “pollutant” is a
parameter that can be correlated with the actual pollutant. For example, siltation
potential is measured by total suspended solids or turbidity while salinity is
measured by total dissolved solids.
The measurement of pollutant concentrations, or the concentrations of
specific chemical species, is performed by the conduct of test procedures that
are meticulously described in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater; SW-846 Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste,
Physical/Chemical Methods; test methods specified in the Code of Federal
Regulations and in other standardized publications.

3.1 CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS

Defined by 40 CFR § 401.16, conventional pollutants are defined as:

∑ Biochemical oxygen demand

∑ Fecal coliform
∑ Total suspended solids
∑ Oil & grease, and
∑ pH

3.1.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) test is a bioassay procedure

31
32 CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF POLLUTANTS

measuring the oxygen requirements of microbes in an enclosed BOD test bottle

as they assimilate and oxidize the organic and inorganic pollutants in the test
bottle. Seed organisms, nutrients, wastewater or surface water, and a quantity of
dilution water are placed in the BOD test bottle and incubated at 20∞C for five
days (BOD5). The initial and final dissolved oxygen (D.O.) concentrations are
measured and the BOD is calculated as the difference between them. For
example, if the original D.O. was 9 mg/l and the concluding value was 2 mg/l,
the BOD of the wastewater would be approximately 7 mg/l.
BOD can be caused by a number of compounds, primarily carbon and
nitrogen-based compounds. The BOD test can be conducted in a way that
inhibits nitrification, in order to determine how much oxygen demand is
attributable to nitrogenous oxygen demand and how much to carbonaceous
demand. This can be important in the design of wastewater treatment systems.
Ammonia-nitrogen, for example, requires about 4.33 lbs of oxygen to oxidize
one lb of ammonia-nitrogen. This can be a significant consideration in the
specification and sizing of aeration systems.
Most carbonaceous BOD is exerted in the test bottle in five days.
Nitrogenous oxygen demand and refractory BOD (i.e., BOD that is resistant to
degradation) may continue beyond that for many days. Convention has
established the concept of ultimate BOD, equivalent to the 20-day BOD
bioassay (BOD20).

3.1.2 Fecal Coliform

Coliform bacteria live in the intestinal tract of people and many other
animals. Some coliform bacteria live in soils (woodland coliforms) and, while
they do not represent enteric bacteria, they do produce positive test results when
present. Fecal coliforms are a subset of the Total Coliform Group and are
incubated at 45.5∞C, human body temperature. Fecal coliforms are those found
to be present in fecal matter and are an indicator that harmful pathogens may be
present in a sample.

3.1.3 Total Suspended Solids

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is a measurement of the filterable residue of a

water sample. A sample is filtered through a glass fiber filter with a 0.45 micron
porosity, contained in a porcelain crucible, and then dried at 105∞C. TSS is
expressed in mg/l as the difference between the dry weight of the filter and
crucible before use, and the weight of the filter, crucible and dried residue
afterwards.
 Other Pollutants 33

3.1.4 Oil And Grease

O & G is a measurement of the fats, oils, greases, and other freon extractable
organic chemicals in a water sample. A sample is prepared (the method of
preparation depends on the analytical method) and extracted with CFC 113 or
n-hexane. The extractant is then filtered and the solvent driven away by heat.
The residue on the filter media represents freon extractable materials and is
weighed. The results are expressed as mg/l O & G.

3.1.5 pH

The pH of a solution is a measurement of its hydrogen ion (H+)

concentration. In simple terms, it is a measurement of the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of a solution and is easily measured using a pH meter. A solution’s
pH is expressed in standard units (SU), on a scale from 0 to 14.
Any solution with a pH below 7.0 is acid and any with a pH above 7.0 is
basic. A solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral, having equal concentrations of
hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions. The pH scale is logarithmic. A change
in one whole unit represents a tenfold increase or decrease in hydroxyl or
hydronium ion concentration.

3.2 OTHER POLLUTANTS

3.2.1 Nitrogen

Many tests exist to measure for the presence of nitrogen compounds, which,
as noted earlier, are powerful and frequently problematic nutrients. Total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN-N) refers to a test method that measures nitrogen
compounds of biological origin, some nitrogen compounds found in industrial
waste, and ammonia. The test will not detect certain amines, nitro compounds,
hydrazines, and a number of other nitrogen-bearing compounds found in
industrial wastes.
Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) is a measurement of the ammonia-nitrogen in
solution. Ammonia is a primary nutrient for aquatic ecosystems and a primary
cause of eutrophication. Ammonia is also toxic to fish at relatively low
concentrations.
Organic nitrogen (ORG-N) is generally taken to be the difference between
TKN and NH3-N.
Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) is a measurement of the concentration of
nitrate-nitrogen in solution. Nitrate is a critical nutrient and an indicator of
nitrification (or ammonia oxidation). Nitrate is also a groundwater contaminant
34 CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF POLLUTANTS

principally known for causing methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) in

infants.
Nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N) is toxic to aquatic microorganisms and is used as a
preservative in many foods to prevent spoilage by bacterial decomposition.
Nitrite is an intermediate metabolite in the denitrification of nitrate to nitrogen
gas.

3.2.2 Phosphorus

Phosphorus in the form of phosphate is found in most agricultural fertilizers

and is a primary nutrient for aquatic ecosystems, and a causative factor for
eutrophication. Not surprisingly, agricultural runoff is an important source of
this pollutant. Other sources include household detergents, sewage effluent,
and industrial discharges, especially metal finishing phosphate rinses.
Phosphates are usually present in aquatic ecosystems as orthophosphate,
polyphosphate, and organic phosphate. Most of the forms of orthophosphate
(PO4, HPO4, H2PO4, and H3PO4, for example) are available for use in microbial
metabolic activities without further breakdown. The polyphosphates will
hydrolyze to orthophosphate in aqueous solution, albeit very slowly. Organic
phosphates are bound to organic matter and must be decomposed to free the
phosphate for metabolism, and in this respect they are of lesser concern as
aquatic pollutants. Organic phosphates will, however, eventually solubilize and
release phosphorus.
Phosphorus is analyzed as total phosphorus and as Orthophosphate and the
results expressed as Tot-P and Ortho-P in mg/l.

3.2.3 Cyanide

Cyanide is found in the wastewaters of coke and chemical plants, oil

refineries, blast furnaces, plating shops, specialty chemical manufacturing
plants, and other sources. Most forms of cyanide are biodegradable but some
are not (notably cyanuric acid). Cyanide can form complexes with certain
metals, making its removal more difficult. However, several effective
treatment technologies exist, and cyanide is no longer considered to be a
significant contaminant in most watersheds.

3.2.4 Surfactants

Surfactants (short for “surface active agents”) cause foaming in wastewater

treatment plants and in receiving streams. Before 1965, synthetic detergents
contained alkyl-benzenesulfonate (ABS), which was extremely resistant to
biodegradation and caused a considerable degree of concern. ABS was
replaced with linear-alkyl-sulfonate (LAS), which is biodegradable and
 Other Pollutants 35

considerably reduced the foaming problem. The concentration of surfactants is

determined by reacting a sample with a standard solution of methylene blue dye
and measuring the change in color of the reacted sample. Another name for
surfactants is Methylene Blue Active Substances (MBAS).

3.2.5 Chemical Oxygen Demand

The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is a wet chemical method used to
determine the amount of oxygen demanding substances in a test sample. The
COD test is performed by combining a sample of wastewater with a strongly
acidic dichromate solution and other chemicals and heating. The dichromate
oxygen is consumed by oxygen-demanding chemicals in the wastewater, and
that difference which remains corresponds to the chemical oxygen demand of
the sample. Two COD test methods are in use: macro COD by reflux digestion
and titration, and micro COD by sealed digestion and spectrometry.

3.2.6 Total Organic Carbon

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is a measurement of organic carbon (as

opposed to inorganic carbon), and is another means of estimating the organic
strength of a test water sample. A sample is injected into an instrument that
heats it and combusts its organic constituents to CO2. The sample is then
measured for CO2 and the results calculated as mg/l TOC.

3.2.7 Volatile Suspended Solids

Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) measures the volatile fraction of TSS and is
often used as a measurement of biomass in surface waters and wastewater
treatment facilities. The dried crucible from the TSS test is placed in a muffle
furnace and burned at 550∞C. This high temperature carbonizes the residue,
driving off as CO2 and other vapor products the portion of the residue that is
volatile at that temperature (which is usually most of it). The difference
between the TSS and ash residue is calculated as mg/l VSS.

3.2.8 Total Dissolved Solids

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a measurement of the soluble solids in a

solution; that is, ions or molecules (both inorganic and organic) with a diameter
of 10-3 microns or less. TDS is measured by filtering a sample through a glass
fiber filter to remove TSS and evaporating the filtrate in an evaporating dish. As
the water in the dish evaporates, the dissolved solids are deposited onto the
dish. This residue is then weighed and calculated as mg/l TDS. TDS consists
primarily of salts and salt products such as sulfate, chloride, sodium, carbonate,
36 CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF POLLUTANTS

and potassium compounds. TDS serves as a useful surrogate or proxy for

salinity. Salinity can also be measured directly by a specific conductance meter
and expressed as ∝mhos/cc.

3.2.9 Total Solids

Total solids is a measurement of both the non-filterable (TSS) and filterable

(TDS) residue in water. The test is conducted the same way as the TDS test,
except that the sample is not filtered. The test involves evaporating a whole
water sample and weighing the residue. The results are expressed as mg/l Total
Solids.

3.2.10 Settleable Solids

Settleable solids, an index of siltation potential, is a volumetric measurement

of solid material that will settle to the bottom of a one liter, graduated
volumetric cone in a 2-hour period. The results are expressed as ml/l.

3.2.11 Pathogens

Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms. Table 2.3, Pathogens in

Surface Water, lists the disease organisms of most concern. Specialized tests
are needed to detect the presence and numbers of most of the pathogens listed in
Table 2.3. Three coliform bacteria tests are routinely employed to measure
pathogens associated with sanitary discharges and water quality.
Total Coliforms represents a measurement of the number of coliform colony
forming units in water. Coliform or Total Coliform Group bacteria include
aerobic and facultative anaerobic gram negative bacteria that ferment lactose at
35∞C, in 24 to 48 hours. Most coliform bacteria are harmless to people, but the
Total Coliform test does serve as a useful indicator of the presence of this group
of enteric (occurring in the gastrointestinal tract) bacteria. Coliform units are
expressed as colony-forming units per 100 ml (CFU/100 ml).
Fecal Coliforms are a group of bacteria that primarily live in the lower
intestines of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Many types of fecal
coliforms are harmless to humans, but some strains cause serious water-borne
diseases, like dysentery and cholera.
Fecal Streptococci are predominately found to result from human feces in
surface waters, although many other warm-blooded animals excrete these
organisms as well. The ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococci (FC/FS) has
been used to trace the source of sanitary discharges to receiving streams.

3.2.12 Turbidity

Turbidity as a pollutant denotes loadings of suspended or colloidal solids that

 Other Pollutants 37

tend not to settle. As an effluent limitation, turbidity is a measurement of the

light penetration or opacity of a sample of water caused by such solids. A
Nephelometer is used to compare the intensity of light scattering within a water
sample with a reference sample. The units are expressed as nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU).

3.2.13 Odor

Odor in wastewater can be an extremely vexing problem, not just for

treatment facilities in the vicinity of residential neighborhoods. Odors from
some manufacturing process such as pulp and paper and specialty chemicals
can travel for many miles from the source. Most odors are caused by the
decomposition of organic matter. Odors from offal processing or sewage
treatment plants are frequently caused by decomposing organic solids. Odor is
not as much of a problem as it has been in the past, mainly due to pressure from
the public upon industries and practices that created the problem.

3.2.14 Radionuclides

Radionuclides are radioactive elements that enter the water cycle and surface
waters from nuclear power plants, fallout from atomic blasts, releases from
military facilities, and other facilities involved in the metallurgical processing
of radioactive materials. Natural sources of radionuclides in receiving streams
are extremely rare.
Ordinary chemical reactions consist of molecules or atoms of chemicals
exchanging or sharing the electrons surrounding their atomic nuclei, while the
nuclei remain unchanged. The reaction products are the new chemical form and
energy emitted or absorbed in the form of heat or other output. With radioactive
materials, the powerful nucleus is affected, resulting in the emission of strong
nuclear particles (protons, neutrons, and/or electrons) and energy (heat and
electromagnetic radiation).
Surface water radionuclides from nuclear reactions are measured as alpha,
beta, and gamma radiation, and as specific elements and their isotopes, such as
thorium, technetium 99, uranium 238, etc. Very strong nuclear radiation has
been released to the environment in the form of sunken nuclear piles in nuclear
submarines and high level nuclear wastes dumped into the ocean by various
countries. The measurement for radionuclides of concern in water quality
management is the picocurie (pCi).

3.2.15 Heavy Metals

Heavy metals find their way into aquatic ecosystems from a variety of natural
and human sources. Heavy metals of most concern include antimony, arsenic,
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium,
38 CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF POLLUTANTS

silver, thallium and zinc. These metals are included on the Priority Pollutant list
(see 40 CFR Part 423, Appendix A).

3.2.16 Pesticides and Herbicides

Pesticides comprise a large class of compounds of concern. Typical

pesticides and herbicides include DDT, Aldrin, Chlordane, Endosulfan,
Endrin, Heptachlor, and Diazinon. Pesticides and herbicides derive from urban
as well as agricultural runoff and contribute to surface as well as ground water
pollution. In addition to toxic effects, pesticides are often bioaccumulative (that
is, they are found in increasing concentrations in the tissues of organisms as one
moves up the food web). Pesticides can also exert teratogenic and mutagenic
effects in aquatic organisms and animals that feed on them.

3.2.17 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH or PNA—also called polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons) include a large family of semi-volatile organic
pollutants such as naphthalene, anthracene, pyrene, and benzo(a)pyrene.
Phenanthrene, pyrene, and fluoranthene are products of the incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels. Naphthalene is found in asphalt and creosote. PAHs
from combustion products have been identified as a source of some cancer risk
for people eating seafood.

3.2.18 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are organic chemicals that formerly had

widespread use in electrical transformers and hydraulic equipment. Members
of this class of chemicals are extremely persistent in the environment and has
been proven to bioconcentrate (i.e., bioaccumulate) in the food web. PCBs
have been distributed world wide and have been found in polar bear flesh, fish
taken from the every ocean, and in the milk of nursing human mothers in urban
American cities. Because of this potential to accumulate in the food web, PCBs
were intensely regulated and prohibited from manufacture by the Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976. PCBs have been identified as a
potential carcinogenic agent through ingestion of seafood.

3.2.19 Priority Pollutants

Section 307(a) of the Clean Water Act was enacted in 1977. It addressed
toxic water pollutants and required the EPA to list 65 toxic pollutants for the
purpose of regulating their discharge into surface waters (see 40 CFR §
401.15). The original list included several generic classes of chemicals. The
 Other Pollutants 39

EPA then developed a list of 129 chemicals, with no generic classes of

chemicals, in order to provide a list of organics, pesticides, and metals to be
regulated. This list has been termed the 129 Priority Pollutant List. The list was
subsequently modified and the current list includes 126 chemicals, although the
list ends in the number 129. (No chemicals are assigned the numbers 17, 49, and
50.) The list is contained in 40 CFR § 423, Appendix A.

3.2.20 Xenobiotic Compounds

In recent years, researchers have increased investigative efforts in the

occurrence and fate of man-made chemical compounds. These chemicals have
been termed xenobiotic compounds (to indicate that they do not normally occur
in aquatic ecosystems to any significant degree) or anthropogenic chemicals (to
indicate that they are made by man). They derive from the release of
pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), and releases from
agricultural (especially animal feeding operations), industrial and domestic
sources.
Xenobiotics include ubiquitous compounds such as caffeine and nicotine,
estrogen products from birth control pills, antibiotics, steroids, detergent
metabolites, disinfectants, chemicals from aquatic and animal husbandry,
fragrances, antioxidants, plasticizers, insect repellents, prescription and
non-prescription drugs and many thousands of other types of chemical
compounds.
The number of xenobiotic compounds (including degradation and
transformation products) released into receiving streams has not been
determined, in part because of the difficulty of analyzing for them. Most of
these chemicals are found in low concentrations in the natural environment; in
the parts per billion to parts per trillion range, and lower. However, we do not
know the long-term effects of exposure to xenobiotics, even at low levels, on
behavior, genetic integrity, or physical impairment of aquatic organisms. Some
researchers believe the long-term effects will be found to be considerable, and
potentially catastrophic, in some locations.
Kim Ferguson, Great Smokey Mountains National Park, NC
 CHAPTER 4

Wastewater Pre-Treatment Technologies

Itheirprevious
N sections of this chapter, the principal categories of pollutants and
effects were identified. This section will discuss the various methods
employed to treat the pollutants to produce cleaner wastewater discharges to
surface waters.

4.1 WASTEWATER TREATMENT UNIT OPERATIONS

Nearly 16,000 wastewater treatment plants are currently in operation in the

United States. They range in size from the 1 billion gallon per day (GPD)
Chicago main wastewater treatment plant to smaller package plants with flow
rates in the vicinity of 5,000 GPD or less. For all facilities, whatever the size,
wastewater is treated in a train of sequential treatment processes.
Primary treatment (or pre-treatment) involves unit operations such as
screening, equalization, neutralization, sedimentation, air stripping,
coagulation and precipitation, chelation, oxidation, oil removal, flotation, and
temperature reduction. Primary treatment removes many of the gross
contaminants such as grit, solids, and oil. Primary treatment may also include
unit operations that condition or process wastewater (such as ammonia or
sulfide stripping, or metals removal) so that it will be more suitable for
secondary treatment and to protect downstream equipment.
Most of the types of primary treatment discussed below are employed to treat
municipal wastewater or industrial process wastewater. Certain of these
treatment processes can also apply to treating contaminated groundwater that
has been extracted from the earth.
Secondary treatment (or biological treatment) involves biological oxidation
of organic and inorganic pollutants. The bulk of pollutant removal occurs
during secondary treatment.
Tertiary treatment is applied to secondary effluents to improve effluent
quality beyond the 30/30 (BOD/TSS) general secondary treatment standard. In

41
42

Figure 4.1. Unit Operations for a Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Facility [15].
 Screening and Grit Removal 43

Figure 4.2. Typical Pretreatment Unit Operations [15].

some locales, tertiary treatment standards have specific numeric values for
BOD, TSS, N, P and other parameters. Tertiary treatment is provided to reduce
TSS, nutrients and refractory compounds.
Figure 4.1, Alternative Wastewater Treatment Technologies, illustrates an
integrated system of sequential treatment processes capable of treating a variety
of plant wastewaters.
The first unit operations are engaged in removing or modifying the physical
properties of the wastewater, such as the removal of grit, rocks, cans and other
large solids in a grit chamber or bar screen. These primary treatment unit
operations are illustrated in Figure 4.2.

4.2 SCREENING AND GRIT REMOVAL

Industrial and municipal wastewater treatment facilities generally employ

some method of screening and/or grit removal to protect downstream
equipment from physical damage or abrasion. For many industries, grit
removal is not a problem, but for Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs),
grit removal is a necessity.
Almost all wastewater treatment plants employ some form of screening to
remove large solids. This can range from a simple manual screen with 2 inch
spacing to sophisticated traveling bar screens and mechanical sieves. Most
screening operations are installed to remove junk and debris from the waste
stream to protect pumps, aerators, clarifier drive rakes, and other devices from
damage.
44 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

4.3 EQUALIZATION

Equalization basins or tanks are installed to minimize severe fluctuations in

wastewater characteristics such as pollutant concentrations, pH, and flow rate.
In some industrial treatment plants, the equalization basin is accompanied by a
parallel spill basin to capture highly concentrated spillage. Equalization basins
are also used to store wastewater to feed biological plants in times of
interruption of wastewater flow. These interruptions occur during process
shutdowns, on holidays (especially Christmas), and during planned plant
maintenance shutdowns.
Figure 4.3 illustrates the equalization and load balancing effects of a
pharmaceutical wastewater influent COD in a variable-volume/flow
equalization basin. With no equalization, the COD concentration fluctuates
widely, with a peaking factor of approaching 2.5 for the highest concentration.
By providing a 24-hour detention time, COD variability is reduced
dramatically, as indicated in Figure 4.3 (note the elimination of frequent spikes
in COD concentration).
Industrial facilities that periodically manufacture high strength batch loads
of wastewater and facilities subject to spills should install a spill basin with an
automatic bypass activated by a chemical monitor upstream of the equalization
basin, as indicated in Figure 4.4.
An equalization basin is a large tank or basin located after gross screening
operations and upstream of other pretreatment processing units. Equalization
basins may be equipped with mixers to promote blending and minimize solids
settling. As intermittent flows containing high concentrations of pollutants or
extreme fluctuations in pH enter the basin, they become diluted with
wastewater already in the basin, thereby equalizing or dampening wastewater
variability.

Figure 4.3. Equalization Load Balancing Analysis [15].

Figure 4.4. Use of High-Strength Holding Pond for Spills [15].

Figure 4.5. Equalization Basin Types [15].

45
46

TABLE 4.1. Settling Characteristics Of Pulp And Paper-Mill Wastes [15].

Removal % OR,
Flow, million Raw SS, Raw BOD, Detention
Type of waste gal/day Ppm Ppm Temp., ∞F SS BOD time, h gal/ (d ft2)
Paperboard 4.5 2,500 450 85 90 67 5.35 504
0.75 136 85 90 50 1.15 940
1.36 10,000 360 62 85 24 5.4 430
2.5 1,185 395 96.1 19 5.3 525
31 524 195 110 42 25 9.4 438
30 850 250 95 80 25 0.5 1910
3.3 2,000 90 85 2.6 1028
0.25 50 100 100 80 25 4.5 39
0.301 1,150 250 110 98 50 90
35 4,000 200 100 90 10–15 1.5 374
Specialty 9.4 203 97 81 94 86 2.56 832
2.2 6,215 120 120 91 90 1.5 157
1.8 665 620 95 91 58 0.5 406
50 120 85 100 80 16 18.2 477
Fine Paper 6 200 65 95 90 3.9 695
6.0 254 235 90 50 34 2.2 890
9.9 500 364 70–100 90 35 2.4 1120
3.5 300 250 65 95 48 6.0 372
7.5–9.0 560 126 65 80 42 4.0 670
Miscellaneous 7 430 250 70 70 20 1.8 505
14 1, 000 330 73 65 60 911
25 75 100 90 0 6.9 17
17 100 425 95 50 5.9 846
0.5 200 200 85 90 1.9 1590
1.0 1,000 900 100 95 2.9 509
 Primary Clarification 47

Figure 4.5 illustrates the operation of three types of equalization basins. The
three types shown are: (a) constant flow/mixed, (b) variable flow/mixed, and
(c) constant flow/aerated. If the wastewater flow rate is constant, a constant
volume basin can be employed to equalize pH or contaminant concentrations. If
both flow and concentration are variable, a variable volume basin with a
constant withdrawal rate is employed to equalize mass discharge. If the
wastewater is readily degradable, oxygen should be provided to avoid septic
conditions and the generation of odors.
Equalization basins are a requirement for most chemical manufacturing
plants with multiple processing trains, plants that produce toxic wastewaters,
plants with high variability in organic loading or pH, and plants that are indirect
dischargers and must control discharges to municipalities by discharging
during the evening or on weekends.
Typical design parameters for equalization basins are summarized in Table
4.1.

4.4 PRIMARY CLARIFICATION

Primary clarification, or sedimentation, is employed to remove suspended

solid materials from influent wastewaters. For municipal wastewaters, a
well-designed primary clarification system should remove 50 to 70 percent of
the suspended solids and 25 to 40 percent of the incoming BOD. Some influent
suspended solids exert high BOD, and it is more cost effective to remove them
instead of attempting to treat the BOD in secondary treatment systems. Some
influent suspended solids, such as metal hydroxides, can contaminate
secondary sludges or interfere with secondary unit operations, and must be
removed.
Primary sedimentation is accomplished in settling lagoons or primary
clarifiers. In a clarifier, it is necessary to reduce the mixing and velocity of the
wastewater such that solids with a specific gravity greater than 1.0 (the specific
gravity of water) can be allowed to settle to the bottom of the tank.
At the bottom of the tank, the settled particles form a sludge blanket that
begins to compress and thicken as the incoming sludge packs the older sludge.
Sludge rakes travel along the bottom of the tank to help thicken the blanket and
to assist in sludge removal. The sludge is siphoned or pumped off the bottom
along the length of the rakes or is plowed to the center of the clarifier to a sludge
hopper and pumped away. The sludge is then removed, digested, stabilized,
dewatered, recycled, incinerated, composted, or landfilled. Some primary
clarifiers are equipped with surface skimmers to remove floatable solids,
grease, and oils.
Clarifiers come in two configurations: circular and rectangular. Figure 4.6,
Circular Clarifier, is a section drawing of a circular clarifier and illustrates its
operation. In this illustration, influent enters the unit from the center or influent
48 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 4.6. Circular Clarifier [15].

well and immediately encounters a circular baffle or center cage, which serves
to distribute the hydraulic force vectors radially, to minimize short circuiting
and to direct the flow downward. As the influent flows downward, settling
occurs and the settled sludge is moved to a center sludge sump by rotating
sludge plows. The clarified effluent then flows over a weir into an effluent
launder after being skimmed for floatable solids by a scum skim.
Primary clarification can be highly effective in removing some
contaminants. Table 4.1 provides primary clarification data for pulp and
paper-mill wastewaters, and shows substantial TSS removal at different
clarifier surface loading rates.

4.5 NEUTRALIZATION

Many industrial wastewaters contain basic (caustic) or acidic materials

requiring pH adjustment prior to treatment. Adequate pH control is essential to
most waste treatment operations. Biological treatment plants require influent
pH in the 6.5 to 8.5 range. Chemical precipitation units often require pH
adjustment approaching the extremes of the pH scale. As noted in the earlier
discussion on equalization, pH can be adjusted rather simply by equalization;
i.e., allowing large volumes of wastewater to mix and thus dampen pH
fluctuations. Where equalization is insufficient or impractical for adequate pH
adjustment, further adjustment can be accomplished by addition of alkaline or
acid materials through a process called neutralization. Alkaline wastes can be
neutralized with any strong acid, sulfuric acid being the most widely used. Acid
wastes can be neutralized with lime products such as limestone (CaCO3),
quicklime (CaO), hydrated lime [Ca(OH2)], sodium bicarbonate, sodium
hydroxide, or other caustic material.
Neutralizing agents are usually added in relatively small sequential reactors
and agent addition is controlled by instrumentation or computer control. Figure
 Oil Removal 49

Figure 4.7. Multistage Neutralization Process (Courtesy of Envirex, Inc.).

4.7, illustrates a typical neutralization system. A pH probe is located in each

reactor and feeds back a 4 to 20 milliamp signal to an electronic controller that
calculates the response needed and sends a signal to a control valve that opens
and closes as necessary to dose neutralizing agents to maintain pH within the
desired set points.
This stepwise addition of chemicals promotes the conservation of
neutralizing agents and provides optimum pH control and response to wide
fluctuations in influent pH. The multistage system also provides better control
when wastewater flow rates increase or decrease quickly. One alternative is to
build a single, large, well-mixed neutralization tank. While this alternative is in
wide use in potable water treatment plants and is used at wastewater facilities
with very stable influent pH readings, it is not practical for wastewater
treatment plants that have to cope with significant variations in pH and/or flow
rate. For these facilities, the installation of an equalization basin (a large surface
impoundment) may be in order.

4.6 OIL REMOVAL

Industries involved in processing basic petrochemical stocks, steel mills,

machine shops, slaughter houses, certain food processing plants, tire plants, and
many other facilities are required to remove oil prior to discharge. Effluents
50 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

from these operations vary a great deal in oil content, ranging from 10 to
100,000 mg/l or more. Oil may be classified as free, emulsified, or soluble. Free
oils are usually not uniformly dispersed within the water, readily float to the
surface and appear as sheens, sheets, or globules. Emulsified oil is usually
dispersed in the water to form a stable non-homogeneous mixture. Soluble oil is
defined as a very fine emulsion in which the oil particle has become chemically
bonded to the water to form a single stable liquid.
Oil removal is accomplished by decantation, flow-through gravity
separators, (e.g., API type separators), skimmers, coalescers, centrifuges,
dissolved and induced air flotation, filtration, membrane technologies, and
chemical and biological treatment.
Most oils found in wastewater have a specific gravity of less than 1.0, so they
float to the water surface where they can be removed by skimming.
Conventional oil skimmers work by removing the free oil and grease (O & G)
that has floated to the surface, preventing it from building up in the separator.
For these conventional skimmers and separators to work effectively, a
quiescent zone must be established in the flow path to allow free oil globules to
float to the surface in order to be skimmed. This skimmer-separator
combination can reduce the free oil concentrations to about 25 to 100 mg/l,
provided the influent concentration is less than 10,000 mg/l.
Other types of separators have been developed to enhance separation by
promoting the formation of larger oil globules from smaller globules. In these
higher efficiency separators, the smaller globules are caused to agglomerate in

Figure 4.8. Oil and Solids Separation on a Corrugated Coalescing Plate (Courtesy of AquaTrend,
Inc.).
 Oil Removal 51

Figure 4.9. Corrugated Plate Separator (Courtesy of Hoffland Environmental, Inc.).

a common location where they attach and coalesce to form larger globules that
tend to rise much faster to the surface. Such designs include inclined plate,
vertical tube, and vertical plate separators.
Inclined plate separators work by stacking a set of plates at an angle with
respect to the flow. The number and size of these plates is usually calculated by
Stoke’s Law. The oil globules rise to the plate immediately above, collect at the
bottom of each plate, coalesce with other globules and rise to the surface.
Figures 4.8 and 4.9 illustrate the operation of a typical corrugated plate oil
separator. Figure 4.8, Oils and Solids Separation on a corrugated Coalescing
Plate, shows how oil globules are positioned to coalesce into larger globules
and float to the liquid surface, while solids are separated from the oil and water
and fall to the bottom of the unit.
Figure 4.9 illustrates how a typical slant-plate separator works. Oily influent
enters the CPI in a large chamber that serves to slow the fluid entrance velocity
and promote the settling of solids into the grit hopper. The influent then passes
52 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

through a distribution baffle to the inclined plate pack. Inside the pack the oil
droplets are encouraged to rise (see Figure 4.8) along the bottom surfaces of the
plates to the top of the unit. Solids slide to the bottom, as indicated in the
schematic. Water passes through the plate pack and rises over the effluent weir
to the discharge pipe. The effluent pipe is positioned below the layer of floating
oil. Oil must be removed either manually or automatically, so that the oil layer
does not extend down to the effluent water pipe.
The vertical tube separator relies on placing a number of closely packed
perforated tubes in the flow path. The tube material is usually an oleific or oil
attracting substance. As the oil/water mixture is pushed through the
perforations, the oil particles that contact the tube material tend to adhere to it
until enough oil is collected to slide along the tube to the surface.
The vertical plate separator relies on forming long and narrow channels by
placing a number of vertical plates parallel to each other and in the direction of
the flow. The height of the plates and the distance between them are such that
the flow is laminar and practically two-dimensional. This creates a parabolic
velocity profile between the plates. Due to the nature of the velocity profile, an
oil bubble is subjected to a velocity gradient across its diameter causing it to
spin. The spin weakens the surface tension bond between the smaller oil

®
Figure 4.10. The HYDRASEP Principle (Courtesy of GNESYS, Inc.).
Figure 4.11. Example Of General Arrangement For API Separator (Courtesy of the American
Petroleum Institute).

TABLE 4.2. Typical Efficiencies Of Oil Separation Units [15].

Oil Content Oil COD SS
Oil removed, removced, removed,
Influent, mg/l Effluent, mg/l % Type % %
300 40 87 Parallel Plate – –
220 49 78 API – –
108 20 82 Circular – –
108 50 54 Circular 16 –
98 44 55 API – –
100 40 60 API – –
42 20 52 API – –
2000 746 63 API 22 33
1250 170 87 API – 68
1400 270 81 API – 35

53
54 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 4.12. Dissolved Air Flotation System (Drawing courtesy Pan American Environmental).

particles and the water and subjects them to induced lift forces that cause the oil
globules to agglomerate, coalesce and rise. Figure 4.10 illustrates the parallel
plate design of the HYDRASEP® oil/water separator.
To reduce oil concentrations further, specialized equipment must be used. To
achieve oil concentrations of less than 1 mg/l, membrane technologies (such as
reverse osmosis), special solvent extractors, oleofilters, paper media filters,
resin or ceramic adsorbers, activated clays, and specialized biological or
chemical systems may be used. All of the above devices can be preceded by an
emulsion breaking step such as the addition of acids, polymers, or other
chemicals.
Oil/water separators are used frequently in groundwater remediation
projects, especially UST cleanups. Oil/water separators are used typically for
light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) chemicals or oils (i.e., floaters).
The API separator, illustrated in Figure 4.11, is widely used in the petroleum
industry. Table 4.2 provides data on the performance of oil removal for API,
parallel plate and circular oil/water separators.

4.7 FLOTATION

Air flotation systems are employed to remove and thicken suspended solids
as well as to remove oil. Flotation involves introducing air into a wastewater
stream contained in a tank, in the form of a froth (induced air flotation) or tiny,
discrete bubbles (dissolved air flotation).
Induced air flotation (IAF) systems beat wastewater into a froth using a high
speed, mechanical surface aerator/mixer, or a venturi-type air inducer (see
 Flotation 55

Figure 4.13. Induced Air Flotation System (Wemco Envirotech Company).

below). The froth collects oil and solids and is displaced into a surface trough
separating the oil and solids from the wastewater.
In dissolved air flotation (DAF), compressed air and recycled water is
blended with wastewater at a pressure of about 60 pounds per square inch (psi).
The mixture is released at atmospheric pressure near the bottom of the flotation
tank. The air, which was dissolved in solution at 60 psi, is suddenly released to
atmospheric pressure, forming millions of tiny bubbles that rush to the surface
to find equilibrium with ambient atmospheric pressure. These bubbles trap and
lift solids and O & G and bring them to the surface where a thick, spongy float
or supernatant is formed and removed by a mechanical skimmer. Figure 4.12
illustrates a typical DAF system, and 4.13 depicts one type of air flotation
system.
Dissolved Air Flotation performance data for several widely dissimilar
wastewaters are presented in Table 4.3

TABLE 4.3. Air Flotation Treatment Of Oily Wastewaters [15].

Oil Concentration, mg/l
Removal,
Wastewater Coagulant, mg/l Influent Effluent %
Refinery 0 125 35 72
100 alum 100 10 90
130 alum 580 68 88
0 170 52 70
Oil tanker ballast 100 alum + 1 mg/l polymer 133 15 89
water
Paint manufacture 150 alum + 1 mg/l polymer 1900 0 100
Aircraft maintenance 30 alum + 10 mg/l 250–700 20–50 >90
activated silica
Meat packing 3830 270 93
4360 170 96
Jim Crawford, Ocracoke, NC
 CHAPTER 5

Biological Treatment Technologies

ECONDARY
Soperations ,thator remove
biological, treatment technologies comprise those unit
biodegradable compounds from wastewater. One
variety, activated sludge treatment, removes most of the BOD treated in
municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants. Secondary treatment
technologies are generally preceded by one or more of the pretreatment
operations described earlier in the previous chapter.
Many types of biological treatment systems are in use today. Their defining
feature is the use of biomass—i.e., bacteria, protozoans, rotifers, and other
microorganisms—to remove BOD by degrading organic pollutants via
biochemical metabolic processes. The tremendous power and versatility of
biological systems derives from the fact that virtually every organic substance,
no matter how toxic to many or most organisms, is attractive food to some
species of microorganisms, in appropriate concentrations and under the right
conditions.
Biological reactors, accordingly, are carefully controlled environments in
which conditions are maintained for optimum biomass synthesis (i.e., growth)
and organic degradation, based on the organics being treated. Biodegradable
wastewaters are contacted with (or fed to) microorganisms acclimated to
degrade soluble and suspended organic compounds.
Biological systems are operated as aerobic, facultative, anaerobic, and
anoxic reactors. Aerobic processes occur in the presence of dissolved oxygen.
Obligate aerobes (microorganisms requiring oxygen to survive) are the
predominant microorganisms in aerobic reactors. The oxygen may be supplied
through mechanical means, by the vaporization of liquid oxygen, or by natural
absorption of oxygen in solution by gas/liquid transfer from the atmosphere
and/or by photosynthesis.
Facultative processes involve microorganisms that can operate effectively
both in the presence of low concentrations of oxygen and in the absence of
oxygen. Anaerobic processes operate in the strict absence of oxygen. Anoxic

57
58 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

reactors operate in the general absence of molecular oxygen and are typically
used for denitrification.
The major organic removal mechanism for most wastewaters is
bio-oxidation using aerobic processes. The microorganisms, or biomass, are
fed organic wastewaters in the presence of oxygen. Some organics are rapidly
adsorbed and the remaining organics undergo progressive biodegradation in the
reactor. Bacterial cells in the floc (a floc is an aggregation of bacterial or
chemical particles) secrete exocellular enzymes that break complex
compounds into simpler compounds that can be absorbed into individual cells
where they are metabolized.
The organic compounds are eventually converted into carbon dioxide and
water via biological metabolic pathways, a process described as mineralization.
The degradation of the organic compounds results in the growth of microbial
cells and the consumption of oxygen. The cells, in turn, undergo self or
auto-oxidation (defined as endogenous metabolism) as shown in Figure 5.1.
The following simplified equation describes the general process:

Organic compounds + Biomass + Oxygen + Nitrogen + Phosphorus = New

biomass growth + Biomass + CO2 + H2O + Non-biodegradable soluble residue

The biomass growth, including new growth and dead cells, must eventually
be removed from the system. Almost all biological reactors require the removal
of excess biological solids, i.e., sludge (more commonly known as biosolids).
To reduce mass, biosolids may be aerobically digested:

Biomass + O2 = CO2 + H2O + N + P + non-biodegradable cellular residue

Figure 5.1. The Mechanisms of Aerobic Biological Oxidation [16].

 Biological Treatment Technologies 59

Figure 5.2. Reactions Occurring During Biooxidation [15].

The first equation describes the removal of soluble organic matter by

bio-oxidation. Two other important methods of organic removal should also be
noted (see Figure 5.2). Colloidal organic matter (very small organic particles
that do not readily settle and that generally carry an electrostatic charge)
becomes adsorbed onto the biological floc by physiochemical mechanisms,
thereby removing it from solution. Suspended organic matter is removed from
solution by physical enmeshment into the biological floc. Both colloidal and
suspended organic matter may be biologically oxidized and/or otherwise
separated from water along with the biomass. The overall reactions occurring
under aerobic conditions (as described above) are shown in Figure 5.2. This
figure illustrates batch biooxidation of a readily degradable substrate. The time
frame A-C depicts the initial linear removal of BOD in the system. Once most
of the freely available BOD has been degraded, the rate of biooxidation
declines, as illustrated in the time frame C-D. When the available substrate has
been consumed by the microorganisms, the endogenous phase is entered (D-E),
60 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

in which the microbes begin to metabolize cellular matter (note the decline in
Total Cell Weight curve).

5.1 ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT

The term “activated” refers to the “activation” of the biomass by the addition
of oxygen. The activated sludge process is relatively simple. After primary
treatment, wastewater is directed to an aeration basin that is constructed of
concrete or steel or excavated into the earth. Microorganisms are mixed with
the wastewater and aeration is provided. This mixture of wastewater and
biomass in the aeration basin is termed mixed liquor. A photomicrograph of a
typical mixed liquor, showing protozoans and well as bacterial biomass is
shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.4 is an aerial photograph of a large industrial activated sludge
wastewater treatment facility, operated by the Tennessee Eastman company. In
this photo, the primary treatment systems (upper portion of the photo), as well
as the secondary activated sludge and sludge handling operations can be seen
(lower portions of the photo).
The activated sludge treatment process is the most widely employed
wastewater treatment technology in the world. Figure 5.5, Activated Sludge
Systems, depicts typical arrangements for activated sludge aeration basins
(aerator) and secondary clarifiers
A considerable amount of biomass is used in activated sludge treatment. A
10 million gallon aeration basin with a mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
(MLVSS) concentration of 2,500 mg/l holds over 100 tons of biomass (on a dry
weight basis).
After contact in the aeration basin, the mixed liquor flows to a secondary
clarifier, as illustrated in Figure 5.6. Like primary clarifiers, secondary
clarifiers come in circular or rectangular configurations. A circular clarifier is a
steel or concrete tank equipped with sludge rakes, a stilling well (usually) and
mechanisms for sludge withdrawal, recycling, and wasting (the term wasting
refers to the practice of removing excess biosolids from the secondary
treatment process). Secondary clarifiers come in center, peripheral, end
(rectangular), or side (boat-type) feed modes.
Figure 5.6 illustrates a center feed clarifier in which influent mixed liquor
enters the tank from the bottom via a center influent pipe and stilling well. The
velocity of the mixed liquor is reduced from several feet per second to less than
one foot per second inside the stilling well. Under these quiescent flow
conditions, the mixed liquor flocculates, and then settles to the bottom of the
clarifier. The settled sludge falls to the bottom of the tank where it is
compressed and moved to the center of the tank by sludge rakes rotating along
the bottom of the tank. A sludge hopper is located at the center of the clarifier,
 Figure 5.3. Photomicrograph of Activated Sludge Mixed Liquor [15].

Figure 5.4. Industrial Activated Sludge Facility (Courtesy Tennessee Eastman, Kingsport, TN).

61
 Figure 5.5. Activated Sludge Systems.

Figure 5.6. Circular Secondary Clarifier (City of Libertyville, Illinois).

62
 Activated Sludge Treatment 63

on the bottom. The rakes push the sludge into the hopper where it is removed. A
portion of this thickened sludge is recycled back to the aeration basin on a
continuous basis. The rest is conveyed to a sludge handling system, where it is
processed by various means prior to disposal in a landfill, landfarm, compost
pile, or incinerator.
The clarified (clarified of solids) effluent flows from the bottom of the
stilling well towards the periphery of the tank, where weirs have been placed to
modulate and evenly distribute the flow. Some clarifiers especially those used
in sewage treatment (see Figure 5.6 above), are equipped with scum skimmers,
baffles and troughs for the removal of floatable materials. The treated effluent
overflows the tooth-shaped discharge weirs in the clarifier and into an effluent
launder (see above) The treated effluent may be processed further prior to
discharge.
The factors discussed below are critical to the success of biooxidation.

5.1.1 Organic Loading

A major and fundamental concept in biological treatment of wastewaters is

the organic loading factor F/M. F/M, which stands for food to microorganism
ratio, describes the loading rate of organic wastes to the mass of
microorganisms. If there is too little food (i.e., organic carbon), the organisms
begin to feed on intracellular materials (endogenous respiration) and
population numbers and diversity decline until the food supply stabilizes. If
there is too much food, the reactor is organically overloaded and a number of
problems, including system failure, can occur.
Sludge age is also an important factor in biological treatment systems.
Sludge age, measured in days, is defined as the amount of biomass under
aeration divided by the amount of biomass being wasted from the system each
day (lbs biomass under aeration/lbs biomass wasted per day). Too low a sludge
age and the microorganisms do not have enough time to break down and
metabolize the target compounds. Too high a sludge age and the
microorganisms will metabolize all organics available, then begin to decline
and enter the endogenous phase described above.
Figure 5.7 illustrates the fundamental relationship between sludge age and
percent BOD removal for three wastewaters of varying biodegradability. The
curves on this figure show how effluent BOD concentrations can be related to
sludge age. In general terms, a lower sludge age corresponds to a higher
remaining percentage of BOD in an effluent (see Figure 5.7), and a higher
sludge age corresponds to lower residual BOD concentrations. A higher sludge
age indicates that more microorganisms have had more time to degrade the
wastewater.
F/M is commonly calculated on the basis of BOD, although it can also be
64 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 5.7. Removal of BOD in the Activated Sludge Process [15].

calculated using total organic carbon (TOC) or chemical oxygen demand

(COD) as indicators of organic carbon concentration. F/M (BOD) can be
calculated by:

BOD, mg/l
F/M =
MLVSS, mg/l ¥ DT, days

where:

BOD = Biochemical Oxygen Demand, mg/l

MLVSS = Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids, mg/l
DT = Detention Time (Vessel volume divided by flow rate, in MGD),
day(s)
 Activated Sludge Treatment 65

Example:

200 mg/l
F/M = = 0.16
2,500 mg/l ¥ 0.5 days

An F/M of 0.2 (BOD basis) is a typical ratio for conventional activated

sludge systems. Pure oxygen and other high rate systems can operate
effectively at F/M loadings of 0.5 and higher.
F/M ratios of about 0.05 or less for conventional activated sludge systems
may produce dispersed biological flocs and can result in violations of discharge
TSS limitations. Extended aeration activated sludge treatment systems operate
at an F/M ratio of about 0.1 or less, and work quite well for many wastewaters,
especially sewage.

5.1.2 Oxygen Requirements

Oxygen is used for biological organics removal, for endogenous respiration,

to satisfy any chemical oxygen demand and for the oxidation of ammonia to
nitrate. For systems with fluctuating organic loadings, oxygen supply can be
varied by increasing blower speed or turning on additional aeration equipment.
Supplying oxygen is expensive because of the high-energy requirements
needed to operate aeration equipment, so many plants have methods of varying
oxygen supply.
There are three main methods of supplying oxygen to aeration basins:
submerged mechanical and diffused aeration, surface mechanical aeration,
and pure oxygen supply. Figure 5.8, Aeration Equipment, illustrates some of the
principal methods of aerating biological reactors. Other biological systems
such as rotating biological contactors or biological towers use different
methods of supplying oxygen, and will be briefly discussed later.
Submerged aeration systems include turbine sparging, jet aeration, and
diffused air systems. In turbine sparger systems, air is bubbled beneath a
mechanical mixer (Figure 5.8) that mixes the air bubbles with the mixed liquor.
Jet aeration systems involve pumping mixed liquor and air into a venturi, so
that the air enters a low-pressure zone that rapidly narrows in diameter into a
high-pressure zone. This increases the solubility of oxygen in the mixed liquor.
The mixture is then discharged into the aeration tank.
In diffused air systems, air blowers or compressors suck in air and pump it to
the bottom of the aeration basins through fine, medium, or coarse bubble
diffusers. Oxygen is exchanged from the air bubbles to the mixed liquor
solution via the air/liquid interface. As these bubbles rise, they impart energy to
the system, creating patterns of turbulence resulting in mixing of the mixed
66 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 5.8. Aeration Equipment [15].

liquor. Figure 5.8 shows three diffusers used in diffused aeration systems. Fine
bubble diffusers have a typical oxygen transfer efficiency of 10 to 30 percent,
medium diffusers at 5 to 15 percent, and coarse diffusers at 4 to 8 percent
efficiency.
Two other diffused aeration systems are shown in Figure 5.8. Static aeration
employs vertical, plastic, cylindrical diffusers into the bottom of which air is
blown. As the air rises it mixes with mixed liquor in a swirling fashion. The
interior of the diffuser is designed to intimately mix the air bubbles with the
mixed liquor to improve oxygen transfer, which occurs at a transfer efficiency
range of 7 to 10 percent. Bubble aeration is illustrated in Figure 5.8 and usually
employs coarse bubble socks as diffusers. Good mixing is achieved in these
systems, although oxygen transfer is relatively poor.
In surface aeration, fixed or floating aerators whip the mixed liquor into the
air and oxygen is exchanged through the froth and physical contact with the air.
Figure 5.8 shows a fixed, low speed surface aerator (radial flow) and a floating
high speed (axial flow) unit. The brush mechanical aerator shown in Figure 5.8
is effective and efficient at providing oxygen transfer and mixing in oxidation
ditch configurations.
In pure oxygen systems, an atmospheric plant extracts gaseous oxygen from
the air and condenses it into liquid oxygen (LOX) that is transferred to supply
tanks. When needed, the liquid oxygen then flows into vaporizers that reconvert
the liquid oxygen to the gaseous state where it is introduced to the biological
reactor under a nominal pressure.
 Activated Sludge Treatment 67

5.1.3 Sludge Production

Biodegradable organic wastes, or BOD, are converted into energy and

cellular biomass by the microorganisms in biological treatment plants. In
general, approximately 0.5 lbs of volatile biomass (as MLVSS) is generated for
each lb of BOD removed. A portion of this is oxidized by endogenous
oxidation, as previously discussed; the remainder represents the waste
activated sludge which must be processed and disposed.

5.1.4 Nutrient Requirements

All biological treatment systems require nutrients for metabolism just as

every living organism does. Sewage has an abundance of nutrients and nutrient
addition is not required to treat it. For many industrial wastewaters, however,
adding nutrients is essential. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are primary
nutrients. In general, the rule of thumb BOD:N:P ratio for the supply of these
nutrients is 100:5:1. In practice, N and P will exit the system with the treated
effluent and waste sludge and the nitrogen and phosphorus content of the
biomass will decrease with increasing sludge age.
Most environmental engineers recognize the need for nitrogen and
phosphorus. But many are unaware that micronutrients, or trace nutrients, are
also needed for optimum results. These include manganese, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, selenium, magnesium, cobalt, calcium, sodium, potassium, iron,
sulfur, carbonate, and other chemicals.

5.1.5 Effect Of Temperature

Reaction rates in biological systems generally double for every 10∞C rise in
temperature within the temperature range of 4 to 31∞C. Below 4∞C biological
activity in treatment reactors is greatly reduced. Low temperatures in the
cooler climates and in winter can be a serious problem for many treatment
facilities. Above 35∞C, the effects of high temperature begin to degrade
performance in most suspended growth biological systems. This is a particular
problem for many pulp and paper mills, food processors, and specialty organic
chemical manufacturing plants.

5.1.6 Effect of pH

Optimum biological activity is realized within the relatively narrow range of

6.5 to 8.5 pH units. During bio-oxidation, a considerable amount of CO2 is
generated as a result of microbial respiration. CO2 reacts with caustic wastes to
form bicarbonate, which acts to buffer changes in pH in the mixed liquor. This
buffering capacity can be overcome in certain biological systems, such as
68 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

nitrification units, and it may be necessary to add bicarbonate, lime, or caustic

to maintain optimum mixed liquor pH.

5.1.7 Effect Of Toxicity

Wastewater compounds may exert toxicity on microorganisms by interfering

with specific cellular functions or by outright poisoning of the cells. Many
organic compounds are biodegradable at lower concentrations, but are toxic at
higher concentrations. Heavy metals may not be toxic at lower concentrations,
but may accumulate in the mixed liquor until a toxic threshold is reached.
Inorganic salts or other inorganic compounds can exert inhibitory effects on
microorganisms as well. Table 5.1, summarizes some of the inhibitory or toxic
pollutants, their limiting concentrations, and the kind of pretreatment employed
to minimize biological inhibition.
Organic compounds are removed from biological systems principally by
biodegradation, stripping, and sorption by the biomass. Table 5.2, Removal
Mechanisms of Toxic Organics, summarizes the principal removal
mechanisms of pollutants in the activated sludge process.
The consequences of toxic effects on biological treatment systems can
include noncompliance with conventional, non-conventional, and priority

TABLE 5.1. Concentration of Pollutants that Make Pre-biological or Primary

Treatments Desirable [18].
Pollutant or System
Condition Limiting Concentration Kind of Pretreatment
Suspended solids >50–125 mg/l Sedimentation, flotation,
lagooning
Oil or grease >35–50 mg/l Skimming tank or separator
Toxic ions Precipitation or ion exchange
Pb £0.1 mg/l
Cu, Ni and CN £1 mg/l
Cr+6 and Zn £3 mg/l
Crp3 £10 mg/l
PH; Alkalinity <6, >9; 0.5 lb alkalinity as Neutralization for excessive
CaCO3/lb BOD removed alkalinity
Organic load variation >2:1–4:1 Equalization
Sulfides >100 mg/l Precipitation or stripping with
recovery
Phenols >70–300 mg/l Extraction, adsorption, internal
dilution
Ammonia >1.6 g/l Dilution, ion exchange, pH
adjustment and stripping
Dissolved salts >10–16 g/l* Dilution, ion exchange
Temperature 13–38∞C in reactor Cooling, steam addition
*The authors have noted deleterious effects on activated sludge systems from dissolved salts in concentrations
as low as 1 g/l. Source: Conway and Ross, 1980.
 Activated Sludge Treatment 69

TABLE 5.2. Removal Mechanisms of Toxic Organics [19].

Percent Treatment Achieved
Compound Stripping Sorption Biological
Nitrogen compounds
Acrylonitrile 99
Phenols
Phenol 99.9
2,4-Dinitrophenol 99.3
2,4-Dichlorophenol 95.2
Pentachlorophenol 0.58 97.3
Aromatics
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 21.7 78.2
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
Nitrobenzene 97.8
Benzene 2.0 97.9
Toluene 5.1 0.02 94.9
Ethylbenzene 5.2 0.19 94.6
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Methylene Chloride 8.0 91.7
1,2-Dichloroethane 99.5 0.5
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 100.0
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 93.5
1,2-DCP 99.9
TCE 65.1 0.83 33.8
Chloroform 19.0 1.19 78.8
Carbon Tetrachloride 33.0 1.38 64.9
Oxygenated Compounds
Acrolein 99.9
Polynuclear Aromatics
Phenanthrene 98.2
Naphthalene 98.6
Phthalates
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) 76.9
Other
Ethyl Acetate 1.0 98.8

pollutant limits, and noncompliance with whole effluent toxicity permit limits.
Additional consequences include potential toxic effects to the receiving stream,
and possible contamination of biosolids that could lead to landfill restrictions,
additional biosolids treatment, or limitations on land application of biosolids.
Additionally, if the effects of toxicity are sufficient to cause a serious
degradation in system performance, then it is likely that long-term problems
will continue to occur until the source of the toxicity is found and addressed.
Toxic effects on system biomass can be either acute or chronic. Biological
systems experiencing acute toxic effects can display total system failure, while
chronic toxicity usually manifests itself as degraded performance and increased
effluent toxicity.
70 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Influent toxicity can pass through the treatment system and cause whole
effluent toxicity permit violations. When this occurs, there are three options: (1)
modify the treatment system to thoroughly degrade and remove the toxics (for
example adding an activated carbon modification to an activated sludge
system), (2) provide an end-of-pipe treatment to remove the toxicants, or (3)
find and remove or treat the source(s) of the toxic chemicals. Sometimes a
combination of these options is required to achieve the desired result.
If toxicity in the effluent or toxic effects to the biological treatment system
are suspected, a toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE) may be needed. A TRE is a
very intensive investigation into wastewater components in an effort to detect
which specific process waste streams are generating the toxicity. The idea is to
find the toxic streams and either modify process chemistry and replace toxic
chemicals with nontoxic chemicals, or treat the streams separately.
A TRE is not an easy investigation to conduct. Usually an industrial waste
survey is needed to establish flow sources and to produce a mass balance for
flow characterization. Some waste sources may escape detection during the
survey. Waste streams may act synergistically; that is, individual streams may
not be toxic in isolation, but when they are combined with others, the result may
be toxic.

5.2 OTHER SUSPENDED GROWTH BIOLOGICAL

TREATMENT SYSTEMS

The biological treatment systems described thus far have all been of the
suspended growth variety: the microorganisms are maintained in suspension in
the mixed liquor being treated. Several other, more specialized suspended
growth systems are also in common use.
A number of loop-reactor or ditch system variants are popular alternatives to
the conventional activated sludge plant. In any ditch system it is necessary to
adequately match basin geometry and aerator performance in order to yield an
adequate channel velocity for mixed liquor solids suspension, aeration and
transport. The key design factors in these systems relate to the type of aeration
that is to be provided. It is normal to design for a 1 ft/s (0.3 m/s) mid-channel
velocity in order to prevent solids deposition. The ditch system is particularly
amenable to those cases where both BOD and nitrogen removal are desired.
Both reactions can be achieved in the same basin by alternating aerobic and
anoxic zones, as shown in Figure 5.9. Figure 5.10 represents an aerial view of a
typical oxidation ditch wastewater treatment plant (see Chapter 9 for
explanation of nitrification and denitrification).
Extended aeration activated sludge systems are identical to conventional
activated sludge systems except that they are operated at reduced organic
loadings (F/M about 0.1 or less).
Figure 5.9. Oxidation Ditch With Nitrification And Denitrification.

Figure 5.10. Aerial Photo of Oxidation Ditch Plant [15].

71
72 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Sequencing batch reactors (SBR) or intermittent systems are batch type

treatment systems (as opposed to continuous flow systems) operating on a large
scale. The secondary clarifier is eliminated in the SBR and bio-oxidation and
sedimentation operations are conducted in the same vessel. The aeration basins
function as the clarifier. Influent flow and aeration are periodically interrupted
to allow the biomass to settle in the aeration tank. SBRs can be configured to
operate as a single vessel, on an intermittent basis, or with two or more units
operating alternatively. Wastewater treatment operations move along the
following sequence:
(1) Fill (wastewater is introduced into the reactor);
(2) React (influent flow is stopped and the unit is aerated, mixing the settled
mixed liquor with the wastewater);
(3) Settle (blowers/aerators are turned off and the mixed liquor allowed to
settle);
(4) Decant (mechanical or hydraulic weirs are lowered into the supernatant to
extract treated wastewater) and;
(5) Idle (unit awaits next fill cycle).

Figure 5.11 illustrates the sequence of operations in a SBR biological

treatment system. Figure 5.12 is a photograph of a SBR plant in operation.

Figure 5.11. SBR Operation Sequence [15].

 Other Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Systems 73

Figure 5.12. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Plant in Operation [15].

The PACT Process (see Figure 5.13) is a modification of the activated sludge
process in which powdered activated carbon (PAC) is added to the activated
sludge for improved system performance. PAC adsorbs pollutants that are
refractory (i.e., resistant) to biodegradation because they are either partially or
strongly non-biodegradable or toxic to the microorganisms. PAC also adsorbs

Figure 5.13. The PACT Process [15].

74 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

TABLE 5.3. PAC Dosage v. Organic Carbon, Color and Heavy Metals
Removal [15].
Wastewater Composition Bioassay*
BOD TOC TS Color Cu Cr Ni LC50
Influent 320 245 70 5,365 0.41 0.09 0.52
Biotreatment 3 81 50 3,830 0.36 0.06 0.35 11
+50 mg/l PAC 4 68 41 2,900 0.30 0.05 0.31 25
+100 mg/l PAC 3 53 36 1,650 0.18 0.04 0.27 33
+250 mg/l PAC 2 29 34 323 0.07 0.02 0.24 >75
+500 mg/l PAC 2 17 40 125 0.04 <0.02 0.23 >87
*Percentage of wastewater in which 50% of aquatic organisms survive for 48 hours.

color from solution, decreases the effects of biologically inhibitory compounds

on the microorganisms, decreases variability in effluent quality, and increases
the settleability of the mixed liquor in clarifiers. Table 5.3 presents PAC
performance data at varying carbon concentrations.
Pure oxygen systems (see Figure 5.14) extract atmospheric oxygen in an
atmospherics plant, convert it to liquid oxygen, and then vaporize the gas in the
aeration trains. The systems operate at high organic loadings (F/M 0.5 or
higher). Pure oxygen activated sludge plants are most often specified to treat
high volume and high strength wastewaters. Dissolved oxygen in the aeration
basins is usually at least 6 mg/l. The high D.O. level permits operation at high
F/M ratios (>0.5), with excellent biomass settling and compaction properties.
Biomass, or MLVSS, concentrations of 4,000 to 9,000 mg/l are typical and
sludge bulking, caused by filamentous growth or other cause, is generally not a
problem.
Aerated lagoons consist of very large aeration ponds and settling ponds
which are used in place of clarifiers for solids removal.

Figure 5.14. Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge System [15].

 Attached Growth Systems 75

Aerated Lagoons have a basin of significant depth, e.g., 8 to 16 ft deep, in

which oxygenation is accomplished by mechanical or diffused aeration units
and through induced surface aeration.
There are two types of aerated lagoons: aerobic and facultative lagoons.

(1) In the aerobic lagoon, dissolved oxygen and suspended solids are
maintained uniformly throughout the basin. Because all solids are
maintained in suspension, this system may be thought of as a
“flowthrough” activated sludge system; i.e., without solids recycle. Thus,
the effluent suspended solids concentration will be equal to the aeration
basin solids concentration.
(2) In the aerobic-anaerobic or facultative lagoon, oxygen is maintained in the
upper liquid layers of the basin, but only a portion of the suspended solids is
maintained in suspension. In this lagoon, a portion of the suspended solids
settles to the bottom of the basin, where they undergo anaerobic
decomposition. The anaerobic by-products are subsequently oxidized in
the upper aerobic layers of the basin. The facultative lagoon can also be
modified to yield a more highly clarified effluent by the inclusion of a
separate post-settling pond or a baffled settling compartment.

The two types of lagoons (aerobic and facultative) are shown in Figure 5.15.
A photo of a typical aerated lagoon is shown in Figure 5.16.

5.3 ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEMS

The primary alternative to suspended growth systems are attached growth

systems, in which a fixed or fluidized medium supports the microbes. This
allows for the growth of one or more orders of magnitude of microorganisms
per unit volume than in a suspended growth system. Some common examples
are:
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) have a series of rotating plastic discs
connected to a shaft and set in an aeration basin or separate trough.

Figure 5.15. Aerated Lagoon Types [15].

76 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 5.16. Aerated Lagoon Treating Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater [15].

Microorganisms grow on the discs and metabolize wastewater passing through

the basin or trough. About 40 percent of the disc is submerged. As the disc
rotates, the slime layer growing on the disc (the biofilm) is alternately exposed
to wastewater contaminants, then to the atmosphere where oxygen is supplied.
Trickling filters are beds of stones or plastic media encased in a cylindrical
housing as shown in Figure 5.17. A rotating arm distributes wastewater as it
passes over the plastic media and biofilm. As wastewater passes over the
biofilm, the wastewater organics and oxygen diffuse into the film where
oxidation occurs, as shown in Figure 5.18. Trickling filters combine anaerobic
with aerobic and facultative biological regimens.
Trickling filter effluent requires clarification prior to discharge. Trickling
filters are not able to meet secondary treatment standards and are currently
mostly used as roughing filters to reduce organic loading to a POTW or
downstream unit operation. Figure 5.19 illustrates trickling filter organic
loadings used for the pre-treatment of a variety of industrial wastewaters.

5.4 ANAEROBIC BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Anaerobic treatment systems are also used to process organic wastewaters

and solids. Anaerobic means “without oxygen,” and the process involves the
conversion of organic wastes to usable end products and inert wastes in the
absence of oxygen.
 Figure 5.17. Plastic-Packed Trickling Filter [15].

Figure 5.18. Cross-Section of Trickling Filter Biofilm [15].

77
78 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 5.19. Pretreatment of Organic Wastewater by High-Rate Tickling Filters Using Plastic
Media [15].

The metabolic processes of anaerobic microorganisms are quite different

from those of aerobic microbes. The metabolic end products of aerobic
metabolism are carbon dioxide and water. The end products of anaerobic
metabolism are methane gas and carbon dioxide, as illustrated in Figure 5.20.
In terms of BOD, the aerobic process produces an oxidized or mineralized
end product, while anaerobic process residuals contain methane and
intermediate anaerobic products (e.g., non-volatile fatty acids). Therefore,
anaerobic processes will continue to have BOD residuals significantly higher
than those of aerobic processes.
Anaerobic treatment or metabolism of organic wastes is actually a

Figure 5.20. Mechanism of Anaerobic Digestion.

 Anaerobic Biological Treatment Systems 79

multi-stage process involving two major groups of anaerobic organisms: the

acid-producing anaerobic and facultative organisms (“acid formers”), and the
methane-producing (methanogenic) anaerobic organisms. Anaerobic reactors
use these organisms to metabolize organic wastes in two stages.
In the first stage, complex organic wastes (proteins, oils, fats, carbohydrates,
hydrocarbons, etc.) and solids are gradually broken down into simpler and
smaller molecular units by hydrolysis until they can be biologically
metabolized by acid formers into volatile organic acids such as acetic, butyric,
and propionic acids.
In the second stage, the methane formers metabolize the volatile organic
acids into methane, carbon dioxide, and small quantities of hydrogen sulfide
and hydrogen gas. The acid formers metabolize at a much higher rate than the
methane formers and can overwhelm the methane formers, resulting in process
failure. The methane generation step becomes the process-controlling step and
operations are directed at optimizing methanogenesis.
Many anaerobic reactors employ some means to recover and burn methane
gas, either to heat the bioreactors or to turn pumps and other equipment.
Anaerobic digesters (as opposed to anaerobic reactors) are employed to
sterilize, stabilize, and digest organic sludges. Anaerobic digesters are operated
at relatively high organic loading rates and produce significant quantities of
methane gas. Almost every anaerobic digester recovers and uses the methane
gas generated. Those that do not generate enough gas to recover it
cost-effectively may burn it in a flare or vent it to the atmosphere.
Anaerobic metabolism is much slower than aerobic metabolism, produces
less excess biomass requiring disposal, and has lower nutrient requirements.
Anaerobic reactors require the input of higher concentrations of organics than
do aerobic reactors, and do not have the same removal efficiencies as aerobic
reactors. Wastewaters that are high in organic content and temperature are
candidates for anaerobic treatment.
Table 5.4 provides a comparison of some of the main features of anaerobic
and aerobic processes.

TABLE 5.4. Comparison of Anaerobic and Aerobic Processes [20].

Parameter Anaerobic Aerobic
Energy requirements Low High
Degree of treatment Moderate (60–90%) High (90%+)
Sludge production Low High
Process stability (to toxic Low High
compounds or load changes)
Startup time 2–4 months 2–4 weeks
Odor Potential problems Less opportunity
Alkalinity requirements High for certain industrial wastes Low
Biogas production Yes (net benefit depends on outlet No
for heat or power)
80 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 5.21, illustrates the four most common types of anaerobic wastewater
treatment processes. The anaerobic filter reactor is an anaerobic biofilter.
Anaerobic filters can be operated in either the up or down flow mode. In Figure
5.21, the filter is operated in the up flow mode. Wastewater is pumped up
through the filter bed and, as it passes through the media, microorganisms avail
themselves of the organics in the waste stream.

Figure 5.21. Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Processes [15].

 Anaerobic Biological Treatment Systems 81

(a)

(b)
Figure 5.22. ADI-BVF Reactor Diagram (a) and Aerial Photo (b) [15].

The anaerobic contact reactor is the most common type of anaerobic reactor
currently employed and is analogous to the configuration of the conventional
activated sludge reactor, except that no aeration is provided and the
biochemistry is quite different. Since no anaerobic bacteria can be expected to
be present in the influent, a solids recycle is used to return anaerobic biomass to
the reactor to prevent washout of the needed microorganisms. Treated
wastewater flows into a scum separator/degassing unit and is then clarified for
solids removal.
82
TABLE 5.5. Anaerobic Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters COD, BOD, and SS Values for Different Wastewaters [15] (ADI-BVF
Process Data).
Raw Wastewater Anaerobic Effluent
COD, BOD, BOD/ SS, COD, BOD, BOD/ SS,
Wastewater mg/l mg/l COD mg/l mg/l mg/l COD mg/l
Potato processing 4,263 2,664 0.62 1,888 144 32 0.22 70
Yeast, cane molasses 13,260 6,630 0.50 1,086 4,420 600 0.14 883
Brewery and municipal 9,750 2,790 0.29 4,146 332 179 0.54 168
Clam processing 3,813 1,895 0.50 856 594 337 0.57 130
Corn processing and municipal 5,780 1,210 136
Hardboard mill effluent 12,930 5,990 0.46 486 2,590 740 0.29 507
Dairy wastewater 13,076 7,204 0.55 1,919 596 173 0.29 260
Semichemical pulp mill 6,826 2,221 0.32 851 3,822 524 0.14 881
Brewery 2,692 1,407 0.52 778 295 122 0.41 201
Alcohol stillage - 1 90,000 23,000 0.26
Alcohol stillage - 2 120,000 40,000 0.33 57,000 4,700 0.08
Alcohol stillage - 3 98,000 31,000 0.32 54,000 6,000 0.11
Alcohol stillage - 4 80,000 24,000 0.30 36,000 4,100 0.11
Dairy 3,250 1,970 0.61 252 372 111 0.30 55
Potato processing 1,890 1,090 0.58 341 165 98 0.59 50
Kraft foul condensates 13,960 6,710 0.48 10 1,076 660 0.61 190
Molasses stillage 65,000 25,000 0.38 5,000 15,000 1,250 0.08 500
Corn wet milling 3,510 1,700 0.48 1,080 410 133 0.32 64
Pulp and paper 5,349 2,287 0.43 3,792 965 308 0.32 199
Dairy 25,541 20,575 0.81 974 737 190 0.26 337
Dairy 19,200 10,400 0.54 3,400 770 130 0.17 500
Brewery 4,011 2,786 0.69 139 510 306 0.60 105
Industrial and domestic 3,000 1,620 0.54 550 300 105 0.35 120
(continued)
 TABLE 5.5 (continued). Anaerobic Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters COD, BOD, and SS Values for Different Wastewaters [15]
(ADI-BVF Process Data).
Raw Wastewater Anaerobic Effluent
COD, BOD, BOD/ SS, COD, BOD, BOD/ SS,
Wastewater mg/l mg/l COD mg/l mg/l mg/l COD mg/l
Dairy 8,830 7,890 0.89 1,670 150 86 0.57 53
Potato processing 8,356 5,300 0.63 5,250 1,113 486 0.44 708
Apple processing 3,994 2,441 0.61 2,573 174 87 0.50 54
Olive processing 13,395 5,550 0.41 289 2,332 786 0.34 212
Beans and pasta processing 2,604 1,200 0.46 1,285 527 0.41
Pharmaceutical 9,200 4,000 0.43 2,400 3,300 850 0.26 350
Pharmaceutical 7,100 3,300 0.46 1,000 1,490 460 0.31 170
Confectionary 10,560 6,550 0.62 1,050 320 70 0.22 180
Potato processing 12,489 5,978 0.48 9,993 4,692 1,573 0.34 2,200
Ethanol corn processing 1,155 743 0.64 20 397 204 0.51 162
83
84 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

The fluidized bed reactor is another attached growth biofilter with the
advantage of having suspended growth in the filter column as well. Biosolids
are grown on a granular media, usually sand, and the media in the filter column
are fluidized (suspended) by pumping wastewater into the bottom of the filter.
The treated wastewater is recycled at a rate corresponding to the organic
strength of the influent and to fluidize the bed.
The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor operates by distributing
influent evenly across the bottom of the reactor. It then flows upward through a
hydraulically suspended sludge bed (containing the anaerobic biomass) where
metabolism of the organics occurs. The sludge bed contains biologically
formed granules, which are critical to the process. Gases that are formed
(principally methane and carbon dioxide) rise and are captured in a gas dome
and removed. The top portion of the reactor is the clarification zone in which
treated wastewater passes over weirs and is removed from the reactor.
The ADI-BVF process is a low-rate anaerobic reactor [see Figures 5.22(a)
and (b)] with intermittent mixing and sludge recycle. The reactor has two
zones: a reaction zone at the inlet end and a clarification zone at the outlet end.
The reactor can be an aboveground tank or a lined earthen basin with a floating
insulated membrane cover for gas recovery and temperature and odor control.
Because of the large reactor volume, equalization requirements are minimized.
Performance of the ADI-BVF process treating a variety of industrial
wastewaters is shown in Table 5.5. These data show that over 90% removals for
BOD, COD and TSS can be achieved via anaerobic processing.
Conrad Conero, Braden Brook, Greenfield Park, NY
 CHAPTER 6

Physical/Chemical Treatment
Technologies

6.1 ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION

6.1.1 Granular Activated Carbon

RANULAR
Gfor decadesactivated carbon (GAC) treatment has been used successfully
in the treatment of wastewater, hazardous waste streams, and
drinking water. GAC treatment is used primarily for the removal of organic
compounds. To a limited extent, GAC is used for the removal of some metals
and other inorganic compounds. GAC treatment is generally used when
biological treatment alone is not sufficient or when the wastes are refractory
and/or toxic. Many pesticides, for example, are not biodegradable and their
waste products require carbon treatment as the best alternative. GAC is also
used to assist in reducing whole effluent toxicity, especially for complex
wastestreams where it is difficult to identify the precise pollutant(s) responsible
for test species mortality.
A process flow schematic for a typical GAC system is shown in Figure 6.1. A
raw water feed pump conveys wastewater to the GAC reactors in a either a
sequential or parallel flow pattern. In sequential flow, the wastewater enters the
top of Column 1, flows through the column to the top of Column 2, and
sequentially through the entire train. In parallel flow, the wastewater is
simultaneously pumped to the tops of Columns 1–4.
As wastewater passes through the column, soluble and insoluble wastewater
contaminants are attracted to the carbon particles due to differences in
electrochemical charges between the carbon and the contaminants. These
contaminants are adsorbed onto the surface of the carbon particle, forming a
very thin layer of adsorbate molecules over the surface. This initial adsorptive
process occurs relatively quickly. Then a secondary adsorptive phenomenon
occurs. The adsorbate layer begins to diffuse adsorbate molecules from
solution into the interior pore space of the carbon particles. This continues until

87
88 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 6.1. GAC Process Flowsheet [15].

all of the interior pore spaces of the carbon particles are saturated with
adsorbate (pollutant).
When a pathway of completely saturated carbon exists from one end of the
reactor to the other, “breakthrough” of chemical contaminants occurs,
requiring replacement with virgin or regenerated carbon. The tanks are usually
arranged in series so that when the primary column has reached breakthrough, it
can be removed from service and recharged with fresh carbon while the
remaining columns continue to treat the wastewater.
If volatile contaminants are involved, the carbon can be regenerated in situ
with steam. For complex organics, the spent carbon is regenerated thermally by
burning off the adsorbed contamination in multiple hearths or fluidized bed
furnaces at temperatures of between 1200 and 1800∞F in the presence of limited
quantities of water vapor and oxygen. Weight loss of carbon due to oxidation
and attrition is 4 to 10 percent per regeneration cycle. Large GAC systems may
be provided with a separate system to regenerate spent carbon, as seen on the
bottom of the figure. In most GAC installations, the spent carbon is periodically
removed and regenerated, or disposed, off-site by a service vendor.
As time passes, pressure increases in the carbon columns due to clogging by
influent solids and the packing of the carbon in the beds. The columns are then
backwashed by running clean water backwards through them. The backwash
water is collected for treatment, the supernatant of which is returned to the GAC
 Activated Carbon Adsorption 89

column for treatment. Solid residuals removed from the backwash cycle are
often hazardous and require special handling and disposal. If high
concentrations of suspended solids are present in the wastewater, filtration is
employed prior to the carbon columns.
Figure 6.2 is a photograph of a typical GAC installation. GAC reactors are
steel or fiberglas reinforced plastic tanks packed with activated carbon.
Depending on the nature of the wastewater, one of several modes of carbon
column design may be employed, as shown in Figure 6.3:

(1) Downflow. These are fixed beds in series. When breakthrough occurs in the
last column, the first column is in equilibrium with the influent
concentration in order to achieve a maximum carbon capacity. After carbon
replacement in the first column, it becomes the last column in a series, etc.
(Figure 6.3).
(2) Multiple units. These are operated in parallel with the effluent blended to
achieve the final desired quality. The effluent from a column ready for
regeneration or replacement, which is high in COD, is blended with the
other effluents from fresh carbon columns to achieve the desired quality
(Figure 6.3).
(3) Upflow. Expanded beds are used when suspended solids are present in the
influent or when biological action occurs in the bed (Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.2. Typical Granular Activated Carbon Installation (Courtesy of U.S. Filter).
90 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 6.3. Types Of GAC Column Design Courtesy of Calgon Carbon Corporation.

(4) Continuous counterflow. These are column or pulsed beds with the spent
carbon from the bottom (in equilibrium with influent solute concentration)
sent to regeneration. Since this design cannot be backwashed, residual
biodegradable organic content in the influent should be very low to avoid
plugging due to the growth of biomass.

6.1.1.1 Performance of GAC for Selected Wastewaters

Table 6.1 provides example removal efficiency of total organic carbon

(TOC) and carbon exhaustion rates using GAC treatment.

TABLE 6.1. GAC Performance for Various Industrial Wastewaters [15].

Carbon
Initial TOC, Average exhaustion rate,
Type of Industry mg/l reduction, % lb/1000 gal.
Food and kindred products 25–5,300 90 0.8–345
Tobacco manufacturers 1,030 97 58
Textile mill products 9–4,670 93 1–246
Apparels and allied products 390–875 75 12–43
Paper and allied products 100–3,500 90 3.2–156
Printing, publishing and allied 34–170 98 4.3–4.6
industries
Chemicals and allied products 19–75,500 85 0.7–2,905
Petroleum refining and related 36–4,400 92 1.1–141
industries
Rubber and miscellaneous plastic 120–8,375 95 5.2–164
products
Leather and leather products 115–9,000 95 3–315
Stone, clay and glass products 12–8,300 87 2.8–300
Primary metal industries 11–23,000 90 0.5–1,857
Fabricated metal products 73,000 25 606
 Activated Carbon Adsorption 91

TABLE 6.2. Effect of PAC on Nitrification of Coke Plant Wastewaters [15].

PAC feed, SRT, TOC, TKN, NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N,
mg/l days mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
0 40 31 72 68 4.0 0
33 30 20 6.3 1 4.0 9.0
50 40 26 6.4 1 1.0 13.0
* Influent conditions: TOC = 535 mg/l, TKN = 155 mg/l, NH3-N = 80 mg/l.

6.1.2 Powdered Activated Carbon

The PACT process is a modification of the activated sludge process in which

powdered activated carbon (PAC) is added to the biomass to enhance
performance. PAC offers the advantage of being able to be integrated into
existing biological treatment facilities at minimum capital cost. Since the
addition of PAC enhances sludge settleability, conventional secondary
clarifiers will usually be adequate, even with high carbon dosages.
In some industrial waste applications, nitrification is inhibited by the
presence of toxic organics. The application of PAC has been shown to reduce or
eliminate this inhibition. PAC performance for the improvement of coke plant
wastewaters is shown in Table 6.2. In this table, the data shows that at a PAC
feed concentration of 33 mg/l (compared to 0 mg/l), that biological nitrification
of ammonia is significantly enhanced, as evidenced by the reduction in
ammonia concentration from 68 to 1 mg/,l.
Increasing the dosage of PAC in activated sludge influent results in improved
effluent quality. PAC performance compared to standard biological treatment
is shown in Table 6.3. In this table, the increasing dosages of PAC are seen to
incrementally reduce TOC, color and Cu concentrations; no material
improvements in effluent BOD, TSS, LC50 concentrations are observed and
reductions in Ni and Cr are achieved only at high PAC dosages.

TABLE 6.3. PAC Dose vs. Organic Carbon, Color, and Metals Removal [21].
Wastewater Composition, mg/l
Bioassay
BOD TOC TSS Color Cu Cr Ni LC50
Influent 320 245 70 5365 0.41 0.09 0.52
Biotreatmen 3 81 50 3830 0.36 0.06 0.35 11
+ 50 mg/l PAC 4 68 41 2900 0.30 0.05 0.31 25
+ 100 mg/l PAC 3 53 36 1650 0.18 0.04 0.27 33
+ 250 mg/l PAC 2 29 34 323 0.07 0.02 0.24 >75
+ 500 mg/l PAC 2 17 40 125 0.04 <0.02 0.23 >87
92 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

6.2 ION EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

Ion exchange systems are used primarily to remove inorganic ions from
wastewater streams. These systems consist of steel or fiberglass-reinforced
plastic columns packed with synthetic resins. The resins contain ionic
functional groups to which exchangeable ions are attached. Ion exchange resins
are called anionic if they exchange negative ions (CrO-42 , SO-42 , NO3-1 , Cl - )
and cationic if they exchange positive ions (Fe+3, Pb+2, Cd+2, Ca+2, NH+4, etc.).

6.2.1 Cation Exchange

In cation exchange, cations are removed from solution by exchanging for

sodium or hydrogen ions, known respectively as the sodium and hydrogen
cycles. Cation exchange can be expressed generally as follows [22]:

Sodium cycle: Na2 R + M2+ = MR + 2Na+

or

Hydrogen cycle: H2R + M2+ = MR + 2H+

where: R represents the resin and M represents a divalent contaminant cation

exchanged.

6.2.2 Anion Exchange

Anion exchangers work on opposite charges than cation exchangers,

removing anions from solution and replacing them with hydroxyl ions (OH-),
thus:
R(OH)2 + A2- = RA + 2OH-

where: R represents the resin and A represents a divalent contaminant anion

exchanged.
As can be seen by looking at the right hand sides of the equations above, the
resin becomes increasingly depleted of innocuous ions and increasingly loaded
with contaminant ions. When an ion exchange column has reached or is nearing
breakthrough, its exchange capacity is exhausted and the column must be
regenerated. The regeneration cycle typically consists of an initial backwash to
remove entrained and coating particulates, followed by passing a regenerating
solution through the column to reverse the ionic exchange. Regenerates
 Ion Exchange Systems 93

Figure 6.4. Ion Exchange System for Chromate Removal and Water Reuse [15].

typically used include NaCl (cationic sodium cycle); H2SO4 or HCL (cationic
hydrogen cycle); or NaOH or NH4OH (anionic resins). It should be noted that
the backwash brine is likely to contain high concentrations of hazardous ions or
molecules and may require disposal as a hazardous waste.
Cationic and anionic exchangers are often used in series to provide for the
removal of both cations and anions. Ion exchange technology is used
extensively in the metals finishing industry as a treatment to remove metals
from precipitation reactors and other metals removal unit operations. Ion
exchange is also used extensively in the water treatment industry for the
removal of barium and uranium.
Figure 6.4 is a diagram of a chromate removal and water reuse ion exchange
system for metal finishing, electroplating rinsewaters and spent plating baths.
Figure 6.5 is a photo of a typical ion exchange installation. Table 6.4 provides
data for hexavalent chromium removal from a plating bath rinse water, cooling
tower discharge and pigment manufacturing wastewater, using ion exchange
technology.
 Figure 6.5. Typical Ion Exchange System (Courtesy of U.S. Filter).

TABLE 6.4. Ion Exchange Performance In Hexavalent

Chromium Removal [15].
Chromium, mg/l
Wastewater source Influent Effluent Resin capacity*
Cooling tower blowdown 17.9 1.8 5–6
10.0 1.0 2.5–4.5
7.4–10.3 1.0 –
9.0 0.2 2.5
Plating rinsewater 44.8 0.025 1.7–2.0
41.6 0.01 5.2–6.3
Pigment manufacture 1,210 <0.5 –
*lb. Chromate/ft3 resin

94
 Stripping 95

6.3 STRIPPING

6.3.1 Air Stripping For VOC Removal

Air stripping is a mass transfer operation in which a mass of volatile

groundwater or wastewater constituents is transferred from the liquid phase
(water) to the gas phase (air) and thereby removed from solution. Air stripping
occurs in many biological treatment systems, not by design necessarily but by
virtue of the aeration of the mixed liquor.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) removal in wastewater is becoming an
area of heightened interest due to increasingly stringent pretreatment and
NPDES discharge limits for VOCs. However, many regulatory agencies will
not allow stripping VOCs from wastewater with subsequent discharge to the
atmosphere. Some require that stripped VOCs be captured and treated.
Regulatory agencies increasingly require covering the equalization and
aeration basins of treatment plants treating high levels of VOCs to prevent their
release. Air stripping is used extensively to remove VOCs from contaminated
groundwater.
The removal of volatile compounds by air stripping is dependent on the
Henry’s Law constant. Table 6.5 summarizes air stripping removal rates and

TABLE 6.5. Air Stripping of Selected Compounds [20].

Henry’s Law
Constant* Solubility Observed
Compound (Dimensionless) (mg/L) Removal (%)
Benzene 0.23 1,780 90
Carbon tetrachloride 1.26 800 89
(tetrachloromethane)
Chlorobenzene 0.16 448 97
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 0.21 4,400 99
Chloroform (trichloromethane) 0.14 7,840 99
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 0.081 100 93
1,3-Dichlorobenzene 0.11 123 95
1,4-Dichlorobenzene 0.11 79 97
1,2-Trans-dichloroethylene 0.22 6,300 84
1,2-Dichloropropane 0.123 2,700 98
Ethylbenzene 0.27 152 99+
Bromoform (tribromomethane) 0.022 3,190 92
Dichlorobromomethane 0.088 – 98
Chlorodibromomethane 0.033 – 97
Naphtalene 0.0017 30 91
Nitrobenzene 0.0001 1,900 28
Toluene 0.25 515 96
Trichloroethylene 0.49 1,000 98
*Experimentally determined values at 25∞C.
96 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Henry’s Law constants (experimentally determined for 25∞C) and solubility for
selected compounds.
Figure 6.6 conceptually shows the relationships between percent pollutant
removals, media height and air-to-water ratios. As the figure indicates, the
percentage of pollutant removal improves with increased air applied to water
(air-to-water ratio) and stripping tower height (more stripping time).
In a stripping tower, removal of volatiles is a function of the air to
liquid ratio and the tower height for any specific packing, as shown in
Figure 6.7.
There are five basic configurations for air stripping: packed column, aeration
basin, shallow tray, coke tray aerator, and the cross flow tower. The most
common type of air stripping configuration is the packed tower, as shown in
Figure 6.7. The packed column air stripper is a tall cylinder filled with ceramic
saddles or plastic media that have been specifically designed to expand the
surface area of a volume of water to increase its exposure to air as it falls down
the column.
Packed columns operate on the principle of counter current flow.
Groundwater or wastewater is pumped downward from the top of the tower and
air is blown upward into the bottom of the tower, counter to the direction of the
wastewater flow. VOCs in the water seek equilibrium with VOCs in the
surrounding air. VOCs move from the liquid phase to the gas phase because a
concentration gradient between VOCs in liquid and the water/air interface

Figure 6.6. Relationships of Removal Efficiencies, Media Height and Air-to-Water Ratios [15].
 Stripping 97

Figure 6.7. Schematic Diagram of Typical Air Stripping Column [15].

exists, and because the physical properties of the VOCs allow them to partition
(i.e., transfer) from the liquid to the gas phase.
If the air were recirculated in a closed loop air stripping system, an
equilibrium in concentration between the water and air phases would be
reached and further partitioning between phases would not occur. But since
fresh clean air is constantly introduced to the stripping column, the water
encounters increasingly clean (low VOC) air as it cascades down the column,
and the concentration gradient is maintained.
The treated water is generally discharged to surface water under an NPDES
permit. The air containing the VOCs passes through a de-mister to remove large
water droplets and is usually discharged directly to the atmosphere, although
some regulatory agencies require vapor phase carbon treatment or other
treatment for VOC capture or destruction. This requirement can shift the
economics of air stripping, such that another treatment technology may warrant
consideration.

6.3.2 Ammonia Removal

Air stripping is an effective method for wastewater containing high

concentrations of ammonia. Ammonia can be air stripped at high pH in which
most of the ammonia exists in the non-ionic form (NH3). In practice,
wastewater pH is raised to above 10 units using caustic soda prior to stripping.
Air stripping for ammonia removal is usually achieved in packed cooling
towers.

6.3.3 Steam Stripping

Steam stripping may be applied for the removal of high concentrations of

98 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 6.8. Typical Steam Stripping Process.

volatile organics or ammonia. The principal factor used to estimate the steam
stripping capability is the boiling point of the organic compound. A compound
should exhibit a relatively low boiling point (<150∞C) and an acceptably high
Henry’s Law constant for effective steam stripping. A contaminated
condensate is produced that may be recovered or treated further.
A basic steam stripping system is illustrated in Figure 6.8. Raw wastewater is
preheated in a steam heat exchanger and conveyed to the top of the stripping
tower where it falls through the packed column. Steam is injected into the
bottom of the tower and rises counter current to the influent flow, stripping and
entraining the volatile components in the rising steam flow. The steam/liquid
vapor is conveyed to a condenser where the gas and liquid phases are separated.
The liquid portion is often then passed through an oil/water separator or other
separation unit to separate light and heavy fractions from the condensed
water. The decanted stripped condenser liquid is returned to the stripper
(reflux). Treated wastewater exits the steam stripper from the bottom of the
column.
Performance characteristics of full-scale steam stripping operations are
summarized in Table 6.6. These data show that steam stripping is an effective
unit operation for the removal of volatile compounds from a number of
wastewaters. Removal efficiencies of 99.99% and better are possible for some
wastestreams, even at high influent concentrations. For some wastestreams the
stripping efficiency for specific contaminants are not as good as for other
wastestreams (see Table 6.6 for the differences in percent removals for toluene
and chloroform, for example). These differences can be caused by the
 Coagulation and Flocculation 99

TABLE 6.6. Full-Scale Industrial Steam Stripper Performance Summary [15].

Plants Vapor Concentration,

Using Henry’s Pressure, ppm
Steam Stripped Constant, mmHg @ Percent
Stripping Compound Atm 25∞C Influent Effluent Removal
Pesticide industry
Plant 1 Methylene chloride 177 425 <159 <0.01 99.9
Plant 2 Chloroform 188 180 70.0 <5.0 <92.6
Plant 3 Toluene 370 29 721 43.4 94.0
Organic chemicals industry
Plant 4 306 74 <15.4 <0.230 98.5
Plant 5 177 425 <3.02 <0.0141 99.5
370 29 178 <52.8 >70.3
Plant 6a 177 425 1430 <0.0153 >99.99
1280 113 <665 <0.0549 >99.99
188 180 <8.81 1.15 <86.9
Plant 6b 177 425 4.73 <0.0021 >99.95
188 180 <18.6 <1.9 89.8
62 82 <36.2 <4.36 88.0
1280 113 <9.7 <0.030 99.7
306 74 24.1 <0.042 >99.8
370 29 22.3 <0.091 >99.6
Plant 7 177 425 34 <0.01 >99.97
188 180 4509 <0.01 99.99
1,2-Dichloroethane 82 82 9030 <0.01 >99.99

configuration and operation of the steam stripping equipment and/or

wastewater chemistry. Steam stripping may not be suitable as a final step for all
wastewaters, however, and additional treatment may be warranted.

6.4 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Coagulation and flocculation techniques are used to separate suspended and

colloidal matter from water when the natural sedimentation rate of the
suspended matter is too low to provide effective clarification. Most wastewater
contains both settleable solids and non-settleable solids. A large portion of the
latter may be colloidal in nature; i.e., each particle is stabilized by negative
electrical charges on its surface and surrounding it. These small, negatively
charged colloids repel one another, much as do the negative poles on magnets,
and this repulsion prevents the particles from clumping together to form larger,
more settleable solids.
Coagulation is the destabilization of these colloids by neutralizing the
negative charges on the colloidal surfaces that keep the particles apart. This is
accomplished by adding chemical coagulants and mixing the solution together
so that the coagulants can neutralize the colloidal particle surfaces. Salts of
100 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 6.9. Mechanisms of Coagulation and Flocculation [15].

aluminum or iron and polyelectrolytes are used for colloidal charge

neutralization.
Flocculation is a different mechanism that is used to promote sedimentation
of suspended matter, although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
After chemical coagulation, the colloidal particles tend to clump together, but
they often do not clump together in sufficient numbers to settle rapidly enough.
Chemical flocculants are added to a coagulated wastewater to tie the colloidal
clumps together in a process termed “bridging” to increase the floc size.
The mechanisms of coagulation and flocculation are depicted in Figure 6.9.
On the left side of the figure we have depicted the destabilization of the colloids
by rapid mixing and addition of the appropriate coagulant. Like-charged
colloidal particles and recombined in solution with opposite charged coagulant
chemicals to cause coagulation of the colloidal particles with the coagulant.
The coagulants cause a “bridging effect” that binds the colloidal masses
together. Once coagulation has occurred it is necessary to clump the coagulant
flocs together into larger flocs, as illustrated on the right side of the figure.
Flocculation chambers are characterized by low mixing regimens that
encourage floc stabilization and formation. Once good flocculation occurs the
density of the solid particles is such that they fall through the water column and
settle to the bottom. This third phase is termed sedimentation.
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation may be carried out in plain
tanks or specially designed reactor clarifiers, as depicted in Figure 6.10. Table
6.7 lists commonly used chemical coagulants and their applications in
wastewater treatment.
The reactor clarifier depicted below is designed to effect coagulation,
 Coagulation and Flocculation 101

flocculation and sedimentation in a single tank. Wastewater is conveyed to the

rapid mixing cell in which coagulants are injected. This rapid mixing cell is
equipped with a mechanical agitator that thoroughly mixes the incoming raw
wastewater with the coagulants to effect coagulation. The coagulated
wastewater (see illustration below) flows into the flocculation chamber in
which the mixing velocity is greatly reduced, thereby promoting flocculation.
The flocculated wastewater mixture is then contacted with sludge that has
already precipitated and settled in the tank. The combination of low mixing
level, time to react and contact with thickened sludge promotes flocculation and
sedimentation. The settled sludge is removed from the bottom of the vessel, as
indicated in the figure.
Paperboard wastes can be effectively coagulated with low dosages of alum.
The subsequent addition of silica or polyelectrolyte aids in the formation of a
rapid settling floc.
Wastes containing emulsified oils, or emulsions, can be clarified by
coagulation. An emulsion can consist of droplets of oil in water. The oil
droplets are extremely small, typically 10–5 cm in diameter, and are stabilized
by adsorbed ions. Emulsifying agents promote the suspension of fine oil
droplets in solution, and include soaps and anion-active agents. Mechanical
shearing can also form oil/water emulsions.
An oil emulsion can be broken by “salting out” with the addition of salts,
such as CaCl2, to achieve charge neutralization which promotes
demulsification. Free oil droplets can then agglomerate, coalesce and float; and
separated particulates/floc can coagulate and flocculate resulting in

Figure 6.10. Reactor Clarifier Designed for Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation [15].
102

TABLE 6.7. Chemical Coagulant Applications [15].

Dosage Range
Chemical Progress mg/L pH Comments)
Lime 150–500 9.0–11.0 For colloid coagulation and P removal. Wastewater with low alkalinity, and
high and variable P. Basic Reactions:
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 Æ 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 Æ Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
Alum 75–250 4.5–7.0 For colloid coagulation and P removal. Wastewater with high alkalinity and low
and stable P. Basic Reactions:
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2 Æ 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
FeCl3, FeCl2 35–150 4.0–7.0 For colloid coagulation and P removal.
FeSO4, 7H2O 70–200 4.0–7.0 Wastewater with high alkalinity and low and stable P. Where leaching of iron in
the effluent is allowable or can be controlled. Where economical source of
waste iron is available (steel mills, etc.). Basic Reactions:
FeCl3 + 3H2O Æ Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
Cationic polymers 2–5 No change For colloid coagulation or to aid coagulation with a metal. Where the buildup
of an inert chemical is to be avoided.
Anionic and some nonionic polymers 0.25–1.0 No change Use as a flocculation aid to speed flocculation and settling and to toughen
floc for filtration.
Weighting aids and clays 3–20 No change Used for very dilute colloidal suspensions for weighting.
 Coagulation and Flocculation 103

TABLE 6.8a. Coagulation of Industrial Wastewaters [15].

Analysis
a
Ball bearing manufacture Influent Effluent
pH 10.3 7.1
Suspended solids, mg/l 544 40
Oil and grease, mg/l 302 28
Fe, mg/l 17.9 1.6
PO4, mg/l 222 8.5

TABLE 6.8b.

Laundromat Influent, mg/l Effluent, mg/l

ABS 63 0.1
BOD 243 90
COD 512 171
PO4 267 150
CaCl2 480
Cationic surfactant 88
pH 7.1 7.7

TABLE 6.8c.
b
Latex-base paint manufacture Influent, mg/l Effluent, mg/l
COD 4340 178
BOD 1070 90
Total solids 2550 446
a800 mg/l alum, 450 mg/l H2SO4, 45 mg/l polyeotrolyte.
b345 mg/l alum, pH 3.5–4.0

clarification (either by sedimentation or flotation). An emulsion can also

frequently be broken by lowering the pH of the waste solution. An example of
such a waste is that produced by ball-bearing manufacture, which contains
cleaning soaps and detergents, water-soluble grinding oils, cutting oils, and
phosphoric acid cleaners and solvents. Treatment of this waste has been
effected by the use of 800 mg/l alum, 450 mg/l H2SO4 and 45 mg/l
polyelectrolyte. The results obtained are summarized in Table 6.8a,
Coagulation of Industrial Wastewaters.
Laundromat wastes containing synthetic detergent have been coagulated
using a cationic surfactant to neutralize the anionic detergent, and then
flocculating the waste by adding a calcium salt to produce a calcium phosphate
precipitate for flocculation. Typical results obtained are summarized in Table
6.8b. The coagulation results for a latex-base paint manufacturing wastewater
are presented in Table 6.8c.
104 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

6.5 HEAVY METALS REMOVAL

Removal of heavy metals is most commonly achieved by precipitation of the

metals as the hydroxide, carbonate, or sulfide forms. In some cases,
co-precipitation is employed in which the target metal ion adsorbs to
aluminum or iron hydroxide flocs that then settle and are removed from the
waste stream.
Metal removal technologies are shown below:

∑ Conventional precipitation
—hydroxide
—sulfide
—carbonate
—co-precipitation
∑ Enhanced precipitation
—dimethyl thio carbamate
—diethyl thio carbamate
—trimercapto-s-triazine, trisodium salt
∑ Other methods
—ion exchange
—adsorption
∑ Recovery opportunities
—ion exchange
—membrane technologies
—electrochemical techniques

Different metals have different solubilities at different pH values. Copper

and chromium have minimum solubilities (about 0.1 mg/l) at a pH range of
between 8.0 and 10.0 units, for example. The designer will, through
experimentation, determine the optimum pH needed for precipitation. The
optimum dosage of coagulant aid for coagulation and sedimentation and the
type and size of the precipitation unit are also determined through the
experimental design approach.
Figure 6.11 summarizes the varying solubilities of certain metal hydroxide
and sulfide precipitants over a range of pH values.
Every wastewater is somewhat different from others, even in industries
making very similar products. Coagulation and precipitation reactions are very
sensitive to interferences, and those that exist must be found and dealt with
before design can proceed. Coagulation and precipitation processes that have
operated successfully for years may fail when a change in process chemistry
affects the chemical balance and characteristics of the wastewater.
Achievable effluent levels and technologies for the removal of common
heavy metals are shown in Table 6.9.
 Figure 6.11. Hydroxide and Sulfide Precipitation of Heavy Metals [15].

TABLE 6.9. Heavy Metals Removal Concentrations Achievable

and Technology [15].
Concentration,
Metal mg/l Technology
Arsenic (As) 0.05 sulfide precipitation (pH 6–7)
0.06 carbon adsorption
0.005 co-precipitation (ferric hydroxide)
Barium (Ba) 0.5 sulfate precipitation
Cadmium (Cd) 0.05 hydroxide precipitation (pH 10–11)
0.05 co-precipitation (ferric hydroxide)
0.008 sulfide precipitation
Copper (Cu) 0.02 hydroxide precipitation
0.01 sulfide precipitation (pH 8.5)
Lead (Pb) 0.01 carbonate precipitation (pH 9–9.5)
0.02 hydroxide precipitation (pH 11.5)
Mercury (Hg) 0.01 sulfide precipitation
0.001 co-precipitation (alum)
0.0005 hydroxide precipitation
Nickel (Ni) 0.12 hydroxide precipitation (pH 10–11)
Zinc (Zn) 0.1 hydroxide precipitation (pH 10)

105
106 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

The F006, EPA listed, hazardous waste from electroplating operations is an

example of precipitated sludge from a chemical precipitation reaction. Many
heavy metals are precipitated as metallic hydroxides via the addition of lime or
sodium hydroxide to a pH of minimum solubility for the metal in question.
They may also be precipitated as the carbonate or sulfide in some cases.
Consider the following hydroxide precipitation reaction for zinc:

Chemical Reaction: Comment:

++
Zn + H2O Zinc in solution
Zn++ + H2O + NaOH Sodium hydroxide added to pH of 10.2
Zn(OH)2 + Na++ + OH- + H2O Precipitated zinc hydroxide

Sometimes it is necessary to oxidize or reduce a chemical species prior to

precipitation. For chromium-bearing wastes, it is often necessary to reduce the
hexavalent form (Cr+6) to the trivalent form (Cr+3) prior to precipitation as the
hydroxide.

6.6 CHEMICAL OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Chemical oxidation of wastewater involves mixing wastewater with strong

chemical oxidants such as potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide,
chlorine, bromine, oxygen, sodium hypochlorite, or ozone. Chemical oxidation
is suited to relatively dilute wastewater, high strength wastewater of low
volume, or groundwater, but it is not generally suited for high strength complex
wastewater of substantial volume. Other specialized technologies, such as wet
air oxidation, are more suited to the treatment of very high strength industrial
wastewaters.
Chemical oxidation is useful for detoxifying individual wastestreams prior to
secondary treatment and for rendering refractory organics amenable to
biological treatment. Chemical oxidation has been used successfully for color
removal in industrial wastes and for the complete destruction of pesticide
wastes. Chemical oxidation systems often employ chemical or ultraviolet
catalysts to improve oxidation efficiency.
Chemical oxidation reactions are markedly sensitive to pH, the presence of
interferences, and the effects of catalysts. Also, chemical oxidation reactions
are not always complete; that is, the end results are not always carbon dioxide
and water. Further treatment may be necessary.
Table 6.10 presents TOC and COD removal data for the oxidation of various
aromatic compounds.
Chemical reduction is used primarily for the reduction of hexavalent
chromium, mercury, and lead. Reducing agents commonly used for chromium
reduction include sulfur dioxide (SO2), ferrous sulfate (Fe2SO4), and sodium
 Chemical Oxidation and Reduction 107

TABLE 6.10. Chemical Oxidation of Various Aromatic Compounds

Using H202, KMNO4, and O3 [15].
Initial TOC removal, %a,b,c COD removal, %d
oxidation
Compound state H2 O2 KMnO4 O3 H2O2 KMnO4 O3
Pyrrolidine -1.76 34.9 NR e
32.1 72.1 NR e
58.5
Sulfanilic acid -0.84 46.3 NR 57.5 74.9 NR 57.4
Naphthalene -0.84 46.2 NR 0.0 80.4 NR >99.0
Diphenylamine -0.66 69.4 NR 30.6 87.7 NR 90.0
Skatole -0.66 0.0 NR 0.0 39.0 NR 37.1
Benzaldehyde -0.57 78.6 67.6 74.4 93.5 79.1 74.2
Indole -0.50 62.3 60.3 60.9 95.5 91.0 77.2
Catechol -0.33 57.0 52.2 22.0 80.5 66.3 30.7
Hydroquinone -0.33 30.7 27.3 17.2 78.5 71.2 45.0
Resorcinol -0.33 56.5 27.8 29.1 79.8 73.1 50.1
Vanillin -0.25 70.3 53.4 63.6 87.8 55.2 63.6
Pyrogallol 0.00 45.4 22.1 28.5 75.1 78.2 48.5
Salicylic acid 0.00 28.6 31.6 31.2 74.6 49.8 41.6
Coumarin +0.22 25.9 NR NR 65.3 NR NR
Phthalic acid +0.25 37.0 NR 31.1 71.2 NR 52.0
Averagef -0.44 453.9 42.8 36.8 77.1 70.5 55.9
aArranged in order of lowest oxidation state of organic carbon.
bMean oxidation state of the organic carbon calculated from molecular structure.
cCorresponds to the percentage converted to CO , i.e., ultimate oxidation.
2
-3
dAll compounds were initially at a concentration of 5 ⋅ 10 M (as the original compound) unless limited by
solubility (naphthalene and diphenylamine).
eNR—nonreactive (no measurable reduction in COD).
fAverage based on reactive compounds only.

metabisulfite (Na2S2O5). Consider the following reactions (only specific

reactants will be shown) [22].
Chemical Reaction: Comment:
6+ 2+ +
Cr + Fe (or SO2 or Na2S2O5) + H Hexavalent chrome combined with
ferrous reducing agent and acid (H+)
added to pH less than 3.0 units.
Cr3+ + 3OH- Hexavalent chrome reduced to
trivalent, hydroxide added to pH 8.3.
Cr (OH) Chromium hydroxide precipitate
formed
Chemical reduction is most often conducted in batch operations in which a
tank of wastewater or groundwater is dosed with an optimum dosage of
reductant at an optimum pH. The mixture is stirred and the reduction
reaction is monitored by ion specific or oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
electrodes. The end products are a clear supernatant and a reduced chemical
sludge.
108 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

6.7 HYDROTHERMAL OXIDATION

Hydrothermal processes refer to aqueous treatment of wastewaters at

elevated temperatures and pressures. Four basic operating technologies are in
use or have been investigated in the laboratory:

(1) Wet air oxidation (WAO). A commonly used process for more concentrated
wastes, especially those that are toxic and/or biologically refractory. These
processes use an oxidant, primarily oxygen from air, to partially oxidize
organics, yielding a variety of low-molecular-weight organic acids (readily
biodegradable). Temperatures typically range from 150 to 320°C and
pressures from 150 to 3000 psig. This process is shown in Figure 6.12. In
wet air oxidation the wastewater and an air stream are fed under high
pressure, through heat exchangers to a reactor in which the wastewater and
air mixture oxidizes under high temperature and pressure. This mixture
may be recirculated (see Figure 6.12) several times before oxidation has
reached a satisfactory state. The mixture is then conveyed to an air/fluid
separator and the resulting air and water streams are subject to additional
treatment.
(2) The catalyzed wet air oxidation (CWAO) process is a variation on the wet
air oxidation process. Chemical contaminants are oxidized in the liquid
phase by contacting the liquid with high-pressure air at temperatures that
are typically between 120°C and 310°C. The liquid phase and
high-pressure air are passed over a stationary bed of catalyst. The operating
pressure is maintained such that the reaction takes place in the liquid phase.

Figure 6.12. Wet Air Oxidation Flow Schematic [15].

 Hydrothermal Oxidation 109

This enables the oxidation processes to proceed at lower temperatures than

those required for incineration. The catalyst provides a higher degree of
contaminant removal than can be obtained by WAO at comparable
conditions.
(3) Hydrothermal hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of organic compounds can occur in
specially designed reactors at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Commercial units are available to thermally hydrolyze concentrated
cyanide compounds to formic salts and ammonia.
(4) Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO). Aqueous oxidation of organics
takes place to completion, at even higher temperature and pressures than
wet air oxidation. The critical point is the temperature above which it is
impossible to liquefy a gas, no matter how much pressure is applied. The
critical pressure is the minimum pressure required to liquefy a substance at
the critical point. SCWO takes place beyond the critical point of water
(about 374°C and 218 atm). Typical operating conditions are 400 to 650°C
and 3500 to 5000 psig. At these temperatures and pressures, materials of
construction become critical and solubility of salts can decrease
dramatically, causing fouling. SCWO has been demonstrated successfully
for the destruction of military nerve gases and DOE mixed wastes.
Conrad Conero, Shawangunk Mountains, NY
 CHAPTER 7

Physical Separation Technologies

contaminants can be separated from water by the use of

Wphysical separation
ASTEWATER
technologies including membrane and particulate
filtration methods. Particulate filtration is employed for the removal of solids
greater than 10 microns in diameter. Particulate filtration is primarily used for
the removal of organic and inorganic solids, chemical precipitates (including
heavy metal residuals) and biomass and other residuals from secondary
treatment. Membrane technologies, on the other hand, are used for the removal
of materials that are generally smaller than one micron in diameter. Particulate
filtration is often used as a pretreatment step for membrane separation
technologies.

7.1 FILTRATION

Filtration in wastewater treatment is often employed as a tertiary treatment

step for the removal of suspended solids. The filtration unit may be located at
the end of a biological treatment train and use clarifier or settling lagoon
effluent as its feed. Wastewater filters may also be used as part of a
physical/chemical process and serve as a polishing step to improve suspended
solids/heavy metals removal.
Many types of filters are available on the market, but in the environmental
field, granular media filters are most extensively used for wastewater
treatment. Granular media filters use sand or a combination of sand and other
granular media (garnet, anthracite, etc.). Granular media filters may be
operated with gravity feed, or the influent may be pumped in under pressure
either in the up-flow or down-flow mode.
In a down-flow, granular media filtration system, wastewater enters the top
of the unit. Particulates are retained in the filtration media as the wastewater
passes through the filter. As wastewater is introduced into the filter, solids
begin to accumulate on the surface sand layer in the filter, causing an increase in

111
112 PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES

pressure (in pressure systems) or an increase in liquid level (in gravity systems).
Eventually, this triggers a mechanical or water/air surface scour to be started on
the top six to 18 inches (depending on the filter configuration) of the sand.
Surface scour equipment is most often composed of rotating pipes with evenly
spaced holes in them that deliver high pressure water and air scour to the
surface of the filter. After a programmed interval, the scour stops and filtration
resumes. Eventually the accumulation of suspended solids in the top layer of
the top sand bed becomes so high that surface scours are triggered too
frequently to maintain effective filtration and a backwash (i.e., reverse flow)
cycle is initiated.
The backwash cycle expands the filter bed and all light particles (suspended
solids) are flushed from the filter and into a backwash tank. During backwash,
an individual filter is isolated from the influent stream. The other filters
distribute the flow evenly among themselves until the backwash cycle is ended
and the filter is back on line. Once isolated, a timed sequence of events begins to
occur. Filtered water is pumped into the bottom of the bed to expand it and to
improve the effectiveness of scouring. A bottom scour of pressurized water and
air is then pumped into the filter and the media is mixed to shake suspended
solid particles off the sand. At the same time, the upward flow of water lifts the
suspended solids from the heavier sand and the backwash water leaves the filter
carrying the filter solids along with it.

Figure 7.1. Typical Automatic Dual Media Filter [15].

 Membrane Technologies 113

TABLE 7.1. Filtration Performance [15].

Percent Effluent,
Filter Hydraulic Removal mg/l
depth, loading,
Filter Type Wastewater ft gal/(min*ft2) SS BOD SS BOD
Gravity downflow TF effluent 2–3 3 67 58 – 2.5
Pressure upflow AS effluent 5 2.2 50 62 7.0 6.4
Dual media AS effluent 2.5 5.0 74 88 4.6 2.5
Gravity downflow AS effluent 1.0 5.3 62 78 5 4
Dynasand Metal finishing 3.3 4–6 90 – 2–5 –
AS effluent 3.3 3–10 7590 – 5–10 –
Oily wastewater 3.3 2–6 80–90a – 5–10a –
Hydroclear Poultry 1 2–5 88 – 19 –
Oil refinery 1 2–5 68 – 11 –
Unbleached kraft 1 2–5 74 – 17 –
aFree oil.

After an interval, the air and water bottom scour are turned off. The various
granular media particles rapidly settle to the bottom of the filter and sort
themselves out in order of specific gravity, and the filter is brought back on line.
Figure 7.1 shows the arrangement of equipment and media for a dual media,
up flow granular media filter. TSS and BOD filtration performance data for
several types of granular media filters are reproduced in Table 7.1. The data in
the table show that suspended solids removals of 50–90% can be expected with
granular media filtration. In cases where effluent solids have a high BOD,
effluent filtration can be a good method to provide BOD polishing.

7.2 MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES

Membrane technologies involve the use of semi-permeable membranes to

provide removal of very tiny particles, down to molecules and ions, using three
basic processes: microfiltration, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis. The
approximate range of pore diameters for each process, filtration ranges, and
examples of materials that can be removed, are identified in Figure 7.2.
The basic theory behind membrane technology is simple. Water passes
through a semi-permeable membrane by a driving force or combination of
driving forces (osmotic pressure, hydraulic pressure, electric potential gradient,
etc.). Water and certain solutes (i.e., dissolved chemicals) are allowed to pass
through the membrane, while some solutes are not allowed to pass and are left
behind as a concentrated solution of impurities (or product). The former are
called permeate or filtrate, the latter retentate or concentrate.
A number of membrane materials are used, including cellulose acetate,
polyamide, nylon, other polymer membranes, and composites made up of a
114 PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES

combination of these materials and other materials. Figure 7.3 illustrates three
basic configurations of membrane modules, showing the arrangement of
membranes, spacers, and piping.
In the past, membrane applications were so plagued by membrane fouling,
decomposition, and failure that the high capital and maintenance costs
associated with the technology limited their application to specialized uses.
Today, many of those early problems have been solved and membrane
technologies are used in large-scale drinking water desalination plants, food
processing, pharmaceuticals manufacture, wastewater management, and other
applications.

7.2.1 Reverse osmosis

In the natural process of osmosis, a solute is separated from another solute by

a semipermeable membrane. Driven by osmotic pressure, water moves from
the lower concentration solution across the semipermeable membrane to the

Figure 7.2. Membrane processes and pore sizes [15].

Figure 7.3. Membrane Shapes [15].

115
116 PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 7.4. Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis [15].

solution of higher concentration, until the two concentrations are in

equilibrium.
In reverse osmosis (RO), as illustrated in Figure 7.4, hydraulic pressure is
applied (200 to 1,000 psi) on the high concentration solute mixture side of the
membrane. In this way, wastewater can be cleansed of chemical contaminants
by driving the water, or permeate, across a synthetic semipermeable membrane,
leaving the concentrate behind in a concentrated brine solution. In wastewater
management, this brine solution contains the contaminants and must be treated
and disposed of or recycled. Some are disposed of as a RCRA hazardous waste.
 Membrane Technologies 117

A typical reverse osmosis system arrangement is shown in Figure 7.5.

Wastewater is generally subject to at least O&G and TSS removal prior to
treatment by RO. Wastewater is pumped under high pressure into the RO
membrane module. Pure water permeates the membrane and is removed from
the system for use. The contaminating particles, ions and molecules are rejected
by the membrane as waste discharge (see figure 7.5).
In reverse osmosis, the flow of water is parallel to the membrane surface and
the flow rate is kept high enough to scour the membrane surface to prevent
plugging and polarization of the membrane surface. To keep the flow rate high
the flow has either a high rate of recirculation or wastage. On a given pass, only
a relatively small amount of water peels off the main stream, as shown in Figure
7.6. In RO applications, not all of the water processed is filtrate (permeate), and
a reject stream will account for 10 to 20 percent of the total water treated.
The membrane is the critical element in membrane technologies. Many
different types of membrane are available, but all are subject to interferences
and damage from various chemical or physical waste characteristics.
Pollutants that can be removed include most inorganic compounds and many
organic compounds, generally those with a molecular weight of more than 100
to 300 atomic mass units (amu). RO technology is used most extensively in the
desalinization of ocean water to produce drinking water. It is also used to
recover metal contaminants in the metal finishing industry, as shown in Figure
7.7.

Figure 7.5. Typical Reverse Osmosis Arrangement [15].

118 PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 7.6. Cross-Flow Filtration [15].

7.2.2 Electrodialysis

In electrodialysis, water flows between alternately placed cation and anion

permeable membranes which are assembled in stacks, much like a sandwich.
An ionic solution is placed in the membrane chambers and is electrically
charged with direct current from electrodes placed at either end of the
membrane stack. This charge stimulates the flow of ions towards their
respective oppositely charged electrodes.

Figure 7.7. Treatment of Metal Plating Wastewaters by Reverse Osmosis [15].

 Membrane Technologies 119

Positively charged ions migrate toward the cathode through the cation
membranes and negatively charged ions migrate toward the anode through the
anion membranes. In this way, a good separation between anions and cations
can be achieved. Electrodialysis is used to process rinse water from
electroplating operations, desalinate brackish water, demineralize whey, and
for other purposes.

7.2.3 Nanofiltration, Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration

These technologies operate on similar concepts, except that membrane pore

diameters, membrane materials of construction, and operating parameters are
different. While reverse osmosis and electrodialysis separate particles in the
0.0001 to 0.001 micrometer range, these other membrane technologies filter
larger particles and do not produce as pure water.
Nanofiltration separates particles in the ionic to molecular range (0.001 to
0.01 micrometers) and molecular weights ranging from 200 to 20,000.
Ultrafiltration separates larger particles, those ranging approximately from
0.01 to 0.1 micrometers in diameter or molecular weights ranging from 500 to
300,000. Membrane pore diameters can be selectively employed to separate
and purify enzymes, fractionate proteins and for other purposes [23].
Ultrafiltration is used in wastewater treatment for the removal of oils and
organic chemicals.
Microfiltration separates particles ranging in diameter from 0.1 to 10.0
micrometers. Microfiltration is used in wastewater treatment for the removal of
oily emulsions, bacteria, and small particulates.
Jim Crawford, Eno River State Park, Durham, NC
 CHAPTER 8

Disinfection

industrial wastewater treatment plants are required to disinfect plant

Feffluents,
EW
although they may be required to disinfect sanitary discharges
prior to mingling with industrial wastes. All municipal wastewater treatment
plants are required to disinfect plant effluents, and this is usually the last or
next-to-last treatment step prior to discharge to the receiving stream.
Chlorine gas is the most widely used disinfecting agent for large volumes of
water or wastewater. Calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite pellets are
forms used most often by small package plants, mainly for ease of handling and
safety. Some cities have switched from 90 ton railroad tank cars or one ton
chlorine containers to sodium hypochlorite (i.e., bleach) purely for safety
reasons. More and more regulatory agencies are requiring dechlorination of
treatment plant effluents prior to discharge. Dechlorination is accomplished via
aeration and/or sulfur dioxide addition.
Because of the formation of chlorination byproducts (i.e. chloroform,
chloramines, etc.) chlorination as a disinfectant is being replaced in some cases
by UV and ozone.
Chlorination is conducted in a chlorine contact chamber built in a serpentine
fashion to assure that chlorinated water moves as a discrete unit (a.k.a., “plug
flow”) and adequate contact time is achieved. The two factors affecting the
effectiveness of chlorine disinfection are contact time and chlorine
concentration. Contact time is usually between 15 and 45 minutes. Chlorine
dosage can range between 2 and 10 mg/l with chlorine residuals between 0.5
and 1.0 mg/l. The degree of pathogen destruction is a function of chlorine dose
and contact time, as shown in Figure 8.1.
Other chemicals used in disinfection operations include bromine and ozone.
Ultraviolet irradiation of effluent for disinfection has shown to be effective
for effluents with low color and suspended solids. Ultraviolet disinfection of
wastewater is conducted by exposing wastewater with short wave ultraviolet
radiation (UV-C, generally in the 100–280 nm wavelength range) for an

121
122 DISINFECTION

Figure 8.1. Contact Time v. Available Chlorine for E. coli and Polio Virus at 0–6°C [24].

adequate period of time. The UV energy is absorbed by the nucleic acid

materials in bacterial and viral cells, resulting in the inability of the nucleic
acids to replicate, and causing the death of the organisms. Interest in UV
disinfection is growing as a replacement technology for chlorine disinfection.
High-energy irradiation of effluents using gamma rays is being explored as a
future disinfection wastewater technology.
John H. McShane, Yellowstone River, Yellowstone National Park (Hayden Valley)
 CHAPTER 9

Nutrient Removal

in the removal of nutrients from wastewater effluent has increased

Iin recent years.
NTEREST
Part of this is due to the success of the wastewater industry in
removing gross contaminants such as BOD, TSS, O&G and toxic chemicals
from point sources. Now that the gross effects of pollutant loadings have
largely been eliminated, we are able to examine less dramatic indicators of
ecosystem stress.
Nutrient loads into the nation’s waterways are now recognized as a major
source of the remaining pollution that is degrading some aquatic ecosystems.
New chemical and biochemical technologies are emerging for the reduction of
effluent nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations.

9.1 PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL

As discussed in earlier sections of this chapter, phosphorus can be a very

destructive environmental contaminant. Phosphorus is used extensively in
industrial manufacturing and agriculture, and is a principal contaminant in
treated sewage discharges. Both chemical and biological technologies exist for
phosphorus removal.

9.1.1 Chemical precipitation

Phosphorus can be chemically precipitated from primary or secondary

treatment effluents by the addition of lime, alum, and iron salts. For biological
treatment systems, the addition of alum and iron salts should be between the
aeration step and the final clarifier. Ferric chloride in dosages of about 10 mg/l
is the most commonly employed precipitating agent for phosphorus in treating
municipal wastewater [22] achieving about 90 percent removal.
For chemical precipitation with lime, effluent phosphorus is a function of
pH, as shown in Figure 9.1. Lime is less efficient than ferric chloride, used at

125
126 NUTRIENT REMOVAL

Figure 9.1. Ortho-phosphate vs. pH for Lime Precipitation [15].

dosages of 500 to 700 mg/l, yielding a removal efficiency of about 80 percent.

Lime produces a lot more sludge than either ferric chloride or alum.
Alum precipitation usually results in 95 percent phosphorus removal at
dosages of about 200 to 250 mg/l. Lime and ferric chloride have been used in
varying concentration combinations resulting in phosphorus removals of 95
percent. Precipitation with iron and alum salts depends on the molar ratio of
iron salt to phosphorus. As the residual soluble phosphorus is reduced the molar
ratio is increased, due to co-precipitation of the metallic ions.
While chemical precipitation can be used for phosphorus removal, it has
high-capital installation and operating costs, especially for sludge disposal.

9.1.2 Biological removal

A number of modifications to the activated sludge process have been

developed to reduce effluent phosphorus concentrations. Phosphorus is
 Phosphorus Removal 127

normally taken up by the biomass in the routine synthesis of cellular matter. It

has been observed that more phosphorus is taken up in some mixed liquors than
others. This is due to the presence of phosphorus accumulating organisms, most
notably Acinetobacter, which is commonly found in municipal sludges.
Phosphorus makes up about 2.6 percent of cell matter in conventional mixed
liquors. BioP sludges are those mixed liquors conditioned for the uptake of
phosphorus. Phosphorus uptake in BioP sludges has been observed to be
significantly higher than in ordinary systems.
Biological removal of phosphorus in the activated sludge process can be
enhanced by using alternating anaerobic and aerobic basins. It has been
observed that when activated sludge (either mixed liquor or return activated
sludge) is exposed to anaerobic conditions, phosphorus will be released into
solution. When this sludge is then re-exposed to aerobic conditions, an
enhanced and immediate phosphorus demand is exerted by the biomass. This
elevated phosphorus consumption has been termed “luxury uptake.”
Some bacteria absorb fatty acids and other low molecular weight organics
under anaerobic conditions. The energy for this metabolic activity is
accompanied by a release of polyphosphates. When exposed to aerobic
conditions, the fatty acids and other organics are assimilated into new growth,
requiring the uptake of phosphorus to make new cellular material. This biomass
can be wasted from the system, thereby accomplishing phosphorus removal.
Figure 9.2 illustrates the biological release and uptake of phosphorus in
alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions.

Figure 9.2. Biological Release and Uptake of Phosphate, Alternating between Anaerobic and
Aerobic Conditions [15].
128 NUTRIENT REMOVAL

Figure 9.3. Biological Phosphorus Removal with and without Nitrification-Denitrification [15].
(a) Without Nitrification, (b) With Nitrification-Denitrification.

Biological nutrient removal (BNR) plants may be configured to remove both

phosphorus and nitrogen. Figure 9.3(a) shows a phosphorus removal
configuration without nitrification or denitrification. Figure 9.3(b) shows a
configuration that incorporates both phosphorus and nitrogen removal systems.
Many variations of BNR systems are available that include the use of dual or
multi-purpose biological reactors, selectors, injection of fatty acids, and other
methods to stimulate nutrient uptake and removal.

9.2 NITROGEN REMOVAL

Nitrogen, like phosphorus, can be a very damaging environmental

contaminant, and nitrogen removal is becoming increasingly important.
Ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate, and nitrite-nitrogen can be removed by
physical/chemical or biological means.

9.2.1 Physical/chemical processes

Physical/Chemical removal of ammonia can be achieved by air stripping, ion

exchange, and breakpoint chlorination. Breakpoint chlorination involves the
addition of chlorine in sufficient quantity to oxidize ammonia nitrogen in
solution to nitrogen gas and other stable compounds. Chlorine is applied to the
secondary clarifier effluent at chlorine/ammonia ratios ranging from 8:1 to
10:1. Breakpoint chlorination is expressed in the following general formula:
 Nitrogen Removal 129

2NH3 + 3HOCL Æ N2 + 3H2O + 3HCl

Note that the oxidation products are inert nitrogen gas, water, and
hydrochloric acid. The advantage to this system is that nitrogen gas is the
principal product. Disadvantages include the need to adjust the pH to between 6
and 7 units prior to chlorination for optimum oxidation, the need to dechlorinate
the effluent prior to discharge, and the need, in some cases, to adjust the pH
prior to discharge.

9.2.2 Biological processes

In addition to the uptake of nitrogen, through cell synthesis during

carbonaceous BOD removal, ammonia nitrogen can be removed through a
process called nitrification, which converts ammonia nitrogen to
nitrate-nitrogen through the use of nitrifying bacteria. Nitrate-nitrogen can then
be converted to nitrogen gas through a process called denitrification.
Figure 9.4 illustrates how nitrogen transforms from organic nitrogen and
ammonia to nitrites, and then to nitrates, under nitrifying conditions, and how
the resulting nitrates are converted to molecular nitrogen under denitrifying
conditions.

Figure 9.4. Nitrogen Transformations [15].

130 NUTRIENT REMOVAL

9.2.3 Nitrification

The overall reaction for biological nitrification is expressed below:

2NH+4 + 3O2 æææææÆ 2NO2- + 4H+ + 4H2 O + new cells

Nitrosomonas

2NO2- + O2 æææææ
Æ 2NO3- + new cells
Nitrobacter

This is a two-step process, with the nitrifying bacteria Nitrosomonas

converting the ammonium (NH4+ ) ion, in an intermediate step, to nitrite
(NO2- ) , which is then converted to nitrate (NO3- ) by Nitrobacter bacteria.
Nitrification can be accomplished in either combined BOD/nitrification
reactors or in separate stage reactors, in either suspended or attached growth
configurations.
Nitrification is a fairly sensitive process. Elevated temperatures (>30∞C) are
inhibitory to nitrification, as are a number of organic compounds frequently
found in industrial wastewaters. Nitrifying bacteria require a minimum pH of 6
units and optimally 7.2–7.6 units to metabolize ammonia effectively. Oxygen is
essential to nitrification (see above formula), and a minimum bioreactor D.O.
level of 2.0 mg/l is recommended. The growth rate of nitrifying bacteria is
much lower than that of carbonaceous BOD-consuming bacteria, and longer
sludge age in the aeration basin is needed to maintain sufficient nitrifying
bacteria populations.

9.2.4 Denitrification

Nitrate-nitrogen is a nutrient pollutant in aquatic ecosystems, and there is

increasing interest in removing nitrates from wastewater discharges. Biological
denitrification is effective in converting nitrate to nitrogen gas through the
following mechanism:

BOD + NO3- ææ
Æ N2 + CO2 + H2 O + OH- + new cells

Denitrification is undertaken under anoxic conditions in the reactor. Anoxic

conditions are those in which the metabolic pathways are not anaerobic, but are
instead modifications of aerobic pathways in which the oxygen in nitrate is
used instead of molecular oxygen for biometabolism. Denitrifying bacteria are
heterotrophic facultative organisms (including Pseudonomas, Micrococcus,
Achromobacter, and Bacillus [25]), and as such require a carbon source in order
to metabolize nitrate.
Since denitrification reactions follow nitrification reactions, nearly all of the
carbonaceous BOD in the original wastestream has been assimilated and a
 Nitrogen Removal 131

Figure 9.3. Alternative Single-Stage Nitrification-Denitrification Systems [15].

supplemental source of carbon is needed. Methanol may be used as a carbon

supplement for denitrification reactions. Alternatively, the BOD in the influent
wastewater can serve as a carbon source for denitrification by arranging the
reactor configuration as shown in Figure 9.5. In these two wastewater plant
arrangements, the influent substrate, or BOD, is being fed into the
denitrification portion of the biological reactor.
John McShane, Ithaca, NY
 CHAPTER 10

Sludge Handling and Disposal

Amustbiological
LL treatment systems generate excess sludge or biosolids that
be removed (eventually) from the system to maintain optimum
treatment efficiency. Some high rate activated sludge systems produce excess
biosolids at the rate of 0.5 lb sludge per 1.0 lb of BOD removed. A plant
removing 120,000 lbs per day of BOD could generate as much as 60,000 lbs of
biosolids per day requiring treatment and disposal. While not all of the
biosolids produced are the result of cellular synthesis (a significant portion is
influent suspended and colloidal matter), it still requires disposal.
Sludge disposal is a major problem for many wastewater treatment facilities,
especially industrial facilities. Sludge management and disposal can cost up to
one-third of the cost of BOD removal in some systems, more if the sludge is
considered to be a hazardous waste.
Biosolids quality is becoming more and more important as the range of
disposal alternatives continues to diminish. Landfills are increasingly refusing
to accept waste biosolids for disposal or are demanding additional treatment
prior to acceptance. Regulatory agencies are imposing more and increasingly
strict regulations on sludge quality for land application, composting, and other
uses. The safe disposal or recycling of biosolids remains a major issue in the
field of wastewater management.
Most of the treatment processes employed in industrial water pollution
control yield a sludge from a solids/liquids separation step (sedimentation,
flotation, etc.) or produce a sludge as a result of a chemical coagulation or a
biological reaction.
Sludges usually undergo a series of treatment steps involving thickening,
dewatering, and final disposal. Organic sludges may also undergo stabilization
(for odor, pathogens, metals, etc.) prior to disposal. In general, gelatinous type
sludges such as activated sludge yield lower TSS concentrations in each
process sequence while primary and inorganic sludges yield higher TSS
concentrations. Typical sludge handling process alternatives are illustrated in
Figure 10.1.

133
134 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

Figure 10.1. Sludge Handling Process Alternatives [15].

Typically, a sludge will contain free water, capillary water and bound water.
The thickening process removes free water, and the dewatering process
removes capillary water. Bound water is not removed by typical dewatering
technologies. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 10.2, Mechanisms of
Sludge Dewatering, which shows the relationships between sludge thickening,
dewatering and drying and the volume of sludge reduction and solids content of
dewatered sludge that can be achieved.

Figure 10.2. Mechanisms of Sludge Dewatering [15].

 Sludge Thickening 135

10.1 TYPES OF SLUDGES

There are three basic types of sludges: municipal primary, biological, and
chemical. Municipal primary sludge consists of organic and inorganic
particulates. This sludge must be stabilized (generally by biological digestion)
before land disposal.
Biological sludge consists of biomass and other particulates not degraded in
secondary biological processes. Other biological sludges may include fibers
from pulp and paper operations and solids from food manufacturing operations.
Biological sludges often need to be stabilized before ultimate disposal, except
in the case of incineration. This is usually achieved by either aerobic or
anaerobic digestion. In aerobic digestion, the degradable volatile solids are
liquified and oxidized to CO2 and H2O. In anaerobic digestion the solids are
liquified and fermented to CH4 and CO2.
Chemical sludge consists of chemical precipitates, heavy metals, and other
contaminants precipitated from industrial wastewaters. Chemical sludges may
be organic or inorganic in origin and composition. Chemical sludges are
typically treated in a variety of ways, then dewatered to render them suitable to
land disposal, recycling or incineration.

10.2 SLUDGE THICKENING

Thickening of sludge usually precedes dewatering. Depending on the nature

of the sludge, several techniques are available for thickening.
Gravity thickening occurs in a sedimentation tank or clarifier. Biological
sludges can be thickened to 2 to 3 percent total suspended solids (TSS). Some
chemical sludges, such as lime sludges, can be thickened to 20 percent TSS.
Figure 10.3 provides an illustration of a typical gravity thickener.

Figure 10.3. Gravity Thickener (Courtesy of Link Belt, FMC Company).

136 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

Figure 10.4. Gravity Belt Thickener [15].

Gravity Belt. This technique passes the sludge in a thin sheet over a porous
drainage belt. The gravity belt is particularly applicable to waste-activated
sludge. A gravity belt thickener is shown in Figure 10.4.
Dissolved Air Flotation. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) uses air bubbles to
float the sludge for removal by a scraper. Activated sludge float solids
concentrations typically range from 4 to 6 percent. DAF is generally applicable
to large volumes of waste-activated sludge. Figure 10.5 presents a schematic
representation of a DAF unit used for sludge thickening.
Centrifugation. This technique involves various centrifuge types for sludge
thickening. Centrifuges generally produce solids in the 4 to 15 percent range for
activated sludge.
Rotary drum screening. This sludge dewatering technique involves the use
of a cylindrical stainless steel (or other nonferrous material) drum mesh, with
screen openings of 6–20 millimeters. The drum mesh rotates at about 4
revolutions/minute. As the sludge passes over the mesh, water is drained
through the screen, and diverter flights continually move sludge to the

Figure 10.5. Flow Diagram of a Flotation Unit (Courtesy of Komline-Sanderson Engineering

Co.).
 Sludge Dewatering 137

Figure 10.6. Rotary Drum Screen Thickener [15].

discharge end of the unit. Figure 10.6 represents a typical rotary drum
arrangement. The process can deliver a sludge thickened to 6–10 % solids with
a filtrate clarity of 100–500 mg/l TSS.

10.3 SLUDGE DEWATERING

The selection of an appropriate sludge dewatering technology depends

primarily on sludge characteristics and the ultimate sludge disposal
requirement. If a wastewater treatment plant elects to land apply its sludge, then
a relatively lightly dewatered sludge, even a slurry, may be adequate. In more
urban areas, where land is unavailable or land use is restricted, landfilling or
incineration is more likely to be needed. For these applications, a more
intensely dewatered sludge is desired.
Centrifigation. In centrifugation, a solid bowl centrifuge concentrates the
solids under centrifugal force. Both centrate and cake solids are continuously
discharged from the machine. Polymer addition is required for most wastewater
sludges. Figure 10.7 represents a scroll-type solid bowl centrifuge used for
sludge dewatering.
Vacuum Filtration. Vacuum Filtration uses a cloth-covered drum that
operates under an applied vacuum. As the drum passes through the sludge vat,
solids are sucked onto the filter cloth. As the drum passes through the air,
vacuum drying of the cake occurs. The cake is continuously discharged to a
conveyor belt.
138 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

Figure 10.7. Continuous Countercurrent Solid Bowl Conveyor Discharge Centrifuge [15].

Belt Filter Press. The belt filter press consists of a gravity drainage belt
followed by a series of roller presses. Sludge is placed between steel belts,
which are compressed between the roller presses, thus squeezing out water.
Figure 10.8 shows a belt filter press in action; Figure 10.9 provides a schematic
showing how a belt filter press works.

Figure 10.8. Belt Filter Press [15].

 Sludge Dewatering 139

Figure 10.9. Schematic of a Belt Filter Press [15].

Pressure Filter. The pressure filter employs a plate and frame press that
squeezes water from solids using a fabric media under high pressure. Drier
cakes are generally more attainable from a filter press than from other forms of
sludge dewatering. Figure 10.10 shows a side view of a typical filter press,
including how the filter plates are locked together, and a cut-away view detail
showing how the sludge is forced into the filter cavities and water is filtered
away.

Figure 10.10. Fiber Cloth Filter Press [15].

140 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

Figure 10.11. Plate and Frame Filter Press [15].

Screw Press. A screw press is employed to dewater thickened sludge by

squeezing the sludge in a pressurized, tapered chamber surrounded by a
perforated screen. The sludge is forced into a progressively smaller space,
squeezing the water through the perforated screen. The press may be equipped
with a shaft rotary steam joint allowing for the application of steam pressures
up to 100 psi. The press is capable of producing cake in excess of 15–20% total
solids content. Figure 10.12 provides an illustration of a typical screw press.

Figure 10.12. Screw Press [15].

 Sludge Disposal 141

Sludge Drying Beds. Sludge drying beds are usually used for smaller sludge
volumes that drain and dry rapidly. Sludge drying beds are usually installed
outside and their application is usually restricted to moderate to arid climates
where the weather does not interfere with their operations.
Thickening and dewatering performance of various industrial wastewater
sludges using several varieties of thickening and dewatering equipment are
summarized in Table 10.1.

10.4 SLUDGE DISPOSAL

Land disposal of wet sludges can be accomplished in three principal ways:

lagooning, application of liquid sludge to land by truck or spray system, or by
pipeline to a remote agricultural site.
In lagoons, sludge is stored and, in the case of organic sludges, anaerobically
digested. Odor control is achieved either by chemical addition to the overlaying
water (Cl2 or H2O2) to oxidize sulfides, or by installing aerators in the liquid
layer to maintain aerobic conditions in the upper strata.

TABLE 10.1. Thickening and Dewatering of Wastewater Sludges [15].

Chemicals,
Polymer
Equipment Type of Sludge % Solids (lb/ton)
Thickening
Gravity Waste activated sludge 2.5–3.0 None
Gravity Pulp and paper
53% P, 47 % WAS 4 None
67% P, 33% WAS 6 None
100% P 9 None
DAF WAS 4–5.7 Low dosage
Solid bowl centrifuge WAS 5–7 None
Basket centrifuge Citrus, WAS 9–10 10-20
Gravity belt WAS 5.5 39
Solid bowl centrifuge Paper mill, WAS 9–10 10
Solid bowl centrifuge Chemical, WAS 7–9 5-10
Dewatering
Basket centrifuge Citrus, WAS 9–10 10–20
Basket centrifuge Paper mill, WAS 11 5
Belt press Paper mill, WAS 16 6.5
Belt press Chemical, WAS 13–15 10–20
Belt press Organic chemical, WAS 15 25
Belt press Deinking primary 37 4
Belt press Bleached and unbleached: 27 12
67%, P, 33% WAS
Belt press Kraft linerboard WAS 19 25
*Field area in acres not including buffer area, roads, or ditches.
142 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

Biological sludges can be incorporated into the soil. Sludge may be land
applied by spraying, injection of a slurry, or by disking in sludge slurry or cake
using agricultural equipment. Figure 10.13 shows a typical sludge injection
system, with sludge being applied by multi-point injectors to an agricultural
row crop field. An important consideration is the heavy-metal content of the
sludge that will dictate the total number of years sludge can be applied.
The available nitrogen content or contaminant concentration of the sludge
will determine the maximum yearly application rate. Federal, state and local
standards strictly regulate the land application of sludges to ensure that soil and
surface and groundwater do not become contaminated or result in contaminated
agricultural products.
Dewatered sludges can be employed as landfill. However, they must not
contain elevated levels of leachable contaminant chemicals, for the reasons just
noted. Dewatered chemical sludges that contain high concentrations of toxic
chemicals, such as cadmium or chromium, must be chemically stabilized to
render the toxic chemicals immobile prior to landfilling. Some of these sludges
can be processed to recover and recycle their constituent chemicals.
Incineration can be accomplished in multiple hearth furnaces in which the
sludge passes vertically through a series of hearths. In the upper hearths,
vaporization of moisture and cooling of exhaust gas occurs at about 1000∞F. In
the intermediate hearths, the volatile gases and solids are burned. The total
fixed carbon is burned in the lower hearths. Temperatures range from 1000F at
the top hearth to about 600∞F at the bottom. Flue ash is removed from the bed by

Figure 10.13. Sludge Injection Vehicle [15].

 Sludge Disposal 143

Figure 10.14. Multiple-Hearth Incineration System [15].

the upward-flowing combustion gases, while heavier combustion ash and

clinkers are removed from the bottom by rakes and conveyers. A schematic
illustration of a multiple hearth incineration system is presented in Figure
10.14.
In a fluidized bed incinerator, sludge particles are fed into a bed of sand
fluidized by upward moving air. A temperature of 1400∞ to 1500∞F is
144 SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

maintained in the bed, resulting in rapid drying and burning of the sludge.
Incinerator ash is mostly disposed in landfills, although it is increasingly used
in construction materials and for other uses.
Composting of sludge, primarily municipal secondary sludges, is rising in
popularity. The City of Milwaukee composts some of its secondary sewage
sludge into a product called MilorganiteTM that is sold to gardeners and farmers.
Composting is an aerobic, exothermic decomposition process in which organic
sludges are piled in stacks, put in rotating drums, or placed in digestion silos. In
composting stacks, the sludge is aerated during the composting process by
turning with agricultural or construction equipment. Composting takes from
one to six months to complete.
John H. McShane, Mt. Rainier National Park, WA
 CHAPTER 11

Land Treatment

wide variety of food-processing wastewater, including meat, poultry,

Adairy, brewery, and winery wastewaters, has been applied successfully to
the land. By 1979, there were an estimated 1200 private industrial land
treatment systems. Disposal of industrial wastes by irrigation can be practiced
in one of several ways, depending on the topography of the land, the nature of
the soil, and the characteristics of the waste:
(1) Distribution of waste through spray nozzles over relatively flat terrain
(2) Distribution of waste over sloping land that runs off to a natural
watercourse
(3) Disposal through ridge and furrow irrigation channels

11.1 SPRAY IRRIGATION AND OVERLAND FLOW SYSTEMS

Screened waste is pumped through laterals and sprayed through sprinklers

located at appropriate intervals, as shown in Figure 11.1. The waste percolates
through the soil, and during this process the organics undergo biological
degradation. The liquid is either stored in the soil layer or discharged to the
groundwater. Most spray irrigation systems use a cover crop of grass or other
vegetation to maintain porosity in the upper soil layers. The most popular cover
crop is reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea). This grass develops an
extensive root system, has a relatively large leaf area, and is tolerant of adverse
conditions. There is a net waste loss by evapotranspiration (evaporation to the
atmosphere and absorption by the roots and leaves of plants). This may amount
to as much as 10% of the waste flow.
Loamy well-drained soil is most suitable for irrigation systems; however,
soil types from clays to sands are acceptable. A minimum depth to groundwater
of 5 ft is preferred to prevent saturation of the root zone. Underdrain systems

147
148 LAND TREATMENT

Figure 11.1. Spray Irrigation System [20].

have been used successfully to adapt to high groundwater or impervious subsoil

conditions.
Water-tolerant perennial grasses have been used most commonly because
they take up large quantities of nitrogen, are low in maintenance, and keep the
soil infiltration rates as high as possible. Seasonal canning wastewaters are
often used to irrigate corn or annual forages to coincide with the production of
wastewater.
In some cases, wastes have been sprayed into woodland areas. Trees develop
a high-porosity soil cover and yield high-transpiration rates. A small elm tree
may take up as much as 3,000 gal/d under arid conditions.
Rapid infiltration systems are characterized by percolation of most of the
applied wastewater through the soil and into the subsurface. The method is
restricted to use with rapidly permeable soils, such as sands and sand loams.
This type of system is normally thought to be associated with recharge or
spreading basins, although in food-processing applications high-rate sprinkler
systems have been used to provide distribution of the wastewater.
In rapid infiltration systems, plants play a relatively minor role in terms of
treatment of the applied wastewater. Physical, chemical, and biological
mechanisms operating within the soil are responsible for treatment. The more
 Wastewater Characteristics and Design Considerations 149

TABLE 11.1. Comparative Characteristics of Land-Treatment Systems [20].

Rapid
Feature Irrigation Infiltration Overland Flow
Hydraulic loading rate, in/d 0.08–0.6 0.6–11.8 0.2–1.4
Land required, acres* 59–370 3–59 25–148
Soil type Loamy sand to clay Sands Clay to clay loam
Soil permeability Moderately slow to Rapid Slow
moderately rapid
*Field area in acres not including buffer area, roads, or ditches.

permeable the soil, the further the wastewater must travel through the soil to
receive treatment. In very sandy soils, this minimum distance is considered to
be approximately 15 ft.
Overland flow is a form of fixed film biological treatment process, in which
both soil and vegetative surfaces act as biological support and treatment media.
In overland flow, land treatment wastewater is applied at the upper reaches of
grass-covered slopes, and allowed to flow over the vegetated surface to runoff
collection ditches. The wastewater is treated by a thin biofilm that is established
down the entire length of the slope. The process is best suited to slowly
permeable soils but can also be used on moderately permeable soils that have
relatively impermeable subsoils.
Wastewater is usually applied by sprinklers to the upper two-thirds of slopes
that are 150 to 200 ft in length. A runoff collection ditch or drain is provided at
the bottom of each slope. Treatment is accomplished by bacteria on the soil
surface, and within the vegetative litter, as the wastewater flows down the
sloped, grass-covered surface to the runoff collection drains. Ideally, the slopes
should have a grade of 2 to 4% to provide adequate treatment and prevent
ponding or erosion. The system may be used on naturally sloped lands or it may
be adapted to flat agricultural land by reshaping the surface to provide the
necessary slopes.
The characteristics of land treatment systems are summarized in Table 11.1.

11.2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS AND

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to soil conditions, several waste characteristics require

consideration in a spray irrigation system. Suspended solids should be removed
from the waste, either by screening or by sedimentation, before it is sprayed.
Solids will tend to clog the spray nozzles and may mat the soil surface,
rendering it impermeable to further percolation. An excess acid or alkaline pH
will be harmful to the cover crop.
150 LAND TREATMENT

High salinity will impair the growth of a cover crop and in clay soils will
cause sodium to replace calcium and magnesium by ion exchange. This will
cause soil dispersion, and as a result drainage and aeration in the soil will be
poor. A maximum salinity of 0.15% has been suggested to eliminate these
problems.
The soil is a highly efficient biological treatment process, and as such, the
performance of the system is usually governed by the hydraulic capacity of the
soil as opposed to the organic loading rate.
Oxygen exchange into soils depends on the air-filled pore spaces. In
saturated soils, oxygen transfer will be similar to oxidation ponds. In
well-drained soils oxygen transfer to the surficial soil is relatively rapid, as it is
primarily a direct mass transfer operation. Below the first 4 inches, however,
oxygen transfer is greatly reduced.
Kim Ferguson, Zion National Park, UT
 CHAPTER 12

Waste Minimization and Water Reuse

Mcoursemanufacturing
ANY plants use more water than is strictly necessary in the
of their manufacturing operations. This is especially true in areas
where water is plentiful and where plants operate their own water wells or water
treatment facilities. Unfortunately, the water has to be treated once it is
intermingled with process chemicals, and it is almost always a cost-effective
practice to minimize the amount of wastewater generated.

12.1 WASTE MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

Before end-of-pipe wastewater treatment or modifications to existing

wastewater treatment facilities are implemented, a program of waste
minimization should be initiated. Reduction and recycling of waste are
inevitably site and plant specific, but a number of generic approaches and
techniques have been used successfully across the country to reduce many
kinds of industrial wastes.
Generally, waste minimization techniques can be grouped into four major
categories:

∑ inventory management and improved operations,

∑ modification of equipment,
∑ production process changes, and
∑ recycling and reuse.

These general techniques have application across a wide range of industries

and manufacturing processes and can apply to hazardous and non-hazardous
wastes, as well as to wastewater. Table 12.1 provides a listing of steps that can
be taken for each of these techniques.
Many of these techniques involve source reduction; others deal with on and
off-site recycling. In practice, waste minimization opportunities are limited

153
154 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND WATER REUSE

TABLE 12.1. Waste Minimization Approaches and Techniques [15].

Inventory Management and Improved Operations:
∑ Inventory and trace all raw materials

∑ Purchase fewer toxic and pollutant-bearing production materials

∑ Implement employee training and management feedback

∑ Improve material receiving, storage, and handling practices

Modification of Equipment:
∑ Install equipment that produces minimal or no waste

∑ Modify equipment to enhance recovery or recycling options

∑ Redesign equipment or production lines to produce less waste

∑ Improve operating efficiency of equipment

∑ Maintain strict preventive maintenance program

Production Process Changes

∑ Substitute non-hazardous for hazardous raw materials, or for materials of lower

pollutant content
∑ Segregate wastes by type for recovery

∑ Eliminate sources of leaks and spills

∑ Separate hazardous from non-hazardous wastes

∑ Redesign or reformulate end products to be less hazardous or polluting

∑ Optimize reactions and raw material use

Recycling and Reuse

∑ Install closed-loop systems

∑ Recycle on site for reuse

∑ Recycle off site for reuse

∑ Exchange wastes

only by the ingenuity of the generator. In the end, a company looking carefully
at bottom-line returns may conclude that the most feasible strategy might be a
combination of source reduction and recycling projects.

12.2 WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT

An inventory and characterization of all wastewater sources is essential to a

successful waste minimization program. It is necessary to collect data to find
potential waste reduction sources and to measure the success of the program. A
three-phased approach has been found to be successful, as outlined in Table
12.2.

12.3 POLLUTION REDUCTION METHODS

Pollution reduction can be directly achieved in the following ways:

(1) Recirculation: In the paperboard industry, white water from a paper

 Pollution Reduction Methods 155

TABLE 12.2. Waste Minimization Assessment [15].

Phase I – Pre-assessment
∑ Audit focus and preparation

∑ Identify unit operations and processes

∑ Prepare process flow diagrams

Phase II – Mass Balance

∑ Determine raw material inputs

∑ Record water usage

∑ Assess present practice and procedures

∑ Quantify process outputs

∑ Account for emissions

—to atmosphere
—to wastewater
—to off-site disposal
—to other disposal receptor
∑ Assemble input and output information

∑ Derive a preliminary mass balance

∑ Evaluate and refine the mass balance

Phase III – Synthesis

∑ Identify options

—identify opportunities
—target problem areas
—confirm options
∑ Evaluate options

—technical
—environmental
—economic
∑ Prepare action plan

—waste reduction plan

—production efficiency plan
—training

machine can be put through a saveall to remove the pulp and fiber, and
recycled to various points in the paper-making process.
(2) Segregation: In a soap and detergent case, as shown in Figure 12.1, clean
streams can be separated for direct discharge. Concentrated or toxic
streams can be separated for separate treatment.
(3) Disposal: In many cases, concentrated wastes can be removed in a
semi-dry state. In the production of ketchup, the kettle bottoms (after
cooking and preparation of the product) are usually flushed to the sewer.
The total discharge BOD and suspended solids can be markedly reduced by
removal of this residue in a semi-dry state for disposal. In breweries, the
secondary storage units have sludge in the bottom of the vats that contains
both BOD and suspended solids. Removal of this sludge, rather than
flushing to the sewer, will materially reduce organic and solids wastewater
loadings.
156 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND WATER REUSE

Figure 12.1. Wastewater Segregation [16].

(4) Reduction: It is common practice in many industries, such as breweries and

dairies, to have hoses continuously running for cleanup purposes. The use
of automatic cutoffs can substantially reduce the wastewater volume. The
use of drip pans to catch products, such as in a dairy or ice cream
manufacturing plant, instead of flushing this material to the sewer,
considerably reduces the organic load. A similar case exists in the plating
 Case Histories and Examples 157

industry in which a drip pan placed between the plating bath and the rinse
tanks will reduce the metal dragout.
(5) Substitution: The substitution of individual chemical additives, or entire
process chemistries, can be a highly cost-effective waste reduction
technique. In the following section, case studies of various industries using
these waste minimization methods will be discussed.

12.4 CASE HISTORIES AND EXAMPLES

Case studies from three industries, following rigorous source management

and control, are shown in Table 12.3. These studies show the degree of waste
minimization that has been achieved for three diverse manufacturing
operations.

12.4.1 Pulp and Paper Industry

An example of water reuse and suspended solids or fiber recovery in a board

mill is shown in Figure 12.2. In this case, fiber recovery may be accomplished
using a Waco filter, a disc filter, or a flotation saveall. In some instances, a
flotation saveall might be followed with a filter to obtain higher fiber recovery.
The pulp and paper industry has been required to re-examine and redefine
many of its core manufacturing processes in order to meet its water pollution
abatement goals. Table 12.4 lists process alternatives that have been evaluated
for unbleached Kraft processing, and Table 12.5 provides a summary of raw
waste load data for some of these alternatives. These data show that significant
waste load reductions are possible by using alternative manufacturing methods.

TABLE 12.3. Case Studies: Waste Minimization Projects.

Case Example Before After % Reduction
1. Chemical industry
Volume (MGD) 1.32 0.71 46
COD (tons/day) 23.1 14.3 39
2. Hide and skin industry
Volume (MGD) 0.67 0.48 28
BOD (tons/day) 3.3–6.6 2.2–6.6 33–0
TDS (tons/day) 22 11 50
SS (tons/day) 4.4–91.5 3.3–7.7 25–92
3. Metal preparation and finishing
Volume (MGD) 0.12 0.07 42
Chromium (lbs/day) 22.7 2.27 90
TTM (lbs/day) 81.8 38.6 53
158 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND WATER REUSE

Figure 12.2. Pulp and Fiber Recovery in a Board Mill [15].

A cost effectiveness analysis is used to make final process alternative

selections.
The pulp and paper industry has studied new methods to reduce pollutant
loadings and the use of chlorine as a bleaching agent. Data from some of the key
industry studies are presented in Tables 12.6 and 12.7.

12.4.2 Organic Chemicals Industry

The former Union Carbide plant in South Charleston, West Virginia, is a

representative example of effective waste minimization actions that can be
expected from a major multi product chemicals complex. A detailed study of
waste load reduction by in-plant changes showed that an initial plant flow of 11.
1 MGD and BOD loading of 55,700 lbs/d could be reduced, using waste
minimization and water conservation techniques, to a flow of 8.3 MGD and a
BOD of 37,100 lbs/d.
The methods used to achieve these reductions are shown in Table 12.8,
Summary of In-Plant Modifications.
In the petroleum industry, major pollutant discharges from a petroleum
 TABLE 12.4. Unbleached Kraft Processing Unit Operations
and Alternatives [20].
Unit Operation A B C
Wood preparation Wet debarking Dry debarking
Pulping Batch or Digestor wash, two Multistage
continuous radial filters, brownstock counter-current
screening* vacuum wash;
brownstock
screening
Washing and Blow pit wash, Recausticizing; steam
screening coarse and fine stripping of
screening, decker condensates; spill
thickening collection system
Chemical recovery Evaporation, Conventional system
oxidation, with moderate white
recausticizing water recycle
Papermaking Conventional system
with extensive recycle
and fiber recovery
*Baseline technology for mills with continuous digestion.

TABLE 12.5. Unbleached Kraft Processing Unit Operations

Raw Waste Load Data [20].
Unit Operation Units A B C
Wood preparation Q ¥ 103 GPT* 3.5 1.0
BOD, PPT 3.0 2.0
SS, PPT 8.0 5.0
Color, PPT** 10.0 5.0
Pulping
Batch digestion Q ¥ 103 GPT 1.2
BOD, PPT 8.0
SS, PPT 0.1
Continuous digestion Q ¥ 103 GPT 0.3
BOD, PPT 3.0
SS, PPT 0.1
Washing and screening Q ¥ 103 GPT 12.0 5.0 2.0
BOD, PPT 21.0 10.0 8.0
SS, PPT 21.0 15.0 10.0
Color, PPT 80.0 50.0 50.0
Chemical recovery Q ¥ 103 GPT 4.0 2.8
BOD, PPT 11.0 4.0
SS, PPT 6.0 4.0
Color, PPT 90.0 40.0
Papermaking Q ¥ 103 GPT 12.0 8.0
BOD, PPT 14.0 10.0
SS, PPT 16.0 12.0
Color, PPT 15.0 12.0
*GPT = gal per ton of product.

159
 TABLE 12.6. An Example of the Effect of Some Delignification Methods
on the Effluent Properties of a Softwood Kraft Bleach Plant. Before
Effluent Treatment (Gullichsen 1991) [26].
Kappa* BOD, COD Color, AOX,
Number kg/t kg/t kg Pt/t kg/t
Standard kraft 30 16 80 200 7
Extended delignification 24 14 60 150 4.8
Oxygen delignification 18 12 50 120 3.5
Extended and oxygen delignification 14 9 39 100 2.8
*Estimate of lignin content in percent equals Kappa/6

TABLE 12.7. An Example of the Effect of Some Delignification Methods

on the Effluent Properties Of a Softwood Kraft Bleach Plant.
All Mill Effluents After Activated Sludge Treatment [26].
BOD, COD Color, AOX,
kg/t kg/t kg Pt/t kg/t
Standard kraft 2.4 45 180 3.9
Extended delignification 2.2 36 130 2.2
Oxygen delignification 2.0 31 100 1.9
Extended and oxygen delignification 1.7 27 85 1.3

160
 Recycle/Reuse and Treatment Cost Considerations 161

TABLE 12.8. Summary of In-Plant Modifications [15]

(Union Carbide, West Virginia).
% of Total Raw
Waste Load
Type of Modifications Description Reduction
Equipment Self-explanatory 25
modifications
Unit shutdowns Shutdowns due to the age of the unit or 10
product obsolescence. These shutdowns
were not a direct result of pollution
considerations, but were somewhat
hastened by these considerations
Scrubber replacement Replacement of scrubbers associated with 3
amine production by burning of the
off-vapors
Segregation, collection For specific concentrated wastewater 35
and incineration streams
Raw material Self-explanatory 3
substitutions
Reprocessing Collecting tail streams from specific 3
processes, then putting these streams
through an additional processing unit to
recover more product and concentrate the
final wastestream.
Misc. small projects A variety of modifications which individually 21
did not represent a large reduction in RWL,
but collectively produced a significant
reduction.

refinery are the sour water or sour condensates. These are condensates from the
various processing operations and are particularly high in sulfides and
ammonia, in addition to other pollutants. A steam stripper accomplishes 96 to
99% sulfide removal and anywhere from 40 to 95% removal of ammonia,
depending on how the stripper is operated. Sulfides strip most effectively at low
pH, whereas ammonia strips most effectively at high pH. Low-nitrogen levels
can be achieved by the use of sequential strippers operated at low, then high pH.
Spent caustic in a refinery is an alkaline waste, containing high
concentrations of sulfides, mercaptans, and phenols. Removal of spent caustic
for separate treatment may markedly reduce wastewater treatment costs and
can, in some cases, result in a marketable product.

12.5 RECYCLE/REUSE AND TREATMENT COST

CONSIDERATIONS

Water reuse is usually an economic trade-off between the costs of raw water
162 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND WATER REUSE

Figure 12.3. Relationship Between Total Daily Water Cost and Treated Waste Recycle for Reuse.

and the costs associated with treatment for reuse and for discharge. Raw water
cost is usually easily defined. The costs of treating and cleaning up wastewater
are harder to define, and depend on the degree of treatment needed for
recycling. For some manufacturing operations, the water must be as clean as
potable water, or cleaner. For others, such as non-contact cooling water, less
treatment is needed. Considering all of these factors, an optimum reuse/recycle
v. cost relationship will exist for most plants, and plant-specific cost
relationships, such as the one shown in Figure 12.3, can be developed to
facilitate decision-making.
Jeff Cole, Cascade Creek, Grand Teton National Park, WY
 CHAPTER 13

Economics of Wastewater Treatment

Ftreatment of atheparticular
OLLOWING selection of alternative processes applicable for the
waste, the cost of each process constitutes the most
significant criterion for selection of a final process design. Cost estimating
techniques can carry the economic feasibility of altemative treatment methods
to any desired degree of accuracy.

13.1 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES

The accuracy of treatment cost estimates can vary from very general
estimates, developed from rule-of-thumb figures, to detailed figures obtained
from construction bids. Estimates with an intermediate degree of accuracy can
be constructed from individual design parameters for specific treatment
processes, and unit cost curves developed from actual construction costs.
Usually, estimates of this type are sufficiently accurate to permit the selection
of a final treatment design based on economic considerations. The following
information is required for the development of cost estimates:
(1) Wastewater characterization data
(2) Design parameters for applicable treatment processes
(3) Effluent standards to meet water quality criteria
(4) Unit cost information for applicable treatment processes

Design data required for individual treatment processes are discussed in

previous chapters. Treatment cost relationships for industrial wastewaters are
available from published sources, vendor information, and installed facilities.
Because of the prevalence of the activated sludge process, additional
comments should be made regarding cost estimates for this process and
associated sludge-handling procedures. Estimated operation and maintenance

165
166 ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

costs for activated sludge should include allowances for nutrient addition,
where required, and for power costs.
The cost of activated sludge facilities for industrial applications must also
include a consideration of the BOD concentration of the waste. Likewise, the
cost of sludge-handling facilities for industrial wastes can be estimated only
after the properties of the particular sludge are known.
In most instances, allowances must be made for piping required to convey
wastes from one unit process to another. Although pumping of the main waste
stream is included in cost relationships for processes, such as filtration,
dissolved air flotation, and carbon adsorption that require a pressurized waste
stream, allowances for pumping are usually not included in other cost
relationships. If extra pumping is required, appropriate allowances should be
included in cost estimates.
A general procedure for the development of treatment cost estimates is
shown below. Changes to this procedure may be made in cases requiring
special treatment and to allow for different degrees of accuracy.
(1) Collection of wastewater characterization data: Characterization data for
the wastewater to be treated must be assembled for the design of individual
treatment processes. The completeness of characterization data
significantly affects the accuracy of the treatment cost estimate. If
characterization data for a particular industry are unavailable, it may be
possible to select typical values for similar industries from available
literature. If changes in the characteristics or quantity of wastewater are
anticipated during the useful life of the treatment system, these factors
should be considered in the final design.
(2) Selection of treatment processes: Design parameters for treatment
processes that have been found to be applicable to the treatment of the
particular waste are chosen. If alternative treatment process are being
compared, it should be determined that each process is capable of reducing
the constituents present in the raw waste stream to required effluent values.
Factors affecting the selection of alternative treatment processes include
the volume of waste to be treated, the nature of constituents present in the
waste stream, the reliability of various treatment processes, the possibilities
afforded by each process for the recovery of saleable byproducts, and the
flexibility of candidate processes in handling possible changes of waste
characteristics.
(3) Selection of plant design size: The design size for each process must be
determined by considering the characteristics of each individual waste
stream. If increases in the plant waste flow are anticipated, the final design
should include the capacity to handle the greater flow at a future date.
Generally, hydraulic structures are designed to handle the waste flow not
 Capital Cost Estimates 167

exceeded 90% of the time, basin volumes are sized on the 50th percentile
flow, and oxygen requirements for biological systems are sized for the 90th
percentile demand.
(4) Selection of unit process cost models: Treatment cost relationships for the
processes being considered should be obtained from reliable sources. Unit
cost information is available from current treatment cost literature, from
literature describing industrial waste treatment practices and costs for
specific industries, and from manufacturers of industrial wastewater
treatment equipment.
(5) Development of treatment cost estimates: Final design factors used as a
basis for estimating treatment costs are combined with unit cost
information to determine the treatment cost for each unit process.
Construction cost estimates should include the cost of each unit process
plus allowances added to cover contingencies, engineering, administration
of the construction contract, land costs, and other miscellaneous costs.
Operation and maintenance costs should cover all expenses required for the
operation of unit treatment processes plus allowances for the transport and
disposal of sludges and brines resulting from treatment operations.

Factors that must be included to determine the total construction cost of a

treatment facility include:
∑ Unit construction costs
∑ Additional costs for pumping, piping, and electrical work required
∑ Land costs
∑ Contingencies, engineering, administration of the contract, and
miscellaneous costs
To cover contingencies, engineering, administration of the contract, and
miscellaneous costs, 35% may be added to the combined cost of unit treatment
processes. However, this factor suffers from generality and should be evaluated
in individual cases. Additional costs that may need to be added to total
construction estimates include instrumentation not usually included in
treatment facilities, allowances for control facilities and laboratories, and
special costs for landscaping. Instrumentation costs are usually small compared
with total construction costs and should be included when a high degree of
instrumentation is desired. For instance, the cost for complete instrumentation
of ion exchange facilities usually adds approximately 10% to the total
construction cost.
Costs for the construction of offices, maintenance shops, laboratories, and
the cost of landscaping will vary significantly, depending on facilities already
available at particular locations and the emphasis to be placed on the general
appearance of the treatment facility.
168 ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

13.2 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COST ESTIMATES

Factors that contribute to operational and maintenance costs for treatment

facilities include:
∑ Labor costs, including provisions for operational, general maintenance,
and administrative personnel
∑ Chemical costs
∑ Materials, including items required for general maintenance and
substances that must be replaced periodically, such as activated carbon
and filter media
∑ Transportation of sludges and other materials for ultimate disposal
∑ Power costs
In some cases, all of these items are included in one relationship reflecting
the total cost for operation and maintenance. However, in other cases, chemical
and power costs may be calculated separately.
Treatment costs may vary significantly, depending on the price of these
items in different locations. In addition, the quantity of chemicals and power
required is affected by specific wastewater characteristics.
For physical-chemical treatment processes, it may be desirable to construct
several cost estimates to determine the sensitivity of total treatment costs to the
cost of using different chemicals.

13.3 PRESENT VALUE COST ANALYSIS

Final process costs should be compared on a present value (PV) basis to

account for the effects of capital and operating costs over the life of the plant.
This method of comparison provides a rational basis for process selection from
estimates of long-term system costs.
PV analysis converts all costs for the life of the system to today’s value based
on a discount rate selected to correspond with the owners estimated cost of
funds. Constant O&M costs can be converted back to PV by multiplying the
cost times the PV factor for the appropriate discount rate and project economic
life. The same can be done with anticipated replacement costs or major
one-time costs. Following this conversion, these PV costs can be summed and
added to the initial capital cost to determine total PV. The PV of each
alternative can then be compared and a selection made.
Table 13.1 shows treatment technology cost sensitivity parameters. Because
these parameters will most influence the overall project cost, it is essential that
they be as well defined as possible.
The capital and operating cost relationship for an organic chemicals plant is
shown in Figure 13.1. These cost estimates have been converted to PV in Table
13.2.
 TABLE 13.1. Treatment Technology Cost Sensitivity Parameters [20].
Treatment Technology Capital Costs O&M Costs
Precipitation Flow Acidity
Air stripping Flow Air requirements
Constituents Pretreatment
Percent Removal Off-gas treatment
Off-gas treatment
Chemical oxidation Flow Chemical requirements
Chemical, i.e. peroxide or ozone
Activated sludge Flow Organic loading
Organic concentration Sludge disposal
Aeration costs
PACT Flow Carbon requirements
Sludge disposal
GAC Flow Carbon requirements
Carbon regeneration
Evaporation Flow Gas requirements
Sludge disposal

TABLE 13.2. Summary of Net Present Value Analysis [20].

Net Present Valuea
Treatment Process $ Millions
Equalization, neutralization and sedimentation 1.63
Plus activated sludge and sludge disposal 6.03
Plus filtration 6.76
Plus activated carbon adsorption 12.38
aCalculated for 20 year term at 9% discount rate - 1995

169
 Figure 13.1. Capital and Operating Costs for Wastewater Treatment [20].

170
 Comparative Cost Analysis 171

13.4 COMPARATIVE COST ANALYSIS

In some cases it may be desirable to estimate the cost of a treatment plant

based on the cost of an identical facility having a different capacity. In these
cases, it has been found that the cost of different sized plants varies with the
ratio of the capacities of the two plants raised to the 0.6 power. This relationship
may be mathematically represented as follows:
0.6
ÊC ˆ
($Plant 2) cap = ($Plant 1) cap Á 2 ˜
Ë C1 ¯

where, ($Plant 1) cap and ($Plant 2) cap = capital cost of plants 1 and 2,
respectively, and: C1 and C2 = capacity of plants 1 and 2 respectively.
Although this relationship was developed specifically for construction costs
in chemical process industries, analysis of capital cost relationships for
wastewater treatment processes indicates that costs generally vary with the
plant capacity ratio raised to the 0.5 to 0.7 power. However, this is a very
approximate guideline and should be used with care.
A similar relationship has been derived for operation and maintenance costs.
Because there is much less economy of scale for operational costs, these costs
generally vary with the 0.85 power of the plant capacity ratio. The relationship
used for the estimation of operation and maintenance costs for treatment
facilities of different sizes is:
0.85
ÊC ˆ
($Plant 2)om = ($Plant 1)om Á 2 ˜
ËC ¯ 1

where, ($Plant 1)om and ($Plant 2)om = operation and maintenance costs for
plants 1 and 2, respectively.
 About the Authors

W. WESLEY ECKENFELDER, P.E., D.Sc., D.E.E, is currently a consulting

environmental engineer in private practice. He received degrees in civil
engineering from Manhattan College and environmental engineering from
Pennsylvania State University and New York University. In 1990 he received
an honorary D.Sc. degree from Manhattan College. He was associate professor
at Manhattan College, professor at the University of Texas, and is presently
Emeritus Distinguished Professor of Environmental Engineering at Vanderbilt
University. He was founder of the consulting firm of Hydroscience, Inc., a
partner in Weston Eckenfelder & Associates (now Roy F. Weston, Inc.) and has
served as board chairman of AWARE Incorporated and Eckenfelder, Inc., and
as a Technical Director for Brown & Caldwell.
He has developed continuing education courses in water pollution control for
Manhattan College, the University of Texas, Vanderbilt University, the
University of Queensland, Australia, the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association. He has organized
courses and workshops in 17 countries in Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin
America.
He has served as consultant to over 150 industries, municipalities, consulting
firms, and governmental agencies, and as an expert witness to numerous law
firms.
He is an author or editor of 32 books and over 200 technical papers in water
pollution control including Industrial Water Pollution Control, McGraw-Hill
(1967, 1989 and 2000); Principles of Water Quality Management, CBI
Publishing (1980); and Water Pollution Control, Jenkins Publishing Co.
(1978). These books have been translated into Japanese and Chinese and one
into French and Italian. Professor Eckenfelder is on numerous editorial boards
including Water Technology Letters (U.K.) and Hazardous Waste and
Hazardous Materials.
He is a member of numerous technical societies including the Water
Pollution Control Federation (honorary member), the American Institute of
 About the Authors

Chemical Engineers, and the American Society of Civil Engineers. He is an

honorary member of the International Association on Water Quality.
In 1974 he was awarded the Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturers
Association gold medal for excellence in environmental chemistry, in 1957 the
Rudolfs Medal, and in 1981 the Thomas Camp Medal from the Water Pollution
Control Federation. In 1998 he received the Lawrence Cecil Award from the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. In 1999 he received the Gordon
Maskew Fair Award from the American Academy of Environmental
Engineers. He is a registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

WILLIAM NEY HANSARD is the president of Environmental Management

Services, Inc. (EMSI) in Brentwood, Tennessee. He has nearly 30 years of
experience in the field of environmental management and specializes in the
areas of wastewater treatment, hazardous waste management and contaminated
site remediation.
Mr. Hansard joined Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc.
(AWARE) in 1974, where he was primarily engaged in designing, operating
and troubleshooting industrial wastewater treatment facilities and in water
quality investigations. He later served as public utilities manager for the City of
Manchester, Tennessee, where he procured the funding for and supervised the
design of a new three million gallon per day wastewater treatment facility for
the city. In 1986, he rejoined AWARE (which subsequently became
Eckenfelder, Inc.) as project manager in the Waste Management Division; there
he focused on hazardous waste management, CERCLA, RCRA and TSCA
project management, site investigation and remedial design, and corporate
environmental management projects.
In 1991, Mr. Hansard established EMSI to provide specialized technical
services to the industrial and government sectors. These services include:
decontamination and remediation of contaminated facilities, cost reductions for
environmental operations, development of new technologies, corporate
environmental management programs, and expert representation in
environmental contests. EMSI assists industry in incorporating lean
manufacturing, Six Sigma, ISO 14001 and other quality standards into
manufacturing operations. He has served as consultant to over 200
manufacturing companies and numerous law firms.
Mr. Hansard is a member of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
Tennessee Water and Wastewater Association, Tennessee-Kentucky Water
Pollution Control Federation, National Environmental Training Association
and the Institute of Hazardous Materials Management
He has authored and co-authored numerous articles and papers on a variety
of environmental topics, including groundwater and wastewater treatment,
 About the Authors

bioremediation of contaminated sites, limiting factors for bioremediation,

preparation of environmental technical reports, environmental auditing, and
treatment of refractory wastewater compounds. Mr. Hansard is currently
involved in the development of new environmental technologies, including the
MaxBio advanced wastewater treatment system.
 References

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Quality Inventory, EPA-841-F-02-003, August 2002
2. After Hardy 1959. Derived from Biology and Water Pollution Control, pg 292, Charles E.
Warren, W. B. Saunders Company.
3. Warren, C. E., Wales, J. H., Davis, G. E., and Doudoroff, P. 1964, Trout Production in an
Experimental Stream Enriched With Sucrose, Journal of Wildlife Management 28:617–660.
4. Cummings, K. W., W. P. Coffman, and Roff, P. A. 1966, “Trophic Relationships in a Small
Woodland Stream,” Verhandlung der Internationalen Vereiniqung fur Theroetische and
Angewandte Limnologie 16:627–637.
5. Bartsch, A. F., Ingram, M. W. 1959 Stream Life and the Pollution Environment, Public
Works, July 1959.
6. National Water Quality Inventory, 1992 Report to Congress, EPA841-R-94-001, March
1994.
7. National Water Quality Inventory, 1996 Report to Congress, EPA841-R-97-008, April 1998.
8. National Water Quality Inventory, 1994 Report to Congress, EPA841-R-95-005, December
1995.
9. Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, Correctives, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 1969.
10. Parker, F. L., and Krenkel, P. A., Thermal Pollution: Status of the Art, National Center for
Research and Training in the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Aspects of Water Pollution Control,
Report No. 3, Vanderbilt University School of Engineering, 1969.
11. Laws, E. A., Aquatic Pollution, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
12. Lankford, P. W., and Eckenfelder, W. W., Toxicity Reduction in Industrial Effluents, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, N.Y. 1990.
13. Adapted from Loh and Fujioka (1980, p. 47).
14. National Water Quality Inventory, 1998 Report to Congress, EPA841-R-00-001, June 2000.
15. Eckenfelder, W. W., Industrial Water Pollution Control, ISBN 0-07-039364-8,
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Ed., 2000.
16. Eckenfelder, W. W., Principals of Water Quality Management, ISBN 0-8436-0338-0, CBI
Publishing Company, Inc., 1980.
17. Canter and Knox, 1985 as cited by Kincannon and Stover, undated.
18. Conway and Ross, 1980.
19. Canter and Knox, 1985 as cited by Kincannon and Stover, undated.

173
174 References

20. Eckenfelder, W. W., Developing Industrial Water Pollution Control Programs, ISBN
1-56676-536-6, Technomic Publications, 1977.
21. Eckenfelder, W. W., Industrial Water Pollution Control, ISBN 0-07-018903-X,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 2d Ed, 1989.
22. Ramalho, R. S., Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Processes, 2nd Ed, Academic Press, a
subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Javanovich, 1983.
23. Wiseman, A., Principles of Biotechnology, Surrey University Press, distributed by Chapman
and Hall, New York, 1983.
24. Water Pollution Control Federation, Deeds and Data, January 1980.
25. Process Design Manual for Nitrogen Control, USEPA, Office of Technology Transfer, 1975.
26. Eckenfelder, W. W., Water Pollution Control in the Pulp and Paper Industry, Brown &
Caldwell, 1999.
INDEX

Index Terms Links

Activated carbon 70 87
Activated sludge 60 61 62 64
Acute toxicity 15 24 25
Aerated lagoon 74 75
Aeration 65 66
Aerobic 57
Aerobic-anaerobic 75
Aerobic lagoon 75
Aircraft maintenance 55
Air stripping 94 95
Alcohol stillage 82
Aldrin 38
Algae 10
Alkalininy 68
Alum 125
Ammonia 33 68 130
Ammonia removal 97
Amplified bioaccumulation 26
Anaerobic 16 57 76 79
81
Anion 92 93
Anoxic 57 130
Anthropogenic 39

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Index Terms Links

API 50 53 54
Apparel 90
Apple processing 83
Aquatic ecosystems 5
Aromatics 69 95 107
Arsenic 105
Assimilative capacities 6
Attached growth 75
Auto-oxidation 58

Bacteria 10 57
Ball bearing manufacture 103
Barium 105
Beans and pasta processing 83
Belt filter press 138 141
Bioaccumulative 23 24 38
Bioactive 27
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 17 31 32 64
84 103
Bioconcentrate 38
Biodegradable 17 57
Biofilm 76 77
Biofilter 80
Biogas 79 81
Biological nutrient removal (BNR) 128
Biological sludge 142
Biological treatment 41 57
Biomass 6 57 58 63
76 91

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Index Terms Links

Biooxidation 59
BioP 127
Biosolids 58 133
BOD (see biochemical oxygen demand)
Breakpoint chlorination 128
Brewery 82
Bromine 106

Cadmium 105
Calcium 29
Carbonaceous BOD 17
Cation 92 93
Caustic 48
Centrifugation 136 137 141
Chemical oxidation 106 107
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 18 35 44 103
Chemical plants 1
Chemical precipitation 48 104 105
Clean water act 2 3
Clam processing 82
Corn wet milling 82
Chemical precipitation 48 106
Chemical reduction 106 107
Chemicals and allied products 90
Chlordane 38
Chloride 29
Chlorine 106 121
Chlorination 121
Cholera 26

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Index Terms Links

Chromate 93
Chromium 68
Chronic 24
Clarifier 47
Clarification 76
Coagulation 99
COD (see chemical oxygen demand)
Coliform 32 36
Colloidal 59
Compost 144
Conventional pollutants 31
Copper 68 105
Co-precipitation 104
Corrugated plate interceptor 51
Cost analysis 171
Cyanide 34 68

Dairy 82 83
DDT 26 38
Dechlorination 121
Demulsification 101
Denitrification 58 71 129 130
Detention time 64
Dewatering 137 141
Diazinon 38
Diffused aeration 65
Disinfection 121
Dissolved air flotation 55 136 141
Dissolved oxygen 17 18

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Index Terms Links

Dissolved salts 68
Ditch 70
D.O. sag 18
Dystrophic 7

Economics 165
Electrodialysis 118
Electroplate 93
Emulsion breaking 54
Endogenous 58 63
Endosulfan 38
Energy and material transfer 5 7
Equalization 44 47
Ethanol corn processing 83
Extended aeration 65 70

Fabricated metal 90
Facultative 57 74 75
Fecal coliforms 28 32 36
Fecal streptococci 36
Ferric chloride 125
Ferrous sulfate 107
Filament 74
Filter 112
Filtration 111 113
Floc 58
Flocculation 99

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Index Terms Links

Flotation 54 101
Fluidized bed 84 143
Fluidized bed reactor 84
Food 78
Food and kindred products 90
Food to microorganism ratio (F/M) 63 64 65 74
Food web 5 38

GAC (see granular activated carbon)

Genetically engineered microorganisms (GEM) 27
Granular activated carbon (GAC) 87 88 89 90
Granular media filtration 111
Gravity belt 136
Gravity thickening 136 141
Grit removal 43

Halogenated hydrocarbons 69
Hardboard mill 82
Heavy metals 24 37 103 104
Henry’s Law 95 98
Heptachlor 38
Herbicides 24
Hexavalent chromium 93
Hydrogen peroxide 106
Hydronium ion 33
Hydrothermal hydrolysis 109
Hydroxy 33

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Index Terms Links

Hypereutrophic 7

Impairment 2 3 5
Inclined plate separator 51
Induced air flotation 54
Inhibitory 74
Interdependence 7
Intermittent 72
Ion exchange 92 94 104
Ionic regulation 29
Iron 18 103 105

Jet aeration 65

Kjeldahl nitrogen 33
Kraft 78 82 157 159
160

Laminar 52
Landfill 133 137
Land treatment 147
Latex paint 103
Laundromat 103
Lead 68 105
Leather products 90

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Index Terms Links

Leptospira 26
Lethal concentration50 (LC50 ) 24 25 91
Lime 48 102 125
Loop reactor 70

Meat packing 55 78
Median tolerance limit (Tlm) 24
Membrane 104 113
Mercury 105
Mesotrophic 7
Metals (see also heavy metals) 104
Metal finishing 93
Methane 78 79
Methanogenic 79
Methemoglobinemia 34
Micronutrient 67
Microfiltration 113 119
Microorganisms 57
Mineralization 58
Mixed liquor 60
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
(MLVSS) 64 67

Nanofiltration 119
National Water Quality Inventory 1 2 15
Neutralization 48 49 101
Neutralizing agents 48

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Index Terms Links

Nickel 68 105
Nitrate 33 129 130
Nitrite 34
Nitrification 18 68 71 91
129 130
Nitrogen 33 69 128 129
Nitrogenous oxygen demand 17
Nutrient 4 67
Nutrient loadings 19

Odor 37
Oil & grease (O&G) 33 68 103 117
Oil removal 49
Oil tanker ballast 55
Oil/water separator 50
Olive processing 83
Organic chemicals 99 158
Organic load 63 68
Organic-nitrogen 33
Osmoregulation 29
Overland flow 147 149
Oxidation ditch 71
Oxidation reduction potential (ORP) 107
Oxygen 65 106
Oxygenated compounds 69
Oxygen demand 17
Oxygen depletion 15 16

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Index Terms Links

PACT (see powdered activated carbon

treatment)
Paint manufacturer 55
Paper and allied products 46 90
Paperboard 46 101
Pathogens 26 36
Pesticide 1 24 38 99
158
Petroleum industry 54
Petroleum refining 90
pH 4 33 67 68
103
Pharmaceutical processing 83
Phosphorus 34 103 125 126
127
Phthalates 69
Physical/chemical treatment 87 128
Phytoplankton 10
Plankton 10
Phenol 68 69
Polio 26
Pollution reduction 154
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 1 24 38
Polyelectrolyte 101
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 38 69
Population 6
Population density 10
Population dynamics 5 9

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Index Terms Links

Potassium 29
Potassium permanganate 106
Potato processing 83
Powdered activated carbon treatment (PACT) 73 74 91
Precipitation 104 125
Present value 168
Pressure filter 139
Pre-treatment 41
Primary clarification 47
Primary metal 90
Primary treatment 41 68
Printing, publishing and allied industries 90
Priority pollutants 31 38 39
Protozoans 10
Publicly owned treatment works (POTW) 43
Pulp and paper 46 76 157 158
Pure oxygen 74

Quicklime 48

Radiation 37
Radioactive 24
Radionuclides 24 37
Rapid infiltration 148
Reactor clarifier 100 101
Recirculation 154
Recycling and reuse 154 161

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Index Terms Links

Refineries 1 55 78
Refractory 32 73 108
Reverse osmosis 113 114 116 117
Rotary drum screening 136
Rotating biological contactor 75
Rubber product

Salinity 28 29
Screening 43
Screw press 140
Secondary clarifier 60 62
Secondary treatment 41 57
Sediments 4
Sedimentation 37 47 100 101
Sequencing batch reactor 72 73
Settleable solids 36
Sewage 18
Siltation 27
Sludge 67 133
Sludge age 63
Sludge drying bed 141
Sludge handling 133
Sludge production 67
Sludge thickening 135
Sodium 29
Sodium bicarbonate 48
Sodium hydroxide 48
Sodium hypochlorite 121
Sodium metabisulfite 107

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Index Terms Links

Specific gravity 50
Spray irrigation 147 148
Stripping 94
Stoke’s Law 51
Stone, clay and glass products 90
Stabilization 133
Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater 31
Steam stripping 97 98 99
Sublethal effect 24
Sulfide 68
Sulfur dioxide 107
Supercritical water oxidation 109
Surfactant 34
Suspended solids 59 68 103

Tannery 78
Temperature 67 68
Tertiary treatment 41
Teratogenic effects 24
Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste
(SW-846) 33
Textile 78
Thermal pollution 23
Thermoclines 24
Total coliforms 36
Total dissolved solids 35
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) 3 4
Total organic carbon (TOC) 35

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Index Terms Links

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 32 68 84 117

Total solids 36 103
Toxicity 68 69
Toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE) 70
Toxic organic 69
Toxic pollutant 6
Toxic substance control act (TSCA) 38
Trace nutrient 67
Trickling filter 76 77
Trophic 5 7
TSS (see total suspended solids)
Tuberculosis 26
Turbidity 27 28 36

Ultimate BOD 32
Ultrafiltration 113 119
Ultraviolet irradiation 121
Upflow 84

Vacuum filtration 137

Vertical plate separator 52
Vertical tube separator 52
VOC 95
Volatile fatty acids 78
Volatile organic acids 79
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) 94 95 96 97

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Index Terms Links

Volatile suspended solids (VSS) 35

Waste minimization 153 154

Wastewater sludge 141
Water reuse 153 161
Wet air oxidation 106 108
Wet corn milling 78
Whole effluent toxicity (WET) 24 69

Xenobiotic 27 39

Zinc 105 106

Zooplankton 6 10

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 Bibliography

Adams, C. E., D. L. Ford. and W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr.: Development of Operational Criteria for
Wastewater Treatment, Butterworth, Boston, 1981.
Benefield, L. D.. C. W. Randall: Biological Process Design for Wastewater Treatment,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980.
Eckenfelder, W.W.: Industrial Water Pollution Control, 3rd Ed., McGraw Hill Companies, New
York, NY, 2000.
Eckenfelder, W. W.: Water Pollution Control in the Pulp and Paper Industry, Brown and Caldwell,
Nashville, Tenn., 1999.
Eckenfelder, W. W. and P. Grau (eds.): Activated Sludge Process Design and Control, 2nd Ed.,
Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pa., 1998.
Eckenfelder, W. W. and J. Musterman: Activated Sludge Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters,
Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pa., 1997.
Eckenfelder, W. W.: Developing Industrial Water Pollution Control Programs, Technomic
Publishing Co. Publishing Co.. Lancaster, Pa., 1997.
Eckenfelder, W. W.: Principles of Water Quality Management, CB1 Publishing. Boston 1980.
Environmental Desk Book, James W. Conrad, Jr., editor, ISBN 0-8366-1220-5, West Group, New
York, NY, 2003 edition.
EPA Treatability Manual EPA-600/2-82-0012, 1982, vol. 1, Treatability Data; vol. 2, Industrial
Descriptions; vol. 3, Technologies for Control/Removal of Pollutants; and vol. 4, Cost
Estimating.
Ford, D. L. (ed.): Toxicity Reduction-Evaluation and Control, 2nd ed. Technomic Publishing Co.,
Lancaster, Pa., 1998.
Industrial Wastewater and Best Available Treatment Technologies: Performance, Reliability and
Economics, conference proceedings, Vanderbilt University and USEPA, Nashville, TN, 2003.
Industrial Wastes Tech. Conf. Proc., 1998, Water Env. Fed.
Industrial Wastes Tech. Conf. Proc.,1997, Water Env. Fed.
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.: Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, 4th Ed., McGraw Hill
Companies, Columbus, OH, 2003.
Lankford, P. W., and W. W. Eckenfelder (eds.): Toxicity Reduction in Industrial Effluents, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990.
NALCO Water Handbook, 2nd Ed., Frank Kemmerer, editor, NALCO Water Company, ISBN
0-07-045872-3, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1988.

175
176 Bibliography

Nemerow, N. L.: Industrial Water Pollution, Origins, Characteristics, and Treatment,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1978.
Patterson, J. W.: Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology, 2nd ed., Butterworth, Boston,
Mass., 1985.
Pitter, P., and J. Chudoba, Biodegradability of Organic Substances in the Aquatic Environment,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990.
Sawyer, C. N., and P. L. McCarty: Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978.
Speece, R. E.: Anaerobic Biotechnology for Industrial Wastewaters, Archer Press, Nashville,
Tenn., 1996.
Water-1974, 1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment, AlChE Symposium Series, vol. 70, no. 144,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1974.
Water-1976, 11. Biological Wastewater Treatment, AlChE Symposium Series, vol. 73, no. 167,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1977.
Verschurenen, K.: Handbook on Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1977.