Geography (CXC) Notes for Exams

1. Physical Geography

Landforms:

● Mountains:
○ Formation: Created by tectonic forces or volcanism.
○ Characteristics: High elevation, steep slopes, often formed by the collision of
tectonic plates (e.g., the Himalayas).
● Valleys:
○ Formation: Carved by rivers or glaciers.
○ Characteristics: Low areas between hills or mountains, often with a river running
through them (e.g., the Great Rift Valley).
● Rivers:
○ Formation: Formed by water flowing from higher to lower ground.
○ Characteristics: Sources, tributaries, floodplains, and deltas (e.g., the Nile River).

Processes:

● Erosion:
○ Types: Water erosion, wind erosion, glacial erosion.
○ Effects: Formation of valleys, canyons, and other landforms.
● Weathering:
○ Types: Physical (mechanical) weathering, chemical weathering, biological
weathering.
○ Effects: Breakdown of rocks into smaller particles, soil formation.
● Plate Tectonics:
○ Theory: Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates that move on the
asthenosphere.
○ Processes: Divergent boundaries (plates move apart), convergent boundaries
(plates move together), transform boundaries (plates slide past each other).
○ Effects: Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building.

2. Human Geography

Population:

● Distribution:
○ Factors: Climate, topography, economy, politics.
○ Patterns: Dense populations in urban areas, sparse populations in deserts and
mountains.
● Density:
○ Calculation: Number of people per square kilometer or mile.
 ○ Types: Arithmetic density, physiological density.
● Migration:
○ Types: Internal (within a country) and international (between countries).
○ Causes: Economic opportunities, conflicts, environmental factors.

Urbanization:

● Growth:
○ Factors: Industrialization, economic opportunities, better living conditions.
○ Examples: Rapid urbanization in cities like Lagos and Mumbai.
● Patterns:
○ Forms: Urban sprawl, gentrification, megacities.
○ Trends: Increase in the number and size of cities.
● Impacts:
○ Economic: Job creation, infrastructure development.
○ Social: Housing, healthcare, education.
○ Environmental: Pollution, habitat destruction, urban heat islands.

3. Environmental Geography

Issues:

● Pollution:
○ Types: Air pollution (emissions), water pollution (contaminants), soil pollution
(chemicals).
○ Effects: Health problems, ecosystem damage, climate change.
● Deforestation:
○ Causes: Logging, agriculture, urban expansion.
○ Effects: Loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, disruption of water cycles.
● Climate Change:
○ Causes: Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, methane), deforestation.
○ Effects: Rising temperatures, melting ice caps, changing precipitation patterns.

Conservation:

● Sustainable Practices:
○ Recycling: Reducing waste by reusing materials.
○ Renewable Energy: Solar, wind, hydro power.
○ Conservation of Natural Resources: Water conservation, soil conservation,
wildlife protection.

4. Map Reading

Skills:
● Scale:
○ Types: Ratio scale (1:50,000), bar scale (graphic scale).
○ Usage: Determining real-world distances from map measurements.
● Symbols:
○ Types: Physical features (rivers, mountains), cultural features (roads, buildings).
○ Key: Legend that explains the symbols used on the map.
● Coordinates:
○ Latitude: Distance north or south of the equator (measured in degrees).
○ Longitude: Distance east or west of the prime meridian (measured in degrees).
○ Usage: Finding exact locations on Earth.

Types of Maps:

● Topographic Maps:
○ Features: Contour lines to show elevation, detailed representation of natural and
man-made features.
○ Usage: Hiking, urban planning, military applications.
● Thematic Maps:
○ Features: Focus on specific themes like population density, climate, vegetation.
○ Usage: Analyzing spatial patterns, trends, and relationships.

5. Economic Activities

Sectors:

● Primary Sector:
○ Activities: Agriculture (farming, fishing), mining (extraction of minerals), forestry
(logging).
○ Importance: Provides raw materials for other sectors, crucial for rural economies.
● Secondary Sector:
○ Activities: Manufacturing (factories), construction (building infrastructure),
processing (food processing).
○ Importance: Adds value to raw materials, generates employment, drives
industrial growth.
● Tertiary Sector:
○ Activities: Services (education, healthcare), tourism (travel, hospitality), retail
(selling goods).
○ Importance: Contributes to GDP, supports primary and secondary sectors,
improves quality of life.
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