ABE 10

Surveying

Measurement of
Angles & Direction
Introduction
• In order to get the location of a
point in surveying on, above or
below the surface of the earth, it
is necessary to know its distances
from a point/station along a line
whose direction is known.

• The direction of a line is defined

by a horizontal angle with respect
to a reference line
• Relative direction
• Reference line does not remain fixed
over time
• Absolute direction

WHAT IS THE REFERENCE LINE?

Meridian
• Reference line with respect to which horizontal angle of survey line
are measured

•Types of Meridians:
• True
• Magnetic
• Grid
• Arbitrary
True Meridian
• a.k.a. astronomic or geographic meridian
• Passes through the geographic north and south poles
of earth and the observer’s position
• Not parallel due to convergence at the poles
• Permanent
• Also used for marking land boundaries
Magnetic Meridian
• Fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of
force of the earth
• Direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a
compass held at the observer’s position
• Not parallel to the true meridian since the location of the magnetic
pole is different from the geographic pole
• Employed in rough surveys (compass) for determining directions
Grid Meridian
• Fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of
plane rectangular coordinate
• Reference meridian is know as central meridian (all other meridians
are parallel)
• Convergence of meridians is not considered
• Applicable only to plane surveys
Assumed/Arbitrary Meridian
• Any convenient direction from a survey station to some well defined
permanent object
• Impossible to re-establish if original reference points are lost or
obliterated
• Small area surveys
• Determining the relative directions of small traverse
Methods for establishing Meridians

• Compass
• The sun and a plumb
• Rising & setting of the sun
• Polaris
• Southern Cross
• Wrist Watch
Units of Angular Measurement
• Degree
• 360 parts or degrees
• sexagesimal
• °, ‘, “
• Grad
• 400 parts or grads
• Centesimal
• g, c, cc
• Mil
• 6400 parts
• 1600 mils = 90°
• Radian
• 1 rad = angle subtended equal to
the radius of a circle
• 1 rad = 180/pi = 57.2958°
• 1 ° = pi/180
 Designation of North Points
• True North
• North point of the true meridian
• Always shown on a vertical line
• Actual location of the earth’s north geographic
pole
• Magnetic North
• North point of a magnetized compass needle
• Either east or west of true north
• Grid North
• Lines on a map w/c are parallel to a selected
central meridian
• May coincide with lines directed toward true north
• Assumed North
• Portray the location of any arbitrary chosen north
point
EXAMPLES
1. Convert the angle 238°25’50” into its equivalent decimal degrees
2. Convert 325.7541667 degrees to °,’,” notation
3. Convert 270° into its equivalent in grads, mils, & radians
4. Convert 350 grads into degrees, mils and radians
5. Convert 1600 mils into grads, degrees, and radians
6. Convert π/4 into degrees, grads, and mils

𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐
1. ′
238°25 50" = 𝐷𝑒𝑔 + +
60 3600
25′ 60"
238°25′ 50" = 𝐷𝑒𝑔 + 60 + = 238°+0.4167 °+0.0139°=238.4306 °
3600
2. 𝐷𝑒𝑔 = 325.7541667° = 𝟑𝟐𝟓°
60′
𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑒𝑔 − 𝐷 = (325.7541667°-325 °)(60’/deg) = 45.250002’ (decimal minutes) = 45’
𝑑𝑒𝑔

𝑆𝑒𝑐 = (𝑀𝑖𝑛 − 𝑀)(60/min)=(45.250002)(60/min⁡)=15.00012 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 𝟏𝟓"

• Thus, 325.7541667 ° = D + M + S = 325 °45’15”

3. Angles in grads=270°(400 g/360°) = 300 g

Angles in Mils = 270° (6400 mils/360°) = 4800 mils

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 270°(2π rad/360°) = 4.7124 radians

 Direction of Lines & Location of Points
Vertical Angles Horizontal Angles
• Horizon is parallel to the earth surface • Measured clockwise (angle to the
• Zenith is perpendicular to the horizon right) or counterclockwise (angle to
the left)
• Vertical angles are taken from zenith • Interior angle
or horizon • Exterior angle
Relative Direction of Lines
• Horizontal angle the line makes with an established line of reference
(meridian)
• Observed directly or Obtained indirectly
• Direct (compass, engineer’s transit, theodolite, sextant, plane table, alidade, tape
measure or a total station)
• Indirectly (calculations)

• Expression of Direction of a
Line
• Interior Angle
• Exterior Angle
• Deflection Angle
• Angles to the right
• Bearings
• Azimuths
Interior Angles
• The angles between adjacent
lines in a closed polygon
• Clockwise or counter
clockwise
• Re-entrant angle is any angle
>180 degrees

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝒏 − 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟖𝟎

where: n – number of sides

Exterior Angles
• Located outside a closed polygon
• A.k.a. explements of interior angles
• Explement = 360 deg – any angle
• Used as a check
• Sum of interior & exterior angles = 360 degrees
Deflection Angle
• Angle between a line and
the prolongation of the
preceding line
• CW or CCW
• Letters (R) or (L)
appended to the
numerical value
• + for right deflections
• - for left deflections
• Usually not employed for
angles >90 degrees
Angles to the Right

• Measured CW from the

preceding line to the
succeeding line
• A.k.a. azimuth from back
line
 • Based on meridian
• Azimuth
• Magnetic bearing
• Grid bearing
• Arbitrary bearing
Bearings • Based on direction
• Fore bearing
• Back bearing
• Based on designation
• Whole circle bearing
• Quadrantile / reduced bearing
Bearings
• Horizontal angle
measured CW or CCW
between the meridian
and the survey line
• N or S precedes the
bearing angle
• E or W follows the
bearing angle
• Ex. N 45°55’00” E
• Magnetic bearing

• True bearings
• Measured from the local
astronomic or true meridian
• Magnetic bearings
• Measured from the local magnetic
meridian
• Obtained in the field by a compass
box, engineer’s transit compass
 • Forward bearing • Back bearing

• Forward bearing
• Bearing of a line is
observed in the
direction of the survey
• Back bearing
• Bearing of the same
line observed in the
opposite direction
Azimuth
• Azimuth of a line is the direction
as given by the angle between
the meridian and the line
measured in a CW direction
from NORTH or SOUTH branch
of the meridian
• More convenient to work with
than bearings
• Plane surveys: N
• Geodetic surveys: S
 • Forward azimuth
AZIMUTH • Back azimuth

•RULE 1: if forward azimuth >180°,

subtract 180° to get back azimuth

•RULE 2: if forward azimuth <180°,

add 180° to get back azimuth
 EXAMPLES
• Draw the angles and determine the angles
1. OA, N 39°25’ E & OB, N 75°50’ E, Angle AOB = ?
2. OC, N 34°14’ E & OD, N 53°22’ W, Angle COD = ?
3. OE, S 15°04’ E & OF, S 36°00’ W, Angle EOF = ?
4. OG, N 70°15’ W & OH, S 52°05’ W, Angle GOH = ?
N A
θ1
AOB = α α=θ2 - θ1
1. θ2
B
α=75°50’ – 39°25’
W E α=36°25’
O

S
EXAMPLES

• Draw the angles & compute the angles from the given azimuths:
1. AZIMN of Line PA = 39°48’ ; AZIMN of Line PB = 115°29’; Angle APB = ?
2. AZIMS of Line PC = 320°22’ ; AZIMS of Line PD = 62°16’; Angle CPD = ?
3. AZIMN of Line PE = 219°02’ ; AZIMS of Line PF = 154°16’; Angle EPF = ?
EXAMPLES
• Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths from south & north:
1. AB, N 25°25’ W
2. BC, Due East
3. CD, S 50°10’ E
4. DE, S 45°50’ W
5. EF, N 66°30’ W
EXAMPLES
• Convert the following azimuths to equivalent bearings:
1. AZIMS of Line AB = 230°30’
2. AZIMN of Line BC = 112°46’
3. AZIMS of Line CD = 270°00’
4. AZIMN of Line DE = 228°15’
5. AZIMS of Line EF = 135°00’