International Journal of Advanced Research in Chemical Science (IJARCS)

Volume 4, Issue 3, 2017, PP 51-57

ISSN 2349-039X (Print) & ISSN 2349-0403 (Online)
http://dx.doi.org/10.20431/2349-0403.0403005
www.arcjournals.org

Long Term Evaluation of Local Surface Water Quality

Gija Geme, Casey O’Hara, Kara O’Neal
Southern Arkansas University, 100 E. University, MSC 9289, Magnolia, AR 71753

Abstract: Quality assurance and effective quality control procedures are necessary for adequate biological
monitoring of aquatic ecosystems. It is through routine quantitative and qualitative sampling of specific
environmental parameters that we are able to determine the quality and validity of our measurements. Our goal,
along with the mission of the L. A. Logan Biological Field Station at Lake Columbia (Columbia Co., AR), is to
monitor important parameters regarding the quality of our water resources and recreational areas.
Water samples from Lake Columbia, AR were taken every week and analyzed for pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrate
and chloride ions, total phosphorus, total solids, bacteria (E.coli, total coliform, and fecal coliform), alkalinity,
turbidity, conductivity, and ammonia. Water temperature was also measured and recorded during sampling.
The results were averaged monthly and submitted to the Dean of the College of Science and Engineering and
they were posted on Southern Arkansas University’s (SAU’s) website.
Different analytical probes and simple analytical methods were used to quantitate analytes.The samples were
taken weekly and then averaged to report average monthly data. Water monitoring started in 2014 and will
continue indefinitely.
Keywords: surface water, recreational water, water quality, microbiology, nutrients

1. INTRODUCTION
Good water quality is necessary not only for humans but also for the well-being of nature and the
overall development of local economics. The quality of water reservoirs is needed to be as close to the
natural levels as possible so the living organisms can have all the necessary nutrients and thus they
would be able to survive. It will also ensure the stability of the water ecosystems and its good
functionality.Lake ecosystems are made up of physical, chemical and biological properties
contained within these water bodies. Lakes may contain fresh or salt water (in arid regions). They
may be shallow or deep, permanent or temporary. Lakes of all types share many ecological and
biogeochemical processes [1].
Pollution affects water quality in lakes. Pollution may originate from industry, agriculture or
municipalities and thus possible pollutants may be herbicides, pesticides, sewage and litter. There
are various types of water pollution based on the various causes of water pollution. Various
classifications can be made based on the origin of pollution. One of the pollution sources and
probably the most common one is a chemical pollution. The chemical pollution is caused by crude oil,
fertilizers, chlorinated solvents, petroleum solvents, antibiotics, metals, and pesticides. The other
pollution source can be radiological which occurs when radioactive materials enters the water
reservoirand thus causes pollution. Finally, biological pollution is related to various microorganisms
and algae which causes pollution. Mainly this type of pollution is caused by decaying organic material
in water and very often animal wastes [2].
Lake Columbia is a 3,000-acre impoundment stretching for six miles along Beech Creek about six
miles northwest of Magnolia in south central Arkansas. It was constructed in 1986 by the Arkansas
Game and Fish Commission, which provides three concrete boat ramps, two with accompanying
courtesy boat docks and fishing piers. A picnic area is available in a day-use area on the lake's south
shore. The lake and campgrounds are owned and managed by the Columbia County Rural
Development Authority. The lake is divided into four zones, including a small area off-limits to
unauthorized visitors. Fishing is allowed on the rest of the lake, and the western half is also open for
pleasure-boating and water sports [3].

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Gija Geme et al.

Good water quality of Lake Columbia is significant for two reasons: 1) Lake is used as a drinking
water source for a local community of around 11,000 people and2) During summer months, the lake
is used for swimming and other recreational activities.
Lake water quality can be monitored for its microbiological properties and chemical properties. The
microbiological properties include total coliform, e. coli, and fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, and
biochemical oxygen demand. The chemical properties include pH, different ions such as chloride and
nitrate, total solids, total phosphorus, alkalinity and hardness [4, 5].
The different parameters can be measured with simple sensors, sophisticated instrumentation or
simple wet lab chemistry methods. To better disseminate collected data, the SAU website sustained
by the College of Science and Engineering was used to present the data.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Sample Collection
Water samples were taken every week from the same location on Lake Columbia, AR. Water
temperature and pH were measured by the analytical sensors at the location. The rest of the samples
were collected in the appropriate containers and transferred to the lab for analysis. The
microbiological samples and nitrate ion samples were analyzed immediately upon return to the lab. If
samples could not be analyzed immediately, it was preserved with nitric acid, stored in the refrigerator
and analyzed at a later time.
2.2. Sample Analysis
The USEPA methods were used for analysis of each analyte. The Hach probes were used to measure
ammonia, pH, dissolved oxygen, chloride, nitrate, conductivity and temperature [6]. The calibration
curves were prepared for ammonia, nitrate and chloride analytes. The biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) test was performed by incubating a sealed lake water sample (or prepared dilution) for the
standard five-day period and then determining the change in dissolved oxygen content. The BOD
value was then calculated from the results of the dissolved oxygen tests.
Bacterial colonies were recovered using the membrane filtration method. M-Fc broth was used to
recover total coliforms and m-ColiBlue 24 broth was used to recover total and E.coli coliforms.
Colonies were counted after a 24 hour incubation period. Total solids were measured gravimetrically.
A well-mixed sample was evaporated in a weighed dish and dried to constant weight in an oven at
103 to 105°C. The increase in weight over that of the empty dish represents the total solids in lake
water. Total phosphorus was analyzed by a test and tube method which required digestion and
spectrometric detection. Alkalinity was determined by a titration method. An unaltered sample was
titrated to an electrochemically determined end point of pH 4.5. Turbidity method was based on a
comparison of the intensity of light scattered by the sample under defined conditions with the
intensity of light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the same conditions. The higher
the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Lake Columbia water samples were analyzed for alkalinity, ammonia, BOD, chloride, conductivity,
dissolved oxygen, hardness, nitrate, pH, temperature, total phosphorus, total solids, and turbidity. The
overall data is presented in Table 1. The data represents the average monthly data.
3.1. Total Coliform
Bacterial total coliforms are used as an indicator of water pollution. Their presence in a water source
indicates that pathogenic organisms of fecal origin may be present. Lake Columbia has high number
of total coliform bacteria present throughout the year with higher colony counts present in summer,
particularly in May and June, total coliforms ranged from 39-1310 colonies.
3.2. E. coli
E. coli coliforms are a subset of fecal coliforms. There are both pathogenic strains and non-pathogenic
strains of E. coli. These bacteria originate from the wastes of animals or humans. Thus, high numbers
of E. coli in a lake could come from septic systems, runoff from barnyards, or from wildlife. Lakes
used for swimming and other recreation should have less than 126 colonies of E. coli bacteria per 100
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Long Term Evaluation of Local Surface Water Quality

mL of water [7]. The E. coli coliforms were not detected in some samples and some samples had 24
E. coli colonies. The higher colonies of E. coli were observed in summer months – May, June and
July.
3.3. Fecal Coliform
Fecal coliforms are a subset of total coliforms. They are found in in the intestinal tract of warm-
blooded animals; however, the presence of fecal coliforms does not always mean that pathogenic
bacteria are present. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments indicates that the
water has been contaminated with the fecal material of man or other animals. Fecal coliform bacteria
can enter rivers through direct discharge of waste from mammals and birds. At the time this occurs,
the source water may be contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses, which
can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include ear infections,
dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal
coliform tends to affect humans more than it does aquatic creatures, though not exclusively. While
these bacteria do not directly cause disease, high quantities of fecal coliform bacteria suggest the
presence of disease causing agents. The presence of fecal contamination is an indicator that a
potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water [8]. The fecal coliform colonies
ranged from 1-65 colonies, the higher number of colonies were present during summer months were
water temperature is also high.
3.4. Ammonia
Ammonia is present naturally in surface waters. Its concentration generally is low in groundwaters
because it adsorbs to soil particles and clays and is not leached readily from soils. It is produced
largely by deamination of organic nitrogen containing compounds and by hydrolysis of urea and is a
significant indication of poor water quality. Ammonia concentrations encountered in water vary from
less than 10 µg/L ammonia nitrogen/L in some natural surface and groundwaters [9].It is toxic to fish
and other aquatic life, places a high oxygen demand on the receiving waters, and provides nutrients
that can lead to algal blooms. Ammonia concentrations ranged from 0.0154-2.52 mg/L, spiking in the
month of May.
3.5. Nitrate-Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus
Nitrogen and phosphorus are nutrients that may cause increased growth of aquatic plants and algae.
Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations above 3 mg/L and any detectable amounts of total phosphorus may be
indicative of pollution from fertilizers, manures or other nutrient-rich wastes [7]. The nitrate
concentrations ranged from 0.035-10.7 mg/L, having particularly high concentrations in year of 2015.
The total phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.06-0.29 mg/L, reaching the highest values in May
and June.
3.6. pH
The pH of a pond or lake should generally fall between 6.0 and 9.0. Different types of fish tolerate
different pH levels but, in general, most fish will do better in ponds with a pH near 7.0. Ponds with a
pH less than 6.0 may result in stunted, reduced or even absent fish populations [7]. The pH ranged
from 6.46-7.85, with slightly basic pH during the summer period.
3.7. Alkalinity
Alkalinity refers to the capability of water to neutralize acid. Alkalinity is important for fish and
aquatic life because it protects or buffers against rapid pH changes. For the protection of aquatic life,
the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L [10]. Mostly alkalinity stayed above 20 mg/L range
with lower alkalinity in winter months of 2015.
3.8. Total Solids
Solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water. Solids may affect water or effluent quality
adversely in a number of ways. Waters with high dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability
and may induce an unfavorable physiological reaction in the transient consumer. Highly mineralized
waters also are unsuitable for many industrial applications. Solids analyses are important in the
control of biological processes. “Total solids” is the term applied to the material residue left in the
vessel after evaporation of a sample and its subsequent drying in an oven at a defined temperature.

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Gija Geme et al.

Total solids includes “total suspended solids”, the portion of total solids retained by a filter, and “total
dissolved solids,” the portion that passes through the filter. . The increase in weight over that of the
empty dish represents the total solids in water in the range up to 20,000 mg/L. The total solids ranged
from 23.5-66.8, with the highest concentrations reaching in the month of May but well below the
20,000 mg/L level.
3.9. Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. The
conductivity depends on the total ion concentration and the temperature when the measurement is
taken [9]. Conductivity in lake water can be used as an estimate for remaining dissolved solids in
water. This is of particular interest since it can be used as pollution indicator. For example, lakes with
possible pollution from the runoff will have higher concentration of ions and thus higher conductivity
values. However, evaporation of surface water from lake should also be taken into account since
higher dissolved solids will be observed and thus higher conductivity values will be recorded. The
conductivity did not change significantly during the time period monitored, although water
temperature changed significantly.
3.10. Turbidity
Clarity of water is important in producing products destined for human consumption and in many
manufacturing operations. Potable water treatment plants drawing from a surface water source
commonly rely on fluid-particle separation processes such as sedimentation and filtration to increase
clarity and insure an acceptable product. The clarity of a natural body of water is an important
determinant of its condition and productivity. Turbidity in water is caused by suspended and colloidal
matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, and plankton and other
microscopic organisms.The fish start showing signs of stress if turbidity reaches between 5 and 10
NTUs and they are exposed to this water for only hours [11]. The turbidity stayed below 5 NTUs,
there were two occasions when higher values were observed: March of 2015 – 9.95 NTUs and May of
2016 – 5.07 NTUs.
3.11.Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen measures how much oxygen is readily present in the water. In order to sustain
aquatic life, dissolved oxygen levels must be above 1.0 mg/L. Levels that are below 5.0 mg/L put
aquatic life under stress. The dissolved oxygen ranged from 8 to 11 mg/L, well above the necessary
standards.
3.12.BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms
in decomposing organic matter in stream water. BOD also measures the chemical oxidation of
inorganic matter (i.e., the extraction of oxygen from water via chemical reaction). The rate of oxygen
consumption in a lake is affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain
kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the water.
BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in lakes. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly
oxygen is depleted in the lakes. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life.
The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms
become stressed, suffocate, and die.
Sources of BOD include leaves and woody debris; dead plants and animals; animal manure; effluents
from pulp and paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots, and food-processing plants; failing
septic systems; and urban storm water runoff [9]. The BOD ranged from 0 to 6.67 mg/L.
3.13.Chloride
Chlorides are present in both fresh and salt water, and are essential elements of life. High chloride
concentrations in freshwater can harm aquatic organisms by interfering with osmoregulation, the
biological process by which they maintain the proper concentration of salt and other solutes in their
bodily fluids. Difficulty with osmoregulation can hinder survival, growth, and reproduction. Typically
acceptable chloride concentration exposure limits for freshwater organisms are set at 860 ppm to
prevent acute (immediate) exposure effects and at 230 ppm to prevent chronic (long-term) exposure

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Long Term Evaluation of Local Surface Water Quality

effects. For drinking water, the limit has been set a maximum contaminant level of 250 ppm chloride,
which is the point at which water starts to taste salty [12]. The chloride concentrations ranged from 0-
7 mg/L, well within acceptable range.
Table1. The water quality data 2014-2016
2014 Data
Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Chloride (mg/L) 3.47 3.64 4.17 3.45 3.25 5.55 5.54 2.90 2.32 2.75 3.8 4.52
Conductivity 54.37 52.70 59.53 57.75 59.80 56.13 56.52 59.23 61.35 59.85 57.83 57.75
(ᶙS/cm)
Dissolved 10.01 9.68 10.22 10.43 8.61 7.40 7.47 7.52 9.70 11.34 10.71 10.25
Oxygen (mg/L)
Hardness 0.099 0.183 0.986 6.89 7.54 8.638 9.129 7.328 10.013 6.621 1.495 3.178
(mgCaCO₃/L)
Nitrate (mg/L) 1.988 1.639 1.037 0.4668 1.506 5.045 0.2221 0.2953 0.1135 0.3313 0.5522 0.3978
pH (S.U.) 6.59 6.46 7.07 7.12 7.57 7.78 7.65 7.69 7.69 7.54 7.45 7.73
Temperature 4.0 4.0 13.0 18.0 23.0 29.0 31.0 32.0 31.0 27.0 21.0 14.0
(⁰C)
Total 0.18 0.06 0.13 0.30 0.18 0.27 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.16 0.09 0.09
Phosphorus
(mg/L)
Total Solids 36.0 23.5 47.8 63.0 57.2 65.5 52.2 51.3 50.8 51.1 53.1 49.2
(mg/L)
Turbidity(NTU) 2.04 2.34 1.78 1.83 2.14 2.35 2.41 2.67 3.43 2.26 2.78 2.13

Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Total Coliforms 378 473 193 330 456 530 898 553 503 350 990 39
Fecal Coliforms 4 3 4 2 6 5 7 10 14 2 5 1
E. coli Coliforms <1 <1 <1 <1 10 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1

2015 Data
Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Alkalinity (mgCaCO₃ /L) 7.0 13.2 6.7 9.0 31 40 40 30 8.0 40 30 40
Ammonia (mg/L) 0.23 0.26 0.14 0.20 2.5 0.13 0.098 0.083 0.085 <det 0.015 0.018
BOD (mg/L) 6.67 5.98 <2.00 <2.00 <2.00 3.2 <2.00 2.02 3.72 3.37 <2.00 <2.00
Chloride (mg/L) 6.3 4.6 1.1 3.8 1.3 5.1 0.13 0.24 0.13 0.093 0.053 0.21
Conductivity (ᶙS/cm) 61.7 60.2 49.1 49.2 48.3 49.6 43.3 51.2 49.5 50.6 46.8 45.2
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 10.93 9.82 8.09 9.98 8.71 8.73 8.79 8.57 8.46 8.13 8.73 9.19
Nitrate (mg/L) 1.99 4.11 0.133 0.806 0.035 4.89 10.7 9.99 9.81 9.86 7.46 6.55
pH (S.U.) 7.76 7.68 7.60 6.80 6.94 7.68 7.57 7.85 7.05 7.28 6.26 6.82
Temperature (⁰ C) 8.00 9.50 12.8 22.3 24.8 29.3 31.6 31.1 27.9 25.5 15.4 12
Total Phosphorus (mg/L) 0.07 0.07 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.05
Total Solids (mg/L) 51.7 40.5 52.2 66.8 57.0 49.8 50.8 28.3 31.7 40.3 47 27.5
Turbidity(NTU) 1.75 1.64 9.95 4.39 3.08 2.35 1.64 2.38 2.1 3.03 1.94 1.87

Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Total Coliforms 333 235 127 1, 320 650 1,050 513 647 590 1,143 1,033 593
Fecal Coliforms 8 5 3 2 11 56 30 31 38 44 11 7
E. coli Coliforms <1 <1 <1 <1 24 2 3 <1 <1 3 3 <1
2016 Data
Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Alkalinity 40.0 30.0 32.0 13.3 40.0 40 40 40 20 20 15 20
(mgCaCO₃ /L)
Ammonia (mg/L) 0.13 0.070 0.096 0.073 0.145 0.067 0.031 0.056 0.039 0.086 0.083 0.082
BOD (mg/L) < 2.00 3.76 5.88 2.51 4.55 3.74 4.02 < 2.00 < 2.00 2.4 2.36 < 2.00
Chloride (mg/L) 0.94 0.39 0.12 0.10 1.0 0.34 0.20 0.60 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Conductivity (ᶙS/cm) 43.1 43.9 36.9 44.2 33.8 34.6 35.8 36.0 27.8 34.6 33.5 31.6
Dissolved Oxygen 9.88 9.92 8.39 9.35 7.83 7.66 6.64 7.11 7.76 7.99 8.35 9.71
(mg/L)

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Gija Geme et al.

Nitrate (mg/L) 0.63 0.98 0.36 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.4
pH (S.U.) 7.01 7.63 7.15 7.12 7.06 7.17 7.09 6.91 6.93 6.59 6.59 6.66
Temperature (⁰ C) 12 9 15 21 22 26 27 26 25 23 20 15
Total Phosphorus 0.07 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.0 0.2
(mg/L)
Total Solids (mg/L) 26.3 32.0 38.8 33.7 57.0 39.4 40.0 38.0 24.0 20.0 28.0 33.0
Turbidity(NTU) 2.62 2.87 2.94 3.68 5.07 2.73 3.25 3.44 2.43 2.59 3.16 3.27

Analyte Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Total Coliforms 303 818 1,592 1,080 1,310 978 645 745 752 948 763 693
Fecal Coliforms 5 13 1 3 5 21 65 39 34 15 4 4
E. coli Coliforms 2 <1 4 <1 7 10 10 <1 2 5 5 3
4. DATA DISSEMINATION
To better educate the local society of water quality, the data was submitted to the College of Science
and Engineering for uploading on their website. The website is accessible to all of the students and
public interested in water quality. The questions about interpretation of data can be addressed to the
research center. Table 2 provides a snapshot of the website.

Figure1. The water data on SAU’s website

5. CONCLUSIONS
The water samples from Lake Columbia were taken weekly for three years and the data was averaged
and presented as monthly averages. The samples were analyzed for pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrate and
chloride ions, total phosphorus, total solids, bacteria (E.coli, total coliform, and fecal coliform),
alkalinity, turbidity, conductivity, and ammonia.During the monitoring period, higher levels of
bacteria was observed in summer months that could be a potential issue due to Lake Columbia being
used for recreational purposes. This is also important since Lake Columbia is used as a potable water
source and with inadequate disinfection, the bacteria can appear in consumer’s tap water. The other
parameters were consistent during 36 month period. With respect to other parameters, Lake Columbia
can be considered a clean lake since it did have the acceptable levels of totals solids, alkalinity, pH,
dissolved oxygen, BOD, chlorides. Dissolved oxygen was significantly lower during summer, which
is expected due to high water temperatures. However, adequate levels of dissolved oxygen needed for
living organisms were observed in Lake Columbia.
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Long Term Evaluation of Local Surface Water Quality

There were also correlations between totals solids and other ions in water. Due to the presence of
higher concentrations of chloride and nitrate ions, higher concentrations of the total solids were
observed in water, this trend was particularly observed during fall.
A very unique idea of this project was to disseminate data through an academic website thus reaching
more potential readers and educated the society about the conditions of the local lake. This
information could be very useful to the parents who take their young children for swimming in hot
summer days.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge partial support from the Center for Advanced Surface Engineering, under the
National Science Foundation Grant No. IIA-1457888 and the Arkansas EPSCoR Program, ASSET III.
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