The Problem of

Caste and Social

Consolidation
HISTORY

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The Problem of Caste and Social

Consolidation
The caste system is an institution uniquely associated with the Indian subcontinent. Caste is a type of
ancient social class organisation in which people’s rank in the social hierarchy is established by their
ancestors and birth.

Contents
 Caste - Definition
 Origin of Caste System
 Divine Theory
 Karma and Transmigration
 Occupational Theory
 Tribes and Religious Theory
 Family and Marriage Theory
 Other Theories
 Racial Theory
 Evolution of Caste System
 Features of Caste System
 Hierarchy
 Determined by Birth
 Sub-divisions
 Restrictions in Food and Drink
 Linked to Occupations
 Unequal Institution
 Varna v. Caste
 Dysfunctions of Caste System

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 Untouchability
 Discrimination
 Against Democratic Values
 Against National Integration
 Caste in India: Not an Isolated Phenomenon
 Caste in the Present
 Developmental Changes
 Movements against Caste
 Steps taken by the Government
 Conclusion
 Practice Prelims MCQ
 Practice Mains Questions

Caste -The Definition

 The English word ‘caste’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Castus’ meaning pure, and the Portuguese term
‘casta’ meaning race or purebred.

 The term refers to a vast institutional arrangement referring to the term Varna (literally means ‘colour’)
and Jati.

 Caste is not merely an institution but has often been seen to represent the core of Indian society.

Origin of Caste System

 There have been many opinions about the origin of the caste system. It is generally agreed that it
originated roughly three thousand years ago. However, since then the meaning of the word caste has
evolved through the times. Therefore, the term caste system stood for different meanings at different
times.

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 Early evidence of caste appears in the Vedas. The Rigveda, however, hardly mentions any caste
distinctions, pointing to the fact that social mobility was common during this period (1700 BC -1100 BC).

 The Bhagavad Gita emphasizes the importance of caste. Manusmriti from the same era defines the rights
and duties of the four different Varnas.

Points to Remember
Manusmriti
 Authoritative Hindu law book

 Dialogue between Prajapati Manu and Sage Bhrigu

 Covers a wide range of topics from creation of the universe, marriage, duties of men and women, duties
of different castes, etc

 Census of India done in 1931 made references to the following five theories regarding the origin of the
caste system.

The Divine Theory

 According to this theory, the caste system is of divine origin.

 Shastras and Puranas have advocated the divine origin of caste. This view has also been expressed in
Dharma-Shastras, Smritis, and the Bhagavad Gita.

 According to the Purush Sukta in Rig Veda, the people belong to four main varnas constituting the four
body parts of the Purush (the creator). The Brahmin was the Purusha’s mouth, the Kshatriya was the
arms, the Vaishya was the thigh, and the Shudra sprang from the feet.

Karma and Transmigration

 According to this theory the conditions of people, the highest, the middle, and the lowest are caused by
karma.

 Karma means that one’s status in life is determined by one’s actions in past lives.

Occupational Theory

 According to this theory, occupation was the lone factor for the development of castes.

 As rituals and hymns became more complex, a section of people got themselves specialised and became
brahmins. Later this position was made hereditary.
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 The formation of guilds and occupational groups led to the specialisation of a group of people and the
formation of castes.

Tribes and religious Theory

 According to this theory, most of the castes were formerly tribes.

 Tribes got themselves enrolled into castes and embraced the tenets of religious sects.

Family and Marriage

 According to this theory, the principle of exogamy (the custom of marrying outside one’s caste) is the
main basis of the caste system.

 Rules to prevent Varnasamkara (intermixture of Varnas) existed, but it could not altogether be
prevented.

Other Theories

Racial Theory

 This theory was propounded by Herbert Risley in the book ‘The People of India’.

 According to this theory, the caste system developed after the emigration of Indo Aryans into the Indian
subcontinent.

 To maintain their superiority over the natives, The Aryans started imposing restrictions on Pratiloma
marriages.

 This theory is the most accepted by scholars.

Points to Remember
 Anuloma marriages - A marriage between a higher caste man and a lower caste woman

 Pratiloma marriage - A marriage between a lower caste man and a higher caste woman

Evolution of Caste System

 During the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Period, the society was egalitarian and tribal in nature. A social
hierarchy did not exist.
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 As society moved towards the Neolithic period, domestication of plants (agriculture) was started. There
was a shift from a nomadic lifestyle to sedentary living.

 Agriculture enabled large settlements and also led to a kind of social hierarchy.

 In the Indus valley civilization, there was no caste system, rather the society was divided based on
occupation.

 As Aryans encountered the urban population of the Harappan society, there emerged a social hierarchy
between the Aryans and the Dasyus, who were taken as slaves.

 The Purushsukta from Rigveda mentions the Four-fold division of society in the Later Vedic period (circa
900 BC) in the form of the Chaturvarna System (four-tier) order.

 The caste system was a varna system and involved the four Varnas, namely Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
and Shudra.

 These divisions were not very rigid, and they were not determined by birth.

 Around 600 B.C. to 300 B.C., the difference between the Vaishyas and the Shudras started getting
narrower.

 The Brahmins and Kshatriyas started getting more powerful, and the social position of the Shudras took a
turn for the worse.

 The untouchables emerged as the fifth caste. During the Gupta period, there was an intensification of the
practice of untouchability.

 In modern times, the untouchables generally come under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
whereas the Shudras generally come under the Other Backward Castes (OBCs). However, the distinctions
differ in different states and regions. In some states, there are Backward Classes (BCs) and Most
Backward Classes (MBCs).

 Western education and social reforms brought about the abolition of untouchability.

 In the present times, caste discrimination exists, however, with increasing urbanisation, growth of
education, and occupation mobility, it is decreasing.

Features of Caste System

Hierarchy

 In the caste system, many castes are arranged in a social hierarchy.

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 This hierarchy is determined by one’s rank and status.

 The hierarchy, especially in the middle ranks, may vary from region to region.

 This hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between ‘purity’ and ‘pollution’.

 Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure have low
status.

Determined by Birth

 Caste is a matter of a person’s birth into a home of a particular caste

 It is not a matter of choice.

Sub-Divisions

 Every caste is subdivided into different divisions or sub-castes.

 Castes are divided based on gotra.

 Members of one gotra are believed to be the successors of a common ancestor.

Restrictions on Marriage

 In the caste system, strict rules exist about marriage

 The members of a caste or a sub-caste usually practice endogamy, which means they marry within their
caste or sub-caste.

 However, hypergamy (marrying someone who is of a higher caste) and hypogamy (marrying someone of
a lower caste) were also prevalent.

Restrictions in Food and Drink

 Caste membership involves strict rules about food and food-sharing.

 The members of a caste usually do not accept cooked food from a member of a lower caste.

 What kinds of food may or may not be eaten may also be specified.

Linked to Occupations

 A person born into a caste could only practice the occupation associated with that caste.

 Hence, the occupations became hereditary.

 The members of other castes could not enter the occupation.

 These castes eventually developed into shrenis or guilds.

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Points to Remember
Shrenis
 A shreni was a group of traders, merchants, and artisans in Ancient India.

 In most cases, a separate shreni existed for a specific group of people who shared a common vocation or
activity.

 Some shrenis became quite wealthy throughout time as a result of surplus resources, and they acted as
caretakers and bankers of religious institutions.

Unequal Institution

 As historical sources tell us, the caste system was a very unequal institution

 Some castes benefited greatly from it, while others were condemned to a life of labour and
subordination.

 Certain sacraments could not be performed by any caste other than the Brahmins.

 Similarly, Shudras and other lower castes were not allowed to read or learn the sacred scriptures.

Varna vs Caste
Varna Caste

Means colour in Sanskrit Jati or caste is related to occupation

Originates from the word Vri means occupation emerges from the word Jana meaning people
Open System Closed System
Four Varnas Over 300 castes and subcastes
Social Mobility present No social mobility
Emerged during Vedic Period Emerged in Post-Vedic period

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Dysfunctions of Caste System

Untouchability

 Untouchability is one of the evil faces of the caste system in India

 The untouchables emerged as the fifth varna and were kept out of the fourfold division of society.

 They were ostracized and persecuted by the higher castes.

Discrimination

 The caste system perpetuates the exploitation of the weaker and socially inferior castes.

Against democratic values

 The caste system is against the democratic values of equality and integrity.

Against national integration

 The caste system stands in the way of national and collective consciousness and is disintegrating rather
than an integrating factor.

 This can be understood in the way of caste conflicts, and caste discrimination in the present day scenario.

Undermines Social Mobility

 Minimises the efficiency of labour and human resources by preventing social and occupational mobility.

Caste in India: Not an Isolated Phenomenon

 The caste system is not unique to India, however, the theme of purity and pollution distinguishes it from
similar systems around the world.

 The caste system is found in other countries of the Indian subcontinent like Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka.

 Caste-like systems are also prevalent in Indonesia, China, Korea, Yemen, and in certain countries in Africa,
and Europe.

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Caste in the Present

 As India became independent in 1947, efforts started to organise the depressed classes.

 The initiative was taken by reformers such as Jyotirao Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Ayyankali, Sri
Narayana Guru, and Periyar.

 Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj increasing social reforms and education for Shudras,
women, and Dalits.

 Anti-untouchability programmes were started.

 Relationships between castes are more relaxed in the present times. The factor that contributed was the
increase in urbanisation and occupational pursuits of men and women.

 New occupations are usually unrelated to caste and incorporate people from different castes.

 The idea of purity and pollution has diminished, but not been eliminated.

 However, endogamy is still enforced, though not as strict as before.

Developmental Changes

 With the growth of industry and urbanisation, new jobs were created without any caste rules.

 This created conditions of collective living and made it difficult for the caste-segregated patterns to
survive.

 This is not to say that caste-based discrimination has been eliminated altogether. Caste-based
recruitments, prejudice against untouchables, the practice of endogamy have remained largely
unaffected by modernisation and change.

Movements against Caste

 Gandhi began using the term “Harijans” (God’s people) to refer to untouchables to encourage a positive
attitude towards the lower castes. He also founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League, later
renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh.

 Many leaders of castes started calling themselves Dalits.

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 The anti-caste Dalit movement began with Jyotirao Phule. He started a movement for the education
and upliftment of women and Dalits and worked to abolish the idea of untouchability.

 Another Dalit movement was under B.R. Ambedkar. He campaigned for greater rights for Dalits,
abolishment of the caste system, and assured constitutional reservation for Dalits in elections of seats.
According to him, “nothing can emancipate the outcastes except the destruction of the caste system”.

 During the 1970s, the Dalit panthers’ movement was started by the younger generation to express
anger and at the failure of implementation of policies to eliminate violence against Dalits.

Steps taken by the government

 The Census of 1935 came up with a list of 400 groups considered untouchable as well as many tribal
groups. They were termed as Scheduled Castes and scheduled Tribes and were accorded with special
privileges to help overcome the discrimination and deprivation.

 Seats are reserved in legislatures, in government jobs, in public sector enterprises, and educational
institutions.

 Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden, under Article 17 of the Indian
Constitution.

 Fundamental rights are guaranteed by the constitution.

 Scheduled castes and Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 prohibits discrimination, prevents
atrocities and hate crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

 Establishing social welfare departments and national commissions for the welfare of scheduled castes
and tribes

Constitutional Safeguards

Article 15 - Prohibition of Discrimination on Certain Grounds

 Article 15 provides that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, race,
caste, sex, or place of birth.

 No citizen shall be subjected to any disability, or restriction on these grounds concerning access to public
places, or public facilities.

 However, an exception under this article allows the State to make special provisions for the advancement
of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes by providing reservation of seats or fee concessions in public
educational institutes.
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 Provision for the reservation of OBCs in educational institutions was added under the Central
Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission)Act, 2006. It provides a quota of 27% for Other
Backward Classes (OBCs).

Points to Remember
Mandal Commission
 Officially it is known as the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission (SEBC).

 B.P. Mandal was the chairman of the Commission.

 It was set up in 1979 by the Government of India under Prime Minister Morarji Desai.

 Primary functions of the Commission:

 Identify the socially and educationally backward classes of India
 Consider reservation as means to address caste inequality
 Main recommendations:
 Reservation of 27% government jobs for OBCs
 Reservation of 27% promotions in government jobs for OBCs
 Age relaxation for OBCs same as STs and SCs

Article 17

 Provides for the abolition of untouchability

Article 46

 Provides that the State shall promote the educational and economic interests of SCs and other
educationally backward classes.

Articles 243, 330, and 332

 Provide for political safeguards by providing reservation of seats to SCs and STs

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Way Forward
 Reservations for castes should be accompanied by structural changes like inclusive educational and
occupation support systems.

 Reduce school dropout rates, especially for children from backward communities and girls.

 Special concessions and privileges must be provided to the underprivileged as their right.

 The underprivileged should be made aware of the reservations so they can fully access them.

 Forced endogamy should be avoided, and Intercaste marriages should be promoted as a way forward to
reduce caste tensions.

 Surviving symbols of untouchability, such as manual scavenging need to be eliminated completely.

 Caste-designated occupations tend to reinforce social stigma and perpetuate discrimination. They should
be replaced by occupational mobility.

 Ensuring the participation of backward communities in policy implementation is a way to support local
expertise and support their upliftment.

 Promoting accountability in cases of caste discrimination, and removing barriers in access to justice.

 Reducing poverty among backward communities, by providing employment opportunities to ensure

economic and social development.

 Encouraging recruitment of backward communities into the police and other law enforcement
agencies.

 Taking strict measures against spreading of hate speech, or incitement to violence against such
communities.

Conclusion
Even seventy-four years after independence, Indians continue to be in the grip of caste consciousness. The
present Indian society is gradually moving from its closed systems towards a state of progression. Numerous
movements challenging injustices associated with the caste system have encouraged individuals to be more
civil towards other caste members. India is doing well in its constant effort to eradicate the system of
stratification by and embracing equality and other democratic values as enshrined in the Indian constitution.

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Mains Question for Practice:

Q.1 Analyse various trends in Dalit movements in various parts of post-independent India.

(UPSC, CSE 2018) (250 words, 15 marks)

Q.2 Discuss the challenges posed by the caste system.

(150 words, 10 marks)

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