NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMOTIVE DEPARTMENT

DIPLOMA IN HEAVY EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING

LEVEL 1

STUDY MANUAL

ENGINES AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

MODULE: 352-07-A

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 First edition

Property of NORTEC (2020)

Copyright
Published by the of Automotive Department - NORTEC, Ndola, Zambia, 2020

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the publishers.

NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

Automotive Department

P.O Box 250093

Chela Road
Kansenshi
Ndola
Telephone: +260-212-671699
Fax: +264 61 2072206/2081
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.nortec.edu.zm

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ACRONYMS

4X4 FOUR WHEEL DRIVE

ABS ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TDC TOP DEAD CENTRE

EFI ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION

FWD FRONT WHEEL DRIVE

IC INTERNAL COMBUSTION

CI COMPRESSION IGNTION

SI SPARK IGNITION

BDC BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE

BTDC BEFORE TOP DEAD CENTRE

BBDC BEFORE BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE

ATDC AFTER TOP DEAD CENTRE

ABDC AFTER BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE

RPM REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE

RRWD REAR ENGINE REAR WHEEL DRIVE

RWD REAR WHEEL DRIVE

IDI INDIRECT INJECTION

AF AIR FUEL RATIO

CO CARBON MONOXIDE

CO2 CARBON DIOXIDE

DI DIRECT INJECTION

DOC DIESEL OXYDATION CATALYST

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EAT EXHAUST AFTERTREATEMENT SYSTEM

FI FUEL INJECTION

HC HYDROCARBONS

HEED HEAVY EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING DIPLOMA

HER HEAVY EQUIPMENT REPAIR

LGVs LIGHT GOODS VEHICLES

NOX NITROGEN OXIDES

O2 OXYGEN

OHV OVERHEAD VALVE

ORC OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

PDF PARTICULATE DIESEL FILTER

SCR SELECTIVE CATALYST REDUCER

RPM REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE

RRWD REAR ENGINE REAR WHEEL DRIVE

RWD REAR WHEEL DRIVE

DEF DIESEL EXHAUST FLUID

GVW GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT

MAF MASS FLOW SENSOR

TPS THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR

CPDS CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Northern Technical College Automotive Department wishes to thank those below
for their contribution to this module:

1. James K. Mwila Lecturer Automotive (Writer)

2. Stephen Banda Lecturer- HOS (HER)
3. Jacqueline Mulenga Editor (Quality HOD)
4. Alport Banda Automotive H.O.D
5. Chisanga Mubanga Lecturer Electrical Engineering

Table of Contents
Copyright 2

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ACRONYMS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
MODULE OVERVIEW 7
MODULE PURPOSE 7
MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES 7
LEARNING TIPS AND STUDY SKILLS 8
MINIMUM MODULE DURATION 8
ASSESSMENTS AND PROGRESSION REQUIREMENTS 9
STATEMENT ON ATTENDANCE 9
CERTIFICATION BOARD 9
MODULE OUTLINE – LIST OF UNITS 9
UNIT A7.1 DESCRIBING THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF DIESEL
ENGINES

Identify major components of vehicle

Describe functions of major vehicle components
Identify locations of engines
Identify diesel engine components
Identify types of engine designs
Explain the operation of CI engines
Define engine terminologies

UNIT A7.2.DESCRIBING THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF

ENGINE SYSYEMS
36
Identify diesel engine systems

Identify diesel fuel system

Describe diesel control systems

Describe construction of diesel fuel components

Describe operation of major diesel components

Explain lubrication system

Identify lubrication system major components

Explain functions and operation of major lubrication components

Explain cooling systems

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Identify cooling system components

Explain functions and operations of the major cooling system components

Identify air induction and exhaust systems

Explain construction and operation of air induction and exhaust system components

Identify engine electrical/electronic system components

UNIT A7.3 DISASSEMBLE, INSPECT AND ASSEMBLE DIESEL ENGINES

Identify tools and equipment for the task
Demonstrate safety procedures for the task
Apply recommended disassembling procedures
Carry out component evaluation
Apply recommended assembling procedures
UNIT A7.4 SERVICE DIESEL ENGINE
Demonstrating safety procedures
Identifying tools and materials required to perform the task
Applying correct procedures when performing diesel engine service
Use correct oil sampling procedures after service checks
UNIT A7.5 DIAGNOSE DIESEL ENGINE FAULTS
Operating the engine and assessing its performance
Using correct troubleshooting techniques to identify the problem
Performing applied failure analysis to rectify the problem
UNIT A7.6 DESCRIBE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Explain functions of motor vehicle engine cooling system

Identify types of cooling system

Explain functions of liquid cooling system components

Explain functions of air-cooled components

Carry out motor vehicle engine cooling system (components) servicing

UNIT A7.7 DISASSEMBLE, INSPECT AND ASSEMBLE TRANSMISSION

SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Explain functions motor vehicle transmission system components

Explain operation of the clutch

Describe construction of gearboxes

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Explain operation of propeller shafts and universal joints

Explain operation of final drive and differential

Identify types of drive axles

UNIT A7.8 SERVICING TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Apply procedure for visual inspection

Apply recommended procedure to service transmission system components
Apply oil sampling procedures
Demonstrate safety procedures
UNIT A7.9 DIAGNOSE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS FAULTS
Apply testing and adjusting procedures on transmission system
Apply trouble shooting techniques

APPENDIX 108
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 109

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MODULE OVERVIEW

This module covers units required to be undertaken by learners pursuing Diploma in

Heavy Equipment Repair Engineering level 1. At the end of each unit you will find
procedures of servicing engines and transmission components and exercises to be
done by the learners. By all means this module does not replace the trainer and
therefore will supplement efforts of the trainer in delivering lessons covered by this
module.

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MODULE PURPOSE
MODULE PURPOSE: To equip learners with knowledge, skills and appropriate
attitudes in diagnosing, repairing, maintaining and servicing heavy equipment
engines and transmission system components.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

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REASONS FOR ENGINES AND TRNSMISSION SYSTEMS;
At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe construction and operation of Diesel engines:

2. Describe construction and operation of diesel engine systems
3. Disassemble, inspect and assemble Diesel engines
4. Service diesel engines
5. Diagnose diesel engine faults
6. Describe construction and operation of transmission systems
7. Disassemble, inspect and assemble transmission system components
8. Service transmission system
9. Diagnose transmission system components faults

LEA

RNING TIPS AND STUDY SKILLS

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As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your
school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional
and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study
activities around other professional or domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time
management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to
reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using
the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you
dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to
familiarise yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on
the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/;http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html;
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing
these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com
and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.

MINIMUM MODULE DURATION

In this module, you are expected to spend at least two hundred and fifty (250)
nominal learning hours spread across the full semester period.

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ASSESSMENTS AND PROGRESSION REQUIREMENTS
In this module, your assessment will include exercises to test your understanding of
the subject matter both orally and short quiz questions as required. You are
therefore expected to Write Summative Examination at the end of the full
semester period.

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STATEMENT ON ATTENDANCE.
This module is meant to be studied in three (3) terms. You are expected to fulfil the
following expectations regarding this subject:
 Attend all your class/residential schools and not less than 85% of your
scheduled classes.

CERTIFICATION BOARD
This module is just one of module requirements for the student to progress from
LEVEL (1) to LEVEL TWO (2) in Heavy Equipment Engineering

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 UNIT A9.1: DESCRIBING THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF
DIESEL ENGINES

Unit Outcomes: On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Identify major components of vehicle
2. Describe functions of major vehicle components
3. Identify locations of engines
4. Identify diesel engine components
5. Identify types of engine designs
6. Explain the operation of CI engines
Define engine terminologies

Unit Introduction
The layout of a vehicle concerns the arrangement of the main components. The
following items are generally accepted as being the main components of a
vehicle:
1. Engine
2. Clutch
3. Gearbox
4. propeller shaft
5. final drive.

IDENTIFY VEHICLE COMPONENTS

The following items are generally accepted as being the main components:
1. Engine

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 Figure.1.1 Engine

2. Clutch
i. Manual

Figure.1.2 Clutch -Manual

Or
ii. Hydrokinetic

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 Figure.1.3 Clutch-Hydrokinetic

3. Gearbox

Figure.1.4 Front Gearbox

4. propeller shaft

Figure.1.5 Propeller Shaft

5. final drive

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 Figure.1.6 Final drive

DESCRIBE FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR VEHICLE COMPONENTS

Engine
The engine is the power plant of the vehicle. In general, internal combustion engines
with petrol or diesel fuel is used to run a vehicle. An engine may be either a two-
stroke engine or a four-stroke engine. An engine consists of a cylinder, piston,
valves, valve operating mechanisms, vehicle fuel injection pump (or MPFI in modern
vehicles), or diesel injection pump and injectors in diesel engines, fuel feed pump,
fan and oil pump, etc. Besides this, a petrol engine requires ignition system for
burning fuel in the engine.

Clutch
The purpose of the clutch is to allow the driver to couple or un-couple the engine
and transmission. When clutch is in engaged position, the engine power flows to the
transmission through it (clutch). When gears are to be changed while vehicle is
running, the clutch permits temporary decoupling of engine and wheels so that
gears can be shifted. In a manual gearbox vehicle, the clutch is operated by foot. It
is necessary to interrupt the flow of power before gears are changed. Without a
clutch, it will be very difficult.
Gearbox
The power developed by the engine is transferred to the wheels by the gearbox. The
gearbox must do the following jobs:
a. It must provide varying gear ratios. Number of gear ratios are equal to
number of gears in a vehicle.
b. It must provide a reverse gear for moving vehicle in reverse direction.

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 c. It must provide a neutral or disconnecting arrangement so that the engine
can be uncoupled from the wheels of the vehicle.

Propeller Shaft
The propeller shaft is the long shaft (usually tubular) which links the gearbox to the
final drive assembly on vehicles with rear-wheel drive. Normally an open-type
arrangement is used in which the shaft is exposed. It sends torque to the final drive
at different angles and lengths, which then transmits this torque to the wheels in
order to move the vehicle.

Final Drive
The final drive assembly contains a pair of gears which fulfil two functions:
a. the first is to ‘turn the drive through 90°
b. the second is to provide the ‘overall gear reduction’ which reduces the high
engine revolutions to an acceptably lower number of revolutions of the road
wheels.
Additionally, the final drive system or assembly will normally contain a sub-assembly
known as a differential unit. When a vehicle turns a corner, its outer wheel rotates
faster than its inner wheel. If both road wheels were rigidly connected to one axle
shaft, the wheels would not be able to rotate at different speeds, therefore either
the inner or the outer tyre would have to slip on the road surface.
Final drive systems (including the differential) can be located within the gearbox
assembly on front-wheel drive vehicles. For those rear-wheel drive vehicles with
independent suspension where there is not a rigid axle, the final drive and
differential system is mounted on the chassis/body and is connected to the wheels
by separate drive shafts.

IDENTIFY LOCATIONS OF ENGINES

Engine Position:

1. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive:

Rear wheel drive places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven
wheels are located at the rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-
wheel drive layout.
In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a rear axle
supported on leaf springs through a propeller shaft with two universal joints.

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 Figure.1.6 Front engine rear-wheel drive

This arrangement is one of the oldest layouts which remains unchanged for many
years.
Some of the advantages provided by this system are:

(a) Even weight distribution: Balanced weight distribution between the front and
the rear wheels providing good handling characteristics.
(b) Easy front wheel steering movement.
(c) Large luggage space is provided behind the rear seat
(d) Maintenance and accessibility of engine, gear box is easy and the control
over the accelerator and clutch simple
(e) Radiator cooling is natural (by air) so decreases the power required for
cooling.
(f) Better braking efficiency: The more even weight distribution helps prevent
lock -up of front wheels and becoming unloaded under heavy braking.

Some of the disadvantages with this arrangement are:

(a) Reduces back seats leg room space,

(b) A tunnel is needed for the propeller shaft,
(c) Reduces boot space,
(d) Heavier and more expensive.
(e) If stuck in mud or snow it is harder to drive away than in a front wheel drive
vehicle.
2. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive:

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 This layout consists of placing the engine, clutch and gearbox in the back. So,
taking the space of the boot. In this type of layout more than 50% of the
weight is on the rear axle.

The necessity of the propeller shaft is completely eliminated. The clutch, gear
box and engine and final drive form a single unit.

Figure.1.2 Rear engine rear-wheel drive

Advantages:
(a) Excellent traction is available while climbing hills.
(b) A larger passenger space is available for the given length of body.
(c) Very compact and accessible power and transmission assembly is provided.
(d) Lot of weight at the back improves acceleration and braking, rear wheels and
disc brakes can be designed to take a bigger amount of braking due to the
weight distribution to the rear end.
(e) Passengers are comfortable from engine noise, heat and fumes.
(f) Front of the vehicle provides good visibility and by designing the body to
aerodynamic shape gives good streaming lining.

Disadvantages:
(a) At high speed, relatively high proportions of weight at the rear axle will make
the vehicle unstable at speed. There is a strong tendency for the vehicle to
oversteer.
(b) The space at the front has to be reduced to allow for the steering lock of the
front wheel.
(c) Space utilized for engine compartment is wasted

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 (d) Difficulties with the arrangement of the engine cooling system. Natural
cooling of radiator is not possible. Power requirement increases. Compact
engine, clutch and gearbox make servicing more difficult.
(e) The wheels get turn too sharply due to tendency of the vehicle to over steer.
This necessitates the turning of the steering wheel in the opposite direction to
make the correction by driver.

3.Front Engine Front Wheel Drive:

This type of arrangement provides optimum passenger space and a flat floor line
resulting in a transverse underfloor-longitudinal engine position.

The propeller shaft length is reduced or neglects the propeller shaft

Good grip with road surface due to engine weight at front.

Figure1.3 Front engine front-wheel drive

Advantages:

(a) Good acceleration because of back weight transfer

(b) Efficient braking.
(c) Neutral handling.

Disadvantages:

(a) When accelerating some steering is lost

(b) Require more space.
(c) No back seats
(d) Difficulties with the cooling system.

Four Wheel Drive:

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 In this arrangement all the four wheels of the vehicle are driven by the engine
thus making the entire vehicle weight available for tractionIt increases the
load on the rear driving wheels, giving them better grip of the road. Most
rear-engine layouts have been confined to comparatively small vehicles,
because the heavy engine at the rear has an adverse effect on the ‘handling’
of the vehicle by making it ‘tail-heavy. Also, it takes up good deal of space
that would be used on a front-engine vehicle for vehicle carrying luggage.
Most of the space left by the engine at the front end can be used for luggage,
but this space is usually less than that available at the rear.

Power required for the cooling is reduced. When the vehicle is to be ‘steer in’
to the curve, it provides ‘under-steer’ characteristics, which is always
preferred
These four-wheel drive vehicles are very useful on Hill station if one of the
wheels slipping or skidding then the other axle wheel transmit the tractive
force to the vehicle. The steering of the four -wheel drive is hard to operate
compared with other type of drive

Advantages:

(a) Traction is nearly doubled compared to a two-wheel drive layout.

(b) Handling characteristics in normal conditions can be configured to emulate or
R WD.
(c) Gives sufficient power, this results in unparalleled acceleration and drivability
on surfaces with less than ideal and superior engine braking on loose
surfaces.

Disadvantages

(a) The manufacturing cost of the vehicle is high.

(b) More component and complicate transmission.
(c) Increased power-train mass, rotational inertia and power transmission losses.
(d) Increased fuel consumption compared to 2WD.

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Rear engine, all-wheel drive (4WD):

This arrangement has similar characteristics as rear engine, rear wheel drive and has
other additional advantages such as:

(a) Better weight distribution.

(b) More neutral reactions.
(c) Better traction on bends and slippery road surfaces.

Disadvantages:

(a) Heavier.
(b) More expensive and difficult to design and build.

Front engine, all-wheel drive(4WD):

Similar characteristics as the front engine, rear wheel drive.

Advantages:

(a) Better handling capacity.

(b) Better acceleration

Disadvantages:

(a) It increases weight and manufacturing cost compare with front engine
layouts.
(b) Loss of some space in the back seats’ legs room.

IDENTIFY DIESEL ENGINE COMPONENTS

DIESEL ENGINES
These engines use diesel as a fuel and do not require a spark to start the
combustion process. They can either be two stroke or four stroke engines.

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 Figure 1.4 ENGINE COMPONENTS

CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTIONS OF ENGINE COMPONENTS

In broad terms, the engine can be divided and discussed under three key parts,
namely:

a) cylinder head
b) engine block
c) oil sump.

Below are some of the engine components that you are going to cover in this
module:

Listing the components

1. Cylinder head
2. Valve mechanism /train
3. Cylinder block/crankcase
4. Piston assembly
5. Crankshaft
6. Camshaft
7. Flywheel
8. Sump/oil pan
9. Vibration damper

As earlier pointed out, we are going to discuss construction of engines as outlined

below:

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Cylinder head

It is usually cast as a single piece and are bolted to the top of the cylinder or may be
one piece per cylinder as shown in fig 1.5 and It is the channel through which the
fuel enters the engine combustion chamber and exhaust gases exit.

Figure1.5 ENGINE CYLINDER HEAD

Construction

The cylinder head is a casting which is assembled on top of the cylinder block. The
mating faces of the cylinder head is ground flat so that when a gasket is installed in
between it and the cylinder block and is bolted down, the gasket is squeezed
together to form a gas-tight and liquid-tight joint.

Cylinder heads are made from aluminium alloy or cast iron.

Functions

The following are some of the functions of the cylinder head:

1. It forms part of the combustion chamber
2. The cylinder head closes the upper side of the cylinder.
3. It houses inlet and exhaust valve
4. It mounts the camshaft on overhead engines
5. It houses the water pump on some engines
6. It mounts accessories
Cylinder Head Gaskets

The mating surfaces of the cylinder head and the engine block are machined to and
ground flat and smooth to within accuracy of the machines used. However, the need
for a gasket between the two components is the due to the following reasons:

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 1. Waviness…where the surface profile consists very small humps and
depressions caused by the deflection and vibrations of the machine’s spindle
and cutter.
2. Roughness which is superimposed on the wavy profile, consisting of an
infinity number of tiny steep hills and valleys caused by the tearing action of
the machining and grinding process.
Functions:
The cylinder head gasket is provided in order to:
1. act as sealing (to prevent gases escaping during the expansion stroke)
2. reduce shock
3. Fill the spaces between the joint faces so that a gas- tight and liquid –tight
seal is maintained under all operating conditions.
Cylinder head gasket requirements

1. Provision for various apertures in the gasket:

a. Cylinders and combustion chambers
b. Lubrication passages
c. Coolant ducts
d. Holes for studs and nuts
e. Holes for valve push rods
2. Resistance to chemical attacks by:
a. Fuels used and products of combustion
b. Coolants and their additives for anti-corrosion and anti-freeze.
c. Engine oils with their additives and contaminated lubricants.
3. Resistance to operating conditions due to:
a. Widely fluctuating and pulsating internal pressures, including those
experienced under detonation conditions.
b. Widely fluctuating and pulsating temperatures and exposure to flame.
4. Stability under compression conditions to avoid excessive settling:
a. Compression due to stud or bolt loading.
b. Compression due to thermal expansion and contraction.

Essential considerations:
a. Adequate shear and tensile strength.
b. Adequate provision for the cooling of the cylinder head and for
minimising the efforts if differential thermal expansion.
c. Maintenance of the gasket thickness tolerance, as this will affect the
compression ratio.
d. A gasket of simple construction, easy to assemble, and not readily
damaged.

TYPES OF CYLINDER HEAD GASKET MATERIALS

a. Metal and Asbestos Layer

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b. Embossed Steel Sheet

c. Metal-Cored Composition Material

d. Multi-Layer Steel

Figure1.6 ENGINE CYLINDER HEAD GASKET

Engine block

Figure 1.7 Engine block

An engine block is usually made from cast iron or aluminium alloy for smaller
engines
Engine blocks consists of:
i. The cylinder-block
ii. The crankcase
Engine blocks can either be mono blocks or separate blocks (detachable). With
mono blocks, the cylinder block and the crank case are cast as one unit whereas a
separate block has the cylinder block and the crank case made as separate units but
fixed together by the use of either bolts or studs and nuts.

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Crank case
The crankcase can be cast together with the cylinder block or separate from the
cylinder block.
It performs the following functions:
1. provides mounting surface for the oil pan
2. houses the crankshaft
3. it houses the oil pump

Cylinder Block
It is the part of the engine in which the conversion of heat energy to mechanical
work takes place. The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. Since energy changes
takes place inside the cylinder it:
1. must withstand high pressure and temperature.
2. It must be able to resist wear and tear
3. It must dissipate heat.
CONSTRUCTION.
They can be of parent bores blocks or those with liners (Sleeves).
The liners ca be dry liners which are not in direct contact with coolant or wet liners
which are in direct contact with coolant (as shown in fig. 1.8)
CYLINDER BORE LINERS

Fig 1.8 Engine Cylinder Liners

The cylinders are provided with liners so that they can be replaced when worn out.

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Cylinder bore liners are used where prolonged life outweighs the extra cost of their
application.

Liners can be divided into two classes:

a. DRY LINERS-those which come into continuous direct contact with the bore-
hole walls of the cylinder block.
b. WET LINERS-those which are supported only at each end in the block and
are elsewhere in direct contact with the engine coolant.
WET CYLINDER LINERS

Fig.1.9 Wet Liner

WET LINER APPLICATION

Fig.1.10 Wet Liner

i. If, to reduce overall length, the cylinder block is designed with siamesed
adjacent cylinder bores, only dry liners would be suitable.

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 ii. Dry liners may be used to restore to its original size a cylinder block which
has been rebored two or three times due to excessive wear.

DRY CYLINDER LINERS

Fig.1.11 Dry Liner

DRY LINER APPLICATION

Dry cylinder sleeves are provided in the following circumstances:

i. If the cylinder block is made from aluminium alloy, a stronger and much
harder wear resistance material is necessary for the cylinder bores.
ii. Normal wear resistance of a cast iron cylinder block in diesel engines can be
improved by incorporating sleeves with superior properties.

Methods of fitting liners in Cylinder block

There are three basic fits as follows:

i. Cast-in-fit
ii. Force (press) fit
iii. Slip fit

Cast-in- Fit
With aluminium alloy cylinder blocks using dry cylinder liners, the external surface of
the cylinder liner is machined with a helical groove running from the top to the
bottom. These liners are usually pre-heated to 200 0C and are then positioned in the
cylinder block casting dies before casting begins.

Force (press) Fit

IN this type, the liner is located by drawing or pushing the sleeve into the cylinder
block with a considerable force.
Slip Fit

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The liner is a cylindrical sleeve, flanged at the end to locate and secure it in position.
There is little or no interference between the liner and the block walls, and the liner
is fitted by hand pressure.

Piston
FUNCTIONS
Modern CI engines employ varying types of piston. However, the main mechanical
functions performed by the actual piston are as follows:

a. Piston forms a sliding gas-tight seal in the cylinder.

b. The piston transmits the energy which results from the burning of an air/fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber to the connecting rod.
c. In practice, the piston provides a guide and bearing for the small end of the connecting
rod

Fig 1. 12 Engine Piston

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 Fig.1.13 Piston and Piston rings

CONSTRUCTION
Parts of the Piston

Pistons consist of the following parts:

1. The crown
2. Grooves- the ring belts for installing rings
3. Lands-the area between ring grooves
4. Gudgeon pin hole
5. Skirt-the area below the gudgeon pin boss
Crown

Piston head (Crown) is the top of the piston. It is exposed to the heat and pressure
of combustion. This must be thick enough to withstand these forces. It must be
shaped to match and work with the shapes of the combustion chamber for complete
combustion.

Grooves and oil holes

Piston ring grooves are slots machined in the piston for the piston rings. The upper
two grooves hold the compression rings.

Oil ring operation

The lower groove holds the oil ring. When the piston reverses its direction, and moves
down its stroke, the ring will snap over to the of the ring groove. The sharp edge of the
working face of the ring will now scrape the oil down the bore and at the same time, surplus

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oil will pass between the ring and its groove and out of the relief holes to drain off. These
holes thus ensure that during the scraping movement there is no build-up of oil pressure
which, with the consequent inward flexing of the ring, would push the oil up instead of
down the cylinder

Oil holes in the bottom grooves allow the oil to pass through the piston. The oil then
drains back into the crankcase.

Lands

The ring lands are the areas between and above the ring grooves. They separate
and support the piston rings as they slide in the cylinder.

, not only to minimise contact pressure, but also to assist with heat dissipation. It
should be appreciated that the piston skirt is not in direct contact with the cylinder
wall, but is separated from it by a film of oil.

Boss

The piston boss is reinforced area around the piston pin hole. It must be strong
enough to support the piston pin (gudgeon) under severe condition.

A piston pin hole is machined through the piston pin boss for the piston pin. It is
slightly larger than the piston pin.

Skirt

A piston skirt is the side of the piston below the last ring. It keeps the piston from
tipping in its cylinder. The skirt made as a close fitting as practical in the cylinder,
thereby ensuring quieter operation and the furthermore, the skirt must present an
adequate bedding area to the cylinder wall

Considerations When Making Pistons

1. Pistons must be made strong enough to withstand the high temperatures and
pressure developed within the cylinders.
2. In addition, they must be as light in weight as possible.
3. The full force of combustion should act on the top or crown of the piston and
it is, most important that no leakage of gas between the piston and cylinder
should occur.
4. If the pistons are too tight a fit in the cylinder, excessive friction would be
created, causing an increase in temperature which in severe cases would
cause the piston to ‘seize’ in its bore.
5. The piston must move very freely within its cylinder; there must be a pre-
determined clearance between the piston and the cylinder wall.

PISTON MATERIALS
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Pistons were originally constructed from cast iron, but during the ‘twenties
aluminium alloy became more generally used and is still the main piston material
employed in modern engines but further developments have seen the rise of pistons
from composite and nano materials which are of superior quality.

Aluminium alloy gives the advantages of lightness in and high thermal conductivity.
They have a moderate content of silicon content so that their mechanical strength is
better maintained at higher temperatures. The addition of silicon also increases their
resistance to corrosion and wear.

TYPES OF PISTONS

Solid Skirt Piston

Modern practice favours the use of a solid skirt piston Construction because of the
high combustion loads encountered in diesel engines.

The advantage of using a piston with a solid skirt is that it can be made thinner in
section to with stand a given load. It however needs modification to provide
acceptable expansion Control of the skirt.

Split Skirt Piston

This incorporates a near-vertical slot from the centre an upper horizontal slot down
to the base of the skirt on the non-thrust Side of the piston.

NOTE: The thrust side of the piston reacts against the side Force of arising from
the angular motion of the connecting rod on the power stroke while its non-thrust
side reacts against lesser side forces on the compression and exhaust strokes.
(These two sides are also known as the major and minor thrust faces).

The split skirt piston offers quiet running by virtue of its skirt flexibility to
accommodate a certain degree of cylinder bore distortion where this is prone to
happen.

PISTON EXPANSION CONTROL METHODS

The following methods are used to control the expansion of piston in CI engines:

Thermal Slots

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 Fig. 1.14 Thermal slots

In order to make the clearance across the thrust axis when cold very similar to the
clearance when operating at working temperature, circumferential thermal slots are
cut on the thrust side and non-thrust sides of the piston between the ring- belt and
the skirt.

These horizontal slots extend about 90 o on each side of the piston. The air gap
formed tends to isolate the thrust and non-thrust side of the skirt form the rest of
the piston and so acts as a physical heat barrier.

Piston Taper

Fig. 1.15 Piston taper

Piston temperature and expansion varies along the piston, being greatest at the
piston crown and at a minimum at the bottom of the skirt.

To compensate for this unequal expansion, the piston is tapered along its axis, the
crown end having the smallest diameter.

The degree of taper will vary along the [piston length. It is usually much greater in
the ring belt.

Steel Inserts (struts)

These are:

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 Fig. 1.16 Steel Inserts (struts)

i. Extend approximately 900 of the circumference on the thrust and non-thrust

sides of the skirt.
ii. The outer face of each strut is cats with the aluminium alloy, but the inside
face is separated from the piston ring-land by a parallel gap originating in the
oil control-ring groove.
iii. These gaps interrupt the heat flow from the crown to the thrust side and non-
thrust sides and so minimise the average temperature which these sides
normally attain.
iv. The extension of these struts downwards provides a strengthening support to
the skirt.

Skirt Ovality

Fig.1.17 Piston Skirt Ovality

The piston skirt is often ground to an elliptical or oval shape, having the smallest
diameter across the gudgeon-pin bosses. The larger clearance at the gudgeon-pin
bosses compensates for the majority of the heat flow tending to follow the main
mass of the metal of the gudgeon-pin webs and bosses.

At working temperature, the oval shape will take on a circular form and hence match
the section of the bore.

The amount of Ovality is maximum at the gudgeon-pin-boss level but is reduced

progressively towards the bottom of the skirt, since the lower part of the skirt
operate at lower temperatures.
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Piston rings
The main purpose of the piston rings is:

a. To maintain a gas-tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall, under
all engine conditions.
b. To maintain the flow of engine lubricating oil into the combustion chamber.
c. To assist in cooling the piston
d. To allow correct lubrication of the cylinder. Most pistons use three rings: two,
upper compression rings and one, lower oil ring.
e. To centre the piston in the cylinder.

Piston rings are not fully circular. There is a clearance (Ring gap) between the two
ends. This is provided because during the expansion stroke piston rings expand
during engine operation.

Fig 1.18 Engine Piston rings

CONSTRUCTION.
There are two types of piston rings namely:
1) Compression rings
2) Oil control (scraper rings)
Compression rings are fitted in the upper grooves of the piston while oil control rings
are fitted in the lowest groove of the piston

COMPRESSION RING

Functions:

Compression rings perform the following functions:

a. Form a gas tight seal.

b. Acts as oil scrapper rings.
c. Transmitting the heat from the piston through to the cylinder walls.
d. To centre the piston in the cylinder

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These rings are also normally referred to as pressure rings or gas rings. Two
compression rings are generally fitted to a piston, located in the top two grooves

Compression Ring Operation:

The piston is designed to expand radially outwards when fitted in its groove. In its
free state, the ring is slightly larger than the cylinder bore so, when it is closed up in
the cylinder it, will tend to spring outward to apply pressure on the cylinder wall;
however, it is the cylinder pressure acting behind the piston ring which supplies
most of the radial sealing force.

OIL CONTROL (SCRAPPER) RINGS

These other types of piston rings are fitted and designed to control the oil film on
the cylinder wall. They are designed to permit adequate lubrication of the piston
against the cylinder wall, without excessive quantities of oil getting past the piston
and into the combustion chamber. When oil enters the combustion chamber it would
be decomposed and partly burnt, forming deposits of carbon on the combustion
chamber walls and causing smoke and harmful emissions in the exhaust gas. Special
types of ring have been developed to prevent excessive oil passing the piston and
entering the combustion chamber. These rings are intended to glide over the oil film
as the piston moves upward, but to scrape off all but a very thin film of oil on the
downward stroke, and are thus known as ‘oil-control rings
Function:

Oil control rings perform the following functions:

a. To control the amount of lubricant passing up to the top of the cylinder walls.
b. They perform as compression rings.
c. Assist in cooling the cylinder wall.
d. Distributes a film of oil over the wall cylinder surface to lubricate the
compression rings, the skirt, and the upper cylinder region.
Oil Control Ring Operation

During crankshaft rotation, more oil than is needed for lubrication will be splashed
from the big-end bearings on to the cylinder walls.

Oil control rings are fitted in the piston groove with the bevelled working face
pointing towards the cylinder head.

On the piston’s upward stroke, the lower side of the ring will bear hard against the
adjacent ring groove and the bevelled working face of the ring will tend to slide over
the oil, at the same time scraping a portion of the oil ahead of itself. Excess oil will
the accumulate in the clearance space formed between the groove and its ring, until
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it overflows through a ring of drillings made in the back of the groove and finally
drain to the sump.

Piston ring nomenclature

Fig 1.19 Piston ring nomenclature

Ring diameter-This is the diameter of the cylinder bore in which the cylinder is to
operate.

Radial thickness- This is the shortest distance between the outer and inner
circumferential faces of the ring.

Ring width-this is the distance between the top and the bottom side faces of the
ring.

Side faces-These are the flat parallel upper and lower faces of the ring which
contacts the sides of the ring groove.

Working face-This is the outer circumferential surface which contacts the cylinder
wall.

Free joint gap-This is the circumferential distance between the two open ends of
the ring in the free State.

Fitted gap- This the circumferential distance between the two open ends of the
ring when it is placed in its bore.

Tangential load-This is the tangential force applied between the two ends of the
ring which is necessary to close the gap to its fitted clearance.

Construction

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 Most piston rings are made from fine grey cast iron. The rings are split so that they
can be placed over the ring lands and into the ring grooves on the piston. The rings
are designed to spring outwards, thereby making close contact with the cylinder
wall.

Piston Pin (Gudgeon Pin)

The piston pin (gudgeon pin) allows the piston to swing on the connecting rod. The
piston pin fits through the hole in the piston pin boss and the connecting rod small
end.

Fig 1.20 Gudgeon Pin

Methods of locating and securing gudgeon pins:

1. Semi-floating
2. Fully-floating
SEMI-FOATING

These are locked by pinch bolt, force fit or piston –boss-clamped.

FULLY FLOATING WITH END PADS

a) Gudgeon pins allowed to float in their piston bosses and in the small end eye
but must not touch the cylinder directly.
b) To prevent cylinder scuffing, spherical end pads made from aluminium, brass
or bronze are used to act as buffers between cylinder wall and the pin.
c) During operation the pin is allowed to revolve both in the small-end and in
the piston, which tends to improve lubrication.
FULLY FLOATING GUDGEON-PIN WITH CIRCLIP

1. Extend the bearing –surface area to both of the piston –boss bores and
the small-end bronze bush bearing.
2. The gudgeon-pin is restrained from the sliding from side to side by circlips
which are positively located in internal circumferential grooves formed
near the outer end of each gudgeon –pin boss bore.

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CONNECTING ROD
It is a I-shaped component that connects the piston to the crankshaft. It consists of
two portions: The upper end of the connecting rod is called small head that is
connected to the piston and the lower end is called big end and is connected to the
crankshaft
CONSTRUCTION

Fig 1.21 Engine Connecting Rod

Small end

The construction of the small-end of the connecting rod varies according to the
method of securing the gudgeon pin which may either be fixed in the small end
(semi-floating) or free to move (fully-floating). In the latter case a solid-eye small-
end is used, and this is generally lined by a bronze bush which is pressed in. A
bushed, solid-eye small-end.

Big end

To fit a connecting rod to a one-piece crankshaft, the connecting rod must be

manufactured with a split big end. The split is usually created across the centre of
the crankpin region of the big-end. The two halves of the big-end are then
assembled around the crankpin and bolted together. The detachable portion is called
the ‘big-end cap’. The big-end cap can be fixed to the connecting rod with either
nuts and bolts, or with nuts that screw onto studs that are fixed into the connecting
rod. Big-end caps may also be secured using bolts that screw into the connecting
rod.
FUNCTIONS
The connecting rod performs the following functions:

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 1. It links the piston and the crankshaft (the piston is connected to the
connecting rod by means of gudgeon pin).
2. It converts the reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

CRANKSHAFT:

Fig 1.22 Engine Crankshaft

The crankshaft is the biggest shaft in the engine. It is steel forged and smooth
finished. Both the ends of the crankshaft are supported in the bearings. One end is
provided with the flywheel and the other end with a vibration damper. The
crankshaft is provided with counter weights for balancing. The main features that are
shown in (Fig. 1.22) are:
1. The crankpin, which is the part of the crankshaft to which the big end of the
connecting rod is connected.
2. The webs which are the parts that connect the crankpin to the main journal,
which are the parts of the shaft on which the whole shaft rotates.
3. The main journals are also the parts where the main bearings support the
crankshaft in the engine frame.
4. It has internal drillings transfer oil from the main bearings to the crankpins
and big-end bearings.

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 Fig 1.23 Basic crank throw arrangement

FUNCTIONS

1. The crankshaft transfers motion from the connecting rod to the flywheel.
2. It mounts the connecting rod.
3. It mounts the flywheel
4. It mounts the vibration damper
5. It mounts timing gears
6. It mounts pulleys

The crankshaft connecting rod journals or crankpins are machined and polished
surfaces, but they are offset from the main journals. The connecting rods bolt to the
connecting rod journals or crankpins. With the engine running, the connecting rod
journals/crankpins circle around the centre line of the crankshaft. Counterweights
are formed on the crankshaft to prevent vibrations. The weights counteract the
weight of the connecting rods, pistons, rings and connecting rod journals/ crankpins
offset.

The crankshaft extension protrudes through the front of the engine block and the
flange on the back of the crankshaft. It provides the mounting of the camshaft drive
mechanism, front damper, fan belt and the flywheel. The centre of the flange has
pilot hole or bushing for the transmission torque converter or input shaft.

Crankshaft layout

Most engines normally have 4, 6 and 8 cylinders even though in some case 1, 3 or 5
cylinders are used. The crankshaft connecting rod journal / crankpins are arranged
such that there is always one cylinder on power stroke and two crankpins are on the
same plain. (See Figure 1.22. Crankshaft layout).

To obtain the best balance the four-cylinder engine employs a crankshaft

arrangement in which the front and rear pistons are at TDC when the centre pistons
are at BDC. The firing order must be either 134 2 or 124 3 depending upon the

44 | P a g e
arrangement of the cams on the camshaft (Figure 6.8). The six-cylinder unit has a
crankshaft with the throws at 120° to each other, and the corresponding pistons at
front and rear moving together.

CRANKSHAFT MAIN BEARINGS

Fig 1.24 Crankshaft main bearings

FUNCTIONS

1. Supports the shaft

2. Centres the shaft
3. Provides a cushion for the shaft

The engine main bearings are removable inserts that fit between the block main
bore and crankshaft main journals. One –half of each inserts fit into the engine block
and the other half into the main bearing caps.

Oil holes in the upper bearing insert line up with oil passages ways in the engine
block. This allows oil to flow through bbthe engine block, main bearing and into the
crankshaft to lubricate the main bearings and connecting rod bearings. This prevents
metal –on –metal contact.

A main thrust bearing limits how far the crankshaft can slide forward or backwards
in the engine block. Flanges are formed on the main bearing. The flanges almost
touch the side, thrust surfaces of the crankshaft. This limits crankshaft endplay.
Normally only one of the main bearings serves as a thrust bearing. In some case the
thrust washers are separate from the main bearing shells and are in four pieces.

Bearing Materials

Selection of Bearing Materials: The properties required in a bearing material

include the following.

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High Fatigue Strength: This permits the bearing to resist the high fluctuating
pressure in the lubricant film due to the periodic reciprocating-inertia and gas loads.

High Melting Point and Hot Strength: This resists damage by high temperature
lubricant films and the reduction of yield strength of bearing alloys at elevated
temperatures. The oil temperatures in big-end bearings can reach around 423 K

High Resistance to Corrosion: This permits the bearing surface to resist attack
from degraded acidic lubricants at elevated temperatures.

Adequate Hardness: This allows the relatively soft bearing surface to resist
abrasive wear and cavitation erosion caused by high-velocity oil and to sustain static
and dynamic loads, but without sacrificing conformability and embeddability.

Good Conformability: This is the ability of the bearing surface to tolerate

misalignment between the bearing and the crankshaft. In general, conformability is
inversely related to bearing hardness.

Good Embeddability: Due to this property the bearing surface absorbs dirt
particles being carried round by the lubricant and prevents scoring of the journal
under high loads.

Good Compatibility: This property provides resistance to steel journal against local
welding or pick-up from the bearing when loaded under boundary-lubrication
conditions, but with a rotational speed insufficient to provide a thick hydrodynamic
oil film.

Classification of Plain-journal-bearing Materials:

Journal bearing material can be categorized into three broad groups:

(i) Lead- or tin-based white metal (Babbitt metal)
(ii) Copper-based alloys
(iii) Aluminium-based alloys.

Crankshaft Oil Seals

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 Fig 1.25 Crankshaft Oil Seals

Crankshaft oil seals keep oil from leaking out of the front and rear of the engine.
Seals are placed around the front and rear of the crankshaft to contain this oil. The
oil pump forces oil into the main and connecting rod bearings. The rear oil seal can
be a one piece or a two piece. The seal lip rides on a smooth, machined and
polished surface on the crankshaft. A seal insert or sleeve may be used to protect
the crankshaft.

FLYWHEEL

The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy for the crankshaft to overcome
reciprocating forces and fluctuations in torque (Acts as a vibration damper). This
prevents the crankshaft from braking and also reduces engine vibrations it also
mounts the ring gear for the starter motor

CONSTRUCTION

47 | P a g e
 Fig 1.26 Engine Flywheel

Other functions include:

1. The flywheel connects the engine crankshaft to the transmission or transaxle

2. A large ring gear usually on the flywheel is used to start the engine.

VIBRATION DAMPER (Harmonic Balancers)

This is a component which counteracts the twisting or torsional vibrations caused by

the force vibrations on the piston and subsequent the crank.

With long crankshafts the tendency of the power impulses to wind up the shaft and
cause torsional vibrations may necessitate a vibration damper. A torsional oscillation
damper is fitted to prevent the build-up of vibration at the speeds at which vibration
is severe. The damper shown below consists of a small flywheel member, bonded by
rubber to a hub attached to the front end of the crankshaft. At times when
oscillation occurs, the constant speed of the flywheel member opposes the winding
up and unwinding of the shaft. The extent of the vibration movement is reduced by
means of the energy-absorbing rubber. Torsional oscillation dampers are not
required on engines having short, stiff shafts such as those used on four-cylinder
engines.

Types of vibration dampers

Since vibrations differ with engine designs, vibrations dampers are constructed to
suit specific engines.

There two (2) common types of vibration dampers used on engines:

1. Rubber element type

48 | P a g e
 2. Viscous type

Rubber element type

This type is made of an inner iron steel flange or has a mounting facility and an
outer cast iron weight assembly (inertia mass). The inner flange is bonded to the
outer weight by the rubber compound.

The crankshaft torsional vibration damper shown in Fig. 1 27 makes use of a layer of
rubber between the centre of the pulley and the mass of the drive-belt rim. The
damping effect is provided by the rubber, which distorts when vibration attempts to
accelerate the drive-belt pulley mass; the distortion of the rubber converts
vibrational energy into heat, which is then passed into the atmosphere and it is this
action that provides the damping.

Fig.1.27 Crankshaft Vibration Damper

Operation of rubber vibration dumper

With the rubber vibration damper, the inner member travels at crankshaft speed
while the outer member travels at flywheel speed. The rubber absorbs the
vibrations.

Viscous type

This is a two-piece housing a weight (inertia mass) and a special grease like liquid is
placed between two pieces which then are welded together. The clearance between

49 | P a g e
the housing is about 0.25 mm on all sides. It is the space which is fitted by the
Viscous fluid.

Operation of the viscous vibration damper

With the viscous vibration damper, the outer member travels at crankshaft speed
and the inner member travels at flywheel speed, the viscous fluid absorbs the
vibrations.

Valve Train

Fig.1.28 Valve Train

The engine valve train consists of the parts that operate the engine valves. This
includes the camshaft, tappets (lifters), push rods, rocker arms, valves and valve
spring assemblies.

The valve train must open and close the engine valves at the correct time. Note:
the specific parts of a valve train vary with the engine design. In the conventional
four stroke overhead valve petrol engine, the valve operating mechanism comprises;

a. Cam and camshaft

b. Push rod
c. Rocker arm
d. Valve spring.

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Cam and camshaft

Fig.1.29 Engine Camshaft

FUNCTIONS
A cam is a component, which is shaped so that when it rotates on the shaft it causes
another component (which is in contact with it) to move in a different manner.
There are very many types of cams in use in all manner of machines but with regard
to inlet and exhaust valves, the rotating cam causes the valve to move in a linear
way, which enables the valve to open and close the ports. The type of cam used to
operate the valves of an engine is a relatively simple one such as that illustrated in
Fig1.24
The main function of the camshaft is to open the valves at the appropriate time. The
camshaft is operated by means of belt, chain or gear drives.
The cam converts rotary motion into linear motion that operates the rocker arm. The
motion of the rocker arm operates the valves. Sometimes two camshafts are
provided to operate inlet valve and exhaust valve separately
The camshaft is also sometimes also used to drive the fuel lift pump in some
engines. It can be located on the cylinder head or on the side of the block

Fig.1.30 Cam

Camshaft

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The camshaft has lobes that open each valve. It can be located in the engine block
or in the cylinder head. The cam lobes are egg-shaped protrusions (bumps)
machined on the camshaft. One cam lobe is provided for each engine valve. A four-
cylinder engine camshaft would have eight cam lobes.

The camshaft sometimes has a drive gear for operating an oil pump. A gear on the
ignition system distributor may mesh with this gear.

An eccentric (oval) may be machined on the camshaft for the mechanical (engine –
driven) fuel pump. It is similar to a cam lobe but it is more round. As the cam turns,
the eccentric moves the fuel pump arm up and down.

Camshaft journals are precisely machined and polished surfaces for the cam
bearings. Like the crankshaft, the camshaft rotates on its journals. Oil separates the
cam bearing and cam journals.

CAMS ON THE CAMSHAFTS

Cams are designed to control the open and close intervals of the inlet and exhaust
poppet valves. The radial cam used for his purpose consists of a circular disc having
a semi-oval triangular protrusion known as a lobe which extends for approximately
the disc. Rotation of the cam causes its profile to slide against the smooth flat closed
end of a cylindrical member known as a follower, which is itself restrained so that it
can only move radially out or in, relative to the axis of the cam.

The cam profile has a follower lift or valve opening side and a corresponding
follower fall or valve closing side. Both the lift and fall sides of the profile can be
divided into three phases, namely:

a. The cam ramp

b. The cam flank
c. The cam nose

Fig1.40 Cam Nomenclature

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Valve Lifters

A valve lifter, also called a tappet, usually rides on the cam lobes and transfer
motion to the rest of the valve train. The lifters can be located in the engine block of
cylinder head. They fit into machined holes termed lifter bores.

When the cam lobe turns into the lifter, the lifter is pushed up in its bore. This opens
the valve. Then, when the lobe rotates away from the lifter, the lifter is pushed
down in its bore by the valve spring. This keeps the lifter in constant contact with
the camshaft.

Push Rods

Push rods transfer motion between the lifters and the rocker arms. They are needed
when the camshaft is located in the cylinder block. They are NOT needed when the
camshaft is in the cylinder head.

Push rods are hollow, metal tubes with balls or sockets formed on the ends. One
end of the push rod fits into the lifter. The other end fits against the rocker arm. In
this way, when the lifter slides up, the push rod moves the rocker arm.

Fig1.41 Rocker Arm

1. Retainer Clip
2. Conical Spring
3. Valve Rocker Arm no.1 Exhaust
4. Rocker Shaft Pedestal
5. Valve Rocker arm no. 1 Inlet
6. Compression Spring
7. Valve Rocker Arm

Rocker Arm

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Rocker arms can be used to transfer motion to the valves. They are mounted on top
of the cylinder head. A pivot mechanism allows the rockers to rock up and down,
opening and closing the valves.

Valves

The function of engine valves is to control the flow of air into or out of the cylinder.
The valves employed in modern engines are the type usually known as ‘poppet’
valves. Two valves are normally used per cylinder: one intake valve and one exhaust
valve.

Fig.1.42 Engine Poppet valves

The intake valve is the larger valve. It controls the flow of fuel mixture (petrol) or air
(diesel) into the combustion chamber. The intake valve fits into the port leading
from the intake manifold.

The exhaust valve controls the flow of exhaust gases out of the cylinder. It is the
smaller valve. The exhaust valve fits into the port leading to the exhaust manifold.

The valve head is the large, disc-shaped surface exposed to the combustion
chamber. Its outside diameter determines the size of the valve.

The valve face is machined surface on the back of the valve head. It touches and
seals against the seat in the cylinder.

The valve margin is the flat surface on the outer edge of the valve head. It is located
between the valve head and face. The margin is needed to allow the valve to
withstand the high temperatures of combustion. Without a margin, the valve head
would melt and burn.

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The valve stem is long shaft extending out of the valve head. The stem is machined
and polished. It fits into the guide machined through the cylinder head.

Grooves are machined into the valve stem. They accept small keepers or collets that
hold the spring on the valve.

Valve Seals

Valve seals prevent oil from entering the combustion chambers through the valve
guides. The valve seals fit the valve steams and keep oil from entering through the
clearance between the stems and guides. Without valve seals, oil could be drawn
into the engine cylinders and burned during combustion. Oil consumption and
engine smoking could result.

Valve Spring Assembly

The valve spring assembly is used to close the valve. It basically consists of a valve
spring, retainer, and two keepers or collets. The keepers fit into the grooves cut in
the valve stem. This locks the retainer and spring on the valve.

Valve train

The valve train is the mechanism that is used to operate the valves
TYPES of Valve Trains
a) Overhead valve engines (OHV)

Fig 1.43 Overhead valve engines (OHV)

In an overhead valve engine of the type shown in Fig. 1.43, the valve train consists
of the cam follower, which is also called a tappet, the push rod, the rocker shaft,
and the rocker arm

55 | P a g e
 b) Overhead camshaft engines
The valve train in these engines is shorter than in the OHV engine because the
camshaft is situated close to the valves, as shown in Fig. 1.44. In this engine a
single camshaft operates the inlet valve directly via a bucket-type tappet, and the
exhaust valve indirectly via a rocker arm.

Fig 1.44 Overhead camshaft engines

In engine Fig. 1.45 the valves are operated by rocker arms that are mounted on a
pair of rocker shafts.

Fig.1.45 valves are operated by paired rocker arms

Valves:

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Valves play a major role in allowing the air fuel mixture into the cylinder (inlet valve)
for combustion and also releasing the exhaust gases from the cylinder after
combustion.
Exhaust valve
The exhaust valve head is exposed to the full heat of the burning gas during
combustion, and when the hot gases are released from the cylinder they sweep past
the exhaust valve head. The exhaust valve is the hottest part of the engine, and it is
estimated that under full power conditions it reaches a temperature of around
700°C.
Inlet valve
The inlet valve is also made of high-tensile alloy steel usually containing nickel,
chromium and molybdenum.
Valve guides
Detachable valve guides are usually made of cast iron, though bronze is often used.
Bronze is used particularly for exhaust valves, because of its better heat-conducting
properties.
Valve springs
Valve springs are made of spring steel, which contains about 0.6 to 0.7% carbon
and usually small amounts of silicon, manganese and vanadium
Identifying types of valve drives
Camshafts can be rotate in various ways. Gears, a chain and sprockets or belt and
sprockets can be used to turn the camshaft.
These parts can also be called timing gears, timing chain or timing belt because they
time the camshaft with the crankshaft.

TYPES OF VALVE DRIVES

CHAIN DRVE

Fig 1.46 Chain Drive

Chain drives are used where the length between the crankshaft and camshaft
changes between hot and cold running, and where awkward positioning of
drive shaft are made possible.

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 To compensate for chain, stretch and sprocket wheel wear, automatic chain
tensioners are installed on the slack side of the chain between adjacent
sprocket wheels.

TOOTHED TIMING BELT

Fig 1.47 TOOTHED TIMING BELT

Toothed timing belts are endless internally toothed straps, each tooth is identically
profiled to match the external sprocket wheel teeth of the drive and driven pulleys

GEAR TIMING DRIVE

Used on medium and large diesel engine application where drive train loads can be
considerable and reliability is essential.

Fig.1.48 GEAR TIMING DRIVE

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 Gear-wheels are mostly used where the camshaft is mounted low in the
cylinder block, and in its simplest form requires only a driver and driven (two-
to-one speed reduction) pair of gear-wheels to mesh together.

Fig.1.49. Timing Belt Tensioner

IDENTIFY LOCATION OF CAMSHAFTS

The operating mechanism between the camshaft and the poppet-valve is

known as the valve train.

Double over Camshaft

Fig.1.50. Double over- head Camshaft arrangement

A double overhead cam engine is a type of internal combustion engine where the
camshafts that operate the intake and exhaust valves are mounted above the
cylinders, and where there are separate camshafts for inlet and exhaust valves. In
engines with more than one-cylinder bank, such as the V engine, this designation
means two camshafts per bank

Single Side Camshaft

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 Fig.1.51 Single Side Camshaft Arrangement

This type of valve-operating mechanism uses:

a) a camshaft
b) a cam follower (tappet)
c) a push-rod
d) a rocker-arm
e) a rocker-shaft
f) return-spring, and
g) poppet valve

OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

Fig.1.52 Overhead Camshaft Arrangement

This type of valve operating mechanism uses:

a) a camshaft

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 b) a sliding inverted bucket cam follower
c) a return-spring, and
d) a poppet-valve

CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

The internal combustion engines may be classified in many ways:

1. According to the type of fuel used:

(a) Petrol engines.
(b) Diesel engines and
(c) (c) Gas engines.
2. According to the method of igniting the fuel:
(a) Spark ignition engines (briefly written as S.1. engines),
(b) Compression ignition engines (briefly written as C.I. engines).
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle:
(a) Four stroke cycle engines
(b) Two stroke cycle engines.
4. According to the cycle of operation:
(a) Four Stroke Cycle engines
(b) Two Stroke Cycle engine
5. According to the speed of the engine:
(a) Slow speed engine
(b) Medium speed engines
(c) High speed engines.
6. According to the cooling system (a) Air-cooled engines. (b) Liquid-cooled
engines.
7. According to the method of fuel injection:
(a) Diesel fuel injection engines
8. According to the number of cylinders:
(a) Single cylinder engines
(b) Multi-cylinder engines.
9. According to the arrangement of cylinders:
(a) Vertical engines
(b) Horizontal engines
(c) Radial engines
(d) In-line multicylinder engines
(e)V-type multi-cylinder engines
(j) Opposite-cylinder engines
(g) Opposite- piston

Multi-cylinder Engines

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The power developed by an engine can be increased by enlarging the size of a
single cylinder or having more cylinders of same size. A single large cylinder may be
a more convenient choice due to fewer parts to manufacture and maintain, but the
advantages are over-weighed by the disadvantages.

Multi-cylinder engines are preferred to single-cylinder

engines, which would give the same output due to the following reasons:

Large single-cylinder engine Multi-cylinder engine

a. Jerky torque from only one power a. More power strokes per revolution
stroke per two revolutions giving smooth torque output

b. Heavy flywheel required b. Lighter flywheel allowing quicker

acceleration

c. Large piston and valves present c. Small valves and pistons enable
considerable cooling difficulties cooling easier

d. Large exhaust pulsations cause d. More frequent and smaller

difficulty in silencing pulsations make easier silencing

e. The engine would be very tall e. Engine is much more compact

and difficult to accommodate
under the bonnet

f. Engine would be very heavy f. Engine would weigh much lesser

than the single-cylinder engine

g. Must run at low-speeds g. Could be run at much higher

speed

h. The heavy piston poses difficulty h. Easy to balance

in balancing

IDENTIFY TYPES OF ENGINE DESIGNS

Engines can be identified in various ways. Some of these are:

 By cylinder arrangement

Cylinders can be arranged:

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 1. In a row (in-line)
2. In two rows or banks set at an angle (V)
3. In two rows or banks opposing each other (flat or Horizontally apposed
In line Arrangement

Fig.1.56 Inline engine cylinder Arrangement

Inline engines have cylinders arranged one after the other in a straight line.
Advantages:
a) Easier to build.
b) Requires fewer cylinder heads.
c) Cheaper to produce

Vee (V) ARRANGEMENT

Fig.1.57 Vee- engine cylinder Arrangement

The v-type of engine has two rows of cylinders set at 90 0 angles to each other.
Advantages
a) It has a short length.
b) It has greater rigidity of the block.
c) The engine is of low profile.
Disadvantages
a) It is difficult to balance with counter weights on the crankshaft. (To overcome
the roughness and vibrations, a balance shaft is used on this type of engine.
Horizontally Opposed (flat) arrangement

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 Fig.1.58 horizontal- engine cylinder Arrangement

This engine has cylinders arranged in two banks a single crankshaft. The pistons are
designed to move in the horizontal plane. Tow pistons join together in the middle of
the top dead centre.
Advantages
a) It has a short length.
b) It has greater rigidity of the block.
c) The engine is of low profile.
 By operation
Two- stroke
Four -stroke
 Type of fuel
- Petrol (S.I)
- Diesel (C.I)
 Cooling system
- Air
- Water
 Number of cylinders
 Name of engine
 Induction method
- Natural aspiration
- Forced induction
 Explaining the operation of diesel engines
 Applying engine performance terminologies

Explain the operation of diesel engines

Introduction

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What is a cycle? A cycle can be defined as a series of events that repeat themselves.
In order for the engine to function it goes through a sequence of events: these
sequences serve the following purposes:
1. Getting air into the cylinder.
2. Getting fuel into the cylinder and igniting the fuel.
3. Expanding the high-pressure air to produce useful work.
4. Getting rid of the spent gas so that the sequence can be repeated.
This sequence of events is called a cycle. In automotive engine these events can be
described as:
1. Two stroke cycle operation
2. Four stroke cycle operation

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DIESEL ENGINE

The basic components of diesel engine are cylinder, piston, injector, valves,
connecting rod and crankshaft. In diesel engines, only air is drawn into the cylinder.
The engine has high compression ratio hence the air in the cylinder attains very high
temperature and pressure at the end of the compression stroke. At the end of the
compression stroke, the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder in atomized form using
injectors. Due to high temperature, the fuel gets ignited, begins to burn and produce
lot of heat. Due to the heat the gases expand, move the piston downward and
rotate the crank shaft. The torque available at the rotating crank shaft is used to do
any mechanical work.
Special features of diesel engine
1. Engine has high compression ratio ranging from 14:1 to 22:1.
2. During compression stroke, the engine attains high pressure ranging from 30
to 45 kg/cm2 and high temperature of about 500°C.
3. At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the cylinder through
2
injectors (atomizers) at a very high pressure ranging from 120 to 200 kg/cm
4. Ignition takes place due to heat of compression only.
5. There is no external spark in diesel engine.
6. Diesel engine has better slogging or lugging ability i.e. it maintains higher
torque for a longer duration of time at a lower speed.
TWO STROKE CYCLE OPERATION
A two -stroke cycle engine completes its cycle of operation –induction, compression,
power and exhaust in one revolution (3600) of the crankshaft or two strokes.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE OPERATION
A four stroke cycle engines completes its cycle of operation-induction, compression,
power and exhaust in two crankshaft revolutions (7200) or four strokes.

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FOUR STROKE CYCLE OPERATION

xc
Fig.1.58 Four Stroke Cycle Operation

FOUR STROKE CYCLE OPERATION

Four stroke cycle internal combustion engines require four piston strokes to
complete one cycle (i.e. it takes two crankshaft revolutions or 720 degrees)
EVENTS OR PHASES
INDUCTION
This is generally known as the first phase of engine operation. As the piston moves
downwards from TDC, the exhaust valves closed while the inlet valves remain open.
A fresh charge of air is induced in the cylinder to fill the space left by the piston.
COMPRESSION
This is generally known as the second phase of engine operation. When the piston
reaches BDC and starts moving upward again, at approximately 43 degrees after the
bottom dead centre ABDC, the intake valve is closed and compression begins. The
induced charge is progressively compressed to one tenth of the cylinder’s original
volume. The pressure increases and the temperature rise as the charge is
compressed. At approximately 28 degrees before top dead centre (BTDC), fuel
injection begins and because the air is very hot the fuel ignites the piston moves up
and past Top Dead Centre (TDC), beginning its downward movement.
POWER
This is generally known as the third phase of engine operation. During this stroke,
both inlet and exhaust valves are closed as the piston moves away from the cylinder
head. The burning of the charge continues until the piston has moved downward to

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approximately 530 Before Bottom Dead Centre (BBDC) at which time the exhaust
valve opens. The temperature is very high in the combustion chamber
EXHAUST
This is generally known as the fourth phase of engine operation. The piston is
completed when the piston is at its furthest point away from the bottom dead
centre. This stroke commences as the piston moves downwards approximately 53 0
BBDC. At this point there is enough pressure in the cylinder to force the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder.
SUMMARY OF FOUR STROKE CYCLE EVENTS

STROKE PISTON’S INTAKE EXHAUST AIR CHARGE/ CRANK-SHAFT

MOVEMENT VALVE VALVE (AIR-FUEL) ROTATION
INDUCTION DOWNWARD OPEN CLOSED IN 180°
COMPRESSION UPWARD CLOSED CLOSED COMPRESSED 360°
POWER DOWNWARD CLOSED CLOSED EXPANDS 540°
EXHAUST UPWARD CLOSED OPEN OUT 720°
Fig.1.59 Engine Cycles of Operation

TWO STROKE CYCLE OPERATION-DIESEL ENGINES

A two- stroke cycle engine completes the cycle of operation –induction,
compression, power and exhaust in one revolution (360 0) of the crankshaft or two
strokes. This achieved by having some events happening simultaneously- exhausting
the burnt gases and filling the cylinder with fresh charge at the same time .
To achieve complete combustion and remove all exhaust gasses from the
combustion chamber, CI two stroke cycle diesel engines are fitted with a super
charger (roots type blower) which forces fresh air into the cylinders though the
sleeve intake ports. The positive displacement super charger (rotary blower) is
required for scavenging and the engine will not operate without one. A two-stroke
cycle engine is also known as the Clerk engine.
CONSTRUCTION
1. This engine has only exhaust valves.
2. it has air intake ports in the sleeves where air is induced in the cylinder.
3. This type of engine requires a supercharger (roots blower) for scavenging and
will not operate without one.

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 Fig.1.60 Two Stroke Cycle construction

OPERATION

Two stroke cycle engine eliminates the intake and exhaust strokes. This means that
in 3600 of rotation, each engine cylinder must fire once in every 360 0. Theoretically,
the two-stroke cycle diesel engine should develop twice as much power as a four-
stroke cycle engine of the same displacement, but in reality, this is not achieved
mainly due to reduced cylinder breathing efficiency.
Many of the two-stroke cycle engines in existence are managed electronically; fitting
electronic controls on some these two-stroke CI diesel hydromechanical engines can
make them even more fuel-efficient. They also have been adapted to burn fuels
other than diesel with some success.
The cylinder liners are machined with ports designed to be exposed when the piston
is in the lower portion of its downstroke; when these ports are exposed to the air
box by the downward traveling piston, the cylinder is charged with air for
scavenging and breathing. The ports are usually angled to encourage vortex
(cyclonic) airflow movement.
The two-stroke cycle sequence begins with the piston at BDC when what is termed
cylinder scavenging takes place. At this moment, the piston has fully exposed the
intake ports and the exhaust valves are fully opened. Air from the air box rushes into
the cylinder and displaces the combustion end gases, spiraling them upward to exit
through the exhaust valves. Air from the air box continues to charge the cylinder
until the piston reverses and its upward travel closes off the intake ports; the
exhaust valves close almost simultaneously.
Every upward stroke of the piston is therefore a compression stroke. If all the end
gases were effectively expelled, only air is compressed; however, scavenging
efficiency is a problem with these engines and any end gases remaining in the
cylinder after the exhaust valves close will dilute the incoming air change. Shortly
before TDC, the fueling injection begins. After a short delay, ignition occurs and
expanding combustion gases act on the piston and drive it downward through the
power stroke. Every downward stroke of the piston is a power stroke. Shortly before

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the liner intake ports are exposed by the piston, the exhaust valves open, beginning
the exhaust process, which must take place quickly and in two stages: pressure
differential and scavenging. The two-stroke cycle engine and its events are shown in
Fig.1.40

Fig.1.61 Two Stroke Cycle Operation

Like the four-stroke engine, the two-stroke engine must go through the same four
events: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. But a two-stroke engine requires
only two strokes of the piston to complete one full cycle. Therefore, it requires only
one rotation of the crankshaft to complete a cycle. This means two events must
occur during each stroke for all four events to be completed in two strokes, as
opposed to the four-stroke engine where each stroke basically contains one event.

In a two-stroke engine the camshaft is geared so that it rotates at the same speed
as the crankshaft (1:1).

SUMARRY OF A CI TWO- STROKE CYCLE OPERATION

Downward Stroke

1. The piston moves from TDC to BDC

2. As the piston uncovers inlet ports in the cylinder liner (sleeve), exhaust valves
are opened.
3. Bunt gases start escaping from the cylinder to the exhaust manifold with the
help of air coming into the cylinder from the supercharger.
4. The cylinder is effectively filled with fresh charge from the blower.

Upward Stroke

1. The piston moves from BDC to TDC.

2. As the piston moves past the intake ports (Closing them), exhaust valves are
also subsequently closed.
3. Air is compressed and heated up as the piston continues to travel upward.

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 4. 170 to 230before TDC, fuel is injected into the cylinder for combustion to
proceed.
5. The expanding burnt gases push the piston downwards on power stroke and
turns the crankshaft.

TWO STROKE VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

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Differences between two stroke and four stroke CI diesel engines:
Two-stroke cycle engines differ from four-stroke cycle diesel engines mainly:
1. Cylinder breathing must take place in less than one-fifth of the time.
2. All the valves in the cylinder head, usually four per cylinder, are exhaust
valves.
3. After combustion, the cylinder end gases must be expelled and to enable this,
air must be pumped through the cylinder from an air box charged by a Roots
blower, sometimes aided by a turbocharger.
4. The cylinder liners are machined with ports

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TWO-STROKE CYCLE OVER FOUR-STROKE

CYCLE ENGINES Advantages:
1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each
revolution of the crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed
for the same engine speed and cylinder volume is twice that of the
four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one working stroke for every
two revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because of
poor scavenging, only 50-60% extra power is developed.
2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the
turning moment on the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-
stroke engine requires a lighter flywheel.
3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its
ports is much simpler and their maintenance easier than that of the
valve mechanism.
4) The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and
exhaust strokes is saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve
mechanism, the mechanical efficiency is higher.
6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and
requires less space than a four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more
suitable for use in small machines and motorcycles.
8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed
especially when the crankcase compression is used.
9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
10)A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve
less type.
Disadvantages:

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 1) The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the
dilution of the charges takes place which results in poor thermal
efficiency.
2) The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate
lubrication system and normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel.
This is not as effective as the lubrication of a four-stroke engine.
Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to greater
wear and tear.
3) In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly
to the exhaust. Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is
comparatively higher.
4) With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the
excessive heat produced. At the same time the running of the engine is
riot very smooth at light loads.
5) It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat
generated.
6) Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual
compression starts only after both the inlet and exhaust ports have
been closed. Hence, the compression ratio of this engine is lower than
that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. As the efficiency
of an engine is directly proportional to its compression ratio, the
efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is lower than that of a four-
stroke cycle engine of the same size

ENGINE TIMING

This is the relationship between the position of the piston and the opening and
closing of the valves

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VALVE TIMING DIAGRAMS

Definition

The exact moment at which the inlet and outlet valve opens and closes with
reference to the position of piston and crank shown diagrammatically is known as
Valve Timing Diagram. The timing is expressed in terms of degrees of crankshaft
rotation.
Purpose of valve Timing

1. To improve the expulsion of exhaust gases

2. To improve the filling of the cylinder with air/fuel mixture.
3. To minimise the exhaust gas emissions

Two Stroke Cycle Engine

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 Fig.1.62 Four Stroke Cycle Timing Diagram

OPERATION
This type of engine completes the cycle of operation –induction, compression, power
and exhaust in one revolution (360 0) of the crankshaft or two strokes.CI two stroke
cycle engines are fitted with a roots type blower which forces fresh air into the
cylinder though the sleeve intake ports. In the two-stroke cycle engine (also known
as the Clerk engine), the following sequence of events is continuously repeated all
the time the engine is running:
1. The Compression –Power stroke…The exhaust valves are closed as the piston
moves upward on the compression stroke. Fuel injection begins
approximately 230 Before Top Dead Centre and ends 6 0 After Bottom Dead
Centre.
The power stroke begins at TDC as the fuel and air in the cylinder ignite and begin
to expand. This expansion forces the piston downwards, causing the crankshaft to
turn. As the piston moves approximately half way down the cylinder, the exhaust
valves open releasing exhaust gases from the cylinder. At the same time a positive
displacement roots blower forces fresh air into the cylinder through the sleeve intake
ports and out through the exhaust
2. The Induction-Exhaust stroke…Air only is admitted to the cylinder during the
period the inlet ports are uncovered by the piston which occurs towards the
last quarter of the power –compression stroke and about the first quarter of
the Induction-Compression stroke.
During this part of the cycle, the exhaust valves are opened just before the cylinder
inlet ports are uncovered and then closed just before ports are covered again. This
sequence of exhaust valves events not only ensures that the exhaust gas pressure
falls below that of the scavenging air supply, and thus prevents the return of
exhaust gases but also leaves the charge of air in the cylinder slightly pressurised
prior to the final compression. Hence the combination of the uncovered inlet ports
and open exhaust valves allow air to be blown through the cylinder, which removes

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the remaining exhaust gases and by the same token fills it with a fresh charge of air.
Uniformly scavenging is said to take place as neither air nor the exhaust gases
change direction when passing through the cylinder.

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR FOUR STROKE CYCLE CI ENGINE

Fig.1.63 Four Stroke Valve Timing Diagram

Fig.1.64A Actual Four Stroke Valve Timing Diagram

The inlet is made to open early before TDC towards the end of the exhaust stroke
for the following reasons:

A. To prevent excessive cam-follower shock loads and spring vibrations the inlet
valve is opened very gradually at first so that only a small amount of fresh
charge can enter the cylinder for at least 10-200 camshaft movement.

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 B. To compensate for the reluctance of the charge to enter the cylinder due to
its inertia and its sluggishness to commence moving every time the inlet valve
closes and opens again.
C. To make use of the partial depression in the combustion chamber caused the
outgoing exhaust gases to commence drawing the fresh charge into the
cylinder while the piston is in the TDC region and therefore cannot contribute
to the inducement of the charge.
Inlet Valve Closes After BDC

To maximise the air charge entering the cylinder, particularly at medium to high
engine speed, the inlet valve is made to delay its closure to a point beyond BDC.

This extends the time for the incoming column to pile into the cylinder, thereby
raising its pressure and density.

A low engine speed the momentum of incoming charge is insufficient to oppose the
upward moving piston ta the beginning of the compression stroke just before the
inlet valve closes. Subsequently a portion of the newly arrived charge will actually be
pushed back and be pushed back and returned to the induction manifold. Thus, the
shortening of the effective compression stroke by the late closure of the inlet valve
at low engine speed in effect reduces the nominal compression ratio and lower the
volumetric efficiency. Thus, a compromise should be reached as to when the inlet
valve should close so that a high volumetric efficiency is achieve at high speed
without sacrificing too much volumetric efficiency loss in lower speed range.

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Figure 1.64B Camshaft timing events: the engine shown uses cam-
actuated unit injectors, so the camshaft controls both valve and injector
timing.

OPERATION

Inlet Valve Opens before TDC

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Exhaust Valve Opens before BDC

The power lost in opening the valve early before BDC is greatly outweighed by the
gains in efficiently expelling the products of combustion near the end of the power
stroke and at the beginning of the exhaust stroke.

The power that could be produced by combustion towards the end of the power
stroke if the exhaust valve was kept closed would be relatively small and ineffective
for a number of reasons:

1. Towards the end of the power stroke the burning process slows down due to
the spent portion of the charge suffocating and preventing the mixing and
burning of the still unburnt charge.
2. The expanding cylinder volume on the power stroke causes a rapid reduction
in combustion pressure.
3. As BDC is approached the effective crank angle leverage quickly declines.
It is more advantages to open the exhaust valve early, thus permitting the remaining
kinetic energy of combustion to clear the cylinders before the completion of the
power stroke, than to retain the products of combustion to the very end, and rely
solely on the piston on its exhaust stroke to sweep out the gases. Consequently’ the
exhaust valve opening point in terms of crank angle-angle movement before BDC
must be chosen so that the benefits gained in clearing out the exhaust gases and
maximising the filling of the cylinder with fresh mixture is not disadvantaged by the
power lost to the exhaust system over the mid speed range of the engine.

Exhaust Valve Closes before TDC

Efficient filling of the cylinder with fresh charge of air and fuel can only achieved at
the end of each power stroke. A drawback to the complete expulsion of the exhaust
gases every time the piston sweeps the cylinder on its exhaust stroke is that the
gases occupying the combustion chamber cannot be positively at the end of the
piston stroke and therefore would take up space that could be filled with fresh
charge.

This is overcome by delaying the closure of the exhaust valve until after TDC so that
the momentum of the outgoing exhaust gas column leaves a vacuum. At the same
time fresh charge at the entrance of the early opening inlet valve will be induced to
fill this void and simultaneously push any remaining exhaust gas out through its
port.

Valve Overlap

This is the period where both inlet and exhaust valves are open at the same time in
the TDC region.

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 1. A large overlap encourages the removal of any remaining exhaust gases
confined in the combustion chamber
2. At low engine speed, with large exhaust large there is sufficient time for fresh
charge to actually be drawn into the exhaust port and manifold before the
valve closes. This results into large amounts of unburnt and partially burnt
gases will pass out of the exhaust system under certain speed and throttle
operating conditions.
3. A low engine speed, with a large inlet valve lead and a partially closed
throttle, the depression in the induction manifold and ports may be greater
than that in the combustion chamber and the exhaust port when the piston is
in the TDC region. Consequently, some exhaust gases may be pulled back
into the induction manifold thus diluting the fresh charge, upsetting the finely
tuned mixture, and promoting slower burning and partial combustion.
Because of the unacceptably high amounts of both hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide which would be present in the exhaust system under the above
conditions, there is a trend to sacrifice some engine performance for low
emission by reducing somewhat the valve overlap.

Inlet Valve Opens before TDC

The inlet is made to open early before TDC towards the end of the exhaust stroke
for the following reasons:

a. To prevent excessive cam-follower shock loads and spring vibrations the inlet
valve is opened very gradually at first so that only a small amount of fresh
charge can enter the cylinder for at least 10-200 camshaft movement.
b. To compensate for the reluctance of the charge to enter the cylinder due to
its inertia and its sluggishness to commence moving every time the inlet valve
closes and opens again.
c. To make use of the partial depression in the combustion chamber caused the
outgoing exhaust gases to commence drawing the fresh charge into the
cylinder while the piston is in the TDC region and therefore cannot contribute
to the inducement of the charge.
Valve timing and emissions
When the engine is operating at low speed the overlap that occurs when the inlet
valves and exhaust valves are open simultaneously is a cause of harmful
emissions and various forms of variable valve control are used to overcome the
problem.

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CYLINDER FIRING ORDERS FOR FOUR STROKE IN-LINE ENGINES

Fig.1.65 Engine Cranks arrangement

Firing orders
Definition
This is the sequence in which cylinders are made to fire. The firing order is chosen
to;
i. Improve the distribution of the fresh charge in the manifold to the
cylinders.
ii. Aid the release of exhaust gases.
iii. Suppress objectionable and dangerous torsional vibrations.
CONSIDERATIONS
It is better to have successive cylinders firing as far apart as possible.
On the inlet side of events, this is to;
a. Allow recovery of charge in the manifold i.e. complete filing.
b. Minimise interference between adjacent or nearby cylinders which
may have overlapping induction periods.
On the exhaust side of events, this is to:
Stops exhaust back pressure which may prevent the products of combustion
escaping from the cylinder if the exhaust periods overlap with cylinders which are
close together.
On the power side of events;
This prevents relative unwinding of the crankshaft thereby suppressing certain
critical torsional vibrations.

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FIRING ORDERS
SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINE ARRANGEMENT-FOUR STROKE CYCLE

Fig.1.66 Single Cylinder arrangement

FIRING ORDER:1

CYLINDER 1ST REVOLUTION 2ND REVOLUTION

NO. 0 180 360 540 720

TDC BDC TDC BDC

TDC

I I C P E

POWER STROKE EVERY 7200

Fig.1.67 Firing order diagram for a single cylinder in-line engine

OPERATION
This type of engine
1) Will have a power stroke every 7200 of the crankshaft rotation.
2) When the piston is at TDC, it will either be completing its upward
compression stroke and about to start its power stroke, or will be at the end
of the exhaust stroke and beginning its downward induction stroke.

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Assuming that initially the piston is at TDC on the point of beginning the its power
stroke, then 1800 of crankshaft rotation will move the piston down to BDC,
combustion taking place during this phase.
A second 1800 of crankshaft rotation moves the piston upwards to TDC, sweeping
the cylinder clear of exhaust gases.
A third 1800 of crankshaft rotation returns the piston to BDC, on its induction stroke,
drawing in the fresh charge into the cylinder.
Finally, a fourth 1800 rotation of the crankshaft returns the piston to TDC,
compressing the charge in readiness for next power stroke.

INLINE FOUR CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT- FOUR STROKE CYCLE

Fig.1.68 Four Cylinder Inline arrangement

CYLINDER NO. 1 2 3 4

1ST STROKE P C OR E E OR C I

2ND STROKE E P OR I I OR P C

3RD STROKE I E OR C C OR E P

4TH STROKE C I OR P P OR I E

Fig.1.69 Firing Order diagram for a Four-cylinder in-line Engine

P-POWER STROKE E-EXHAUST STROKE

I-INDUCTION STROKE C-COMPRESSION STROKE

OPERATION
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The following events occur in the engine:
(i) It will have a power impulse every 1800 of crankshaft rotation.
(ii) The crank-throws are spaced at 1800 to each other in the order in
which it is intended the power impulses should occur.
(iii)Crank pins 1 and 4 being in the same phase and at 180 0 to crank
pins 2and 3.
(iv)To support the crankshaft, there is a series of either three or five
main journals and bearings.
(v) When the crankpin and the piston are approaching the inner dead
centre, the piston is on either exhaust or compression stroke.
Assuming piston no.1 is at top of the compression stroke, piston no. 4 must be at
the top of an exhaust stroke. Further crankshaft rotation will cause them to descend
on power stroke and on an induction stroke respectively.
Rotation of the crankshaft through 180 0 will position big ends 1 and 4 at the bottom
of their strokes, while big-ends 2 and 3 will be at the top of their strokes after either
a compression an exhaust stroke, the power stroke occurring in either cylinder.
If piston no. 3 is arranged to be the next to descend on power stroke, while piston
no. 2 descends on induction stroke then the order of firing is 1, 3.
The next 1800 of rotation will again bring crank pins and pistons 1 and 4 to the top
of stroke. As piston 1 was earlier on a power stroke and piston 4 on induction
stroke, they will now be at the top of their exhaust and power strokes respectively
so that at this point the order of firing will be 1, 3, 4
A third crankshaft rotation of 1800 will again bring crank pin 2 and 3 to the top of
their strokes. As piston 3 was earlier on a power stroke, piston 2 will now provide
the power stroke, so that the complete order of firing will be 1, 3, 4, 2.
A final 1800 of rotation will complete 7200 of crankshaft displacement that is two
revolutions in readiness for the next cycle of events.
The alternative order of firing is 1, 2, 4, 3 in an in-line four-cylinder engine. Both
having the same merits and limitations with regard to crankshaft torsional wind-up
and the uneven spacing of breathing intervals between adjacent cylinders.

IN-LINE SIX CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT- FOUR STROKE CYCLE

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 Fig.1.70 Six Cylinder Inline Arrangement

OPERATION
The following events occur in the engine:
(i) It will have a power impulse every 1200 of the crankshaft rotation.
(ii) The crank-throws are disposed at 120 0 out of phase with one
another.
(iii)Crank-throws are arranged in in three phases i.e. in pairs
(iv)The axis of any one crank pin if extended will coincide with the axis
of another crank pin further along the shaft.

First Revolution
Assuming piston 1 is at the top of the compression stroke, its opposite piston 6 is at
its exhaust stroke.
Rotating the crankshaft through 1200 brings pistons 2 and 5 at their TDC position,
where it can be arranged for either one of these to have completed a compression
stroke. If piston 5 is made to be at the end of the compression and at the beginning
of its power in the TDC position, then piston 2 must be at TDC on exhaust stroke.
Rotating the crankshaft another 120 0 third of a revolution moves it to a total of 240 0
and brings piston 3 and 4 to the TDC position, so that either one these can be on
compression. If piston 3 is arranged to on compression, piston 4 must be on its
exhaust stroke.
To complete the first cycle of events, the crankshaft is moved a further 120 0. Pistons
1 and 6 are now back at TDC position. This time piston 6 is arranged to be on the
compression stroke, so piston 1 must be on its exhaust stroke.
Second Revolution
The next pair of pistons to reach TDC will be pistons 2 and 5, after the crankshaft
has completed 4800 of rotation. Piston 2 will be on compression and piston 5 will be
on its exhaust stroke.

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Rotating the Crankshaft another 120 0, that is a total 6000, brings piston 3 and 4 to
TDC. Piston 4 will then be on compression and piston 3 must therefore be on its
exhaust stroke.
Further rotation of the crankshaft through 120 0 completes 7200 required for the four-
stroke cycle and brings the pistons into position for the cycle operations to be
repeated. This cycle of events provides a firing order of 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4.
If the phasing of the of paired crank-throws 3 and 4 and 2 and 5 are interchanged,
then a second equally suitable firing order of 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5 is obtained.

Define Engine Terminologies

In order to understand the operation of an internal- combustion engine it is

necessary to become familiar with a number of terms which describe its mechanical,
operational, and power features. An engine is a machine that changes heat energy
into mechanical energy. This is achieved by the reciprocating action of the piston in
the cylinder

Stroke is the distance in centimetres travelled by the piston in its movement from
top bottom dead centres. The piston makes a stroke while travelling upwards.
Throw is the distance in inches from the centre of the crankshaft main bearing to
the centre of the crankpin, or connecting-rod bearing. The length of the throw is
equal to one half of the stroke

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TDC

Top dead centre is the farthest point of upward travel of the piston in its cylinder or
this is the position when the crank and the piston are at its closest point to the
cylinder head.

BDC
Bottom dead centre) is the lowest point of downward travel of the piston in the
cylinder or this when the position when the crank and the piston are at the furthest
point from the cylinder head

CYCLE
The term cycle refers to a series of events that repeat themselves. Cycle in relation
to engines it refers to a series of events that must occur in the engine for it to
operate.
BORE
is the inside diameter of the cylinder, usually measured in millimetres?
COMPRESSION RATIO (CR)

Compression ratio for a cylinder is the ratio of total Volume of a cylinder to the
clearance volume or this is the measure of how much the air- fuel is compressed
during the compression stroke.

TORQUE
This is the turning force about the crankshaft axis of rotation and is equal to the
product of force the force acting along the connecting rod and the perpendicular
distance between this force and the centre of rotation of the crankshaft. Engine
torque results from compression pressures pushing down the pistons. When the
piston is moving down on the power stroke, it applies torque through the connecting
rod to the crankshaft.
INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP)

This is the power developed by the combustion chambers during combustion. It is

determined by measuring pressures in the engine cylinders. Indicated horse power is
always higher than brake horse power or is the net power actually developed at the
piston face during the events of mechanical cycle. It is so named because it
determined by the use of an instrument called an ‘engine Indicator’

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BRAKE ENGINE HORSE POWER (BHP)

This is the power available from the crankshaft to do work. It is measured by the
use of an Engine Dynamometer. The instruments on the dynamometer measure
brake horse power and the revolutions per minute (or torque and rpm) that the
engine is doing under varying load conditions during the test.

Internal Combustion (IC)

SPARK IGNITION (SI)

An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started by use of a spark
plug.

COMPRESSION IGNITION (CI)

An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air-fuel mixture self-
ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression. CI engines are often called Diesel engines.

Top-Dead-Centre (TDC)

Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away from the crankshaft.
Top because this position is at the top of most engines (not always), and dead
because the piston stops at this point. When an occurrence in a cycle happens
before TDC, it is often abbreviated BTDC. When the occurrence happens after TDC,
it will be abbreviated ATDC. When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is
a minimum called the clearance volume.

TOTAL VOLUME

This is the swept volume plus the clearance volume

SWEPT VOLUME

This is the volume that the piston sweeps as it moves from BDC to TDC

DIRECT INJECTION

Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine. Engines have either
one main combustion chamber (open chamber)

INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI)

Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion
chamber.

STROKE

Distance moved by the piston from one extreme position to the other i.e. TDC to
BDC or BDC to TDC.

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CLEARANCE VOLUME

Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.

DISPLACEMENT OR DISPLACEMENT VOLUME

Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one stroke. Displacement can
be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine (swept volume of one-cylinder
times number of cylinders).

AIR-FUEL RATIO (AF)

Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine. Fuel-Air Ratio (FA) Ratio of
mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.

OVERHEAD VALVE (ORV)

Valves mounted in engine head.

OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (ORC)

Camshaft mounted in engine head, giving more direct control of valves which are
also mounted in engine head.

FUEL INJECTED (FI)

THERMO EFFICIENCY
Thermo efficiency of a cylinder is a measure of the combustion efficiency of an
engine calculated by comparing the heat energy potential of a fuel (calorific value)
with the amount of usable mechanical work produced. Electronically controlled CI
engines can have thermal efficiency values exceeding 40 percent. A typical gasoline-
fuelled car engine has a thermal efficiency of just over 30 percent. Compression ratio
is the total ratio volume of the cylinder compared to the clearance

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (MEP) Mean effective pressure (MEP) is a way of

describing the engine cylinder pressure that can actually be converted into useable
torque. Simply, it is peak combustion pressure (produced during the power stroke)
minus peak compression pressure (produced during the compression stroke).

MEP describes the relationship between the work performed by the piston (in
compressing the air charge) and the work received by the piston (through its
downstroke on the power stroke). If the engine is going to continue to rotate, there
has to be a net gain in terms of work.

MEP is an important definition. Modern, computer-controlled diesel engines can

manipulate MEP by varying valve opening and closing. For instance, diesel engines
using an internal compression brake open the exhaust valve(s) under engine braking
just as the compression stoke is being completed. This means that when the engine

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brake is actuated, the piston is required to do its normal amount of work in
compressing the air in the cylinder during the compression stoke, but just at the
point that the power stroke would normally begin, the exhaust valves open, and the
cylinder charge is dumped. The result is that the piston does its normal work on its
upstroke, but is denied receiving any work during the power stroke. The role of the
engine is therefore reversed. It becomes a power-absorbing pump rather than a
power receiving pump.

Another way of managing the MEP is to use variable valve timing. In diesel
engines this is used as an emission control strategy. The closure of the intake valves
can be delayed by the computer managing the engine under some running
conditions to make it perform like a smaller engine. In other words, the MEP
equation becomes a soft value managed by the engine controller computer.

Mechanical efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
Valve lag
Valve lead
Valve overlap
Square engine: an engine in which the cylinder bore diameter is exactly equal to the
piston stroke dimension. For instance, an engine with a 4-inch piston diameter and a
4-inch stroke is classified as square. When bore and stroke values are expressed,
bore always appears before stroke.
Oversquare engine: is the term used to describe an engine in which the cylinder
bore diameter is larger than the stroke dimension. Most indirect injected, gasoline-
fuelled, spark-ignited engines are oversquare.
Under-Square engine: the term used to describe an engine in which the cylinder
bore diameter is smaller than the stroke dimension. Most high-compression diesel
engines such as the one we based the earlier calculations on are under-square

Compare Internal combustion engines

COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE

1 Diesel engine Petrol engine

2 It has got no fuel injection pump, ignition coil It has got fuel injection
and spark plug pump, ignition coil &
spark plug

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 3 Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to 22:1 Its compression ratio
varies from 5:1 to 8:1.

4 It uses diesel oil as fuel It uses petrol (gasoline)

or power kerosene as fuel

5 Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction stroke Mixture of fuel and air is
sucked in the cylinder in
suction stroke

6 It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and injector It has got no fuel
injection pump and
injector, instead it has got
fuel injection pump and
ignition coil.

7 Fuel is injected in combustion chamber where Air fuel mixture is

burning of fuel takes places due to heat of compressed in the
compression combustion chamber
when it is ignited by an
electric spark.

8 Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency varies

from 25 to 32%

9 Engine weight per horse-power is high Engine weight per

horsepower is
comparatively low

10 Operating cost is low Operating cost is high

11 Compression pressure inside the cylinder varies Compression pressure

from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 and temperature is about varies from 6 to 10
500°C kg/cm2 and temperature
is above 260°C

The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.

Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is because
in case of the failure of the battery, ignition or fuel injection pump system, the SI
engine cannot operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each
cylinder, has less risk of failure.
1. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a
separate injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is

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 not uniform, owing to the design of the single fuel injection pump and the
intake manifold.
2. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer,
its maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
3. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine;
therefore, the heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that
of the SI engine. Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of
smaller dimensions.
4. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in
better top gear performance.
5. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after
starting from cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
6. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI
engine.
7. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimised due to the absence of the ignition
system.

Summary
Fundamentals of the Diesel Engines

The important information in this chapter is summarized below

1. A diesel engine converts the energy stored in the fuel's chemical bonds into
mechanical energy by burning the fuel. The chemical reaction of burning the
fuel liberates heat, which causes the gasses to expand, forcing the piston to
rotate the crankshaft.
2. A four-stroke engine requires two rotations of the crankshaft to complete
one cycle. The event occur as follows:
3. Intake - the piston passes TDC, the intake valve(s) open and the fresh air is
admitted into the cylinder, the exhaust valve is still open for a few degrees
to allow scavenging to occur.
4. Compression - after the piston passes BDC the intake valve closes and the
piston travels up to TDC (completion of the first crankshaft rotation).
5. Fuel injection - As the piston nears TDC on the compression stroke, the fuel
is injected by the injectors and the fuel starts to burn, further heating the
gasses in the cylinder.
6. Power - the piston passes TDC and the expanding gasses force the piston
down, rotating the crankshaft.

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 EXERCISE
QUESTION ONE

With a neat diagram, draw the actual valve timing diagram suitable for a four-
cylinder engine with the following details:
i. Inlet valve lead 170
ii. Inlet valve lags 600
iii. exhaust valve lead 500
iv. exhaust valve lags 170
a. Show all the periods on your diagram
b. State two disadvantages of the valve overlap period
Solution

ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION ONE

The following data is for a medium compression engine:

Inlet valve lead at 100

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Inlet valve lag at 500

Exhaust valve lead 600

Exhaust valve lag 200

a. Using the valve data above;

i. Determine the duration of the compression phase 2marks
ii. State two functions of valve overlap 2marks
iii. Draw a valve timing diagram 5marks
b. Define the following terms:
i. Valve lead 2marks
ii. Engine capacity 2marks

c. Given a six- cylinder inline engine with 1, 4, 2,6,3.5. Draw a

suitable power flow chart of the above engine. 5marks

QUESTION TWO

a. Engines can be identified in various ways. With the help of neat

Sketches. briefly describe the three type of cylinder arrangements
and state two advantages and two disadvantages of each cylinder
arrangements. 10marks
b. Given a six (6) cylinder engine with the swept volume of 636cm 3
and clearance of volume 50cm3, determine:
i. Its Compression ratio 3marks
ii. Its Engine capacity 2marks
iii. Whether it’s a CI or SI engine 2marks
c. Define the following engine performance terms:
i. Engine power (brake horse power(bhp) 1mark
ii. Indicated horse power (ihp) 1mark
iii. Engine cylinder capacity 1mark

QUESTION THREE

a. Give any:
i. Two (2) reasons for preference of cast iron pistons in CI
engines 2marks
ii. Three functions of the camshaft 3marks
b. State any
i. three methods employed to reduce excessive piston
expansion of CI engines during its operation. 3marks
ii. the two merits of camshaft gear train drive mechanism 2marks
c. With the help of a neat diagram show how to determine crankshaft

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 Ovality 5marks
d. With the aid of a neat sketch, give two (2) reasons for staggering
ring gaps during engine assembly. 5marks

QUESTION FOUR

a. With the aid of a neat simple sketch, briefly describe the operation of the four
stroke cycle CI engine. 10marks

b. List any three (3) advantages of a two-stroke cycle CI engine over a four
stroke cycle CI engine of the same capacity. 3 marks
c. State any advantages of a timing gear drive over a belt drive system.4 marks
d. Aluminium alloy is sometimes preferred in piston manufacture of CI engine.
Give any three reasons for this. 3 marks
QUESTION FIVE

a. Give a medium CI engine with 1,4,2,6,3,5 firing order, draw a suitable Firing
Order for this engine 10Marks
d. Define the following terms:
iii. Valve lag 2marks
iv. Valve lead 2marks
v. Thermo efficiency 2marks
vi. Indicated mean effective pressure (i. m. e. p) 2marks
vii. Engine Brake Horse Power (BHP) 2marks

References

Angelo, S. ‘et al’. (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment Systems. New
York.

Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems. 4th Ed. Routledge
Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed. Routledge
Heizler, H. (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann
Hillier, V. (2014). Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics. 2nd edn. Oxford
Joseph, A.B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Electricity & Electronics. 2nd edn.
Clifton Park, New York.
Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
Scott, A.H. (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems Approach
(Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty).Pearson Education

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UNIT A9.2: DESCRIBING THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF DIESEL
ENGINE SYSTEMS

Unit Outcomes:
On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Identify diesel engine systems

2. Identify diesel fuel system
3. Describe diesel control systems
4. Describe construction of diesel fuel components
5. Describe operation of major diesel components
6. Explain lubrication system
7. Identify lubrication system major components
8. Explain functions and operation of major lubrication components
9. Explain cooling systems
10. Identify cooling system components
11. Explain functions and operations of the major cooling system components
12. Identify air induction and exhaust systems
13. Explain construction and operation of air induction and exhaust system
components
14. Identify engine electrical/electronic system components

Identify Diesel Engine Systems

Introduction

Engine systems facilitate the effective operation of the engine. After going through
this unit, you are going to appreciate that without these systems, the engine can’t
function at all. The following systems will be discussed to help us understand how a
CI engine attains its optimum power:
 Fuel system
 Lubrication system
 Cooling system
 Induction and exhaust system
 Electrical/electronic system
Induction and exhaust system (Intake and Exhaust System)
The intake and exhaust system deal with the in-flow of fresh air and the outflow of
used gases in the engine. Further it performs important functions in ensuring clean
emissions are sent into the environment.

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AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
This system allows fresh air to enter the engine. Its main parts are:

(i) air cleaner,

(ii) supercharger (auxiliary unit)
(iii) intake manifold
(iv) intake port and
(v) intake valve.

AIR FILTERS/AIR CLEANERS

Air contains dirt, abrasives and other contaminates which cannot be allowed to reach
the engine. Like fuel filters, an air cleaner-cum-filter (Fig.2.1) is used to remove
contaminants from the air. It has three primary functions.

(i) to clean air before mixing with fuel.

(ii) to silence intake noise.
(iii) to act as a flame arrestor in case of a backfire.

As dirt particles are trapped, they plug the filter pores. Excessive plugging restricts
air flow into the engine and this causes loss of engine power. Badly plugged air
filters limit engine power and speed. It is best to replace a filter element before it
becomes too dirty to be effective. A dirty air filter element allows contaminants,
which causes engine wear and increases fuel consumption.
The operating efficiency, good performance and durability of an engine depend
mainly upon its cleaner. It is a device, which cleans and filters the air before
entering the combustion chamber of an engine.

An IC engine uses large quantities of air for combustion. Unfiltered air may contain
millions of particles of abrasive dust and other matter, which could cause rapid
engine wear.

There are many types of air cleaners but the types commonly used in vehicles are:
(i) Dry air type and
(ii) Wet type or oil bath air cleaners.
OIL WETTED MESH AIR CLEANER
It consists of a copper mesh or nylon wire wetted with oil to catch the dust particles
from the air which are made to pass through it. This type, however, gets clogged
with dust quickly, thus, seriously affecting the air flow through it and rendering it
inefficient in removing the fine particles of dust from the air.

DRY AIR CLEANER

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This type of air cleaners contains three main parts, namely. pre-cleaner, main
housing and cleaning element. These are sealed into one unit. The main housing
contains the cleaning element, usually of multi-wire netting, but some are made of
nylon hair or paper. The air from the atmosphere enters from the pre-cleaner,
passes through the cleaning element and goes to the inlet manifold.

Fig. 2.1 AIR CLEANER

The following are the advantages of the dry air cleaner:

1. Easy to service.
2. Good performance in gradient and in rough fields.
3. More efficient at high speeds.
4. Straw and chaff cause less restriction to air passage.
Its main disadvantages are:
1. It is costlier to maintain than an oil bath because the filter elements require
replacements very often.
2. Sometimes, dust particles enter the cylinder
OIL BATH AIR CLEANERS

The main difference between a dry and oil bath cleaner is that in the latter type, oil
is used for cleaning air. This type of cleaner operates on the principle of having the
air with dust enter the intake stack, pass down the inlet passage over the oil surface,
where some of the oil is picked up, atomized and carried up into a separating
screen. As the air passes through a screen (filter) most of the remaining dirt is
attached to the oil wetted surfaces and drains back into the sump. The air outlet is
on the side through which the clean air enters the cylinders. In the bottom a
removable cup is fitted for convenient cleaning and servicing. Oil bath air cleaners
are always mounted vertically to the engine; thus, the oil remains in the cup at the
bottom of the cleaner. It is often mounted either in front of the radiator or by the
side of the engine.

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 FIG.2.2 OIL BATH AIR CLEANER

AIR PRE- CLEANERS:

Most vehicles work in dusty conditions. In order to prolong the engine life, pre-
cleaners are fitted in the upper portion of the main cleaner. When the engine is
running, the air is drawn through the pre-cleaner to the inlet tube of the main
cleaner. Here, large dust particles are removed from the air stream, thus reducing
much of the load on the main cleaner.

The pre-cleaner functions on the centrifugal principle. By means of vanes and baffles
it gives a rotary motion to the air, thus causing the heavier dust particles to be
thrown out due to centrifugal force and the pre-cleaned air passing to the cleaner.

We know that diesel engines for motor vehicles may be classified according to the
manner in which their induction process is accomplished i.e. Natural Induction or
Forced Induction.
NATURAL INDUCTION
In this system, the process relies on a pressure difference that exists between the
retreating piston and the air intake arrangement. The density of charge that fills the
cylinder due to the pumping action and velocity of the piston, depends on how freely
the engine is allowed to release the burnt gases. This in turn is related to the design
characteristics of the intake system.
INTAKE MANIFOLD

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 FIG.2.3 ENGINE INTAKE MANIFOLD

The engine intake manifold is bolted to the side of the cylinder head or heads. It
contains passages going to each cylinder head port.

FORCED INDUCTION.
SUPERCHARGING
The purpose of super charging is to increase the mass of air the density entering the
cylinder so that there will be more oxygen available for every power stroke.
A compressor is used to achieve the increase in air density. Two methods of
supercharging can be distinguished by the method used to drive the compressor. If
the compressor is driven from the crankshaft of the engine (positively driven), the
system is called mechanically driven supercharging or often Super Charging. If the
compressor is driven by a turbine, which itself is driven by the exhaust gas from the
cylinders, the system is called turbocharging.
BOOST PRESSURE

Supercharged engines pressurise the air above atmospheric pressure so that it is

positively forced into the cylinder whereas naturally aspirated engines induce charge
into the cylinder by creating a negative pressure that is below atmospheric pressure.

Therefore, boost pressure is the gauge pressure of the output delivery from the
supercharger measured in bars.

FUNCTIONS OF TURBO CHARGER AND BLOWERS

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Turbo Charger: is an exhaust driven super charger which pressurizes the intake
air, so increasing the quantity entering the engine cylinders on the inlet stroke and
allowing more fuel to be burned efficiently.

Figure 4 turbocharger without waste gate

CONSTRUCTION OF A TURBO CHARGER

It is made up of three sections:

1. The centre bearing housing assembly

2. The turbine housing
3. The compressor housing

The bearing housing

It contains two plain bearings, piston ring type seals, retainers and a thrust bearing.
There are also passages for the supply and dumping of oil to and from the housing.

The turbine wheel turns in the turbine housing and is usually integral with the
turbine shaft which is carried in the plain bearings in the bearing housing.

The compressor wheel which is fitted to the opposite end of the turbine shaft
forming a combined rotating assembly turns in the compressor housing.

OPERATION OF A SINGLE GEOMETRY TURBOCHARGER

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 FIG.2.5 TURBO CHARGER CIRCUIT

What is a Wastegate Turbocharger?

Nowadays, vehicles with turbocharged engines feature the wastegate turbocharger.

This technology helps to deliver optimum engine performance during peak operating
conditions. In addition, the wastegate valve prevents the turbocharger from over-
running. Particularly, it also avoids the engine from over-boost and prevents any
mechanical failure.

This feature in the turbocharger consists of a bypass valve. It circumvents some part
of the exhaust gas going to the turbine and releases them into the outlet.
Furthermore, the waste-gate turbocharger has a bypass valve built into the turbine
housing. It diverts some of the exhaust gases away from the turbine wheel through
this valve.

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 FIG.2.6 TURBO CHARGER CIRCUIT WITH WASTE GATE VALVE

Energy from the diesel engine exhaust drives the turbo. Exhaust gas from
the engine passes through the exhaust manifold and is directed to the turbine
wheel. The exhaust gates pass over the turbine, forcing it and the
compressor wheel to rotate as it goes to the outlet. Incoming air from the air
cleaner enters the cell centre of the compressor wheel where it is compressed
and forced into the inlet manifold and into the engine cylinder. By packing
more air into the cylinders, the turbocharger makes it possible for the engine
to burn more fuel and produce more power.

TYPES OF TURBO CHARGERS

Single Geometry-Turbocharger

Single geometry turbochargers are what most people think of as turbos. By

differing the size of the elements within the turbo, completely different torque
characteristics can be achieved. Large turbos provide higher levels of top end
power, whilst smaller turbos can spool faster and provide better low-end
power. They are a cost-effective way of increasing engine power and
efficiency, and as such have become increasingly popular, allowing smaller
engines to increase efficiency by producing the same power as larger
naturally-aspirated engines, but with a lower weight. They do however tend
to work best within a narrow RPM range, and drivers will often experience
‘turbo-lag’ until the turbo starts to operate within its peak rev band.

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 Twin- Turbocharger

As the name implies twin-turbos mean adding a second turbocharger to an

engine. In the case of V6 or V8 engines, this can be done by assigning a
single turbo to work with each cylinder bank. Alternatively, one smaller turbo
could be used at low RPMs with a larger turbo for higher RPMs. This second
configuration (known as twin sequential turbocharging) allows for a wider
operating RPM range, and provides better torque at low revs (reducing turbo
lag), but also gives power at high RPMs. Unsurprisingly, having two turbos,
significantly increases the complexity and associated costs.

Twin-Scroll Turbocharger

Twin-scroll turbochargers require a divided-inlet turbine housing and exhaust

manifold that pairs the correct engine cylinders with each scroll.
independently. For example, in a four-cylinder engine (with a firing order 1-3-
4-2), cylinders 1 and 4 might feed to one scroll of the turbo, while cylinders 2
and 3 feed to a separate scroll. This layout provides more efficient delivery of
exhaust gas energy to the turbo, and results and helps provide denser, purer
air into each cylinder. More energy is sent to the exhaust turbine, meaning
more power. Again, there is a cost penalty for addressing the complexity of a
system requiring complicated turbine housings, exhaust manifolds and turbos.

Variable Geometry Turbocharger (VGT)

Typically, VGTs include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped vanes in the turbine

housing at the turbine inlet. In turbos for passenger vehicles and light
commercial vehicles, these vanes rotate to vary the gas swirl angle and the
cross-sectional area. These internal vanes alter the turbos area-to-radius
(A/R) ratio to match the engines RPM, and so give peak performance. At low
RPM, a low A/R ratio allows the turbo to quickly spool up by increasing
exhaust gas velocity and. At higher revs the A/R ratio increases, ther4eby
allowing increased airflow. This results in a low boost threshold reducing
turbo lag, and provides a wide and smooth torque band.

Variable Twin-Scroll Turbocharger (VTS)

As the name suggests a VTS turbocharger combines the advantages of a

twin-scroll turbo and a variable geometry turbo. It does this by the use of a
valve which can redirect the exhaust airflow to just a single scroll, or by
varying the amount the valve opens can allow for the exhaust gases to split
to both scrolls. The VTS turbocharger design provides a cheaper and more
robust alternative to VGT turbos, meaning it is a viable option for petrol
engine applications

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 TURBOCHARGER LUBRICATION

Is lubricated by engine oil which moves under pressure from the engine oil
pump

to the turbocharger bearing housing and lubricates the shaft, bearings, thrust
bearings and oil seals. The thrust bearing located at the compressor end of
the rotating assembly is lubricated by the same oil before it leaves the
bearing housing and flows back to the engine sump.

TURBOCHARGER CONTROLS
In certain application where fast acceleration is needed, engines are fitted
with larger capacity turbocharger that requires a speed control device call
waste gate. This prevents the turbocharger from over-speeding and as a
result over boosting and damaging the engine. (see the diagram)

ADVANTAGES OF TURBOCHARGING
1. Increased power to weight ratio: Power and torque output
increased as much as 35% above naturally aspirated engines.
2. Reduced engine noise: The turbine housing absorbs engine exhaust
noise, so too does the compressor for intake noises.
3. Better Fuel Economy: Has higher Volumetric Efficiency than a NAE
giving more complete combustion of the fuel and resulting in lower
speed fuel consumption.
4. Reduced Smoke Output: Turbo chargers supply a surplus amount
of air resulting in a much cleaner and efficient combustion phase which
reduces smoke output.

Advantages of Turbochargers
Advantages offered by turbochargers Compared with equally powerful
naturally aspirated engines, turbocharged engines use less fuel. The space
required by a turbocharged engine is smaller than by a naturally aspirated
engine of equal power. The altitude behaviour (e.g. power delivery in alpine
regions) of the turbo engine is considerably better. A naturally aspirated
engine loses considerable amounts of power as a result of the decreasing air
pressure at altitude. In turbo engines, the turbine power increases as there is
a fairly large pressure drop between the almost constant pressure before the
turbine and the lower ambient pressure. The lower air density at the
compressor inlet is thus largely compensated. The engine loses hardly any
power. Compared with a naturally aspirated engine, the turbo engine is also
quieter as the turbine and compressor wheel act as silencers .

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 DISADVANTAGE OF A SINGLE GEOMETRYTURBOCHARGER
1. Incapable of delivering boost pressure at low speeds.
2. Increased exhaust smoke emissions at low speed.
3. Engine blocks, crank mechanisms and pistons have to withstand higher
loads in the case of turbocharged engines. The operating temperatures
are higher (up to 1,050°C).
4. Older turbocharger applications suffered of poor response in the lower
rpm range (turbo lag).
5. The oil supply is more expensive.
6. Contaminants in the exhaust system reduce turbocharger service life

ROOTS BLOWER
Blower: is used to provide a larger volume of air at low pressure for
scavenging purposes (about 3 times cylinder volume
A blower is a supply pump that supplies air under pressure to two stroke
engines for:

1. Primarily scavenging burnt gases from cylinders

2. Secondary ensuring that cylinders are completely filled with fresh air by
raising the cylinder pressure to above atmospheric.
CONSTRUCTION OF BLOWERS

FIG.2.7 ROOTS BLOWER

The basic roots blower consists of three major components. An oval housing, a pair
of rotors and associated bearings, gears and seals and two end covers.

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The rotors are geared, one to the other, and turn in opposite directions in the
housing on anti-fiction bearings in the end cover. Each rotor consists of a steel shaft
with (usually) three lobes surrounding it.

Blower rotors are not fitted with seals but rely on the precise and limited clearances
between the rotors themselves and between the rotors and the housing.

OPERATION OF ROOTS BLOWER

Similar to the operation of a gear type oil pump, the lobes on the rotors fit together
like gears in mesh, and turn in opposite directions. As one lobe moves from the
valley between the two lobes on the other rotor, it creates a place that is filled with
air. This is inlet action.

The air between adjacent lobes is carried to the outlet as the rotors turn where it is
forced from the valley, by the re-entry of the meshing. This creates the discharge
and pressurization of air.

BLOWER LUBRICATION

Since the blower rotor lobes turn within close tolerances and never contact one
another, no form of lubrication is necessary within the housing. However, the
support bearings, timing gears at the end of the rotors need constant lubrication
from the engine lubrication system.

DISADVANTAGES OF BLOWERS

a) Rotating of robes can consume 15% of the engine power.

b) Higher fuel consumption.

COMPARISONS BETWEEN BLOWER AND

TURBOCHARGER

TURBOCHARGER BLOWER

Speeds approx. 80,000 – 120,000rpm Exhaust gases driven

Exhaust temp. of around 1300 Runs at low temperatures

temperatures

Inlet temperature – 167oC Driven by Engine gears

Exhaust gases driven

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THE FUNCTION AND OPERATION OF ENGINE INTERCOOLING (AFTER
COOLING SYSTEM

FUNCTION
Compressing the intake air charge by a turbocharger can produce air temperatures
of up to 15080C when the ambient temperature is 2180C. These temperatures
become proportionally more at higher ambient temperatures.

The objective of Intercoolers (also called after cooler, heat exchangers or

charge air coolers) is to cool the air pressurized by the turbocharger as much as
possible while maintaining the pressure. As intake air temperature increases, air
density decreases. Less dense air contains less of the oxygen that is required in the
cylinder to burn fuel. Less dense air results in lower power—along with higher
cylinder temperatures. An Intercooler is a heat exchanger and, as such, its role is to
reduce the temperature of boost air. Intercoolers use a couple of different principles
to reduce boost air temperatures. These heat exchanger devices are a key
component in a diesel engine management system for controlling emissions.
Because the performance of Intercoolers influences combustion temperatures if they
fail to perform at a specified efficiency, the result can be increased emissions, engine
overheating, and lack of power. For this reason, most turbo-charged diesel engines
use some type of heat exchanger to cool intake air.

TYPES OF INTERCOOLERS:
1. Air to air intercooler
2. Air to liquid intercooler

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF AN AIR TO AIR INTERCOOLER

Air-to-air charge air coolers have the appearance of a coolant radiator. They are
often chassis mounted in front of the radiator. As the vehicle moves down the
highway, ambient air is forced through the fins and element tubing: Air cooling
efficiencies are highest when the vehicle is moving at higher speeds. When the
vehicle is not moving, they have low efficiency. The engine fan may provide a little
help, but generally air-to-air cooling is not going to suit vehicles that are not
primarily run on the highway. When run down the highway air-to-air coolers have
better efficiency than any type of liquid cooled heat exchangers: this is because the
faster the vehicle is traveling, the greater the drift air effect.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE AIR TO LIQUID INTERCOOLER

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Boosted air is forced through an element containing tubing through which coolant
from the engine cooling system is pumped. Since the temperature of the coolant is
lower than that of the air, the air gives up some of its heat to the intercooler. The
air is cooled and becomes denser as it leaves the intercooler and enters the intake
manifold. Cooling efficiencies are lower than with air-to-air heat exchangers due to
the relatively high temperature of the liquid coolant. Air -to- Liquid intercoolers
continue to be used in applications in which low airflow through the engine housing
rules out the use of an air-to-air exchanger are used to reduce the high temperature
of the air leaving the turbocharger, so increasing the density of the intake air.

The denser the air, the greater the quantity of fuel that can be burned efficiently
and the greater the subsequent power and torque output of the engine.

EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION

Until the introduction of the EPA 2004 emission standards, diesel engine
manufacturers had successfully avoided using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
systems. Things have changed. From 2007 onward, all the diesel engine OEMs are
using some form of EGR though they may not call it EGR.

EGR Operation

Oxides of nitrogen, or NOx is produced when engine combustion temperatures are

high, a condition that occurs during lean burn combustion. Diesels run lean.
Although EGR reduces engine power and fuel economy, by 2004 diesel engine
manufacturers had no option but to turn to EGR. An EGR system redirects some of
the exhaust gas back into the intake system. Exhaust gas is ‘‘dead’’ gas. That means
it does not react with either the fuel or air in the engine cylinder. Dead gas is routed
back into engine cylinders to occupy some space. In doing so, it reduces the lean
burn factor and this makes NOx emission less likely. In other words, EGR dilutes the
intake charge of oxygen. It is not popular for the following reasons:

1. Putting end gas back into the engine cylinder in place of fresh filtered air adds
wear-inducing contaminants and increases engine oil acidity.
2. EGR reduces engine power. However, the effect of this has been reduced by
better control of combustion in modern engines.
3. EGR reduces fuel economy. Again, the effect of EGR on fuel economy has
been minimized due to improvements in engine technology

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 FIG. 3.8 EXAMPLE OF EGR CIRCUIT

TYPES OF EGR

Cooled EGR

Most diesel engine EGR systems cool the end gas using a heat exchanger before
rerouting it back into the engine cylinders. The ECM controls the cycling of the EGR
gas. Cooled EGR systems have produced the acronym C-EGR. Some OEMs use
internal exhaust gas recirculation or I-EGR in engines powering vocational vehicles.
I-EGR functions by using the valvetrain to allow some of the combustion end gas to
remain in the cylinder. It does the same thing as C-EGR: it dilutes the cylinder
charge of oxygen by simply occupying space with dead gas. Fig.2.6 is a schematic of
a Diesel cooled EGR circuit.

EGR Components

A typical C-EGR system is made up of the components identified in Fig.2.6. In diesel

engines, the control of EGR is by the engine ECM. Components and their functions
are as follows:

1. ECM.
Receives inputs from system sensors. The ECM output circuit drivers manage
the operation of EGR flow gates and mixing.
2. Sensors
Key sensors in the EGR circuit are ambient temperature, barometric pressure
(altitude), boost pressure, mass airflow (MAF), coolant temperature, and oil
temperature.

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 3. Butterfly valve.
Manages flow rate from exhaust circuit to EGR circuit.
4. C-EGR cooler.
The C-EGR heat exchanger uses engine coolant to reduce the temperature of
EGR gases to be recirculated back to the engine cylinders.
5. EGR mixer
6. Combines exhaust gas with charge air from intake system to be routed into
engine cylinders.
7. ECM controlled.
In systems using a differential pressure type MAF sensors, the venturi is
usually built into the EGR mixer assembly. The MAF sensors used in diesel
engine EGR breathing systems can use either hot wire or differential pressure
operating principles

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Fig2. 9 exhaust system

EXHAUST SYSTEM FUNCTION

The exhaust and aftertreatment system on the modern l diesel vehicle serve a
number of functions:

1. The exhaust system safely directs the engine exhaust gases away from the
passenger compartment
2. it helps to reduce the level of the exhaust noise.

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 3. The system design is larger in diameter to allow the engine to properly
breath.
4. To ensure the exhaust system backpressure is not excessive. Under boost
conditions, a large volume of air is moved through the engine.
5. Extract exhaust gases from the exhaust manifold and discharge them off at a
suitable place in the vehicle.
6. Reduce/muffle exhaust gas noise produced during the combustion process of
the internal combustion engine.
7. Reduces environmental pollutants in the exhaust gases

DIESEL ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL CHALLENGE

The major challenge with diesel engines is how to control exhaust emissions. Raising
the temperatures inside the combustion chamber for complete combustion and
optimum power results in increased production of NO x. Reducing the temperature
inside the combustion chamber results in reduced engine power and increased
particulate matter. Despite the advancement in diesel fuel control this has remained
a major challenge of many diesel engines. Some of the solutions include:

1. Engine electronic control

2. Diesel fuel electronic control
3. Engine combustion processes control
4. Exhaust gas external after-treatment system (EATS)

Modern diesel engine must meet TIER or EURO emission control standards and the
following components are incorporated in the exhaust system to meet these
requirements.

For Tier II diesel emission standards, the aftertreatment system consists of the
following:

1. Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)

2. Particulate filters
3. NOx catalysts

FIG.2.10 EXHAUST MUFFLER

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The components in the aftertreatment system and their location will vary with the
model, year of the vehicle and the gross vehicle weight (GVW)

MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE EXHAUST SYSTEM

EXHAUST MANIFOLD

FIG.2.11 EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The exhaust manifold is bolted to the cylinder head: it fastens over the exhaust
ports. During exhaust strokes, hot gases blow into this manifold before entering the
rest of the exhaust system. An engine manifold can be made of heavy cast iron or
lightweight steel tubing.

CATALYTIC CONVERTOR
Function
The catalytic converter is an emission control device added to the exhaust system to
lower the levels of Hydrocarbon (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx) pollutants in exhaust gases.

A catalyst in the convertor chemically treats pollutants in the exhaust gases

converting them to less harmful substances. A catalyst causes a chemical reaction
but after the reaction it remains unchanged.

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 FIG.2. 12 - LOCATION OF EXHAUST GAS OXYGEN SENSORS
Design
The catalytic converter has a ceramic core, housed in a stainless-steel shell. The
core contains many small passages through which the exhaust gas pass. A thin
coating of aluminum oxide covers these passages and has a rough surface and is
designed to provide a large surface area in the passages where the exhaust gasses
pass.

Metal core
This is made of finely corrugated 0.05mm thick metal foil, wound around and
brazed in a high temperature process. It offers extremely low resistance to the
flow of the gases.
Ceramic core
The ceramic monolith is made of cordierite. It has an extremely high stability to
temperature and thermal shock but cannot be installed directly to the metal
housing. A special expanding mat is necessary to compensate for the difference
between the thermal-expansion coefficients of steel and ceramic and also
protects the ceramic monolith against shocks.

Catalyst
The catalyst is made of a precious metal. Platinum is widely used as a catalyst in
the catalytic converter. The harmful exhaust gasses react with the platinum to
produce less harmful gases. Platinum and palladium accelerate the oxidation of HC
and CO, while rhodium is responsible for reducing NOx

EXHAUST DOWN PIPE

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The exhaust down pipe is a critical part of the exhaust system and can be seen
coming off the turbocharger.

The downpipe is a double-walled construction to help retain heat for the

aftertreatment system. Its diameter, length, and construction materials are part of
the emission certification and should not be altered or modified.

Exhaust Backpressure Regulators (EBPR)

Modern diesel engines are slow to warm up under low loads due to the increased
efficiency of the combustion process. As a result, manufacturers may have a difficult
time achieving the desired tailpipe emissions during the warm-up cycle. The addition
of an exhaust backpressure regulator (EBPR) to the exhaust system will allow the
engine to warm-up to operating conditions more quickly.

The exhaust backpressure regulator (EBPR) is PCM controlled. By monitoring engine

temperatures, the PCM is able to control the valve to reach and maintain the desired
operating temperature.

EXHAUST TAILPIPE

The tailpipe on a modern diesel engine is unique when compared to a vehicle

equipped with a gasoline engine. The design is a critical part of helping the
aftertreatment work as designed.

The tailpipe should be equipped with heat guards to prevent burns for anyone who
would make accidental contact. The construction of the tailpipe is typically a double-
wall design. This allows for cooling of the heat that is generated during the
regeneration process.

DIESEL OXIDATION CATALYST (DOC)

On most modern diesel engines, the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is the first major
component in the exhaust aftertreatment system after the exhaust downpipe. It is
packaged in a stainless-steel housing. In many cases, it is packaged in the same
housing as the diesel particulate filter (DPF).

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

1. The diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) helps to reduce the hydrocarbons (HC)
and carbon monoxide (CO) created during the combustion process.
2. It also helps to reduce the level of particulate matter (PM) and convert
nitrogen monoxide (NO) to nitrogen dioxide (NO 2). The heat created within
the catalyst during the oxidation process is used by other components in the
aftertreatment system.

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PARTS AND OPERATION

The DOC is a flow-through device with ceramic honeycomb-like substrate surfaces

coated with platinum, palladium, and other semi-precious metals, similar to a
catalytic converter. During the oxidation process, the hydrocarbons (HC) are
combined with the oxygen (O2), which results in carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water.
The carbon monoxide (CO) combines with the oxygen (O 2) to also create carbon
dioxide (CO2)) and water. The nitrogen monoxide reacts with the oxygen (O 2) to
create nitrogen dioxide. The heat created during these processes burns some of the
unburned or partially burned diesel fuel, resulting in a decrease in the level of
particulate matter

NOX ABSORBER CATALYST PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The NOx absorber catalyst is a maintenance-free strategy for removing NOx

emissions in a low-temperature, oxygen-rich environment. This strategy is primarily
used on smaller diesel engines where the exhaust volume is low. The NOx emissions
are temporarily held by the catalyst, and then reduced into the natural elements of
nitrogen and oxygen (O2) when the exhaust stream is oxygen (O2) depleted.

PARTS AND OPERATION

The substrate in a NOx absorber catalyst is covered with a material that is designed
to hold the NOx emissions that primarily occur during lean operating conditions.
During rich or oxygen (O2) depleted operating conditions, the NOx emissions are
oxidized into the natural elements of nitrogen and oxygen (O 2), The system
operation is monitored by either oxygen (O2) sensors or NOx sensors. Temperature
sensors may also be used to determine if the oxidation process is occurring.

SELECTIVE CATALYST REDUCTION (SCR)

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The selective catalyst reduction (SCR) system is designed to reduce the level of
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in the exhaust stream. The SCR catalyst may be before or
after the diesel particulate filter (DPF), depending on the emissions certification of
the vehicle. The ceramic substrate in the catalyst is covered by a wash-coat of
copper and iron. Near the inlet of the SCR catalyst is the reductant dosing module.
This module includes the injection nozzle, the diffuser, and the mixer. Some vehicles
use a two-stage catalyst. Together these components atomize the diesel exhaust
fluid (DEF) and disperse it evenly onto the substrate. Diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) is
also called AdBlue in Europe. It is important to note that the water in the DEF is not
distilled. Deionized water is deeply demineralized, distilled water is not. Urea is
synthetic ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2) combined under high heat to
create a liquid. DEF is nontoxic and is not harmful to handle. It is injected into the

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exhaust stream upstream of the SCR catalyst. Once inside the catalyst, the heat
causes the DEF to decompose into ammonia (NH 3) and carbon dioxide. To ensure
the DEF performs as designed, a refractometer can be used to measure its density.

Parts and Operation

The diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) is stored in a reservoir until it is needed. The reservoir
is equipped with a pump and a heater. The pump is used to transfer the fluid from
the reservoir to the dosing module. Diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) will freeze at about -
11°. The concentration of urea and water ensures that both elements will freeze at
the same temperature. The heater element in the reservoir is designed to thaw the
diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) before it is injected. The quality of the diesel exhaust fluid
(DEF) is critical for proper catalyst operation.

Operation

As the diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) heats up, it separates into carbon dioxide (CO 2)
and ammonia (NH3). When the ammonia (NH 3) reacts with the oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), a reduction reaction takes place and the NOx is converted to nitrogen dioxide
and water. The operation of the SCR catalyst is monitored by a NOx sensor.

DIESEL EXHAUST FLUID PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

Diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) is a mixture of 32.5% laboratory grade urea and 67.5%
deionized water.

REDUCTANT DOSING MODULE

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

As required, the reductant dosing module is designed to inject diesel exhaust fluid
(DEF) to reduce the NOx emissions. This module includes the injection nozzle, the
diffuser, and the mixer. Together these components atomize the diesel exhaust fluid
(DEF) and disperse it evenly onto the substrate. The vehicle operator has a
responsibility to keep the system full of quality DEF. The system is designed to warn
the driver when the system fluid level gets low.

PARTS AND OPERATION

The reductant dosing module is monitored to ensure that both adequate quantity
and adequate quality of diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) is injected into the SCR catalyst.
The system is monitored using a NOx sensor, both upstream and downstream of the
catalyst.

DIESEL PARTICULATE FILTER (DPF)

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

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The diesel particulate filter (DPF) is located in a stainless-steel housing near the
diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and is responsible for making the exhaust virtually
smokeless. The DPF is a wall flow ceramic monolith where alternating channels are
plugged. SEE FIGS. 2.9 –11. This forces the gasses through the porous walls and
holds PM too large to pass through. The DPF filters and stores the particulate matter
(PM) that is generated through incomplete combustion. As the particulate matter
(PM) gathers in the filter assembly, it begins to restrict the exhaust flow. When the
conditions warrant, the particulate matter (PM) is oxidized into CO 2 by increasing the
temperature of the filter assembly to at least 315° in a process referred to as
regeneration. The result of this process is ash. The ash will remain in the filter until
it is cleaned or replaced, depending on service requirements

PARTS AND OPERATION

FIG.2. 13 - DIESEL PARTICULATE FILTER (DPF)

FIG.2. 14 - DIESEL PARTICULATE FILTER (DPF)-TREATMENT OF EXAUST GAS

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FIG.2. 15 - DIESEL PARTICULATE FILTER (DPF)-TREATED EXAUST GAS

The diesel particulate filter is designed to trap and hold particulate matter that would
otherwise contribute to unwanted tailpipe emissions and smoke. For a regeneration
event to occur, specific operating conditions have to be met. The PCM will raise the
temperature of the particulate filter and oxidize the particulate matter, leaving only
ash residue in the assembly. If the enabling conditions for a regeneration event are
not met through the course of normal driving, a restriction in the exhaust will occur.
When a restriction occurs, the PCM is designed to alert the driver. A warning light or
message is illuminated on the instrument panel. The driver would then need to
operate the vehicle under specific driving conditions, allowing a regeneration event
to occur. Failure to head these warning will result in a decrease in performance of
the vehicle, and the recording of a hard fault.

REGENERATION EVENT

Regeneration events occur automatically throughout the course of normal driving

when the particulate filter becomes restricted. The heat needed for the regeneration
event may occur passively or actively. A passive regeneration event normally occurs.
An active regeneration event will only occur if a passive regeneration event cannot
reduce the level of particulate in the filter. For diagnostic purposes, some vehicles
have a manual regeneration option available.

Passive Regeneration.

During a passive regeneration event, the engine load is sufficient enough to create
the exhaust temperatures needed to eliminate the particulate

Active Regeneration.

During an active regeneration event, heat is created by adding fuel to the exhaust
stream. This fuel can be added either through a post injection shot at the cylinder or
through a dosing valve in the exhaust. The temperature of the diesel particulate
filter (DPF) is hotter during an active regeneration event than a passive event.

Manual Regeneration.

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A manual regeneration event is triggered by the service technician. The system is
activated using a scan tool while the vehicle is in a service facility. During the
process, the exhaust system will get much hotter than normal. Specific procedures
must be followed to ensure there is no damage to the vehicle or harm to the service
technician.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSOR

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

A differential pressure sensor is used to determine if a restriction exists in the DPF,

indicating a need for service or replacement. The sensor compares the pressure at
the inlet and outlet of the DPF, and uses that data to determine if a regeneration
event is needed. The sensor is mounted near the DPF and is connected to it with
long metal tubes. These tubes tend to reduce the temperature of the exhaust gases
being measured and prolong the life of the sensor.

PARTS AND OPERATION

The operation of the sensor is similar to systems used to measure exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) pressures on some gasoline engines. The differential pressure
sensor monitors the inlet and outlet pressure during the regeneration event to
determine when the restriction no longer exists. During the process, the particulate
matter is oxidized leaving only ash in the filter assembly

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Purpose and function

The exhaust aftertreatment system uses multiple temperature sensors to monitor

the function of components within the system. Some manufacturers refer to these
sensors as exhaust gas temperature sensors. They can be mounted in the system in
various locations, depending on how the vehicle is certified.

The sensors are typically found at the inlet and outlet of a diesel particulate filter
and the outlet of a diesel oxidation catalyst. Sometimes the functionally of a single
sensor may be used to help monitor multiple systems in the aftertreatment system.

PARTS AND OPERATION

The temperature sensor may be used to verify a component is operating as

designed. For example, the normal operation of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) will
generate heat. The PCM can monitor the temperature at the outlet of the DOC under
specific operating conditions, and determine if it is functioning as designed. This is a

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critical input when meeting the OBDII monitoring requirements. The temperature
sensors can also be used to control the operation of a system. A DPF needs to be at
a specific temperature during the regeneration process to effectively reduce the level
of particulate matter. Using the input from the temperature sensors, the PCM is able
to change fuel delivery strategies to bring the DPF to the desired temperature for
the duration of the regeneration event. By closely monitoring the temperature, the
PCM is able to ensure the DPF does not melt or crack due to high temperature
conditions.

NOX SENSORS

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The NOx sensors are part of a smart module and are serviced together. It is used to
measure the level of NOx emissions in the aftertreatment system. The NOx sensor
may also be used to determine if the DEF being delivered to the exhaust is of
adequate volume and quantity. Depending on how the system is configured, the
level of O2 in the exhaust stream may be inferred based on preprogramed data in
the PCM of expected volumes of exhaust gases. The operation of a NOx sensor is
similar to the operation of a wideband oxygen sensor used on a gasoline engine.
The sensor uses a sample chamber and a measurement chamber. The level of NOx
is determined by monitoring the pumping current of the sensor as the gases are
moved from the sample chamber through a diffusion barrier into the measurement
chamber. The sensor is installed in the aftertreatment system downstream of the
SCR catalyst or the DPF.

The smart module is a stand-alone module and is designed to operate on the high-
speed “CAN bus” to communicate with the PCM. The module not only monitors the
exhaust airstream, but it also performs sensor diagnostics.

PARTS AND OPERATION

The smart module is able to monitor itself for internal malfunctions and is capable of
setting hard codes related to these failures. These failures are corrected by replacing
the smart module and sensor as a unit. The module also monitors the circuit
continuity of the sensor, as well as the validity of the signal that it is generating.

OXYGEN SENSORS

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

Newer diesel vehicles use a wide-band oxygen sensor that is capable of accurately
monitoring the oxygen (O2) level in the exhaust stream throughout its broad
operating range. A wide-band oxygen sensor is capable of supplying air–fuel ratio

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information to the PCM over a much broader range. The use of a wide-band oxygen
sensor, compared with a conventional zirconia oxygen sensor, differs as follows:

1. Able to detect exhaust air–fuel ratio from as rich as 10:1 and as lean as 23:1
in some cases.
2. Cold-start activity within as little as 10 seconds.
3. Operates at a hotter temperature than a conventional oxygen sensor.

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The diesel oxygen sensor is used to control and monitor the EGR system. The PCM
will monitor the level of oxygen in the exhaust stream during the EGR process. By
comparing the data during the event to expected results, the PCM can control the
EGR valve at the desired level of operation and it can monitor performance against
fault setting criteria

EXHAUST MUFFLER

Exhaust mufflers smooth out exhaust gas pulsations and make them as inaudible as
possible. There are essentially two physical principles involved: reflection and
absorption.

FIG.2. 16 EXAUST MUFFLER

SUMMARY

THE TAILPIPE EMISSIONS INCLUDE:

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 1. Hydrocarbons (HC) – Hydrocarbons (HC) are unburned diesel fuel and are
measured in parts per million (ppm). A correctly operating engine should burn
(oxidize) almost all the diesel fuel; therefore, very little unburned diesel fuel
should be present in the exhaust. Acceptable levels of HC are 50 ppm or less.
High levels of HC could be due to excessive oil consumption or the over
fueling of the cylinder.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) – Carbon monoxide (CO) is a result of partially burned
diesel fuel. Carbon monoxide (CO) is unstable and will easily combine with
any oxygen (O2) to form stable carbon dioxide (CO2). The fact that CO
combines with oxygen (O2) is the reason that CO is a poisonous gas (in the
lungs, it combines with oxygen (O2) to form CO2 and deprives the brain of
oxygen (O2). CO levels of a properly operating engine should be less than
0.5%.
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) – An oxide of nitrogen (NO) is a colourless,
tasteless, and odourless gas when it leaves the engine, but as soon as it
reaches the atmosphere and mixes with more oxygen, nitrogen oxides (NO2)
are formed. NO2 is reddish-brown and has an acid and pungent smell. NO
and NO2 are grouped together and referred to as NOx, where ‘x’ represents
any number of oxygen (O2) atoms. NOx, the symbol used to represent all
oxides of nitrogen (NOx). The oxides of nitrogen are a result of high
combustion temperatures and pressures.
4. Particulate matter (PM) – Particulate matter (PM), also called soot, refers to
tiny particles of solid or semisolid material suspended in the atmosphere. This
includes particles between 0.1 and 50 microns in diameter. The heavier
particles, larger than 50 microns, tend to settle out quickly due to gravity.

Particulates are generally categorized as follows:

a. Total suspended particulate (TSP). Refers to all particles between 0.1 and 50
microns. Up until 1987, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standard
for particulates was based on levels of TSP.
b. PM10. Refers to particulate matter of 10 microns or less (approximately 1/6
the diameter of a human hair). EPA has a standard for particles based on
levels of PM10.
c. PM2.5. Refers to particulate matter of 2.5 microns or less (approximately
1/20 the diameter of a human hair), also called “fine” particles. In July 1997,
the EPA approved a standard for PM2.5.

5. Oxygen (O2) – There is about 21% oxygen (O2 in the atmosphere), and most
of this oxygen (O2) should be “used up” during the combustion process to
oxidize all the hydrogen and carbon (hydrocarbons) in the diesel fuel. Levels

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 of O2 should be very low (about 0.5%). High levels of O 2, especially at idle,
could be due to an exhaust system leak.
6. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the result of oxygen (O 2) in
the engine, combining with the carbon of the diesel fuel. An acceptable level
of CO2 is between 12% and 15%. A high reading indicates an efficiently
operating engine. If the CO2 level is low, the mixture may be either too rich or
too lean.

To comply with federally mandated Tier II diesel emission standards, the

aftertreatment system consists of the following:

1. Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)

2. Particulate filters
3. NOx catalysts

VEHICLE EMISSIONS CERTIFICATION

The vehicle emission certification will vary depending on the model year and the
gross vehicle weight (GVWR). To determine how the vehicle is certified, the vehicles
emission certification label, typically found under the hood, should be referenced. It
will list the components the vehicle was equipped with at the time of emission
certification.

Tier II diesel emission standards were introduced in 2007 and were phased in until
2010.

On most modern diesel engines, the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is the first major
component in the exhaust aftertreatment system after the exhaust downpipe.

The NOx absorber catalyst is a maintenance-free strategy for removing NOx

emissions in a low-temperature, oxygen-rich environment.

The selective catalyst reduction (SCR) system is designed to reduce the level of
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in the exhaust stream.

The diesel particulate filter (DPF) is located in a stainless-steel housing near the
diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). It is responsible for making the exhaust virtually
smokeless.

Diesel exhaust fluid (DEF-AdBlue) is a mixture of 32.5% laboratory grade urea and
67.5% deionized water.

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Regeneration events occur automatically throughout the course of normal driving
when the particulate filter becomes restricted.

A differential pressure sensor is used to determine if a restriction exists in the DPF,

indicating a need for service or replacement.

The exhaust aftertreatment system uses multiple temperature sensors to monitor

the function of components within the system. Some manufacturers refer to these
sensors as exhaust gas temperature sensors.

Newer diesel vehicles use a wide-band oxygen sensor that is capable of accurately
monitoring the oxygen level in the exhaust stream throughout its broad operating
range.

ACTIVITY

1. State four functions of an air filter

2. With the help of a neat diagram, briefly describe the operation of a roots-
blower
3. Give two advantages of using an inter cooler on an internal combustion
engine.
4. Give one demerit of a turbocharger.
5. With the aid of a neat diagram, describe the operation of turbocharger waist
gate:
a. During normal operation
b. When there is excessive boot pressure

6. Briefly discuss the importance of Exhaust gas Aftertreatment system (EATS)

EXPLAIN LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

Introduction

An engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two

metallic surfaces over each other, there is wear of moving parts, generation of heat
and loss of power in the engine. Lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent
all these harmful effects.

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TYPES OF ENGINE LUBRICATING OILs

Engine oils can be produced from animal, vegetable and mineral oils; it is the last of
these, refined from petroleum and treated with additives, that are suitable for the
lubrication of motor vehicle engines.

Mineral oils

Crude oils are essentially hydrocarbons – compounds whose molecules comprise

hydrogen and carbon atoms. The basic types of hydrocarbon found in crude oils are
classified as paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics.

Oils of predominantly paraffinic type are preferred for the production of automobile
engine oils, since they are best suited to the extremes of operating temperature
involved. Conventional engine oils therefore consist largely of mixtures of
hydrocarbons, but also require treatment with certain carefully chosen chemicals
that are known as ‘additives.

Synthetic Oil.

Most synthetic oils are made from a petroleum or crude oil base stock. The
differences between most conventional oils and synthetic oils are in the refining
process and the additives used. When conventional oils are refined, the molecular
structure of the crude oil is not changed. However, for manufacturing the synthetic
oil smaller molecules from the crude oil are combined with molecules from other
sources to make the larger molecules of the synthetic oil. Additives in the synthetic
oils, which are usually more than that in conventional oils, are then blended with the
synthetic stock. Additional energy is used in the preparation of synthetic oils and
hence these oils are more expensive than conventional oils.

Some of the advantages claimed by synthetic oil manufacturers are the following.

1. Increased oil change intervals up to 80,000 km.

2. Reduced wear in engine parts.
3. Increased fuel economy because synthetic oil provides less friction.
4. Improved high-temperature protection of engine parts.
5. Easier cold-weather starting because of reduced friction.

Recycled Oil.

Engine oils made from recycled based stock can be equivalent in performance to
those made from virgin petroleum base stock, if proper quality control is given to the
used oil base stock and the processing procedure. The use of recycled oil reduces
pollution from the improper disposal of used oil.

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Oils for Alternative Fuels.

Some oil refiners produce oil that is specially formulated for propane or natural-gas-
fuelled engines. These oils have a reduced detergent and dispersant additive content
because propane and natural gas have less carbon content than diesel. When these
fuels are used, the carbon deposits on pistons and piston rings are reduced, and oil
with less detergent and dispersant additives may be used. If other alternative fuels
such as methanol or hydrogen are used in large numbers of vehicles, then oils with
more compatible characteristics with these fuels are to be developed.

Vegetable and animal oils

These oils are not used in engines because they easily disintegrated at high
temperatures and pressures

Function of the engine lubrication system

The function of the engine lubrication system is to supply oil to all moving parts of
the engine.

FUNCTIONS OF ENGINE OIL

Engine oil performs the following functions:

a) It reduces friction (prevents metal-to-metal contact between the

working parts of the engine)
b) It carries away heat from the underside of the piston crowns, the valve
stems and connecting rod main bearings
c) It forms a sealing medium between the piston rings and the cylinder
walls preventing loss of compression.
d) It protects working surface against corrosion
e) It removes gritty and carbonaceous deposits of the working surface
f) It cushions the parts against impact and vibration.
g) It reduces operation noise.

ENGINE OIL PROPERTIES

a) Viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of the flow ability of an oil under a particular
temperature and pressure
The quality of a lubricating oil is tested for the following various
properties to evaluate its suitability and merits for certain service
conditions
b) Flash Point or Fire Point.

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 The lowest temperatures at which the oil flashes and fires, known
as flash and fire points. These two temperatures must be
sufficiently high for any lubricating oil to avoid flash or burn during
use.
c) Cloud Point.
This is the temperature at which the lubricant changes from liquid
state to a plastic or solid state is called cloud point. In some cases,
the oil appears to be cloudy at the start of solidification.
d) Pour Point.
The lowest temperature at which the oil pours is called its pour point.
Below this temperature the oil becomes plastic, so it does not produce
hydrodynamic lubrication and therefore cannot be used below this
temperature
e) Viscosity Index
This the measure of oil viscosity

ENGINE OIL ADDITIVES

These are chemicals added to oil to improve its quality

Additives are used in motor oils for three different reasons:

(a) to replace some properties removed during refining

(b) to reinforce some of the oil’s natural properties
(c) to provide the oil with new properties it did not originally have.

Oils from some petroleum oil fields require more and different additives than oils
from other fields. Additives are usually classified according to the property they add
to the oil. Some of the common additives are anti-oxidants, corrosion preventatives,
detergents and dispersants, extreme pressure and anti-wear additives, viscosity
index improver, pour point depressants, metal deactivators, water replants,
emulsifiers, dyes, colour stabilizers, odour control agents and foam inhibitors. With
improper additive selection, the additives may oppose each other and lose their
benefit to the oil. Each oil manufacturer balances the additives in his oil to provide
oil with desirable properties, which meet the engine’s needs.

Pour-point Depressants.

The pour point of oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil pours or remains
fluid. At extremely low temperature some oils become so thick that they do not pour
at all. When this happens, excessive wear occurs on bearings, piston rings, and
cylinders during initial operation after the engine is started in cold weather. Certain
additives are used in many engine oils to depress the pour point.

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Oxidation Inhibitors.

These are additives added to engine oils to assist the oil in resisting oxidation

A considerable amount of oil agitation occurs in the oil pan because of the rotation
of the crankshaft and connecting rods. When high-temperature oil is agitated,
oxygen in the air combines with the oil, oxidising some of the oil into a sticky tar like
substance and other corrosive compounds. The tar like substance can clog oil
passages, which may cause some components to operate without proper lubrication.
The corrosive compounds may erode bearings prematurely. Therefore, oil oxidation
is undesirable.

Corrosion and Rust Inhibitors.

Acids can form in the oil at high temperatures and cause corrosion of engine
bearings. Corrosion inhibitors are added to the oil to prevent this corrosion. Moisture
may form on engine parts because of the extreme temperature changes
encountered in colder climates. Rust inhibitors are added to the oil to disperse the
water from the metal surface, allowing an oil film to form on the surfaces. Small
amounts of acid may be formed from the combustion process. The rust inhibitors
help to neutralise acids that get past the piston rings and collect in the oil.

Extreme Pressure Resistant.

In many engines, the oil pump delivers oil to the engine lubrication system at 207 to
414 kPa. However, the wedge-shaped oil film in engine bearings may be subjected
to pressures up to 6900 kPa when the engine is operating under heavy load
conditions. Extreme pressure additives prevent the oil from being squeezed out of
the bearing surfaces when subjected to high pressures

Detergents and Dispersants.

Since carbon is a by-product of the combustion process, carbon formation occurs in

combustion chamber and around the piston ring grooves. Oxidation of the oil may
result in thick tar like deposits in the oil or on engine parts. Detergents are added to
the oil to slow down the formation of these deposits. The detergent loosens the
deposits of carbon or tar like material and then carries them to the crankcase.
Smaller particles are removed from the oil by the oil filter. Heavier particles drop to
the bottom of the crankcase, and they are removed when the oil is changed. The
dispersant in oil keeps the carbon particles divided in the oil. Without the dispersant,
carbon particles would clot together in the oil and form large particles, which could
plug the oil filter and reduce its effectiveness. These large particles could also
restrict oil passages, which might cause major damage to engine components due to
insufficient lubrication.

Antifoaming Additives.

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The rotating movement of the crankshaft and connecting rods may foam the oil in
the crankcase. Excessive foaming of the oil destroys the normal hydrodynamic oil
film on bearing surfaces and other engine parts. Oil foaming can also produce noisy
valve lifters. Engine parts wear prematurely when oil foaming causes inadequate
lubrication of the bearing surfaces and other components. Antifoaming additives
prevent excessive oil foaming. Overfilling the oil pan supports oil foaming. Therefore,
the oil level must be at the specified mark on the dipstick.

Friction Modifiers (Oiliness Agents).

Some refiners add friction modifiers to their engine oil, which reduce the friction
between the layers of oil in the hydrodynamic oil film on bearing or other surfaces.
Also, it is expected that fuel economy improves with the use of friction modifiers in
the engine oil.

Summary of additives

Viscosity index improvers Reduce viscosity change with temperature; permit reduced
fuel consumption; maintain low oil consumption; allow easy cold starting.

Detergents, dispersants

Keep sludge, carbon and other deposit-forming material suspended in the oil for
removal from the engine with drains. Alkaline compounds Neutralize acids; prevent
corrosion from acid attack.

Anti-wear

friction modifiers Form protective films on engine parts; reduce wear, prevent galling
and seizing; reduce fuel consumption.

Oxidation inhibitors

Prevent or control oxidation of oil, formation of varnish, sludge and corrosive organic
compounds; limit viscosity increase that occurs as oil mileage increases.

Rust inhibitors

Prevent rust on metal surfaces by forming protective surface films or by neutralizing

acids.

Pour point depressants

Lower ‘freezing’ point of oil, assuring free flow at low temperatures.

Antifoam agents

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Reduced foam in the crankcase

OIL RATINGS

The most important property of oil is its thickness or viscosity. Viscosity of oil
changes with temperature and it increases with decrease in temperature. The oil
must have a low viscosity at low temperatures for starting of the engine. Thick oil at
low temperature causes a very high coefficient of friction. If coefficient of friction is
too high, the cold engine may not have sufficient energy to carry over from one
firing impulse to the next and hence the engine does not start. There is a limit in oil
viscosity at any specific temperature at which the engine can start. When the engine
is hot, the oil thins and the viscosity lowers. If the viscosity becomes too low
boundary lubrication occurs and decrease in coefficient of friction takes place. Motor
oil must have its viscosity between these two extremes. The oil must allow the
engine to start when cold and must have enough viscosity to develop correct
hydrodynamic lubrication film at normal operating temperature. The change in
viscosity between the cold and hot oil viscosities is called viscosity index. Oils with a
high viscosity index are less thin than oils with low viscosity.

LUBRICANT CLASSIFICATION- ENGINE OIL

There are two main classification criteria for engine oils:

1. Based on Viscosity (SAE)

2. Based on Performance (API, ACEA, manufacturer's
specifications)

SAE J300 JANUARY 2009 (ENGINE OILS)

The most widely used system for engine oil viscosity classification is that established
by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the USA. In this system two
series of viscosity grades are defined – those containing the letter W and those
without the letter W. Grades with the letter W are intended for use at lower
temperatures and are based on a maximum low temperature viscosity and a
maximum borderline pumping temperature, as well as a minimum viscosity at
100°C.

Multi grade oil

Multi-grade’ oil is one whose low temperature viscosity and borderline temperature
satisfy the requirements of one of the W grades and whose viscosity at 100°C is
within the stipulated range of one-W-grade

API CLASSIFICATION

API stands for American Petroleum Institute. In 1970 along with the SAE and
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), they established the API Service

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Classification System to define the performance level of a given oil, unrelated in the
main, to oil viscosity. The API requirements “S” for Spark Ignition (petrol) and “C”
for Compression Ignition (diesel).

METHODS OF OIL DISTRIBUTION

From the reservoir, oil is distributed throughout the engine either by the splash
system or the full pressure system

COMPONENTS LUBRICATED USING THE PRESSURE SYSTEM

The following are some of the components supplied with oil by pressure feed
method:

1. Crankshaft bearings
2. Camshaft bearings
3. Piston on some engines with oil jets

COMPONENTS LUBRICATED USING THE SPLASH SYSTEM

The following are some of the components supplied with oil by splash feed method:

1. Gudgeon pin
2. Piston
3. Cylinder walls

Crankcase Fixed-jet Oil Spray.

In turbocharged heavy-duty diesel engines, a jet is positioned in the crankcase

which projects upwards to provide a controlled and continuous spray of oil that cools
and lubricates the underside of the piston. This system of oil supply is more active in
reducing piston and ring temperature than providing additional lubrication for the
cylinder-and-piston combination.

Types of lubrication systems and operation

There are two types of engine lubrication systems namely:

1. Wet sump
2. Dry sump

OPERATION OF WET SUMP

WET SUMP ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

In the wet sump system, the lube oil sump is the integral part of the engine directly
below the crankshaft. The sump in this case is referred to as an oil pan or crankcase
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and is attached to the engine base or block assembly. Oil, having passed through
the engine, returns to the sump by gravity.

Fig.2.17 WET SUMP ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

DRY SUMP ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

With a dry sump, the oil is stored in one or two separate tanks located a short
distance from the engine. Oil, which has p through the engine, drains back to
the engine base and returns to the remote oil sump by gravity.

Fig.2.18 DRY SUMP ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

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 DRY SUMP ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

COMPONENTS OF WET SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The following components form the wet sump engine lubrication system

 Oil pump
 Oil filter
 Pressure relief valve
 Oil strainer
 Oil sump
 Oil galleries
 Oil pump
Its main function is to supply oil to moving or create flow of oil to moving
parts of the engine. The common types of pumps used in engine are:
TYPES OF OIL PUMPS
The common engine oil pumps used are:
i. External spur oil pump
ii. Sliding vane oil pump
iii. Rotor oil pump
iv. Crescent oil pump

External-spur-gear Pump.
Construction

This pump (Fig.2.15) is consisted of two identical meshing spur gearwheels

installed in the pump body. The driving gearwheel is rigidly connected to the
oil pump drive shaft by shrunk fit or by a keyway. The drive shaft rotates in a
bearing bore machined directly in the pump housing, and the driven gear
revolves on a bearing post mounted within this housing.

Operation

As the gears rotate a low-pressure area is produced on the inlet suction side
so that oil is drawn in. The oil filling the spaces between the gear teeth is
sealed off by the housing walls as the wheels rotate. This trapped oil then
moves around the periphery of each gearwheel, in opposite directions in the
two gearwheels, to the discharge outlet port. The continuous displacement of
oil to the outlet port pressurises the oil and increases the rate of oil
circulation.
A single stage pump of this type can develop the delivery pressure up to 981
kPa.

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 Fig. 2.19. Spur gear pump

The pump components are checked for correct clearance and wear using
feeler gauges. The clearance between the gear tooth tips and the pump body
should not exceed 0.2 mm. The backlash between the meshing gears should
be between 0.1 and 0.2 mm. The end float clearance (between the end-plate
and the gears across the open face of the pump casing) from the gear faces
should not exceed 0.1 mm. Mechanical and volumetric efficiencies of these
pumps are quite high being 95% and 98% respectively.

Eccentric Bi-rotor Pump.

The pump (Fig. 11.30) uses an inner and an outer rotor installed in the pump
body, and the outer rotor is eccentric to the inner. The inner rotor is pressed
on to the oil-pump shaft and is held in position by serrations. This rotor has
four lobes which mesh with five segments in the outer rotor. The inner rotor
thus revolves the outer rotor, but at a speed which is slower by the ratio of
the number of lobes to segments.
First oil is drawn, through the inlet port, into the space between the inner and
outer rotors. Due to their eccentricity and difference in size, the gap between
the lobes increases and consequently oil is filled up in this space. However,
the space between the rotor lobes moves beyond the inlet port, thus trapping
the oil, which is subsequently carried around between the rotor lobes and
segments.

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 Fig. 2.20. Bi-rotor gear pump

With further rotation, the volume of this effective space formed decreases
and it is eventually exposed to the delivery port, so that the oil is discharged
under pressure to the filter. The pump acts by continuous repetition of this
process.
The pump components are checked for correct clearance and wear using
feeler gauges. The clearance between the rotor lobe tip and the segment
should not exceed 0.2 mm. The clearance between the outer rotor and the
body should not exceed 0.25 mm. The end-float clearance (between the end-
plate and the rotors) across the open face of the pump casing and the rotors
for the internal-gear crescent pump should not exceed 0.2 mm.

Internal-gear Crescent Pump.

This pump (Fig.1.17) contains an internal-spur ring gear that runs outside but
in mesh with a driving external-spur gear, in such a way that its axis of
rotation is eccentric to that of the driving gear. This eccentricity causes a
space between the external and internal gears. This space is occupied by a
fixed spacer block called the crescent the purpose of which is to separate the
inlet and output port areas. The driving gear is driven either by a separate
shaft or is keyed to an extension of the front crankshaft main journal. The
outer-gear axis of rotation is maintained entirely by the pump casing wall.
The housing of the pump around a crankshaft journal permits a very compact
pump unit, capable of delivering large flow output at relatively low crankshaft
speeds.

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 Fig. 2.21. Crescent gear pump

The rotation of the gears develops a low-pressure area at the inlet suction
end of the crescent so that oil is drawn in. As the gearwheels rotate, oil is
trapped between teeth of the inner driver gear and the inside crescent side
wall, and between teeth of the outer gear and the outside crescent side wall.
This oil is carried round by these teeth to the other end of the crescent,
where it is discharged by both sets of teeth into the outlet port chamber. The
continuous supply of oil to the outlet side increases oil discharge. Once the
space between the gear teeth has been filled with oil, the extra oil squeezed
out from the teeth gaps increases the oil pressure. The mean oil pressure and
the rate of circulation depend on the amount of oil escaping from the
lubrication system’s bearings.
The pump components are checked for correct clearance and wear using
feeler gauges. The clearances between the gear tooth tips and the crescent
wall for each gear should not exceed 0.3 mm when both gears are is position
with the pump body. The backlash between the meshing gears should be
between 0.1 and 0.2 mm. The clearance between the outer gear and the
body should not exceed 0.2 mm.

OPERATION

An internal gear pump operates on the same principle but the two
interlocking gears are of different sizes with one rotating inside the other.
The larger gear (the rotor) is an internal gear i.e. it has the teeth projecting
on the inside. Within this is a smaller external gear (the idler – only the rotor
is driven) mounted off-centre. This is designed to interlock with the rotor
such that the gear teeth engage at one point. A pinion and bushing attached
to the pump casing holds the idler in position. A fixed crescent-shaped
partition or spacer fills the void created by the off-centre mounting position of
the idler and acts as a seal between the inlet and outlet ports.

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 1. As the gears come out of mesh on the inlet side of the pump, they create an
expanded volume. Liquid flows into the cavities and is trapped by the gear
teeth as the gears continue to rotate against the pump casing and partition.
2. The trapped fluid is moved from the inlet, to the discharge, around the
casing.
3. As the teeth of the gears become interlocked on the discharge side of the
pump, the volume is reduced and the fluid is forced out under pressure.

Sliding-vane Eccentric Pump.

This pump (Fig. 2.31) contains a rotor installed eccentrically in a cylinder bore
machined in the pump body. The rotor is pressed on to the oil-pump shaft and is
positively retained by a pin. Sliding vanes are placed in grooves machined in the
periphery of this rotor and are located by centralizing rings on each side of the rotor.
During the operation of the pump, the vanes are held against the pump-body wall
by centrifugal force.
As the rotor moves, the vanes pass over the inlet port formed in the side of the
pump body. Due to the eccentricity of the rotor shaft to the casing wall, the space
between the vanes increases and oil is drawn into the space between the rotor and
the pump-body wall.
The oil is subsequently carried round between the vanes beyond the inlet port,
where the space between the rotor and the pump bore decreases. Consequently, oil
is forced out through the discharge port to the oil filter and oil galleries. Due to the
displacement of the excessive quantity of oil further, the oil pressure in the engine’s
lubrication passages increases.
The pump components are checked for correct clearance and wear using feeler
gauges. The clearance between the rotor and the body should not exceed 0.13 mm.
The clearance between the vane and the body should not exceed 0.28 mm. The
clearance between the vane and the rotor groove should not exceed 0.13 mm. The
rotor and vane end-float clearance across the open face of the pump body from the
rotor and vanes should not exceed 0.13 mm

Fig. 2.22. Sliding Vane Oil pump

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Oil filter
The importance of clean motor oil
Clean motor oil is important because if the oil were left unfiltered for a
period of time, it could become saturated with tiny, hard particles that
can wear surfaces in the engine. This dirty oil can wear the oil pump’s
machined components and damage the bearing surfaces in the engine.
How oil filters work
The outside of the filter is a metal can with a sealing gasket that
allows it to be tightly held against the engine’s mating surface. The
base plate of the can holds the gasket and is perforated with holes
around the area just inside the gasket. A central hole is threaded to
mate with the oil filter assembly on the engine block. Inside the can is
the filter material, most frequently made from synthetic fibre. The
engine’s oil pump moves the oil directly to the filter, where it enters
from the holes in the perimeter of the base plate. The dirty oil is
passed (pushed under pressure) through the filter media and back
through the central hole, where it re-enters the engine.

Fig.2.23 How oil filters work

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

A pressure regulator or relief valve (Fig.2.20) limits the maximum pressure in

engines with full pressure lubricating systems. If a pressure regulator valve is
not used, the engine oil pressure continues to increase as the engine speed
increases. Maximum pressure is usually limited to the pressure that delivers

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 an adequate quantity of oil (11 to 22 litres per minute) to engine lubricating
points. After oil leaves the pump, oil films are maintained by hydrodynamic
forces. Excessive oil pressure requires more power and also does not provide
better lubrication. High oil pressure and consequently the resulting high rates
of oil flow may cause erosion to engine bearings in some cases.

Fig.2.24 Engine oil pressure relief valve

The pressure regulator is installed downstream from the other pressure side
of the oil pump.

CONSTRUCTION

It normally contains a spring-loaded piston and, in some cases, a spring-

loaded ball or disc

OPERATION

When oil pressure goes above system pressure, it forces the regulator valve
open against the spring against the spring force. This allows a controlled
“leak” from the pressure system so that the regulated set pressure is
maintained. Any change in the regulator valve spring pressure also changes
the regulated oil pressure and higher spring pressure causes higher oil
pressure. In most engines, released oil from regulator valve is routed to the
inlet side of the pump

LOCATION

The regulator valve is, therefore, usually placed in the oil pump housing or
pump cover. This method of oil flow from regulator valve prevents foaming

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 and excessive oil agitation so that the pump receives a solid stream of
lubricating oil.

Oil strainer
This placed at the suction pipe to remove bigger dirt particles from the engine

Fig2.25 Engine oil strainer

OIL SUMP/ PAN

An Oil Pan or Sump is a bowl-shaped reservoir. It stores engine oil and then
circulates it within the engine. Oil sump sits below the crankcase and stores the
engine oil. It is located at the bottom of the engine in order to collect and store
the engine oil. The oil returns to the sump by pressure/gravity when the engine is
not in use.

OIL GALLERIES

Functions of the Oil Galleries

The function of the oil galleries is to allow movement of oil from the sump, via the
oil pump to all parts of the engine that have moving parts in contact, or that have
components needing cooling that are otherwise hard to reach. For example,
underneath the crown of the piston can get very hot, and it is cooled by squirting oil
up to it, and allowing this oil to fall back to the sump, where it can cool down.

Note that oil galleries and drillings extend into rotating and moving components like
the crankshaft

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 Fig.2.26 Engine oil Galleries

Engine filtration Systems

Types
1. Full flow
Full-Flow Oil Units
A full-flow filter treats all the oil delivered to the bearings

Fig.2.27 Full-Flow Oil Unit

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 2. By-pass oil filtration
By-Pass Flow Oil Filter Units
A by-pass filter is fed only a proportion of the oil delivered by the pump. it only cleans
the proportion of oil passing into the filter; the oil passing to the bearings is unfiltered.
For this reason, most engines today use full-flow filters.

1. Full-Flow Oil Units

Fig.2.28 Full-Flow Oil Unit

Operation:

Oil supplied by the pump enters the filter bowl, circulates, and forces its way
through the filtering element material towards the centre. Oil then passes out
to the main gallery. If the filter element becomes chocked, an emergency by
pass valve opens and by-passes the filter element, so that unfiltered oil goes
directly to the main gallery. The pressure setting of this valve is only 25 to
30% of that of the main pressure relief valve. This ensures that blockage of
the filter will not result in oil being dumped back to the sump and so starving
the bearings of lubricant.

Filter elements in full flow units are usually coarse or larger than in by-pass
units, to prevent excessive resistance to the flow of oil. This means that they
are not very effective in preventing very small solid particles from entering
the system.

By-Pass Flow Oil Filter Units

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 Fig.2.29 By-Pass Flow Oil Unit

In these units, oil from the pump is forced along the inlet passage in the filter
head unit and down through the centre of a steel tube then it flows from
radial holes in the tube into the filter bowl, circulating the filter element. It
then penetrates the filter medium and the filtered oil then makes its way up
the centre of the element and out through oil the oil restrictor. About 5 to
10% of the total oil circulating from the pump is metered by the oil-return
restrictor orifice, then by passed back to the sump.

When the safe working pressure is reached, the pressure relief valve spring
and the ball are pushed back to return surplus oil to the sump.

Fig.2.30 By-Pass Flow Oil Unit

Generally, the filter material used with by-pass filter units is very fine sine the filter
does not interfere with the circulation in the lubrication system.

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ENGINE OIL COOLERS

Fig.2.31 Engine Oil Cooler

Oil coolers are heat exchangers consisting of a housing and cooling core through
which coolant is pumped and around which oil is circulated. Operating oil
temperatures in diesel engines run higher than coolant temperatures, typically
around 1108C. However, the engine coolant reaches its operating temperature more
rapidly than the oil and plays a role in heating the oil to operating temperature in
cold weather start-up/warm-up conditions. There are two types of oil coolers,
namely:

1. liquid to liquid oil coolers

2. liquid to air oil coolers

Types of liquid to liquid oil coolers currently in use are:

1. bundle-type
2. plate-type.
Bundle-Type Oil Cooler.

The bundle-type oil cooler is the most common design. It consists of a cylindrical
‘‘bundle’’ of tubes with headers at either end, enclosed in a housing.

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 Fig.2.32 Bundle-type oil cooler

Engine coolant is passed through the tubes and the oil is spiral-circulated around the
tubes by helical baffles. The assembly is designed so that the oil inlet is at the
opposite end to the coolant inlet. This arrangement means that the engine oil at its
hottest is first exposed to the coolant at its coolest, slightly increasing cooling
efficiency. Figs.2.2 7-8 shows the routing flow through a typical bundle-type oil
cooler. The consequence of a failed cooler bundle or the header O-rings is oil
charged to the cooling circuit.

Plate-Type Oil Cooler.

In the plate-type oil cooler, the oil circulates within a series of flat plates and the
coolant flows around them within a housing assembly. They have lower cooling
efficiencies than bundle element coolers, but they are usually easier to clean and
repair. Fig.2.29 shows a typical low maintenance, plate-type oil cooler. Lower cost,
lower maintenance, and more compact design means that plate-type oil coolers are
preferred by some engine OEMs

Fig.2.33. Plate Type Oil Cooler

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Prevention of Engine Oil-leakage

The lubrication system serves for various engine components which have been
assembled together. The joints and junctions of different parts of the engine
responsible for oil ways and oil storage are to be made leak-proof. The sealing of
these components is two kinds i.e. static sealing and dynamic sealing.

1. Static seals are required for components, joined together with machined
pressure-face joints or one machined face and a steel pressing.
2. Dynamic seals are used for components having rotary motion relative to the
engine-block assembly through an external drive.

Static Seals

A static seal is used between either two rigid components or one rigid and one semi-
flexible component. When these components are bolted together, the seal deforms
to occupy the space existing between the components due to manufacturing
imperfections like surface roughness, waviness, distortion and misalignment.

In automobile engines the static seals prevent leakage between

1. the crankcase and the sump

2. the cylinder block and covers for the timing gears and chain rockers,
camshafts, and the cylinder head
3. sometimes between the cylinder head and the cylinder block.

Cork, paper, or paper compounds form the common seals between the sump and
the crankcase, the rocker cover and the cylinder head, and the timing cover and the
cylinder block. It has always been a problem to seal the sump-to-crankcase joint at
the flywheel end of the engine. In one approach, the main bearing cap (with an
extended width to house the crankshaft seal) has a rectangular groove machined
around the outside to support a cork gasket strip. The cork is pressured round the
semi-circle of the grooved recess. The crankcase-to sump flange gasket in the figure
is seen lying on top.
When the crankcase has extended side-members, the rear main-bearing cap appears
to be submerged in the crankcase. In a method of sealing between the rear main-
bearing cap and the crankcase side walls a cork or asbestos strip fits into straight
grooves recessed on both sides of the bearing cap.

Dynamic Seals

Dynamic seals are used to prevent oil leakage past components having relative
rotary movement such as, both the front and rear of the crankshaft. These seals
may be of contact radial or axial type seals or spiral-thread clearance type seals.

OIL INDICATORS

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Pressure Indicator

Most vehicles have an oil indicator light which warns the driver if the oil pressure is
extremely low. An oil pressure switch mounted in the main oil gallery is used to
operate the indicator light. The engine oil pressure is applied against a diaphragm in
the switch, and the diaphragm operates a set of contacts connected in series with
the oil indicator light as shown in Fig. 2.. The contact in oil pressure switch closes if
the oil pressure is below 21 to 48 kPa and indicator light is turned on.

Fig. 2.34. Oil indicator light and pressure switch.

If the oil pressure is above 21 to 48 kPa the switch contact opens and indicator light
is turned off.
The vehicle also incorporates an electric oil pressure gauge system (Fig. 12.40). This
uses a balanced coil system. The sender unit in this case is the engine, which has a
diaphragm connected to a sliding contact. The engine oil pressure is applied on the
diaphragm. As oil pressure increases, the diaphragm is pushed in. This causes the
sliding contact to move along the resistance. This decreases the amount of current
flowing through this resistance to ground. As a result, the right coil gets more
current and becomes stronger due to which the pointer is pulled to the right to
indicate the increased oil pressure

Oil pressure gauges can be analogue, electrical or electronically controlled

Oil Level Indicator

To determine the level of oil in the oil plan, an oil level indicator, or commonly,
dipstick is used. The dipstick is placed vertically in the oil so that oil sticks to it. To
determine oil level the dipstick is withdrawn and the oil mark on the dipstick is
noted. It has a low and maximum marking with respect to top of the dipstick, which
shows the position of oil in the pan. The dipstick top is sealed which keeps unfiltered
air from entering the crankcase and crankcase gases from escaping.

Summary

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 A diesel engine lubricant performs a number of roles including minimizing friction,
supporting hydrodynamic suspension, cooling, and cleaning.

Viscosity describes a liquid fluid’s resistance to shear.

Lubricity describes the flow characteristics of a liquid fluid. Lubricity in engine oils is
affected by temperature. Hot oils tend to flow more readily than cold oils.

Diesel engine OEMs recommend the use of multigrade oils over straight grades and
approve the use of synthetic engine oils, especially for operation in conditions of
extreme cold.

The pour point of engine oil is the temperature at which the oil starts to change into
a solid state. Oils formulated for winter use have pour point depressant additives.

Sludged oil is usually a result of oil degradation caused by prolonged low-load, cold
weather operation.

High ash levels in used engine oils may indicate prolonged high-temperature
operation.

Oil aeration can be caused by high oil sump levels.

When interpreting API oil classifications, the GF prefix identifies oil formulated for
gasoline-fuelled engines and the C identifies oil formulated for compression-ignition
engines.

Post-2007 diesel engines with EGR and DPFs are required to use SAE CJ-4 rated
engine lube unless the OEM sanctions the use of CI-4.

Most research indicates that synthetic oils outperform traditional oils. However,
because they cost much more they will probably not be extensively used by
operators until engine OEMs endorse extended oil change intervals.

It is important to maintain the correct engine oil level. Be aware that the
consequences of an excessively high oil level can be as severe as those for low oil
levels.

Positive displacement pumps of the external gear and gerotor types are used as oil
pumps in diesel engines. Most current commercial diesel engines use the external
gear pump design.

Oil pumps are designed to pump much greater volumes of oil than that required to
lubricate the engine. An adjustable, pressure-regulating valve defines the peak
system pressure.

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The filters used on a heavy-duty lubrication system may be classified as full flow and
bypass. Full flow filters are located in series between the oil pump and the
lubrication circuit.

Bypass filters are located in parallel receiving oil ported from an oil gallery and
returning it directly to the oil pan.

Most OEMs prefer that filters are primed before installation. This helps prevent oil
starvation to critical components in the lube circuit. Filters should always be primed
by filling from the inlet side only.

Filters are usually rated by their mechanical straining specification in microns.

Oil coolers are heat exchangers used on most diesel engines; the cooling medium
used is engine coolant.

There are two types of oil cooler:

1. the bundle type and

2. plate type.

BUNDLE TYPE

A bundle-type oil cooler consists of a housing within which coolant is pumped

through a cylindrical ‘‘bundle’’ of copper tubes in one direction while engine oil is
pumped around the tubes flowing in the opposite direction. A bundle can be known
as a core. Most OEMs prefer that bundles be vacuum tested for leaks before
assembly. Pressure testing may also be used.

PLATE TYPE

Plate-type oil coolers have slightly lower cooling efficiencies but offer fewer in-
service maintenance problems.

Engine oil pressure measurement is usually performed by a variable capacitance

type sensor. The sensor signals the ECM. The dash gauge or display is therefore an
ECM output.

Engine oil pressures usually have to fall to very low levels before programmed
electronic failure strategies are triggered. Actual oil pressure has a relationship with
rpm because the engine drives the oil pump.

A low oil pressure at idle speed represents a less serious condition than the same oil
pressure reading when the engine is run at rated rpm.

Laboratory testing of used engine oil samples is an inexpensive method of tracking

engine wear rates and providing early warning indicators to engine malfunctions.

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Routine engine oil samples should be taken when the engine oil is changed,
preferably at the mid-flow point when draining the sump.

When interpreting oil sample analyses, it should be noted that a high silicon reading
is often an indication of a leak in the air cleaner or suction side of the air intake
system.

TYPES OFDISEL FUEL SYSTEMS

Introduction

The diesel fuel system on vehicles is the group of components responsible for fuel
storage and its transfer to the combustion chamber. That makes this chapter one of
the key chapters in this module. A thorough knowledge of fuel system components
and how they can affect the performance of the is essential. The basic components
used in a fuel system have not changed much over the years; however, the way in
which the fuel system is monitored has changed. A generation ago, the fuel system
had one monitoring sensor called a sending unit. Today, depending on the original
equipment manufacturer OEM, system pressure and temperature are monitored at
different locations in the system.

Many diesel fuel management systems are designed to pump much greater
quantities of fuel through the system than that required to actually fuel the engine.
The excess fuel is used to:

1. lubricate high-pressure injection components

2. cool high-pressure injection components (especially those exposed to
extreme temperatures)
3. cool electronic components such as ECMs and injector. Functions of the fuel
systems.

The following are some of the functions of any fuel system on a vehicle:

i. Store enough fuel

ii. Remove water from fuel
iii. Remove abrasive particulates
iv. Supply fuel to the combustion chamber at high pressure
v. Supply fuel to the combustion chamber at correct phase angle according to
the firing order)
vi. Supply fuel to the combustion chamber in the correct quantities (calibrated
fuel)

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vii. in its role as a cooling medium, the fuel transfers heat from engine
components to the fuel tank.

TYPES OF FUEL SYSTEMS

The most common types of fuel pump used in automobiles is the single action,
diaphragm- type mechanical pump. A diaphragm type fuel pump is usually mounted
on the engine and is operated by an eccentric lobe on the camshaft

i. In-line pump fuel injection system

ii. Distributor pump injection system
iii. Unit injector pump injection system
iv. Common rail fuel injection system

NOTE:

Most of these systems are electronically controlled while others are

mechanically operated but electronically managed

MAIN COMPONENTS

This system consists of:

1. Fuel tanks
2. fuel filters
3. water separators
4. transfer pumps
5. priming pumps
6. injector pumps
7. injectors
8. hoses/pipes

FUEL TANK.

Functions

1. to store adequate fuel

2. to clean fuel
3. to transfer heat from the fuel to atmosphere

Fuel charging or transfer pumps

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Fuel charging or transfer pumps are positive displacement pumps driven directly or
indirectly by the engine. A positive displacement pump displaces the same volume of
fluid per cycle, and therefore fuel quantity pumped increases proportionately with
rotational speed. Because of this, if a positive displacement pump unloads to a
defined flow area, pressure rise is proportional with rotations per minute (rpm)
increase. On most current diesel fuel systems, two types of transfer pumps are
used:

1. Mechanical Fuel Pump

2. Electrical Fuel Pump

The fuel pump is used in the fuel system to deliver fuel from the fuel tank
to injection pump or unit injector. Many types of fuel pumps are used in
modern automobile vehicles. Two general types of fuel lift pump are as
follows:

Mechanical Fuel Pumps

These pumps can be:

1. plunger-type pumps
2. gear-type pumps
3. diaphragm type pumps

Fig.2.35 diaphragm type pumps

The mechanical fuel pump is operated by an eccentric on the engine camshaft or

by the fuel injection pump camshaft. It is mounted on the side of the cylinder

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 block inline engines. In some V-8 engines, it is fitted between the two-cylinder
banks.

Plunger-Type Pumps

Figure 2.36 Plunger-Type Pumps

Plunger-type pumps (such as that shown in Figure 12-13) are usually flange
mounted to a housing and cam driven. Single-acting and double-acting plungers
may be used. Double-acting plungers are often used in higher-output engines
requiring more fuel. Single-Acting Plunger Pumps. A single-acting plunger pump
(with a plunger that pumps in one direction only) has a single pump chamber and
an inlet and outlet valve. Fuel is drawn into the pump chamber on the inboard
stroke. It is pressurized on the outboard or cam stroke. The principle of a single-
acting plunger pump is shown in Figure 12

PLUNGER PUMP OPERATION

INTERMEDIATE STROKE POSITION

As the injection pump camshaft continues to revolve, it forces the roller tappet of
the supply pump outward, away from the injection pump, also pushing the

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 plunger out. Fuel trapped in the suction chamber will open the pressure valve and
enter the pressure chamber. This fuel will also close the suction valve on the inlet
line. This stroke completely fills the pressure chamber so that it can empty on the
discharge stroke.

FIG.2.37 INTERMEDIATE STROKE POSITION

SUCTION/DISCHAGE STROKE

On the suction stroke, the roller of the supply pump follows the camshaft
inward because of the force of the plunger spring. As the plunger is moved
inward, a low-pressure area is created. Atmospheric pressure then pushes
fuel through the preliminary filter, past the suction valve, and into the suction
chamber. At the same time, the opposite side of the plunger pushes fuel from
the pressure chamber into the outlet line. The pressure in this line, varying
from 14 to 28 psi (1 to 2 kg/cm2), depending on engine application, will close
the pressure valve.

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 FIG.2.38 SUCTION/DISCHAGE STROKE

Operation of the diaphragm fuel lift pump

The downward movement of the diaphragm causes vacuum in in the chamber

which causes the inlet valve to open and the fuel then goes through the strainer
into the chamber. The next upward movement of the diaphragm causes the inlet
valve to close while the outlet valve opens and the fuel goes out to the fuel
injection pump.

In this way, the pressure in the fuel pipeline between the fuel pump and the fuel
injection pump is kept under the required pressure.

The exact pressure range is determined by the stiffness of the diaphragm return
spring. If the pressure is low, the fuel supply will not be able to keep pace with
the demand under high speed or high load conditions. On the other hand, if the
pressure is excessive, the needle valve of the fuel injection pump may damage
the low -pressure side components.

There is no need to pump more fuel when the fuel injection pump is completely
filled up. But if the engine continues to run at light load, the camshaft will be
running all the time and if no other means are provided the pump will build
excessive pressure which may damage the pump itself.

This is taken vehiclee of by the diaphragm return spring, which remains partially
or fully compressed depending upon the line pressure even though the rocker
arm continues to be moved up and down by the eccentric.

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 Thus, the movement of the diaphragm gets restricted or even zero which
decreases or even stops the supply of fuel from the tank until engine
consumption uses some of the fuel in the fuel injection pump or the by-pass valve
opens.

Fig2.39 FUEL LIFT PUMP

ELECTRICAL FUEL PUMP

The figure shows an electric fuel pump. It consists of a diaphragm, but it is
operated electrically. Buy turning on the ignition switch, the solenoid winding
generates magnetic flux, which pulls the armature and the diaphragm moves up. But
as soon as the armature moves up it disconnects the electric supply. The
fuel goes out to the lift pump.

Operation of the plunger fuel lift pump

Closing the ignition switch energizes the solenoid winding and the magnetic flux is
created, which pulls the armature to which the diaphragm is attached. Thus, the
diaphragm moves to cause suction in the pump chamber and the fuel is drawn into
the chamber.

But as soon as the armature moves, it interrupts the electric supply by disconnecting
the breaker points, the solenoid is de-energized and the armature falls back causing
the diaphragm to move so as to create the pressure in the pump chamber which
opens the outlet valve and the fuel goes out to the injector pump .

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The downward movement of the armature again sets electric supply to the solenoid,
and the same process is repeated, the pump continues to operate until the ignition
switch is turned off.

Fig.2.40 ELECTRIC FUEL LIFT PUMP

FUEL PRIMING PUMPS

Vehicles can be equipped with either mechanical (commonly known as hand priming
pump) or electrical priming pumps
Mechanical priming pump

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 Fig.2.41 fuel priming pump

Electric Primer Pumps

More and more diesel engines today are equipped with self-contained, electric
primer pumps. These electric pumps are used mainly to prime the fuel system
system after servicing but can also be used when a loss of prime occurs. Electric
primer pumps are a means of quickly and safely priming secondary fuel filters.

FUEL FILTERS

Figure 2.42 Different types of fuel filters

FUEL FILTERS Diesel fuel injection equipment is manufactured with very low
clearances. Impurities in fuel, if not removed by the fuel subsystem, can result in
failures. Most dirt found in fuel is a result of conditions in stationary fuel storage
tanks, refuelling practices, and improper fuel filter priming techniques by service

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technicians. The function of a fuel filter is to prevent fine sediment in the diesel fuel
from entering the fuel injection circuit.

FUEL/WATER SEPARATOR

FIGURE 2.43 FUEL/WATER SEPARATOR

While some current secondary filters ensure to the extent that water in its free state
will not pass through the filter, a water separator is often used to remove water
before it gets to the secondary filter. All diesel fuel systems require clean fuel and
the function of the filters in a fuel system is to ensure that the fuel is as clean as
possible before it is delivered to the injection pumping components.

Most current diesel engine powered highway vehicles have fuel systems with fairly
sophisticated water removal devices. Water appears in diesel fuel in three forms:

1. free state
2. emulsified .
3. Semi-absorbed

Removing Free State Water.

Water in its free state appears in large globules and because it is heavier than diesel
fuel it collects at the bottom of fuel tanks or storage containers. Water separators
can easily separate free state water if it happens to be pulled into the fuel system.

Removing Emulsified Water.

Water emulsified in fuel appears in small droplets. Because of the small size of these
droplets they may be suspended for some time in the fuel before gravity takes them
to the bottom of the fuel tank.

Semi-absorbed Water.

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Semi absorbed water is usually water in solution that is mixed with alcohol. Semi-
absorbed water in diesel fuel is a direct result of adding methyl hydrate to fuel
tanks. Methyl hydrate is a type of alcohol added to fuel tanks as deicer. Methyl
hydrate either in pure form or as diesel fuel conditioner is added to fuel tanks to
prevent winter freeze-up. Water that is semi absorbed in diesel fuel is the most
dangerous form because it may emulsify in the fuel injection system where it can
seriously damage components.

Why Water Damages Fuel Systems.

Generally, water damages fuel systems for three reasons:

1. It has little ability to lubricate moving components

2. It promotes corrosion

3.It flows less readily than diesel fuel

Modern fuel injection systems pump diesel fuel at very high pressures. When even a
small amount of water is pumped through the system, severe damage to fuel
injectors may result. When you see a modern fuel injector with its tip blown off, the
cause can often be traced to a water-in-fuel condition.

Water Separator Operating Principle.

Water separators have been used in diesel fuel systems for many years. Often these
were simple units that used gravity to separate the heavier water from the fuel.
Today, a water separator often combines a primary filter and water separator. These
use a variety of means to separate and remove water in free and emulsified states;
they will not remove water from fuel in its semi absorbed state.

Water separators use combinations of several principles to separate and remove

water from fuel. The first is gravity. Water in its free state or emulsified water, if
allowed to settle, will sink to the bottom of any container because it is heavier than
diesel fuel. Some water separators use a centrifuge to help separate both larger
globules of water and emulsified water from fuel. The centrifuge subjects fuel
passing through it to centrifugal force: this throws the heavier water to the side
walls of the separator allowing gravity to pull it into the sump drain. A centrifuge
acts to separate particulate from the fuel in the same way so sediment also can be
removed in this manner

Fuel Heaters

In recent years it is more common to find fuel subsystems equipped with fuel
heaters. Two types of fuel preheaters are in current use:

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1. Electric element type.
An electric heating element uses battery current to heat fuel in the system. This
type offers a number of advantages, most notable of which is that the heater
can be energized before start-up so that cranking fuel is warmed up. Electric
element fuel heaters may be thermostatically managed so that fuel is only
heated as much as required and not to a point that compromises some of its
lubricating properties.
2. Engine coolant heat exchanger type.
This type of fuel heater consists of a housing within which coolant is circulated
in a bundle (heat exchanger core) and over which the fuel is passed. The
disadvantage of this type is that the engine cooling system must be at operating
temperature before the fuel can be heated

Primary Filters

Primary filters are the first-stage filter in a typical two-stage filtering fuel subsystem.
Primary filters are therefore usually under lower than atmospheric pressure in
operation. They are plumbed in series between the fuel tank and the fuel transfer
pump. They are designed to trap particles larger than 10 to 30 microns depending
on the fuel system. They achieve this using pleated cotton threaded fibres and resin-
impregnated paper. Figure 12-7 shows a typical spin-on type primary filter.

Fig.2.44 a typical spin-on type primary filter

Secondary Filters Secondary filters represent the second filter in a typical two-stage
filtering fuel subsystem. The secondary filter is charged by the transfer pump.
Because this is at higher pressure the filtering element used can be more restrictive.
The secondary filter is located in series between the transfer or charging pump. The
charging pump is responsible for pulling fuel from the fuel tank and charging the

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high-pressure fuel injection circuit. In some diesel fuel systems using two-stage
filtering, a primary and secondary filter may be both located on the same circuit,
usually the charge circuit. In such cases, both filters are mounted on the same base
pad with the primary filter feeding the secondary filter in series. You are more likely
to see this in some diesel engines. Current secondary filters trap much smaller
particulates than primary filters. Similar to primary filters, they use chemically
treated pleated papers and cotton fibres. Water and Secondary Filters. Water cannot
be pumped through most current secondary fuel filters. This results in the filter
plugging on water and shutting down the engine by starving it for fuel. Water-
plugged filters should be replaced. As an emergency measure you can clean out the
filter using methyl hydrate or other pure alcohol, and then reprime it with fuel.

Procedure for Servicing Spin-On Filter Vehicletridges.

Dirt gets into diesel fuel systems by technicians using improper service techniques.
Diesel fuel replacement filters should be primed, that is, filled with fuel, before
installation. Filters should be primed with filtered fuel. Shops performing regular
engine services should have a reservoir of clean fuel. Any process that requires a
technician to remove fuel from vehicle tanks will probably result in it becoming
contaminated no matter how much vehiclee is exercised. The container used to
transport the fuel from the tank to the filter should be cleaned immediately before it
is filled with fuel. Paint filters (the paper cone-shaped type) can be used to filter
fuel. The inlet and outlet sections of the filter vehicletridge should be identified.
Priming The filter being primed should be filled only through the inlet ports usually
located in the outer annulus (ring) of the vehicletridge and never directly through
the outlet port, usually located at the centre. Most manufacturers prefer that only
the primary filters be primed before installation during servicing. After the primary
filter(s) has been primed and installed, the secondary filter should be installed dry
and primed with a hand primer pump or inline electric primer pump if equipped.
Many current diesel fuel subsystems are equipped with electric priming pumps. An
electric priming pump when fitted should always be used to prime the secondary
filter.

Replacement Procedure

1. Remove the old filter vehicletridge from the filter base pad using a filter wrench.

2. Drain the fuel to an oil disposal container.

3. Ensure that the old filter vehicletridge gasket(s) have been removed. Wipe the
filter pad gasket face clean with a lint-free wiper.

4. Remove the new filter vehicletridge from the shipping wrapping.

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Fill the filter vehicletridge with clean, filtered fuel poured carefully into the inlet
section. The inlet ports are usually located in the outer ring of the vehicletridge. Fuel
poured into the filter inlet ports passes through the filtering media and fills the
centre or outlet section of the filter; this method will take a little longer because it
requires some time for the fuel to seep through the filtration medium.

5. The fuel oil itself should provide the gasket and/ or O-ring and mounting threads
with adequate lubricant; it is not necessary or good practice to use grease or white
lube on filter gaskets. 6. Screw the filter vehicletridge CW (clockwise: righthand
threads are used) onto the mounting pad; after the gasket contacts the pad face, a
further rotation of the vehicletridge is usually required. In most cases, hand
tightening is sufficient but each filter manufacturer has its own specific
recommendations on the tightening procedure and these should be referenced

Fig.2.45 Element type fuel filters

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 Fig.2.46 Spin -on type fuel filters

High pressure fuel lines

They are of the same:

1. length
2. internal diameter

They are made thicker to withstand high pressure and have gradual angles.

NOTE:

Most of these systems are electronically controlled while others are mechanically
operated but electronically managed.

Types fuel systems

For automobile applications, the four most commonly used fuel injection pumps are;

1. The in-line pump system

2. The distributor type pump system
3. Unit injectors
4. Common rail

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 Unit injectors

The unit injector is a combined pump and injection unit, and each unit serves
one cylinder. The engine camshaft actuates all these. The main advantage of this
design is that fuel at the very high pressure is delivered for injection through a
very short duct in the injector itself, instead through a long and relatively
vulnerable pipe. The unit injection seems to become most widely used system in
the future to combat exhaust emissions. It is less costly in terms of hardware
than the other systems, but has the disadvantage that it cannot be incorporated
in existing engines without major redesign and changes, which require
installation of new production equipment.

Common rail

Another system, currently under development, uses a hydraulic accumulator to

serve as a common rail of high-pressure supply system to the injectors. To
achieve very high injection pressures, a hydraulic pressure multiplier is installed
in between the pump and injectors. The time lag between the delivery of fuel
from the pump and the supply to the injector, through various devices is
expected to be one of the problems in the system.

The functions of the injection pump are threefold as follows:

1. It supplies fuel precisely at the right point in the diesel cycle for the
pressure build-up resulting from ignition that occurs at and after TDC.
With current emissions regulations, the injection is required to be varied
with engine speed and load; otherwise the injection starting time can be
fixed.
2. Since the chemical energy content of the fuel injected primarily
determines the power output, the pump meters the quantity delivered per
cycle to match the torque-speed relationship demanded by the engine.
Moreover, equal quantity of fuel should be supplied per injection to each
cylinder.
3. The fuel must have very high-pressure energy so that the injector can
effectively atomise, mix and evaporate it in the air in the extremely short
time interval available in the cycle. However, to achieve a high rate of
delivery in the shortest possible time in a high-speed engine, in principle
the delivery characteristic should be a rectangular pulse, having an
extremely steep rise and termination of pressure with a flat top in
between. In practice, however, it is required to be shaped both to meet
emissions requirements and to keep noise down to acceptable levels.

In-line Injection Pump

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 An in-line injection pump fuel system layout is schematically shown in Fig. 10.9.
Essentially all in-line diesel injection pumps use one or more cylinders, called
barrels, where a reciprocating plunger produces very high pressures. Although
various types of valve have been used for the start and end of injection, but the
only suitable one for modern engines are those in the form of ports that are
covered and uncovered by the plunger and the edge of the spill groove (Fig.
10.10). As the plunger is jerked upward by the cam, its upper end covers the fuel
inlet port, so that above it, fuel pressure starts to build up, initially slowly and then
extremely rapidly. To terminate injection, this pressure is suddenly released by
uncovering of the spill port. The spill groove is generally straight but inclined so
that, by rotating the plunger, the timing of the spill point can be controlled, and so
also the quantity of the fuel injected to match the engine requirement

INLINE FUEL INJECTION TYPE

This system uses an injection pump which comprises of a row of cam-

actuated pumping elements, one for each cylinder of the engine, above a
camshaft. This type of pump is most commonly used in diesel engines for
heavy commercial vehicles.

It has two circuit namely:

1. Low pressure section

2. High pressure section

Low pressure section

This section starts from the fuel tank to the fuel injection pump. The
components in this section include:

1. Tank
2. Fuel /water separator
3. Hoses
4. Lift pump

High pressure section

This section starts from the fuel injection pump to the injector. The
components in this section include:

1. Fuel injection pump

2. Fuel delivery valve
3. High pressure fuel lines
4. Fuel injector

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 Fig.2.47 In-line injection pump fuel system layout

An in-line injection pump fuel system layout is schematically shown in Fig. 7.8.
Essentially all in-line diesel injection pumps use one or more cylinders, called barrels,
where a reciprocating plunger produces very high pressures. Although various types
of valve have been used for the start and end of injection, but the only suitable one
for modern engines are those in the form of ports that are covered and uncovered
by the plunger and the edge of the spill groove (Fig. 2.49). As the plunger is jerked
upward by the cam, its upper end covers the fuel inlet port, so that above it, fuel
pressure starts to build up, initially slowly and then extremely rapidly. To terminate
injection, this pressure is suddenly released by uncovering of the spill port. The spill
groove is generally straight but inclined so that, by rotating the plunger, the timing
of the spill point can be controlled, and so also the quantity of the fuel injected to
match the engine requirement.

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 Fig. 2 .48 An injection pump plunger with a spill groove having a helical
edge
PLUNGER-AND-BARREL
Pumping Action.

Towards the end of the down ward movement of the plunger in the barrel both the
inlet and spill ports are uncovered, and the inlet port opens slightly before the spill
port. Fuel at lift-pump pressure is forced through both ports and it fills up the space
above the plunger (Fig. 2.50A).

Fig.2.49 Cycle of operation. A. Filling. B. Cut-off point (beginning of

injection). C. Spill over.

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As the plunger moves up, it first cuts off the spill port. During its movement it
pushes back a small quantity of fuel through the inlet port until the top edge of the
plunger cuts off this port from the space above the plunger (Fig.2.50B), which is
completely filled with fuel. The rising plunger pressurises the trapped fuel and forces
open the delivery valve situated above the plunger. The plunger then transmits
rising pressure through the existing fuel in the pipeline to the injector-nozzle needle.
Eventually this pressure build-up lifts the needle off its seat, and fuel is sprayed out
into the combustion chamber.
Further upward movement of the plunger forces fuel past the delivery valve until the
upper edge of the plunger helical groove is exposed to the barrel spill port
(Fig.2.50C). As fuel escapes down the axial spill passage, across to the helical
groove, and out through the spill port the fuel pressure suddenly collapses. The
spring-loaded delivery valve is then closed, due to which fuel delivery and injection
stop.

Fig. 2.50. Output control. A. Stop. B. Half load. C. Full load.

Output Control.

The plunger stroke is always constant as it is controlled by the cam-lobe, but the
part of the stroke, which actually pumps varies. During the upward travel of the
plunger the point at which the spill occurs is altered by partially rotating the plunger
relative to the barrel. The device used for this operation consists of an arm attached
to the bottom of the
plunger. This engages a box-shaped control-arm mounted on a square-sectioned
control-rod (Fig. 10.14). The control-rod is located to one side of the pumping
elements and is positioned parallel to the camshaft. It links up all the plunger
control-arms due to which any to-and-fro movement of this control-rod rotates each
plunger an equal amount. The amount of fuel injected by each plunger is thus
determined before the spill port is uncovered.
When the plunger is partially rotated in the barrel, the position of the plunger helical

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spill groove varies relative to the fixed barrel spill port, so that the effective pumping
stroke of the plunger either increases or decreases. If the helical groove aligns with
the spill port earlier (Fig. 10.15B) in the plunger upstroke, the amount of fuel
injected is reduced. For a late spill to increase the delivered output, the effective
plunger stroke is lengthened (Fig. 10.15C), which indicates the full-load position. For
the shut-off position i.e. no delivery, the plunger is rotated until the helical groove
uncovers the spill port in the barrel for the entire stroke (Fig. 10.15A) so that the
fuel cannot be trapped and compressed within the barrel.

Delivery valve Action.

The function of the delivery valve is to provide:

1. residual pipeline pressure, so that each successive pumping stroke

immediately actuates the injector.
2. rapid fuel cut-off, to eliminate injector-nozzle dribble.
3. positive continuous air purging or bleeding.

Fig. 2.51. Delivery-valve action. A. Closed. B. Injection. C. End of injection.

When the plunger rises on its injection stroke, the pressurised fuel lifts the delivery
valve, so that fuel is displaced towards the injector (Fig. 10.16B). Further upward
movement of the plunger aligns the helical groove and the spill port, so the injection
stops. The delivery valve is then immediately closed by the return-spring. This
causes the remaining fuel in the pipeline to be subjected to a residual pressure. In
the process of closing the delivery valve, the piston portion of the valve initially cuts
off the fuel pipeline above the valve from the barrel-pumping chamber (Fig. 10.16C)
and then sweeps further down to rest on its seat (Fig. 10.16A).

The delivery valve also assists in taking air out of the system, because the fuel
volume between the delivery valve and the nozzle does not add to the pump
clearance volume.

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The plunger action of the close-fitting piston increases the total volume of the fuel
trapped between the valve and the injector, and this causes a rapid pressure drop,
which unloads the injector line pressure to below the working pressure.
Consequently, the injector needle is able to snap on to its seat, thus providing a
clean cut-off without nozzle dribble

Governors

To control the engine at idling speed and to limit the maximum speed are the two
main duties performed by the governor. If the governor attends to these two duties
only, it is known as an idling and maximum speed governor, i.e. two speed
governors. If a unit regulates throughout the speed range is termed an all speed
governor. In some instances, a torque control requirement may be added; most
frequently to provide torque back up, by arranging for the torque to increase as the
speed falls from the maximum to a preset level. However, torque control may also
be applied at the other end of the speed range.
The general functions of a governor are as follows:

1. To supply extra fuel for starting the engine at various temperatures

experienced during service.
2. To maintain the idling speed constant at a predetermined rpm regardless of
temperature and load.
3. To prevent the engine from over-speeding if the accelerator is depressed
suddenly at light load or the load is suddenly reduced.
4. An all-speed governor maintains, within pre-set limits for full and zero loads, a
constant speed appropriate to the accelerator pedal angle, regardless of
variations in load.

Three main types of governor used for in-line pumps are:

1. Mechanical
2. Pneumatic
3. Hydraulic

Mechanical Governor

An idling and maximum speed governor, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.17, is

commonly used on heavy vehicle engines. It is mounted at the end of the injector
pump, and contains two weights, rotated by the pump camshaft. A force in an
inward direction is exerted by the springs on the weights. The bell cranks link each
weight to the bottom end of a floating lever. The top end of the lever is connected
to the control rod. The centre of the lever is mounted on an eccentric, which is
rotated by the accelerator pedal.

The governor in the engine-stationary position is shown in Fig. 10.17A, and in this
condition the weights are fully retracted, so that the control rod is held in the
maximum fuel position required for starting the engine. Once the engine is started,
rotation of the weights causes the centrifugal effect to overcome the spring force

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and the weights then take this position (Fig. 10.17B) where the control rod is
withdrawn to the idling setting. In this position the weights are controlled only by
the outer (weaker) springs, permitting sensitive control.
Considering the accelerator pedal stationery, any increase in speed causes a slight
outward movement of the weights so that the control rod is moved in the direction
to reduce the fuel delivery. Similarly, if the weights are moved in the inward
direction, the control rod increases the fuel delivery to prevent stalling of the engine.
Between idling and maximum speeds, the weights maintain the same position, i.e.
appear to be locked together. During this period, downward movement of the
accelerator pedal rotates the eccentric and moves the control rod in a direction to
increase the fuel delivery. At the maximum speed, in the range of 1800-2000 rpm,
the high centrifugal force acting on the weights overcomes the strong force of outer
springs causing the outward movement of the weights (Fig. 10.17C). Consequently,
the control rod decreases the quantity of fuel delivered, and thereby reduces the
engine power, irrespective of the position of the accelerator pedal.
A small quantity of engine oil, stored in the governor housing, lubricates the moving
parts. The fuel level is to be checked at regular intervals of every 3000 km run. A
number of adjusting nuts, screws and stops are provided with this governor. The
settings should not be disturbed, as it requires special tools and the specific
knowledge.

Fig.2.52.Idling and maximum speed mechanical governor.

PNUEMATIC GOVERNORS

Often all speed type of pneumatic governor (Fig. 10.18) is used with in-line pumps
fitted to light CI engines. When the accelerator pedal is held to a set position, the
governor maintains a constant speed till the load on the engine is too high. A spring-
loaded diaphragm (Fig. 10.18), connected to the control rod, seals a chamber and is
connected by a pipe to a venturi control unit in the inlet manifold. A butterfly valve,

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fitted in the waist of the venturi, is linked directly to the accelerator pedal. When the
engine is stationery, the diaphragm spring positions the control rod at the maximum
fuel or excess-fuel condition. This is a manually operated control installed at the end
of the pump, which is fitted with an excess-fuel device. This enables extra fuel to be
delivered for cold starting, and cannot be operated from the driving position.
After starting of the engine, operation of the accelerator pedal produces a
depression in the venturi and diaphragm chamber so that atmospheric pressure
forces the diaphragm and control rod to the idle setting. With the pedal in any set
position, venturi depression increases with engine speed, causing reduction in the
control rod opening. Similarly, a decrease in speed causes an increase in the control
rod opening. As the accelerator pedal is depressed, the butterfly valve is opened so
that the venturi depression is decreased. This allows the spring to open the control
rod due to which the engine speed increases until a balance is established between
the spring thrust and venturi depression.
A stop screw, acting on the lever and controlling the butterfly valve, limits the
maximum speed. When the valve reaches its stop, any tendency for the engine to
increase speed intensities the venturi depression and reduces the control rod
opening. A stop control on the dash board enables the driver to override the
governor and move the control to the non-fuel position. When any part of the
governor system is disconnected, the engine should not be started.

Fig. 2.53. Pneumatic governor system.

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HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR

The hydraulic system is used with in-line pumps where smooth, slow idling speeds
are desired. A gear-type oil pump is driven from the end of the pump camshaft, and
supplies oil through various valves to operate a piston connected to the control rod.
High cost of this system limits its use.

The distributor type pump system (DPA)

Fig.2.54 Fuel-injection system with mechanically-controlled

(governed) distributor injection pump
1 Fuel tank, 2 Fuel filter, 3 Distributor fuel-injection pump, 4 Injector, 5 Fuel return
line, 6 Sheathed-element glow plug, 7 Battery, 8 Glow-plug and starter switch, 9
Glow control unit.

It serves several of the engine cylinders by one, two or more plungers from which
the fuel is directed to each cylinder by a distributor system. This type of pump is
used maximum on vehicles and light commercial vehicles

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 Fig. 2.55 CAV (‘DPA’) distributor-type injection pump

DESCRIPTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF PUMPING UNIT.

This pump uses a single steel rotor, which works as the pumping element and also
distributes the fuel. The rotor rotates in a stationary steel cylindrical sleeve known as
the hydraulic head.

The pumping section of the rotor is flanged and has a larger diameter than the
distributor section. It has a transverse cylinder bore to house two opposed pumping
plungers. A stationary internal-cam ring is installed in the pump housing and
operates the plungers through rollers and shoes, which are placed in slots machined
into the circumference of the rotor flange. The cam ring uses as many lobes as there
are engine cylinders, and they are evenly placed round the ring. The outward
movement of the opposed plungers is controlled by metered fuel pressure.
The distributor section of the rotor has a central passage which intersects the space
between the pumping plungers. A single radial distributor port is located at the
opposite end of the passage. During rotation of the rotor this single distributor port
aligns in turn with each of the discharge ports, radially located round the hydraulic
head. These ports are connected to high-pressure pipes joining the pump to the

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individual injectors.
Radial charge ports are equally spaced in between the two ends of the central rotor
passage. These ports are also same in number as the discharge ports, that is engine
cylinders. When the rotor revolves, these charge ports align in turn with a single
radial metering port drilled into the hydraulic head. This port provides the metered
fuel to the rotor to pressurise and to distribute.

Initially the fuel is pumped by the lift pump and is delivered through the filter to the
regulator-valve end plate (Fig. 10.26). Fuel first flows through the vane transfer
pump, screwed on to the end of the rotor so that the fuel pressure is increased
according to the speed of the rotor. The fuel then flows along a passage in the
hydraulic head and around an angular groove to the metering valve so that it flows
to the metering port to enter the rotor.

Rotor and Plunger

Fig. 2.56. Pumping elements.

Pumping Action

For the best description of the operation of the pump, it is considered as a single
cylinder injection pump in two phases that is charging and injection.

Charging Phase

During charging phase (Fig. 10.27A), as the rotor revolves, the distribution port
becomes out of alignment for a short period with all the discharge ports, but one of
the charge ports (only one shown) aligns with the metering port in the hydraulic
head. Thus, fuel at metering pressure flows into the central passage in the rotor,
and it forces the plungers apart. In this position, both roller-and-shoe assemblies are
clear of all the cam lobes. The amount of fuel, which flows into the element during
short period of the alignment of the metering and charging ports, determines the
extent of outward displacement of the plunger.

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 Fig. 2.57. Cycle of Operation. A. Charge phase. B.

Injection Phase.
In the injection phase (Fig. 10.27B), rotation of the rotor misaligns all charge ports
with the metering port, but it aligns the distribution port with one of the discharge
ports in the hydraulic head. Simultaneously, both rollers contact the flank of
diametrically opposed cam lobes, which force both plungers together. The
generated high pressure in the fuel then forces it out through the discharge port
and consequently to an appropriate injector.

GOVERNOR

Either a hydraulic or mechanical type governor is used in distributor-type pump.

HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR

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 Fig. 2.58. Hydraulic governor for distributor pump

Control of engine speed is carried out by the transfer pump and the fuel metering
valve (Fig. 10.30). The valve is controlled with the help of a spring. When the pedal
is depressed a given amount, the valve opens and causes the speed to increase.
The increase in engine speed builds up the transfer pump pressure, so that
metering valve gradually moves towards the closed position where the speed does
not increase any more. These events are repeated throughout the range.

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 VE-PUMP

Fig.2 59 VE CIRCUIT

Fig. 2.60. VE-type distributor pump.

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 Figure.2.61Cross-sectional view of the VE pumping section.

Figure 10.32 illustrates layout of a VE-type pump installed in a self-bleeding fuel

system similar to that used on light vehicles. Similar to other rotary pumps, this type
uses one pumping element and a number of high-pressure outlets, one for each
engine cylinder.
In addition to the basic features associated with modern distributor-type rotary
pumps, various add-on modules that can be incorporated to the VE-pump are:

1. Solenoid-operated fuel cut-off to provide the driver a key to start/stop

operation
2. Automatic cold-starting module to advance the injection
3. Fast-idle facility for even running during warm-up
4. Torque control for matching the fuel output with the fuel requirement.
The layout of the basic sub-systems of the pump is shown in simplified sectional
view in Fig. 10.33. These include:

1. Low-pressure fuel supply

2. High-pressure fuel supply and distributor.
3. Fuel shut-off solenoid.
4. Distributor plunger drive.
5. Automatic injection advance unit.
6. Pressure valve
7. Mechanical governor.

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Low Pressure Fuel Supply.

A transfer pump with four vanes is driven at half crankshaft speed by a drive shaft,
and delivers fuel to the pumping chamber at a pressure set by the regulating valve.
The fuel pressure rises with engine speed, and is used to operate the automatic
advance unit. Also, this provides an overflow through the pump body to aid cooling
and to provide the self-bleeding feature. After passing through a small restriction at
the top of the pump the surplus fuel returns back to the fuel tank.

High-Pressure Fuel Supply.

Figure 10.34 shows a simplified view of the pumping chamber with part of the
distributor head cut away to view the pump plunger. The plunger is rotated in the
head to provide a valve action, and is reciprocated through a constant stroke to
produce the high pressure. A cam plate moving over a roller ring causes this axial
movement. The quantity of high-pressure fuel delivered to the injector through the
outlet bore is metered by the position of the control spool. This feature varies the
effective pumping stroke, which increases as the spool is moved towards the
distributor head.

Fig. 2.62. Principle of Bosch VE-pumping unit. A. Fuel entry to pumping chamber.
B. Pump at end of delivery.

Figure 2.62A illustrates that rotation of the plunger has caused one of the metering
slits to open the inlet passage and all outlet ports are closed in this position. Prior to
this point, the plunger moved down the chamber for the fuel to enter and fill the
high-pressure chamber. Further rotation of the plunger closes the inlet port and the
single distributor slit in the plunger opens one of the outlet ports. In this position the
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plunger has moved up the chamber to pressurise the fuel and deliver it to the
injector through the outlet bore.
Figure 10.34B illustrates the position of the plunger at the end of the injection
period. The plunger has moved further considerably to uncover the Cut-off bore in
the plunger, which causes the pressure to draw instantly and terminate the injection.
Further movement of the plunger permits the fuel in the pumping chamber to be
returned to the pump cavity. The control spool is set in this maximum fuel position
corresponding to the fuel requirement for starting. A movement of the control spool
to an extreme position away from the distributor head. Which is the spool setting for
slow running, reduces the output to a minimum?

Fuel Shut-off.

A solenoid operated valve cuts off the fuel supply to the inlet passage when the
ignition key is switched off.

Distributor Plunger Drive.

Rotation of the drive shaft, at half crankshaft speed (for a four-stroke engine), is
relayed through a yoke and cam plate to provide rotary motion to the pump plunger.
Reciprocating motion to the plunger is provided by the rotation of a cam plate over
four roller followers attached to a roller ring. In a pump for a four-cylinder engine,
four lobes are formed on the cam plate and contacts between the plate and rollers
are maintained by two strong plungers return springs. A yoke placed between the
drive shaft and the cam plate permits the plate to move axially while maintaining a
drive.

Fig.2.63. Plunger drive.

Pressure Valve.

A delivery valve, of similar construction to that used on in-line pumps, is installed in

the distributor head at the connection point to the high-pressure fuel lines. This
valve eliminates necessity of bleeding the high-pressure fuel lines

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Automatic Injection Advance Unit.

The roller ring assembly is fixed loosely to the casing, so that it can be partially
rotated through an angle of up to 12 degrees. This permits the automatic advance
mechanism (Fig. 10.36) to vary the injection timing.
When the pump is operated, fuel under pressure from the transfer pump is delivered
to the timing advance chamber through the pump cavity. An increase in the pump
speed also increases the transfer pump pressure and flow so that the timing
advance piston is moved against its spring. This causes the actuating pin to rotate
the roller ring in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the drive shaft.

GOVERNOR

The VE pump is equipped with either a two speed or an all speed governor. The
layouts of both the types of governor are similar, but differ in the arrangement of
the control springs. The main construction of a two-speed governor is shown in Fig.
10.37. This type of governor controls the engine during the phases of idling and
maximum-speed operation. At other times the driver has almost direct control on the
quantity of fuel delivered and therefore the power output of the engine.

Fig. 2.64. Principle of automatic advance unit.

COMMON RAIL
Common rail systems are mainly made up of the supply pump, rail, and injectors

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 Fig.2.65 Common Rail

Fig.2.66 Fuel-injection system with mechanically-controlled (governed)

distributor injection pump

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FUEL INJECTORS
HYDRAULIC INJECTORS
Functions

It must be noted that fuel injectors have two functions to perform:

1. To break up the stream of injected fuel oil into minute liquid particles suitable
for rapid and complete combustion. This spraying process is often referred to
as atomization, although in a scientific sense the description pulverization
would be more appropriate.
2. To direct the spray in such a manner and with sufficient penetration that, in
conjunction with the movement of air for combustion, the maximum possible
quantity of oxygen is consumed without leaving any unburned or partially
burned fuel oil.

Construction of Hydraulic Injector

Figure 2.67 Hydraulic injectors

A hydraulic injector can have a single or multiple-orifice nozzle and is opened and
closed hydraulically. In fact, it really functions as a hydraulic switch. As a switch, the
nozzle is designed to open and close at a specific pressure. Once the pressure is set
when the device is calibrated, it is unlikely to change unless it is due to old age or
wear.

The construction (Fig. 10.48) and function of the various components of a hydraulic
injector are as follows:

1. Nozzle holder

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 This is forged-steel flanged housing bolted to the engine’s cylinder head and
it supports the various parts. A threaded inlet port is formed to support an
inlet adapter, and supply hole is drilled to intersect the pressure-face junction
between the nozzle holder and the nozzle body. A central hole is drilled in the
nozzle holder to house the spindle. A large threaded countersunk hole is
made on the upper end of the holder to support the spring-cap adjustment
nut.

2. Nozzle body

This is a shouldered cylindrical and centrally bored steel body which supports
the needle valve. The bottom of the central blind hole is conically ground to
form the nozzle-valve seat. Three to five very small holes are drilled into the
closed end of the nozzle tip to form the spraying nozzle. An internal groove
cavity known as the fuel gallery is machined half way down the central hole.
To intersect this fuel gallery, equally spaced three feed-holes are drilled
around the nozzle bore. An angular groove is formed on the pressure face of
the nozzle body so that fuel can circulate and flow through the three feed
holes.

3. Needle valve

It resembles a cylindrical spindle, which has two sections of different

diameters. The larger-diameter portion forms a lapped fit with the nozzle
body. The smaller-diameter portion has a large clearance between it and the
nozzle body, and its 60 degrees inclusive-angle conical-ground end forms the
needle-valve seat. A small amount of leakage between the lapped nozzle
body and the needle portion is allowed to lubricate the rubbing surfaces.

4. Spindle

It relays the spring thrust to the needle valve from the spring, positioned
between the spring cap adjustment nut and the countersunk threaded hole in
the nozzle holder. It therefore forces the needle valve on to the nozzle-body
seat.

5. Injector spring

This is a helical-coil compression spring placed between the spring-cap

adjustment nut and the spindle. It is located by both upper and lower spring-
plates. The spring keeps the needle valve closed until the opening fuel-line
pressure set value is reached, and also closes the needle valve when this fuel-
line pressure collapses. The opening fuel-line pressure can be varied by
adjusting the initial degree of spring compression

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 Fig. 2.68. Injector unit

Types of injector
These are classified by the type of nozzle fitted and fall into four main groups
1. single-hole
2. multi-hole
3. pintle
4. Pintaux
5. Single- and multi-hole injectors

Single-hole
The single-hole nozzle has one hole drilled centrally in its body which is closed by
the needle valve. The hole can be of any diameter from 0.2 mm upwards. This type
is now rarely used in motor vehicle engines.

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Fig. 2.69 (a) Hole-type nozzles

Multi-hole injectors
Multi-hole injectors (Fig. 3.40) have a varying number of holes drilled in the bulbous
end of the nozzle beneath the needle valve seating. The actual number, size and
position depends on the requirements of the engine concerned. There are usually
three or four. This is the type that is fitted to the direct injection engine which, due
to the larger combustion chamber, requires the fuel to be injected in a number of
sprays at high pressure to ensure even distribution and good penetration of fuel into
the rapidly moving air stream. They are often of the long stem type to give good
cooling of the injector.

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Fig. 2.70 Multi-hole injector

Pintle
This nozzle is designed for use with indirect injection combustion chambers. The
needle valve stem is extended to form a pintle which protrudes beyond the mouth of
the nozzle body. By modifying the size and shape of this pintle the spray angle can
be altered from parallel to a 600 angle or more. A modified pintle nozzle, known as
the delay type, gives a reduced rate of injection at the beginning of delivery. This
gives quieter running at idling speed on certain engines.

Fig. 2.71 Pintle-type nozzle

Pintaux nozzles

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A development of the pintle-type nozzle, these have an auxiliary hole to assist
starting in cold conditions. At cranking speeds, the pressure rise is slow and the
needle valve is not lifted high enough for the pintle to clear the main discharge port.
The fuel passing the seat is sprayed from the auxiliary hole towards the hottest part
of the combustion chamber (that is within the area of the heater plug). At normal
running speeds, the rapid pressure rise lifts the pintle clear of the main discharge
port allowing the fuel to form the appropriate spray pattern. Approximately 10% of
the fuel continues to pass through the auxiliary hole at normal running speeds to
keep it free from carbon. The efficiency of the injector deteriorates with prolonged
use making it necessary to service the nozzles at periodic intervals. The frequency of
maintenance depends on factors such as operating conditions, engine condition,
cleanliness of fuel, etc.

INJECTION ACTION

Existing pressurised fuel in the high-pressure pipeline enters the inlet port and then
flows through the passages to fill up the angular space formed between the needle
and the nozzle body. The pressure of this trapped annular column of fuel bears
down on the floor of the nozzle at the lower end and presses upward on the tapered
shoulder of the needle at the top end. The spring force at this stage is sufficiently
large to maintain the needle tight on its seat.
When the fuel pressure developed by the injection pump reaches some
predetermined value, the delivery valve opens so that more fuel enters the high-
pressure pipe. This causes the pressure underneath the needle’s tapered shoulder to
increase until the force from the floor of the nozzle exceeds the spring load.
Consequently, the needle is lifted clear of its seat causing the fuel to be forced
through the sack and out of the nozzle tip holes in the form of a finely atomised
spray.
The generated injection pressure collapses, due either to the spill port of the in-line
pump opening or to the rollers moving beyond the first cam-lobe peak in the case of
the distributor pump. Immediately the spring load exceeds the opposing hydraulic
residual pressure, and the-needle valve snaps shut.

INJECTORS NOZZLES

There are three basic types of nozzle in common use. These include:

1. The pintle type

2. The hole type
3. Two-stage injection (Pintaux) type.

The Hole Type Injector.

The hole type injector is used mainly in direct injection engines and is available in
several forms with one hole or even two or more. The axes of the holes should be
perpendicular to the external surface of the nozzle tip. When the injector is inserted
vertically into the centre of the roof of combustion chamber, in a four-valve head,
the holes are symmetrically arranged around the tip (Fig. 10.52). On the other hand,

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if it is inclined and off centre in a two-valve head, the holes are more commonly
asymmetrically arranged (Fig. 10.53) so that the spray is symmetrically distributed in
the combustion chamber. In this case, accurate rotational location of the injectors is
essential.

Two-stage Injection or Pintaux Nozzles.

This nozzle incorporates provision for cold starting due to which this is better than
the single stage type. Since then most of these engines have heater plugs for cold
starting, so very few engines now have this type of injector. The term Pintaux is an
abbreviated combination of the words pintle auxiliary jet.
The spray from the pintle type nozzle is normally coaxial with the injector, the
Pintaux nozzle has two holes, one axial and a smaller one directed obliquely.

The pintle has a shape, which partially blocks the axial hole until the needle is lifted
well clear of its seat. Therefore, initially injection occurs mainly through the smaller
oblique hole, which directs the jet to the centre of the combustion chamber.
Subsequently, when the needle is lifted out of the axial hole, about 90% of the fuel
is injected through it in the downstream direction, leaving only 10% to pass through
the smaller diameter oblique hole.

Cold starting aids

Some form of cold starting aid is usually fitted to CI engines to assist starting in cold
conditions. There are numerous types the two most common being:

1. heater plugs
2. thermo-start unit
3. Cold starting sprays
4. Pintaux chamber
5. Heater plugs

Fig.2.72 sectional view showing the position of the plug in the cylinder
head

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 These are located in the cylinder head. The heating element of the plug being
located just inside the combustion chamber. When an electrical current is
supplied to the plug, the element heats up thus heating the air trapped in the
chamber. Typical heater plugs are shown in Fig. 3.42

Thermo-start unit

The unit screwed into the inlet manifold below the butterfly valve. Fuel is
supplied to the unit from a small reservoir fed from the injector leak-off pipe. The
thermostat comprises a valve surrounded by a heater coil, an extension of which
forms the igniter. The valve body houses a spindle which holds a ball valve in
position against a seat, preventing fuel entering the device. When an electric
current is supplied to the unit, the valve body is heated by the coil and expands.
This releases the ball valve from its seat, allowing fuel to enter the manifold
where it is vaporized by the heat. When the engine is cranked, air is drawn into
the manifold and the vapour is ignited by the coil extension thus heating the air
being drawn into the engine.

ELECTROHDRAULIC INJECTORS

Fig.2.72 ELECTROHDRAULIC INJECTORS

THE UNIT INJECTOR

The unit injector is a combined pump and injection unit, and each unit serves one
cylinder. The engine camshaft actuates all these. The main advantage of this design
is that fuel at the very high pressure is delivered for injection through a very short
duct in the injector itself, instead through a long and relatively vulnerable pipe. The

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unit injection seems to become most widely used system in the engine to combat
exhaust emissions.
Unit injection uses a combined injection pump and nozzle for each cylinder. It
eliminates long, high pressure pipelines from pump to injector It eliminates long,
high pressure pipelines from pump to injector, and thereby the compressibility and
wave effects associated with them. Consequently, it is possible to attain very high
injection pressures so that smoke can be reduced. Also, by reducing the degree of
air swirl needed, high pressure improves volumetric efficiency and reduces heat loss
to coolant. Therefore, unit injection also offers a reduction in fuel consumption.
For this type of injection equipment, a single unit can be manufactured suitable for a
wide range of engines having different numbers of cylinders and power outputs.
Servicing is also simplified. The high-pressure ducts used in this system are very
short, of equal length, and are drilled in the body of the injector. As a result, the
rate of delivery of fuel is consistent from cylinder-to-cylinder, chances of leakage are
practically eliminated, any wave effects if occur are at very high frequencies and low
amplitudes, and injection timing can be more accurate and consistent

It is less costly in terms of hardware than the other systems, but has the
disadvantage that it cannot be incorporated in existing engines without major
redesign and changes, which require installation of new production equipment
TYPES OF UNIT INJECTOR
There basically two types of Unit injectors:
1. (MUI)
2. ELECTRONIC UNIT INJECTORS (EUI)

MECHANICAL UNIT INJECTORS

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 FIGURE 2.73 MECHANICAL UNIT INJECTORS

Unit injection system has been fitted on large, medium and slow speed diesel
engines for many years. But, external piping has been widely used to supply the fuel
at low pressure to the injectors. Moreover, the mechanical governor has used
linkage practically extending the whole length of the cylinder head requiring large
forces to actuate. The injectors are bulky, often causing difficulty for the mechanical
control. On high-speed engines, it is necessary to advance the injection timing with
increase in speed for the maintenance of combustion efficiency, and this is difficult
to achieve with mechanically controlled unit injection. Therefore, electronic Control is
more compatible with unit injection.

ELECTRONIC UNIT INJECTORS INJECTION (EUI) SYSTEM

To meet stringent emissions regulations, precise control of injection timing with very
high rates of injection and a sharp cut off are necessary. Such high rates of injection
require pressures of up to 147 MPa, which are not possible with either in-line or
distributor type injection pumps. This is because large spill port areas are un-avoided
for obtaining an adequately rapid collapse in pressure, and this causes cavitation
erosion in the long high-pressure lines leading to the injectors. Considering these
factors, Lucas, in the early 1980s, developed their EUI system. In the Lucas system,
both the feed and the spill galleries are incorporated in the cylinder head casting
(Figs. 10.38 and 10.40), to avoid leakage of fuel.

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 Fig.2.74 A camshaft-actuated unit injector

Fig.2.75 A push-rod and rocker actuated unit injector

Electronic unit injectors fuel system

This system comprises:
1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel filter
3. Distributor fuel-injection pump
4. Injector
5. Fuel return line
6. Sheathed-element glow plug
7. Battery
8. Glow-plug and starter switch
9. Glow control unit.

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 Fig.2 76 Unit Electronic unit injectors fuel system

COMPRESSION INITION (DIESEL) COMBUSTION PROCESS

The combustion chamber is formed

Fig 2.77 The three phases of combustion in a diesel engine

This process can be described in four phases as follows:

1. Ignition delay
2. Rapid pressure rise or uncontrolled combustion
3. Mechanical controlled combustion

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 4. After burning or late burning
IGNITION DELAY PRIOD
This is the phase from the time when the instant fuel spray begins to enter the
chamber to when early vapourised fuel droplets ignite and start burning within the
surroundings to cause the first noticeable pressure rise above that of the
compression pressure in the cylinder. This includes the time for the early part of the
fuel spray to penetration into the hot compressed air mass followed by the time it
takes for the hottest sites of the liquid/vapour cores to begin to burn.
The period for this phase depends on the following factors:
1. The degree of fuel penetration and atomisation
2. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke.
3. The degree of injection timing advance
4. The amount of existing air turbulence
5. The quality of fuel i.e. its ability to ignite (cetane number)
RAPID RISE (Uncontrolled combustion phase)
This period follows on from the ignition and initial burning of the first fuel spray
particles entering the chamber where the bulk of the penetrating spray droplets
vapour clouds, mix with the surrounding highly turbulent air swirl and produce many
flame sites which rapidly propagate burning throughout the agitated air/fuel mass.
Rapid pressure rise continues until the majority of the unburnt fuel particles have
been used up.
The time and steepness of this second phase is mainly influenced by:
1. The degree of injection timing advance
2. The compression ratio and the compression pressure and temperature
3. The intensity of swell and turbulence
4. The duration of the ignition delay period.
MECHANICAL CONTROLLED BURNING PERIOD
This follows on from the rapid pressure phase and covers the part of combustion
where the remaining fuel is partially surrounded and stifled by the burnt products of
combustion. It therefore takes longer to react with the oxygen contained in the still-
unused air charge. Consequently, the rate of burning and the rate of pressure rise is
much reduced. The duration of this period is greatly influenced by the quantity of
fuel injected per circle. Thus, at no-load the quantity of burnt products will be small
and there will be a large excess of air so that the third mechanical controlled period
will barely exist.
At full engine load, the amount of fuel injected will be large which will produce a
considerable amount of fuel burnt products and proportionally less excess air. This
results in an increase in the duration of the lower pressure rise rate period.
AFTER BURNING (Combustion termination) PERIOD

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This final period is represented by a rapid pressure reduction, fuel injection has
already ceased but the late and slow burning of the last particles of the fuel to enter
the cylinder is taking place, the completion of combustion being hindered by the
barriers if burnt gases surrounding the few remaining and possibly isolated unburnt
vapour sparks.
DIESEL KNOCK
This is the loud noise produce by very high pressure rise in the cylinder. It normally
occurs under idle and light-load operating conditions where the temperature in the
cylinder is relatively low.
The cause of this noise is mainly due to prolonged ignition delay period.
CETANE NUMBER
The cetane number of a diesel fuel is a measure of ignition quality, i.e. the speed
with which it will ignite in an engine.

TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS IN CI INGINES

These can be put in two groups:
a. Direct Combustion Chamber
b. Indirect combustion Chamber
COMBUCTION CHAMBERS
This is a special designed recess which is formed between the piston crown and the
cylinder head.
Function of combustion chambers:
1. To control the air flow
2. To control velocity of air flow
3. To promote correct mixing of air and injected fuel
4. To control air direction

CLASSIFICATION OF CI COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

Various CI combustion chambers may be classified as:
1. Direct injection (Open) combustion Chambers
2. Pre-combustion Chambers
3. Turbulence combustion chambers
4. Air-cell (power cells or energy cells)

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DIRECT COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Fig.2.78 DIRECT COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The main combustion chamber is formed in piston head, and the injector is
positioned over the centre of the piston so that the spray from the multi-orifice
nozzle will be distributed evenly. This spray must meet with the air movement in
order to eliminate the dead-air space within the combustion chamber.
OPERATION
As piston moves downwards, air is induced in the cylinder through the inlet passage
and promotes a circular motion. This circular air flow passes through the intake
valve opening(s) into the cylinder and helps to fully charge the cylinder.
As the piston moves upwards on compression stroke, it accelerates air motion by
reducing the area in which the air is rotating. As the piston approaches the top of its
stroke, the confined swirl of air is forced into an even smaller area in the piston
head. This has an inverted con shaped centre (sometimes called Mexican hat) which
adds an even further rolling motion of the air. Fuel is evenly injected into this bowl
of accelerated swirl.
The tip of the fuel spray hits the rim of the bowl rather than the outer circle of the
piston or the comparatively cool cylinder walls.

ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT COMBUSTION CHAMBER

1. It has low heat loss and a high thermal efficiency
2. All energy produced by the fuel acts directly on the piston head.
3. Good starting ability
4. Low compression ratios giving efficient combustion.

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PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

Fig.2.79 Pre-combustion chamber

MERITS
1. Injection pressures are low.
2. High turbulence and efficient mixing of fuel and air.
3. Smooth engine operation.
4. Pintle- type nozzle with moving pintle and large orifice are used. Blockage due
to carbon deposits is eliminated.
DEMERITS
1. Heater plugs are used for starting the engine.
2. Low thermal efficiency and high fuel consumption.
3. Requires high compression ratios to avoid heat loss.

SWIRL CHAMBER

Fig.2.79 Swirl chamber

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This type of a chamber consists of a spherical chamber and tangential passage with
a depression on top of the piston crown, which acts as part of the combustion
chamber when the piston is at the top dead centre.
The swirl chamber itself is made in two parts. As it is formed in the cylinder head,
the top half of the chamber is cooled by engine cooling system but the bottom half
is made of special heat resistant alloy steel or satellite which is not cooled in in any
way-it remains hot.
MERITS
1. The odour produced by exhaust gas emission is minimised due to high
turbulence and hence perfect combustion occurs.
2. Low injection pressures.
3. Delay period is reduced and knock is practically eliminated.
DEMERITS
1. High fuel consumption.
2. Cold weather starting problems.
3. Poor scavenging of burnt gases.
Differences Between swirl Combustion Chamber and Pre-Combustion Chamber:
1. The passage connecting the swirl chamber is larger in diameter than the
passage connecting the Pre-combustion Chamber cylinder.
2. The air enters the swirl chamber at a tangent and the fuel sprayed across it,
while air enters the Pre- Combustion chamber centrally spraying the fuel
directly into it.

AIR CELL OE ENERGY CELL CHAMBER

Fig.2.80 Air cell chamber

CONSTRUCTION

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The chamber consists of a cell located in the cylinder head directly opposite the fuel
injection nozzle. The cell is a removable unit screwed into the head. It consists of
two differently sized and shaped cells in series and is connected by a venture choke
in communication with combustion chamber through another venture at the inner
end of the inner cell. Valves open into the recesses between the narrower portions
of the chamber.
2. One side of the throat is the injection nozzle positioned to spray the fuel
directly across the throat towards the small orifice of the energy cell on the
opposite side.
3. OPERATION
a) Induction stroke-Air enters through the inlet port and through the two
recesses and it gives the initial swirl motion.
b) Compression Stroke-Air is compressed into the confined space of the
combustion chamber. Near the end of the compression stroke, attaining both
high velocity and high temperature.
c) The nozzle sprays the fuel directly across the chamber throat; the main body
of the fuel enters the energy cell.
d) As the fuel reaches the energy cell, it ignites and a rapid combustion takes
place.
e) Here only a small portion of the fuel is consumed with the balance, major
portion, blown back against the continuing stream of the fuel being injected
from the injection nozzle (controlled combustion).

EXPLAIN COOLING SYSTEMS

Introduction

This is the system which controls the engine temperature.

During the process of converting thermal energy to mechanical energy, high
temperatures are produced in the cylinders of the engine as a consequence of the
combustion process. A large portion of heat from the gases of the combustion is
transferred to the cylinder head and walls, piston, and valves. Unless this excess
heat is carried away and these parts are adequately cooled, the engine service life is
reduced. A cooling system is provided not only to prevent damage to the vital parts
of the engine, but also to maintain the temperature of these components within
operating limits in order to obtain maximum performance from the engine. An
adequate cooling system is a basic requirement of reciprocating IC engines.
A well designed cooling system should provide adequate cooling so that overcooling
is avoided, which is undesirable for several reasons. However, over-cooling is as
harmful to the engine as overheating. Both air cooling and liquid-cooling systems are

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in use for automobile engines. With air-cooling, the heat passes from the engine
directly to the atmosphere. With liquid-cooling, the coolant merely serves as a
medium for transferring heat from the engine to the radiator, which gives it off to
the atmosphere. Satisfactory operation of cooling system depends upon the system’s
component design and the operating conditions.
The unit deals with liquid-cooling and air-cooling systems, the coolant and antifreeze
and various components of cooling systems

NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:
1. The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to
15000C to 2000°C, which is above the melting point of the material of the
cylinder body and head of the engine. (Platinum, a metal which has one of
the highest melting points, melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and aluminium at
657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure of
the cylinder material.
2. Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized,
thus producing carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in piston
seizure.
3. Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a distortion of
the engine components due to the thermal stresses set up. This makes it
necessary for, the temperature variation to be kept to a minimum.
4. Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

REQUIREMENTS OF EFFICIENT COOLING SYSTEM

The two main requirements of an efficient cooling system are:
1. It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat generated in the
combustion chamber. Too much removal of heat lowers the thermal efficiency
of the engine.
2. It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot. During the
starting of the engine, the cooling should be slow so that the different
working parts reach their operating temperatures in a short time

Purpose of the Cooling System

The functions of the automobile cooling system are:

1. to prevent the development of high temperatures in the combustion chamber

thereby saving damage of pistons, cylinders, valve and other ‘engine parts,
and the oil which lubricates them.
2. to maintain the operating temperature at a safe level over a wide range of
speeds, loads and ambient temperatures.

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 3. to help in warming up the engine to the required operating temperature as
rapidly as possible and then maintain that temperature irrespective of the
outside temperature, which may vary from -3500C to 440C.
4. Cooling helps proper fuel mixing, provides satisfactory oil viscosity, and helps
maintain the correct part clearances within the engine. Peak combustion
temperatures in the engine cycle run from 2227 0C to 32270C with an average
of 6520C to 9270C, throughout the operating cycle. Continued high
temperature of this order would weaken engine parts, if heat is not removed
to bring the temperature of the components within their physical strength
limits
5. The cooling system keeps the engine at its most efficient temperature at all
speeds and operating conditions.
6. Helps bring engine up to normal operating temperature as quickly as possible.
7. Provides a source of heat for the passenger compartment, heater-and-air-
conditioner.

NOTE

High Temperature Operation.

At high temperatures oxidation of the engine oil takes place due to which oil
is decomposed producing hard carbons and varnish. Continued high
temperature may give rise to plugged piston rings and stuck hydraulic valve
lifters. At high temperatures oil viscosity is also reduced. This may cause
metal-to-metal contact within the engine producing high friction, loss of
power, and rapid wear. Reduced oil viscosity also enhances oil consumption.
The maximum possible temperature on liquid cooled engines is limited by the
coolant’s boiling point and the radiator’s capacity. On air cooled engines, it is
limited by the air temperature and flow rate.

Low Temperature Operation.

A certain range of operating temperatures is necessary for satisfactory

operation of the engine. At too low temperatures, due to improper
vaporisation, excess fuel is required for proper engine performance. Cool
engine surfaces quench part of the combustion, causing partially burned fuel
as soot. It also cools the burnt by products, and condenses water vapour
produced during combustion. The unburned fuel soot, and moisture go past
the piston rings as blow-by gases which wash the oil from the cylinder wall
and dilute the oil in the pan. This causes excessive scuffing and wear of
cylinder wall and piston rings.
Each litre of fuel when burnt in the engine produces moisture equivalent of a
litre of water. This moisture mixes with unburned fuel and soot at the oil
pump and produces sludge. The moisture also combines with unburned
hydrocarbons and additive constituents to form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid,

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 nitric acid, hydrobromic acid, and hydrochloric acid. These acids cause
corrosion and rusting within the engine.

Operating Temperatures.

Fig. 2.81. Engine operating-temperature ranges.

Different parts of the engine operate at different temperatures (Fig.2.81).

Therefore, some regions inside the enclosed cylinder are more prone to
overheating than others.

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Transfer of heat takes place due to difference in temperature since heat flows
from the hotter to the colder substance, may be solid, liquid, or gas. Three
modes of heat transfer are:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.

Conduction.

Conduction is brought about when heat is transferred from particle to particle

throughout a body without any visible sign of movement. This type of heat
flow is most effective in solids, but it can also occur at a much lower rate in
liquids.

Convection.

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 Convection is established when heat is carried bodily by circulating currents of
moving particles in liquid or gas. Natural or free convection currents are
created entirely by changes in density due to difference in temperature at
various levels in the liquid. Heat causes a fluid to expand. This makes the
warm fluid less dense than the cooler one, so the lighter particles rise and the
heavier one sinks. Consequently, a circulating current is established. Forced
convection is achieved by a pump or fan which creates positive relative move-
ment of the fluid over the stationary heated surface

Radiation.

All substances, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, emit energy by wave motion
which radiates in all directions in straight lines with speed of light. Radiation,
unlike conduction and convection, does not require a material medium to
transmit heat. The emissive power of a radiating body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature therefore the slightest
increase in temperature can considerably increase the heat transfer by
radiation

TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS

There are two main types of cooling systems in use- air and liquid. Both
dissipate (radiate) heat removed from the cylinder into the surrounding air.
Air is continually present in large enough quantities to cool a running engine;
therefore, vehicle engines are designed to dissipate their heat into the air.
This action is accomplished either by direct air-cooling or indirectly by
liquid cooling. In this unit we will be concerned with both types, and the
discussion will include a description of the various components of the systems
and an explanation of their operation.

COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Air cooling system components

The major components of the air-cooling system can be itemized as follows:

 Cooling fan/blower
 Cooling fins
 Cowlings
 Thermostat

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Liquid cooling system components

The major components of the liquid cooling system can be itemized as follows:

 Radiator
 Water pump
 Thermostat
 Pressure cap
 Cooling fan drives
o Electrical
o Hydraulic
o Viscous
o Belt
o Gear
 Hoses
 Fan belt
 Expansion tank

FUNCTIONS AND OPERATIONS OF THE MAJOR COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Direct Air-cooled

Functions of air-cooled engine components

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 Figure 2. 82 air-cooled engine components

Figure 2. 83 air-cooled engine cylinder

Cool circulating air comes in contact with the exposed and enlarged external
surfaces of the cylinder and cylinder head. As a result, their heat is dissipated to the
surrounding air.
Advantages.

1. Air cooled engines operate satisfactorily in both hot and cold climates.

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 2. These engines can work at higher operating temperatures than their
equivalent liquid-cooled counterparts.
3. The working temperature in these engines is attained rapidly from cold
condition.
4. These engines are marginally lighter than liquid-cooled engines of same
capacity.
5. These engines do not encounter coolant-leakage or freezing problems.

Disadvantages.

1. The cooling fans require a relatively large amount of power to run

2. Due to the large quantities of intake air passing into the cooling system, the
engine may become noisy.
3. The cooling fins can vibrate and amplify noise under certain conditions.
4. For proper positioning of the fins between cylinders, the pitch between
cylinder centres has to be greater than in liquid-cooled engines.
5. Each cylinder is required to be cast individually unlike liquid-cooled engines
where a rigid mono-block construction is used.
6. To prevent overheating of the lubricant, the air-cooling is frequently
supplemented by an oil heat exchanger.
7. The presence of the guide cowling and baffles around the cylinders may
hinder maintenance.

The main components of an air- cooled system are the fan, shroud, baffles, and fins.

Fan and Shroud

All stationary air-cooled engines must have a fan or blowers of some type to
circulate a large volume of cooling air over and around the cylinders. Notice that the
shrouding, or cowling, when assembled will form a compartment around the engine
so the cooling air is properly directed for effective cooling.

Baffles and Fins

In addition to the fan and shroud, some engines use baffles or deflectors to direct
the cooling air from the fan to those parts of the engine not in the direct path of the
airflow. Baffles are usually made of light metal and are semicircular, with one edge
in the air stream, to direct the air to the back of the cylinders.

Most air-cooled engines use thin fins that are raised projections on the cylinder
barrel and head (fig. 2.82). The fins provide more cooling area or surface and aid in
directing airflow.

Heat, resulting from combustion, by conduction from the cylinder walls and cylinder
head to the fins is carried away by the air flowing passed the engine

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Indirect Liquid cooled Engine System

Fig.2.83 A typical liquid-cooled engine

A liquid coolant transmits the heat from the cylinder head and cylinders to a heat
exchanger, known as the radiator. Movement of air through this radiator then

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extracts the unwanted heat and dissipates it to the surroundings.
Advantages.

1. Greater temperature-uniformity around the cylinders is achieved in liquid-

cooled engines causing less distortion compared with air-cooled engine

2. The power consumption of the coolant pump and the fan together in liquid-
cooled engines is less than that of the fan in air-cooled engines.

3. The liquid-cooled engine cylinders are much closer, providing a very rigid and
compact unit unlike the air-cooled engine.

4. Both the coolant and the jackets dampen the mechanical noise from the
engine.

5. Liquid-cooled units perform heavy-duty work more reliably than air-cooled

engines.

6. Hot coolant can readily be circulated for interior heating of the vehicle.

Disadvantages

1. Liquid-coolant joints may develop leakage.

2. Care must be taken to avoid freezing of the coolant.

3. Liquid-cooled units require more time to warm up than the air-cooled engines.

4. The boiling point of liquid-coolant limits maximum temperature of operation,

whereas air-cooled engines can operate at slightly higher temperatures.

5. Formation of scale takes place in the coolant passages, and the hoses and
radiator tubes deteriorate with time.

COOLANT

Water as an ideal coolant.

Advantages

1. It is inexpensive
2. It has a very low viscosity and flows easily

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 3. It readily accepts and releases heat.

Disadvantages

1. it boils at too low a temperature (1000C) at sea level

2. freezes at too high a temperature (-150C)
3. it can cause corrosion to the metal parts of the engine.
4. Boiling causes a loss of the coolant and develops gas pockets in the water
jackets which gives rise to localised hot spots.
5. The temperature of parts cannot be controlled if these components loose
contact with liquid coolant.
6. Freezing can interfere the circulation of coolant through the radiator, stop
operation of water pump, and even in the extreme case break the water
jackets due to increase in volume.
7. Corrosion can cause pin-holing of aluminium and iron engine parts and
plugging of radiator tubes.
8. Formation of scales due to corrosion reduces thermal conductivity of the
metal surface due to which heat transfer decreases, thereby increasing the
temperature of the cylinder wall.
9. Additionally, in some locations water may be unsuitable for use in cooling
system being excessively alkaline or acidic and/or hard.

COOLANT SOLUTION

Chemicals are added to water to make it a more ideal cooling medium.

Since water is easily obtained, cheap, and has the ability to transfer heat readily,
it has served as a basic coolant for many years. Some properties of water, such
as its boiling point, freezing point, and natural corrosive action on metals, limit
its usefulness as a coolant. To counteract this, use an antifreeze.

Antifreeze, usually ethylene glycol or ethyl alcohol is mixed with water to

produce the engine coolant.

Antifreeze has several functions such as:

1. Prevents winter freeze up, which can cause serious damage to the engine
and cooling system.
2. Prevents rust and corrosion by providing a protective film on the metal
surfaces.
3. Lubricates the water pump, which increases the service life of the pump
and seals.
4. Cools the engine; prevents overheating in hot weather.

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 Advantages of coolant solution

1. It raises the boiling point

2. It reduces cavitation
3. It lowers the freezing point
4. It prevents corrosion
5. Reduces scale formation
6. Normalises acidic or alkaline levels
7. Reduces foaming effects.

ANTI-FREEZE

Water has both high and low usable temperature limits. There are places where the
ambient temperature falls below the freezing point of water. Antifreeze protection is
provided to encounter low temperatures of water. Also, low temperature protection
is required to keep the heater core from freezing in some air conditioners. The
following are the common used anti-freeze solutions:

1. Methyl, ethyl and isopropyl alcohols.

2. A solution of alcohol and water.

3. Ethylene Glycol

For ideal cooling and winter protection, a 50/50 mixture of antifreeze and water is
recommended. It will provide protection from ice formation to about -34F. Higher
ratios of antifreeze produce even lower freezing temperatures; for example, a 60/40
mixture will protect the cooling system to about -62F.

WARNING

Ethylene glycol is a toxic material- Avoid prolonged skin contact or accidental

ingestion. Wear protective gloves and goggles while handling antifreeze
and coolants.

TYPES OF LIQUID COOLING SYSTEMS

Thermo Syphon

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This type uses the principle of convection current to aid engine temperature
regulation.

Figure 2.84 thermo-syphon system

Working of Thermosyphon System:

The thermosyphon cooling system operates on the principle of natural convection.

Thermo-syphon water cooling system is based on the fact that water becomes light
on heating.

The top and bottom of the radiator are connected to the top and bottom of the
cylinder water jacket respectively with the help of pipes.

The radiator is cooled by causing air to flow over it. Airflow is achieved by vehicle
motion or a fan provided. The heated water inside the cylinder water jacket
becomes light and moves out of the upper connection pipe into the radiator and
travels down from the upper tank to the lower tank, and rejecting heat as it travels.

This cooled water from the lower tank is passed into the cylinder water jacket and
hence circulated again for the process.

Practically, however, this cooling system has several limitations, some of which are
as presented here.

1. Under certain operating conditions (such as pulling under load at low vehicle
speed), unless a very large radiator with very large engine coolant passages
are used, the rate of circulation of coolant caused by the convection current
cannot match the rate of transfer of heat from the cylinder walls to the
coolant.

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 2. For satisfactory heat transfer, the radiator header tank is required to be
located at a higher level than the cylinder head. This is impractical with
modern body styles.

3. If coolant-circulation control is not provided, the engine tends to be

overcooled and seldom attains the optimum operating temperature, even
after long running.

4. Since the large quantity of coolant is used in the cooling system, the engine’s
warm-up period is extended.

5. The large header tank, used to compensate for the low rate of coolant
circulation, tends to overheat, causing loss of coolant through evaporation

6. This system depends only on temperature and is independent of engine

speed

Therma; syphon has a limited application, it can only be applied on stationary engine
and small slow engines.

Forced Circulation (Pump Circulation System)

To enhance the rate of coolant circulation so that heat removal can be improved in a
given time, the basic thermo-syphon system is assisted by installing a centrifugal
pump in the engine-coolant lower return-hose. This modified system is called the
forced circulation) system.

Due to increased flow rate the radiator performs more efficiently, so it can be scaled
down in size. Also, it is not required to install the radiator at a higher level than the
engine cylinder head.
In forced circulation system, coolant can be made to flow upwards as well as along
the entire cooled passages in the cylinder-block. The other is by causing coolant to
flow horizontally (cross Flow). This, permits uniform sharing of the cooled liquid
between the in-line cylinders avoiding overheating of the critical zones in the engine.
The engine operates more efficiently when fitted with a pump-assisted cooling
system provided overcooling of the system does not take place. Moreover, large
volume of liquid circulating round the engine should not hinder the engine and head
quickly reaching their working temperatures. Incorporation of a thermostat valve in
series with the top hose has solved these problems to a great extent. To avoid
excessive pressure build-up in the engine coolant passages, about one tenth of the
liquid is directly circulated between the thermostat housing and the inlet side of the
pump using a bypass pipe. This also prevents local boiling of trapped coolant due to
lack of circulation.

Working of Pump Circulation System:

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In this system, the direction of coolant flow depends on the type of radiator used.
But if a down flow radiator is used, flow is upward from the cylinder head to the top
tank of the radiator, then down through the radiator core to the bottom tank.

From the bottom tank, it moves through the lower radiator hose to the cylinder
block water jackets by the help of the coolant pump, which circulates the coolant.
Coolant enters the engine at the centre of the inlet side of the pump. The circulating
pump is driven by a belt from the crankshaft. As engine speed increases, the flow of
coolant increase

The liquid-cooling system (Figs.2.83) has the major components such as water
jackets, circulating pump, fan, thermostat, connecting pipes and hoses, radiator and
radiator cap.

COMPONENTS OF THE LIQUID COOLING SYSTEM

1. RADIATOR

The radiator consists of:

a. Core
b. Top tank
c. Bottom tank

Exchange of heat occurs in the core, which consists of tubes that transfer coolant
from one tank to the other and fins that transfer heat from the tubes to air. (The
exploded view of a radiator is shown in Fig. 2.85A and B.)

TYPES OF RADIATORS

Radiators can be constructed with the tanks at the top and the bottom of the core or
on the sides. If the tanks are at the top and bottom, it is a down-flow radiator (Fig.
2.85A) and the coolant flows from the top to the bottom. If the tanks are on the
sides, it is a cross-flow radiator (Fig. 2.85B) and the coolant flows across the radiator
from one tank to other. Theoretically, the down-flow radiator is more efficient.
However. if the radiator is wider than its height, efficiency is improved with a cross-
flow design, as coolant travels in a longer path through the radiator. In this design
the reserve tank is placed on the outlet side.

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 Figure 2.85A Types of radiators

Fig.2.86B Down flow and Cross Flow Radiators

Radiators are designed to obtain the maximum rate of heat transfer using minimum
material and size to keep the cost a low as possible. However, vehicle designs
dictate available radiator space which affects radiator designs. The radiators are
mostly made from yellow brass or copper which are corrosion resistant, have good
heat transfer ability (better thermal conductivity), are easily formed, have required
strength characteristics, and are easily repaired by soldering. Aluminium is used for
radiators in special applications where weight is critical. Core tubes are made from
0.114 mm to 0.3 mm thick brass sheet, which are rolled into round tubes and the
joints area sealed with a locking seam. The tubes are then coated with solder,
compressed into an oval shape and cut to length. Fins are formed from 0.075 mm to
0.127 mm thick copper or brass sheet. Serpentine fins are formed from solder-
coated sheet, stacked between the tubes, and held in a fixture.

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The serpentine design is least expensive of the two types. Plate type cores are
stronger than the serpentine cores, because plate type core is mechanically held by
the fins as well as solder whereas the serpentine type is held together by the
soldered joint alone.

Radiator Heat Transfer.

The heat transfer capacity of a radiator depends upon the number of fins for a given
width, the radiator height, width and thickness, and the number of coolant tubes
with a given frontal area. Radiator capacity can be increased by increasing the core
thickness, packing more material into the same volume or both. The core must be
capable of dissipating heat energy approximately 30% of the heat produced by the
engine.

RADIATOR PRESSURECAPS OR FILLER CAPS

Fig. 2.87 Radiator Pressure Caps or Filler Caps

The filler neck is fitted with a pressure cap to pressurise the cooling system to raise
the boiling point of the coolant. The pressure inside the radiator is communicated
through the central port to the pressure disc valve. The disc valve is loaded to a
pressure of about 24 kPa whereas the vacuum valve to a pressure of about 7 kPa.

The functions of the pressure cap are as follows:

1. Seals the top of the radiator filler neck to prevent leakage.

2. Pressurizes system to raise boiling point of coolant.
3. Relieves excess pressure to protect against system damage.

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4. In a closed system, it allows coolant flow into and from the coolant expansion
tank.
Components of the radiator pressure cap
The radiator pressure cap consists of

a. a spring- loaded disc that contacts filler neck. The spring pushes the valve
into the neck to form a seal.
b. a pressure relief valve
c. an automatic vacuum relief valve.

Fig.2.88 Parts of Radiator Pressure Caps

Radiator Pressure Cap operation

When the coolant in the cooling system heats up, it expands, causing the pressure
to build up. The cap is the only place where this pressure can escape, so the setting
of the spring on the cap determines the maximum pressure in the cooling system.
When the pressure reaches optimum engine cooling system pressure (E.g.15 psi),
the pressure pushes the valve open, allowing coolant to escape from the cooling
system. Thus, coolant flows through the overflow tube into the bottom of the
overflow tank. This arrangement also helps to keeps air out of the system. When the
radiator cools back down, a vacuum is created in the cooling system that pulls open
the vacuum relief valve, sucking coolant back in from the bottom of the overflow
tank to replace the coolant that was expelled.

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COOLANT PUMP

Usually a centrifugal pump is used for the circulation of water in the cooling system. Figs.
2.89A and B show the construction of a centrifugal pump, which is driven by a fan belt
mounted on a common shaft with the fan. The centrifugal pump is non-positive in action
and does not build up high pressure. It simply consists of a casing inside which an impeller
containing vanes is rotated. Coolant enters the inlet pipe from the bottom of the radiator
and is directed by a passage to the centre of the impeller where it is caught by the rotating
vanes. Due to centrifugal force the coolant is thrown out into the stationary casing. The
kinetic energy imparted to water by the impeller is converted into pressure energy in the
stationary casing so that a pressure difference is created between the inlet and outlet of the
pump causing forcing circulation of coolant in the system. Since the impeller is always
submerged in the coolant, a seal is used to make a coolant tight joint where the impeller
shaft passes through the casing.

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 Fig.2.89A Coolant Pump

Fig.2.89B Coolant Pump

The spinning crankshaft pulley causes the fan belt to turn the water pump pulley,
pump shaft, and impeller.
Coolant trapped between the impeller blades is thrown outward, producing suction
in the central area of the pump housing.

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Since the pump inlet is near the centre, coolant is pulled out of the radiator, through
the lower radiator hose.
After being thrown outward and pressurized, the coolant flows into the engine. It
circulates through the block, around the cylinders, up through the cylinder heads,
and back into the radiator.

Radiator Hoses

Radiator hoses carry coolant between the engine water jackets and the radiator.
Being flexible, hoses can withstand the vibration and rocking of the engine without
breaking.

The upper radiator hose normally connects to the thermostat housing on the intake
manifold or cylinder head. The other end of the hose fits on the radiator. The lower
hose connects the water pump inlet and the radiator.

A moulded hose is manufactured into a special shape with bends to clean the parts
especially the cooling fan. It must be purchased to fit the exact year and make of
the vehicle.

A flexible hose has an accordion shape and can be bent to different angles. The
pleated construction allows the hose to bend without collapsing and blocking coolant
flow. It is also known as a universal type radiator hose.

A hose spring is used in the lower radiator hose to prevent its collapse. The lower
hose is exposed to suction from the water pump. The spring assures that the inner
lining of the hose does NOT tear away, close up, and stop circulation.

The radiator pressure cap is used on nearly all of the modern engines. The radiator
cap locks onto the radiator tank filler neck. Rubber or metal seals make the cap-to-
neck joint airtight.

Fan and Shroud

The cooling system fan pulls a large volume of air through the radiator core that
cools the hot water circulating through the radiator. A fan belt or an electric motor
drives the fan A fan driven by a fan belt, is bolted to the water pump hub and pulley.
Sometimes a spacer fits between the fan and pulley to move the fan closer to the
radiator. Besides removing heat from the coolant in the radiator, the flow of air
created by the fan causes some direct cooling of the engine itself.

Fan blades are spaced at intervals around the fan hub to aid in controlling vibration
and noise. They are often curled at the tip to increase their ability to move air.

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Except for differences in location around the hub, most blades have the same pitch
and angularity.

Bent fan blades are very common and result in noise, vibration, and excess wear on
the water pump shaft. You should inspect the fan blades, pulleys, pump shaft end
play, and drive belt at every preventive maintenance inspection. A variable pitch
(flex) fan has thin, flexible blades that alter airflow with engine speed. These fan
blades are made to change pitch as the speed of the fan increases so that the fan
will not create excessive noise or draw excessive engine power at highway speeds.
At low speeds, the fan blades remain curved and pull air through the radiator. At
higher speeds, the blades flex until they are almost straight. This reduces fan action
and saves engine power.

The fluid coupling fan clutch is designed to slip at high speeds, performing the same
function as a flexible fan. The clutch is filled with silicone-based oil. Fan

Cooling Fan

Fig.2.90 Cooling Fan

Either suction or pusher fans can be used to move air through an engine
compartment. Suction fans pull outside air into the engine compartment. Pusher
fans do the opposite, so they push heated air out. Highway vehicles that receive ram
air assist are best suited to using suction fans. Off-highway and stationary diesels
that cannot take advantage of ram air use pusher fans to remove heated air from
the engine compartment. In highway diesel engine applications, ram air is often
sufficient to perform cooling 95 percent of operating time. This is good for both fuel
economy and engine power because it requires energy to drive a fan.

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Fan Cycles

Because a fan assembly draws engine power, most diesel engines use lightweight,
temperature-controlled fans. The objective is usually to have the fan running as little
as possible. In today’s electronically controlled diesel engines, fan cycles (on or off)
are usually managed by the engine PCM, which can use sensor input from a variety
of sources, some of which may be associated with non-engine systems such as
HVAC. Alternatively, fan cycling may be managed by a thermostat integrated into
the fan hub. This type of temperature sensing is known as thermatic. Thermatic fan
effective cycles are based on under hood temperatures rather than engine coolant or
oil temperatures.

Common fan drive systems are:

1) electric drive
2) viscous drive Electric fan (Figure 2.91)
3) belt
4) gear
5) hydraulic motor drive

Electric drive

The fan is driven by a separate electric motor which is only switched on when the
cooling coolant reaches a predetermined temperature (e.g. 90°C). The electrical
circuit for the motor is controlled either by a thermostatic switch, usually a
bimetallic type, fitted in the region of the header hose, or by a relay energized by
a signal from the electronic control unit (ECU).

Modern engine management systems use a coolant temperature sensor to

monitor the engine temperature. The sensor signal is also used to control the
operation of the cooling fan. When the engine has reached a predetermined
temperature the engine management ECU provides a control signal to the cooling
fan relay.

Viscous fan

This type of drive has a disc-shaped clutch plate that is placed in a container of
silicone fluid.

The viscous drag of the fluid, caused by its resistance to shear, provides a non-
positive drive that is designed to slip at an increasing rate as the engine speed
rises.

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 Viscous drives for fans are made in two forms:

i. torque-limiting and air temperature-sensing.

The torque-limiting fan drive, as the name suggests, is capable of
transmitting to the fan a maximum torque that depends on the viscosity of
the fluid. Figure 2.91 shows a typical construction. A clutch disc is
sandwiched between the two halves of the casing, which is fitted with fluid
seals to prevent leakage of the silicone fluid. Aluminium alloy is normally
used as a material for the disc and casing. This lightweight material is
chosen because it has good thermal conductivity for dissipating the heat

Figure 2.91 A viscous fan drive

generated by the shearing action of the fluid. Fins on the outside of the
casing also aid heat transfer from the coupling to the air. The air-sensing
fan drive, as well as being torque limiting, varies the fan speed to suit the
temperature of the air that has passed through the radiator. It does this
by controlling the amount of fluid in contact with the drive plate. When
the temperature sensor detects that the coolant is below about 75°C, the
fluid is evacuated from the drive chamber and the fan drive is disengaged.
This saves more power than with a torque-limiting fan and also reduces
fan noise.
Figure 2.92 shows an air-sensing fan drive. At the front of the unit, and
situated so that it is fully exposed to the air coming from the radiator, is
fitted a spiral shaped bimetal sensor. This sensor controls a valve arm,
which is made to rotate through a small angle as the temperature changes
and

225 | P a g e
 Fig. 2.92 An air-sensing fan drive

either cover or uncover an inlet port in the pump plate. The fan is not
needed at low radiator temperatures, so the sensor causes the valve plate
to close the inlet port. This action stops the flow of fluid from the reservoir
to the drive chamber. Since the existing fluid in this chamber is being
pumped back to the reservoir continuously by a combination of centrifugal
action and shaped bimetal sensor. This sensor controls a valve arm, which
is made to rotate through a small angle as the temperature changes and
either cover or uncover an inlet port in the pump plate. The fan is not
needed at low radiator temperatures, so the sensor causes the valve plate
to close the inlet port. This action stops the flow of fluid from the reservoir
to the drive chamber. Since the existing fluid in this chamber is being
pumped back to the reservoir continuously by a combination of centrifugal
action and scoop movement, and no fluid is entering the chamber to take
its place, the chamber soon empties and the drive disengages. At high
radiator temperatures the thermostatic coil moves the valve arm and
uncovers the inlet port; as a result, fluid flows from the reservoir to
restore circulation between the reservoir and drive chamber, and drive to
the fan is restored. Figure 2.157 shows the performance characteristics of
an air-sensing fan of the type fitted to light vehicles.

Fan Shrouds

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Fan shrouds are usually moulded fibre or plastic devices bolted to the inside of the
radiator. The shroud usually partially encloses the fan. This provides some safety if
the fan engages when the hood is open and the engine is running. Shrouds play an
important role in directing air flow through the engine compartment. A missing or
damaged shroud can result in temperature management problems. In hot weather
conditions, fan efficiencies can be lowered by a defective or missing shroud, so they
should be examined at each inspection

Fan Belts and Pulleys

Fan pulleys use external V or poly-V grooves and internal bearings. Belts should be
adjusted using a belt tensioner. If belts are not properly adjusted they will fail. n Too
tight: excessively loads the bearings and shortens bearing and belt life. Too loose:
causes slippage and destroys belts even more rapidly than a too-tight adjustment.
Belts should be inspected as part of a PM routine. Replace belts when glazed,
cracked, or nicked. Replacing belts with early indicators of failure costs much less in
the long run than the breakdowns that may be caused by belts that fail in service.

Fig.2.93 shows radiator shrouds

The radiator shroud ensures that the fan pulls air through the radiator. It fastens to
the rear of the radiator and surrounds the area around the fan. When the fan is
spinning, the shroud keeps air from circulating between the back of the radiator and
the front of the fan. As a result, a large volume of air flows through the radiator
core.

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Water Jacket

The water in the cylinder block and cylinder head form the engine water jacket (fig.
64). In the cylinder block, the water jacket completely surrounds all cylinders along
their full length. Within the jacket, narrow passages are provided between the
cylinders for coolant circulation around them. In addition, water passages are
provided around the valve seats and other hot parts of the cylinder block In the
cylinder head, the water jacket covers the combustion chambers at the top of the
cylinders and contains passages around the valve seats when the valves are located
in the head.

The passages of the water jacket are designed to control circulation of coolant and
provide proper cooling throughout the engine. The pump forces coolant directly from
the lower radiator tank connection into the forward portion of the cylinder block.
This type of circulation would, obviously, cool the number one cylinder first; causing
the rear cylinder to accept coolant progressively heated by the cylinders ahead. To
prevent this condition, the L-head block is equipped with a coolant distribution tube
that extends from front to rear of the block, having holes adjacent to (and directed
at) the hottest parts of each cylinder. I-head engines are equipped with ferrule type
coolant directors that direct a jet of coolant toward the exhaust valve seats.

Thermostats

Fig.2.94 shows a thermostat

Automatic control of the temperature of the engine is necessary for efficient engine
performance and economical operation. If the engine is allowed to operate at a low
temperature, sludge buildup and excessive fuel consumption will occur. On the other
hand, overheating the engine or operating it above normal temperature will result in
burnt valves and faulty lubrication. The latter causes early engine failure.

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The thermostat senses engine temperature and controls coolant flow through the
radiator. It allows coolant to circulate freely only within the block until the desired
temperature is reached. This action shortens the warm-up period. The thermostat
normally fits under the thermostat housing between the engine and the end of the
upper radiator hose. The pellet-type thermostat that is used in modern pressurized
cooling systems incorporates the piston and spring principle (fig. 6-11). The
thermostat consists of a valve that is operated by a piston or a steel pin that fits into
a small case, containing a copper impregnated wax pellet. A spring holds the piston
and valve in a normally closed position. When the thermostat is heated, the pellet
expands and pushes the valve open. As the pellet and thermostat cools, spring
tension overcomes pellet expansion and the valve closes.

Thermostats are designed to open at specific temperatures. This is known as

thermostat rating. Normal ratings are between 180F and 195F for automotive
applications and between 170F and 203F for heavy-duty applications. Thermostats
will begin to open at their rated temperature and are fully open about 20F higher,
for example, a thermostat with a rating of 195F starts to open at that temperature
and is fully open at about 215F.

This is a temperature sensitive valve that controls the coolant flow to the radiator.
There are two main reasons for its use:

1) to enable the engine to warm up quickly from cold;

2) to control the rate of flow and so maintain a constant temperature in the

engine.

Two types are in common use, the bellows type and the wax type

Wax type

This is used in the pressurized system as it is not sensitive to pressure like the
bellows type. A special wax is used, contained in a strong steel cylinder. The
reaction pin is surrounded by a rubber sleeve and is positioned inside the cylinder.
As the temperature increases the wax begins to melt, changing from a solid to a
liquid, and at the same time it expands. This forces the rubber against the fixed
reaction pin, opening the valve against spring pressure thus allowing the water to
circulate through the radiator. There is a small hole in the valve disc to assist in
bleeding the system as filling takes place. The ‘jiggle pin’ closes the hole during
engine warm-up. This thermostat is shown in 2.98

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 Fig.2.95 shows a wax type thermostat

Bellows type

As shown in Fig. 2.99. Bellows type consists of a flexible metal bellows which is
partly filled with a liquid which has a boiling point that is lower than that of water
(e.g. alcohol, ether or acetone). Air is removed from the bellows, leaving only the
liquid and its vapour. The pressure in the bellows is then only due to the vapour
pressure of the liquid. This varies with temperature, and is equal to atmospheric
pressure at the boiling temperature of the liquid, less at lower temperatures and
more at higher temperatures. As the temperature of the water increases, the liquid
in the bellows begins to turn to a vapour and increase in pressure; this expands the
bellows and opens the valve allowing water to pass to the radiator

Fig.2.96 shows a bellows type thermostat

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Filters

Some diesel engines are equipped with coolant filters. When used, they are usually
of the spin-on vehicletridge type and connected in parallel to coolant flow. Using a
coolant filter reduces particulates pumped through the cooling circuit. Filters are
usually plumbed in series with coolant flow, but they must be equipped with a
bypass valve designed to trip if the filter is blocked with dirt. FIG.2.97

Fig.2.97 shows a coolant filter

When coolant filters have to be changed, check the type of shutoff mechanism used.
Most current diesel engines use an automatic check valve, meaning that no spillage
results when a filter is removed for servicing because a lock-off ball engages. Some
engines have manual shutoff valves that must be turned off before removal. New
coolant filters do not require priming. Some coolant filters are equipped with a zinc
electrode to neutralize the electrolytic effect of the coolant, although these are more
likely to be found in marine and off-highway applications

Thermistors

Thermistors are solid-state semiconductor devices whose internal resistance varies

with temperature change. They are supplied with a specific reference voltage,
almost always around 5V DC, and they return a signal to the PCM based on
temperature. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors are commonly
used. The internal resistance in an NTC thermistor decreases as temperature rises.

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Because the internal resistance in an NTC thermistor decreases as temperature
increases, the signal voltage (returned to the PCM) goes up proportionally with
temperature rise. The engine PCM broadcasts engine coolant temperature
information to the data bus so that it can be displayed on a dash digital display or
gauge.

SEALED COOLING SYSTEMS

Figure 2.97 A radiator expansion tank

A further refinement of the cooling system consists of an arrangement whereby the

system is kept completely full of coolant, expansion of the coolant being
accommodated by providing an expansion tank into which the displaced coolant can
pass and from which it can return to the system as the coolant in the system
contracts on cooling.

There are several variations of the arrangement, of which two are briefly described
here. Figure 2.98A shows an addition to the pressurized system already described,
the modification consisting of leading the vent pipe from the filler neck to the bottom
of an expansion tank. A vent pipe is fitted to the top of the expansion tank, which
may (though it is not necessary) have a drain tap and a filler cap.

Operation

The system is completely filled with coolant up to the top of the radiator tank filler
neck and the cap is then fitted. As the engine warms up the coolant expands, lifting
the pressure relief valve off its seating, and some coolant passes into the expansion
tank. Air displaced from the expansion tank escapes through the vent pipe. The
expansion tank is seldom more than about half full under normal conditions.

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As the engine cools down after stopping, the coolant in the system contracts,
withdrawing coolant from the expansion tank back into the system through the filler
cap vacuum relief valve – hence the necessity for the gasket under the spring disc.

A variation of this system uses a plain, airtight filler cap on the header tank, the
pressure and vacuum valves being contained in a small housing permanently
attached to the header tank. Figure 2.97B shows an alternative system in which the
pressure cap is fitted on the expansion tank, which is connected to the top of the
header tank by a small pipe. The filler neck on the header tank is sealed by a plain
filler cap. The radiator header tank is completely filled with coolant and a small
amount of coolant is also added to the expansion tank. As the cooling system warms
up, coolant expands into the expansion tank, which in this case is under pressure. As
the system cools down coolant from the expansion tank is drawn back into the
radiator header tank.

The advantages claimed for a sealed system are:

1) It eliminates coolant loss by expansion.

2) It eliminates the need for periodic topping up, and prevents possible engine
damage by neglecting to top up.

3) By excluding air from the main system, it considerably reduces corrosion of

the components in the cooling system and deterioration of the antifreeze
additive

Temperature Gauge and Warning Light

The operator should be warned if the temperature of the coolant in the cooling
system goes too high. For this reason, a temperature gauge or warning light is
installed in the instrument panel of the vehicle. An abnormal heat rise is a warning
of abnormal conditions in the engine. The warning lights alert the operator to stop
the vehicle before serious engine damage can occur.

COOLANT BY-PASS

Most engines have a small coolant by pass that permits some coolant to circulate
within the cylinder block and head when the engine is cold and the thermostat is
closed. This provides equal warming of the cylinders and prevents hot spots. When
the engine warms up, the bypass must close or become restricted. Otherwise, the

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coolant would continue to circulate within the engine and too little would return to
the radiator for cooling.

The by-pass may be an internal or an external b hose. The by-hose connects the
cylinder block or head to the water pump. There are two internal by systems that
can be used on an engine.

One internal by system uses a small, spring- loaded valve located in the back of the
water pump. The valve is forced open by coolant pressure from the pump when the
thermostat is closed. As the thermostat opens, the coolant pressure drops within the
engine and the by-valve closes.

Comparison of air- and liquid-cooled systems

Advantages of air cooling.

 An air-cooled engine is generally lighter than an equivalent water-cooled

engine.
 It warms up to its normal running temperature very quickly.
 The engine can operate at a higher temperature than a water-cooled engine.
 The system is free from coolant leakage problems and requires no
maintenance.
 There is no risk of damage due to freezing of the coolant in cold weather.

Disadvantages of air cooling

 A fan and suitable cowls are necessary to provide and direct the air flow.
 The fan can be noisy and absorbs a large amount of engine power.
 The cowl makes it difficult to get at various parts of the engine when
servicing is required.
 The engine is more liable to over-heating under difficult conditions than a
water-cooled engine.
 Mechanical engine noises tend to be amplified by the fins.
 The cylinders usually have to be made separately to ensure proper formation
of the fins. This makes the engine more costly to manufacture.
 Cylinders must be spaced well apart to allow sufficient depth of fins.
 It is more difficult to arrange a satisfactory vehicle-heating system.

Advantages of water cooling.

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  The temperatures throughout the engine are more uniform, thus keeping
distortion to a minimum.
 Cylinders can be placed closer together making the engine more compact.
 Although a fan is usually fitted to force air through the radiator, it is much
smaller than the type required for an air-cooled engine. It therefore absorbs
less power and is quieter in operation.
 There is no cowl to obstruct access to the engine.
 The water jacket absorbs some of the mechanical noise making the running
engine quieter.
 The engine is better able to operate under difficult conditions without over-
heating.

Disadvantages of water cooling.

 Weight – not only of the radiator and connections but also of the water; the
whole engine installation is likely to be heavier than an equivalent air-cooled
engine.
 Because the water has to be heated, it takes longer to warm up after starting
from cold.
 If water is used, the maximum temperature is limited to about 85–90 C to
avoid the risk of boiling away the water. However, modern cooling systems
are pressurized and this permits higher temperatures and better efficiency.
 If the engine is left standing in very cold weather, precautions must be taken
to prevent the water freezing in the cylinder jackets and cracking them.
 There is a constant risk of a coolant leakage developing.
 A certain amount of maintenance is necessary, for example, checking water
level, anti-frost precautions, cleaning out deposits, etc

SUMMARY

Most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using either air (a gaseous fluid)
or a liquid coolant run through a heat exchanger (radiator) cooled by air. In air
cooling system, heat is carried away by the air flowing over and around the cylinder.
Here fins are cast on the cylinder head and cylinder barrel which provide additional
conductive and radiating surface. In liquid-cooling system of cooling engines, the
cylinder walls and heads are provided with jacket through which the cooling liquid
can circulate.

ENGINE ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION

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Electronics refers to the control of electrons using electricity, without any visible
moving components. Advancements in vehicle electronics have provided substantial
performance improvement and increased reliability over the electromechanical
systems that they replaced. Since then, electronics has become a major part of the
modern automobile. Every major modern vehicle system now has some tie to
electronics, from antilock brake systems (ABS) to electronic diesel engine controls.

One of the primary reasons for the addition of electronic controls to diesel engines
was the reduction of exhaust emissions, as required by agencies such as the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)or EURO emission EU emission control
regulations. Diesel engines have always had a reputation for being reliable and
efficient. However, diesel engines of the past were also noisy and polluting. The
most visibly evident change is particulate matter (PM) reduction, which includes all
types of exhaust smoke. It is now rare to observe an on-highway vehicles belch out
black smoke (soot), although this was a common sight just a few years ago. The
reduction of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), one of the pollutants responsible for the
formation of smog, has also required substantial changes in diesel engines. It is
estimated that one model year 1980s diesel engine produced the same amount of
pollutants as 65 model year 2010 vehicles.

In this module, we are going to identify electrical and electronic components found
on most diesel engines.

The following are the most common components found on a modern diesel engine:

 Electronic control module

 Sensors
 Solenoids
 Batteries
 Starter motor
 Alternator/generator
 Power and ground wires
 Switches and relays
 Fuses
 Wire Harness

WIRE HARNESS

WIRING
Wiring is often taken for granted because it appears to be the electrical equivalent of
hose or piping. However, wiring is probably the single largest cause of trouble in a
vehicles electrical system. Wiring is subjected to heat, vibration, abrasion, water,

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and road chemicals. If the wiring system fails, the vehicles can become inoperative.
Troubleshooting and repairing wiring problems is one of the most common electrical-
related tasks required of a technician.

Wiring Harnesses

A diesel engine wiring harness from 1970s vehicles may have consisted of one wire
for the fuel cut-off solenoid, not including the wiring for the starter motor and
alternator

FIG.2.98 TYPICAL WIRING HARNESS.

Most vehicles are built on an assembly line, so most wires are not installed and
routed one wire at a time between the various electrical components. To aid in the
manufacturing and servicing of the vehicles, vehicles wiring is divided into
harnesses. A wiring harness is a modularized section of wires designed to be
connected to electrical components and to other wiring harnesses, as shown in
Figure 2-98. For example, the cab or interior of a vehicle may have most of the
wiring for the cab built into one harness, which the OEM may refer to as the cab
harness. This cab harness could be considered as one component or assembly. The
harness might have several connectors.

CONNECTORS

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Connectors are interlocking devices, typically made of an insulating material like
plastic, that permit the wiring harness to be connected to other vehicle wiring
harnesses or electrical components like switches or motors.
Connectors contain terminals. Terminals are the electrically conductive pins (male)
and sockets (female) that provide the electrical connections between two connectors
A vehicle cab wiring harness may be connected to the engine wiring harness. The
engine wiring harness may be connected to a transmission wiring harness and the
front lighting wiring harness. This interconnection among major wiring harnesses
permits a wire that originates in the cab wiring harness to route through several
wiring harnesses to the end destination, such as a headlamp connector. Dividing the
vehicles wiring into harnesses with interlocking connectors makes it easier to
manufacture and service the vehicles. However, these connection points often
become a cause of electrical problems due to water entry, vibration, or strain.
Water mixed with a small amount of road salt or other minerals causes a chemical
reaction called electrolysis to occur with metals that are connected to a positive
electrical potential. This chemical reaction dissolves metals. Most metals also corrode
when exposed to moisture to form a white or green substance that has a high
electrical resistance. This layer of corrosion acts as a series resistance. This series
resistance will reduce or stop current flow in the circuit and will eventually destroy
the terminals and wiring.

Chassis Ground

Fig.2.99. Chassis or frame ground symbols: a low-resistance circuit is

assumed between all ground symbols.

For electric current to flow, there must be a path from one terminal of the voltage
source, such as a battery, to the electrical device, such as a light, and back to the
other battery terminal. Thus, it would seem that each electrical device must be

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supplied with two wires. One wire would originate at the battery-positive terminal
and the other wire would end at the battery negative terminal. Because frame rails
are constructed of highly conductive steel, the machine frame or chassis becomes
one of the conductors for many electrical devices. In most modern vehicles, the
battery negative terminal is connected to the machine’s frame by a large-diameter
cable. Alternatively, this connection to the frame rail may be located near the starter
motor. This causes anything made of a conductive material that is bolted to the
frame to be connected to the battery-negative terminal through the low-resistance
frame. When the frame is connected to the battery-negative terminal, the machine is
said to have a negative ground system.
The term earth instead of ground is often used in other countries. Both earth and
ground refer to the common practice in electric power transmission in which one
conductor is connected to the actual surface of the earth (the literal ground)
because moist earth is a marginal conductor of electricity. The machine’s steel frame
is an excellent conductor of electricity due to its large cross-sectional area. These
metal components are like a piece of large-diameter wire connected to the negative
battery terminal. Since the frame is typically connected to the negative battery
cable, it is only necessary to supply the positive half of the wiring to a device such as
a headlamp. The negative or ground terminal of the headlamp may be connected by
a section of wire to the frame or chassis. When the headlamps are switched on,
current will flow through the positive wire to the headlamp, through the headlamp
filament, through the section of wire connected to the frame or chassis, and
ultimately back to the battery-negative terminal through the cable connected to the
frame. The use of the vehicle frame or chassis, including cabin sheet metal, as the
conductor to the negative battery terminal reduces the amount of electrical wiring
needed by approximately one-half. Anything made of conductive material on a
negatively grounded vehicle that conducts current to the negative battery terminal is
said to be grounded.

The term chassis ground is also often used to describe a negative circuit. Electrical
schematics do not illustrate the vehicle frame or chassis as a conductor. Instead,
one of the ground or earth symbols shown in Figure 2.99 is used to illustrate the
connection to chassis ground. Anywhere throughout the circuit diagrams that you
observe this symbol, it indicates that a low-resistance electrical connection exists
between that ground symbol and any other ground symbol. This simplifies the circuit
diagrams considerably because it is only necessary to show a ground symbol and not
the complete path back to the negative battery terminal for each electrical device.
Some older machine may be positive ground instead of negative ground. These
vehicles connect the positive battery cable to the frame or chassis. If you are unsure
of the ground type of the vehicle you are working on, verify the type of ground of
the vehicle before making electrical system repairs or jump-starting the vehicle. This
is done by determining which battery terminal is connected to the frame or chassis.
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SWITCHES

Electric switches are devices that interrupt the flow of current in a circuit. Electric
switches are found mostly in the cab of the machine and control electrical devices
such as lights, horn, and windshield wipers.
The open position may also be called the OFF position because a device controlled
by the switch would be off with the switch open.
In the closed position, electric current is permitted to pass through the switch to the
rest of the circuit. Thus, the closed position is also called the ON position.
In a series circuit, it makes no difference where a switch is placed because the
current is the same everywhere in a series circuit. An open switch in a series circuit
causes the current to be everywhere in that series circuit. However, standard
automotive practice is to interrupt the positive side of the circuit that is supplying an
electrical device and permanently connect the negative side of the electrical device
to chassis ground.

When a switch is closed, the resistance between the terminals of the switch is very
low, like a piece of wire. This low resistance permits current to flow through the
switch with almost no opposition. In the open state, a switch has an infinitely high
resistance between the terminals that stops all current flow in the circuit.
The two pieces of a switch that actually make or break the circuit current flow are
known as contacts because the two pieces make contact when the switch is closed.
One of the contacts is the moving contact, such as the blade in the knife switch; the
other contact is the stationary contact.
Switch Types
There are many different types of switches. Switches may simply make or break the
flow of electric current in a single circuit. Switches that are more complex may
control several different circuits at the same time. Switches may be a simple on-off
type or may have several positions.
Two major terms, pole and throw, are commonly used to describe how a particular
switch is designed to function.
Poles and Throws.
The term pole describes the number of input terminals that the switch has. You can
also think of the number of poles as being the number of movable contacts inside of
the switch because each of the switch’s input terminals is connected to a movable
contact inside the switch.
The term throw refers to the number of positions that a switch can be moved or
thrown to and still complete a circuit. The terms pole and throw are used together to
describe the basic functionality of a switch.

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Single-pole single-throw (SPST)

Switches neither add energy to the circuit nor take it out. Their function is to give
flexibility by making or breaking circuits or by providing alternate current paths.
They are classified by the number of poles (movable contacts) and throws (closed
positions).
The schematic symbol for a Single-pole single-throw switch is shown in Fig.2 100.

Fig.2.100 Single-pole single-throw (SPST) switch symbol

A switch can have more than one pole.

A single-pole, single-throw switch is like an ordinary light switch in that it makes and
breaks a single circuit with one movement from the rest position

Double-pole single-throw (DPST) switch

The switch shown in Figure 2.101 is referred to as a double-pole single throw switch.

Fig.2.101 Double-pole single-throw (DPST) switch symbol

The dashed line indicates that a mechanical connection exists between the two
movable switch contacts but that no electrical connection exists between the two
contacts. The mechanical connection is made of an insulating type of material such
as plastic. The mechanical connection between the switch contacts causes both
switch contacts always to be closed or open at the same time. Both contacts move

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at the same time, permitting two independent circuits to be controlled by one
double-pole switch. Because this switch can also only be moved to one position to
cause the switch to complete circuits, the switch is a single throw switch. In the ON
position, the switch is completing circuits. In the OFF position, the switch is not
completing any circuits. Therefore, the switch shown in Figure 2.101 is referred to as
a double-pole single throw switch or DPST. A DPST switch is like placing two SPST
switches next to each other and mechanically connecting the two switches so that
one lever controls both switches.

Single-pole double throw (SPDT) switch

A switch can also have more than one throw. A double-throw switch can be moved
to two different positions to complete an electrical circuit, as shown in Figure 2.102.

Fig.2.102 Single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch shown in the two

possible positions.

This switch has only one input terminal and one movable contact, so it is also a
single-pole switch. Therefore, this switch is a single-pole double throw (SPDT)
switch. An example of an SPDT switch is a floor-mounted headlamp dimmer switch.
A headlamp dimmer switch is used to switch back and forth between low-beam and
high-beam headlamps.

Multiple-pole multiple throw switch (MPTS).

Another type of switch is a multiple-pole multiple throw switch. These switches are
often rotary switches. An example of a rotary switch is the ignition (key) switch used
on most vehicles. An ignition switch is shown in Figure2.103. This key switch has
four positions: accessory, off, ignition, and crank. This key switch also has three
moving contacts. This type of switch is also known as a ganged switch because each
of the moving contacts moves in unison

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 Fig.2.103Multiple-pole multiple throw switch (MPTS).

Normal State.

Normal state refers to the state (open or closed) of a momentary contact switch
when the switch is not depressed or otherwise disturbed

A switch type where the spring maintains the switch in the closed position is referred
to as a normally closed switch. Normally closed means the switch is closed (on)
unless someone or something intervenes by pressing on the switch in opposition to
the spring tension.

Fig.2.104 shows a normally closed switch

A switch in which the spring maintains the switch in the open position is referred to
as a normally open switch. Normally open means that the switch is open (off) unless
someone or something intervenes by pressing on the switch in opposition to the
spring tension. A momentary contact horn switch is a normally open switch.
Normally open and normally closed are abbreviated NO and NC, respectively. The
schematic symbols for momentary contact normally open and normally closed
switches are shown in Figure 2.105.

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 Fig.2.105 shows a normally open switch

Self-actuating switches

All switches shown thus far are designed for the person operating the switch’s
moving contact to change the switch’s positions. Some other switches may use
pressure or fluid flow to cause the moving contact of a switch to change states. An
example is an engine oil pressure switch. An engine oil pressure switch is threaded
into an engine oil gallery where one component of the switch is exposed to engine
oil under pressure. An engine oil pressure switch is typically a normally closed
switch. The switch is closed when the oil pressure is low.

Note that low engine oil pressure is not considered a normal condition if the engine
is running. Do not confuse normally closed or normally open with a normal
condition. Normal state refers to the state of the switch when tested at the parts
counter. There would be no oil pressure applied to the oil pressure switch when it is
lying on the parts counter. When the switch is closed, the engine oil pressure
warning lamp in the instrument cluster illuminates to warn the operator that the
engine oil pressure is low. When the oil pressure is above a designated amount, the
spring in the normally closed switch is compressed by the engine oil under pressure,
which causes the switch contacts to open. This causes the engine oil pressure
warning lamp to turn off.

RESISTORS

Resistors are one of the most basic electrical components and are an essential
component of most electronic circuits. Resistors are used for three main purposes in
an electrical or electronic system:

1. Resistors limit the current flow through a circuit.

2. Resistors divide voltage.
3. Resistors give off heat.

There are two main types of resistors—fixed and variable.

Fixed-Value Resistors

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Fixed-value resistors are resistors that have a fixed or set value of resistance. These
resistors are typically made of carbon or a metal oxide material. An outer jacket of
insulating material surrounds the fixed resistors, as shown in Figure2.106.

Fig.2.106 shows different types of resistors

Notice that the wattage rating of the resistor increases with its physical size.
Resistors transform electrical energy into heat. Power is measured in units of watts.
Resistors have a wattage rating that indicates how much heat the resistor can safely
dissipate. A physically larger resistor has more surface area than a smaller resistor,
permitting more heat to be dissipated; thus, the higher wattage rating.

Resistor Colour Code

To identify a resistor’s value, a colour code is often used. This colour code consists
of a series of coloured bands around the girth of the resistor, as shown in Fig.2.106.
The colour code permits visual identification of a resistor’s approximate value.

RELAYS

Fig.2.107 shows s relay

Relays are electromagnetic switching devices that permit a small amount of current
to control a large amount of current. Relays of various sizes and current ratings are
used extensively throughout vehicle electrical systems to permit a switch with a low-

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current rating or an electronic module to control a high-current circuit. A relay can
be considered as a remotely controlled switch.
Relay Operation
Figure 2.107 illustrates the internal components of a typical relay. The relay shown
in this example contains a set of normally open switch contacts. A coil of wire is
wrapped around a stationary core made of metal. One end of the coil is shown as
being grounded in this example. The other end of the coil is connected to a terminal
identified as the control circuit, which is used to control the relay as explained later
in this section. A movable component known as an armature is made of metal and is
positioned above the stationary core. The power source terminal of the relay in this
example is electrically connected to the metal armature. One of the switch contacts
is attached to the end of the armature. The other switch contact is stationary and is
located below the armature switch contact. The load terminal of the relay in this
example is connected to the stationary contact. A spring is utilized to maintain an air
gap between the armature and core to keep the switch contacts held in the open
position. When electric current passes through the coil of wire, the stationary metal
core inside the coil of wire becomes magnetized. This causes the metal armature to
be magnetically attracted toward the core, in opposition to the tension of the
armature spring. The downward movement of the armature toward the magnetized
core causes the switch contact mounted to the armature to make an electrical
connection with the stationary switch contact. The closed relay switch contacts then
provide a path for current to flow from the power source to the load, similar to a
closed switch.

Fig.2.108 shows the schematic symbol for a common miniature relay

Figure 2.108 shows the schematic symbol for a common miniature relay found on
vehicles. This relay is often referred to as a DIN or ISO relay. This particular relay
has male blade-type terminals. These relays are plugged into a mating connector,
which is often incorporated with a large hard-shell connector called a fuse block or

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fuse terminal. The footprint or bottom view of the relay (terminal layout) is
standardized as are the terminal numbering designations. The footprint design only
permits one way for the relay to be plugged into the fuse block. Terminals numbered
as 86 and 85 are the coil connections. Typically, terminal 86 is connected to the
positive voltage supply and terminal 85 is connected to the negative voltage source
(ground), but this polarity is often reversed by some OEMs for no particular reason.
The resistance of the wire making up the coil on most miniature relays used in 12V
systems is typically 50O to 100O. The electrical circuit that provides power and
ground to the relay coil is referred to as the control circuit. Terminal 30 of the
miniature ISO (DIN) relay is referred to as the common terminal. The common
terminal is often connected to a positive voltage supply, but it could also be
connected to ground depending on the circuit design. Terminal 87 is referred to as
the normally open output of the relay. Normally open indicates that when the relay
is sitting on the parts counter, the contacts are open. Therefore, no continuity exists
between terminal 30 and terminal 87 until the relay coil is energized, which means
that sufficient current is flowing through the relay coil to cause the electromagnet to
overcome the armature spring tension and change the state of the contacts. This
movement of the armature can typically be heard as an audible click and can
typically be felt on the relay cover. The armature movement causes the normally
open switch contacts to close, providing a low-resistance connection between the
common terminal (30) and the normally open relay output terminal (87).
Like switches, relay contacts use a pole and throw designation to describe the relay
configuration. The relay shown in Figure 2.108 is a single-pole double throw (SPDT)
relay. One set of contacts is normally open; the other set is normally closed. The
common terminal (30) acts as a shared switch contact for both the normally open
and normally closed contacts, thus the designation as ‘‘common.’’ The ISO
designation for the normally closed relay terminal is 87A. A low resistance electrical
connection exists between the common terminal 30 and the normally closed terminal
87A when the coil is de-energized. When the relay coil is energized, the electrical
connection between the common terminal and the normally closed terminal is
opened, like an open switch. Many other types of relays are available with multiple
poles and throws, but the customary type used on vehicles is the SPDT type. This
SPDT type typically has a normally closed contact, held closed by spring tension, and
a normally open contact that is closed magnetically when the relay coil is energized.
When the normally closed contact is open, the normally open contact is closed and
vice versa. Most relays provide a graphic illustration on the cover to show the relay’s
contact configuration and the definition of the relay’s terminals. The schematic
symbols vary by relay manufacturer, but some examples of relay cover schematics
along with their footprint are shown in Figures2.109A and B. The dashed line
indicates that the switch is closed by a magnetic field. The symbol for the relay coil
is often shown as a rectangle with a diagonal line, as shown in these examples.
Many other relays have a different numbering system and use a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
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numbering convention (Figure 2.110). The schematic symbol is typically printed or
etched on the relay cover and should indicate the internal connection of each of the
relay’s terminals.

Figure 2.109A Shows examples of relay cover schematics along with their
footprint

Figure 2.109B Shows examples of relay cover schematics along with their
footprint

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TYPES OF CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES (CPDS)
A circuit protection device (CPD) is a device designed to protect an electrical circuit
from excessive heat due to higher than normal current flow. The primary purpose of
a CPD is to protect the machine’s wiring harness. CPDs include fuses, circuit
breakers, fusible links, and positive temperature coefficient (PTC) devices. Each of
these devices will be covered in detail. CPDs are often thought of as safety valves
for electricity. A machine air brake system has a pressure relief valve designed to
open at about 150 psi (1034 kPa) and release air pressure from the system before
damage occurs due to excessive air pressure. This safety valve should not typically
open during operation because air brake system pressure should never reach 150 psi
unless something has failed in the pressure control system, such as the governor. In
a manner similar to a pressure relief valve, CPDs open if current exceeds some
value. Like a pressure relief valve in an air brake system, a CPD should only open if
a problem occurs

Figure 2.111Shows types fuse elements

TYPES OF CPDS
The main types of circuit protection devices utilized in electrical systems of modern
vehicles are fuses, circuit breakers, and fusible links. Each of these devices is
designed to be the weak point of a circuit and open before the wiring gets too hot.
Fuses.
Fuses are circuit protection devices that contain a piece of small gauge wire or a thin
flat metal strap referred to as an element. The fuse element becomes the weakest
link of an electrical circuit. This is accomplished by selecting a fuse with a current
rating less than the design amperage of the smallest gauge of wire in the circuit that

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is protected by the fuse. Since current flow creates heat and the fuse element is a
small-gauge wire or thin metal strap, the element will heat up more rapidly than the
smallest-gauge wire that is protected by the fuse. If an excessive amount of current
flows through the fuse for enough time to generate sufficient heat to melt the fuse
element, the flow of current in the circuit will be interrupted. Once the element has
melted, the fuse is destroyed and must be replaced. A fuse that has opened is often
said to have blown. A blown fuse is a fuse with a melted element. Fuses have a
specific current rating.

Fig.2.112 Melted open fuse element commonly known as a blown fuse

Fuses for vehicle electrical systems are available that are designed to open with less
than 1A of current flow to those that are designed to handle more than 500A of
current flow.
Fuses also have a voltage rating. The voltage rating indicates the maximum voltage
that the fuse is designed to interrupt. Most fuses designed for vehicle electrical systems
have a voltage rating of 32V.
Fuses are also classified by how long it takes the fuse to open with a given
percentage of current overload. Fuses may be classified as fast-acting or time delay
fuses. Any fuse opens based on a combination of current and time. A 20A fuse does
not typically open just as soon as current flow through the fuse reaches 20A. Most
fuses are designed to maintain a 110 percent overload current indefinitely, so a 20A
fuse will probably never blow if 21A of current is flowing through the fuse. At a 150
percent current overload (30A of current flow for a 20A rated fuse), a 20A fuse may
blow after 2 seconds for a fuse classified as fast acting or 20 seconds for a fuse
classified as time delay. The devices controlled by the circuit that the fuse protects
determines what type of fuse is necessary. Most modern vehicle fuses are blade-
type fuses. The blades of the fuse have male terminals. Samples of blade-type fuses

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are shown in Figure 2.111. The male terminals on the blade fuse plug into female
terminals mounted in a fuse block or fuse panel. A fuse block or fuse panel is a
connector body designed to accommodate several fuses. Vehicles may have one
main fuse block or several smaller fuse panels located throughout the vehicle. Many
fuse blocks are also designed to accommodate relays as well (Figure 4-44). A blade
fuse has a coloured translucent plastic housing. This allows the fuse element to be
visible for inspection. A fuse that is blown may only have a small visible gap in the
element with minimal discolouration of the plastic housing if the fuse blew due to a
slight overload. However, if a short to ground caused a large amount of current to
flow through the fuse, the plastic housing may be blackened from the associated
heat caused by the short to ground. The coloured fuse housing is colour-coded
based on the fuse’s current rating. The colour of the housing for a particular fuse
current rating has been standardized in the industry by SAE. Standardized fuse
colours throughout the automotive industry increases the likelihood that the correct
value of fuse for each circuit is installed in the fuse block.

Circuit Breakers.

Circuit breakers are thermal devices that use current flow to heat a thin piece of
bimetallic strip, as shown in Figure 3.113.

Fig 2.113 Internal components of SAE Type I circuit breaker.

If the bimetallic strip is sufficiently heated, the strip will bend or snap, causing a pair
of contacts to open and interrupt current flow in a circuit. An open circuit breaker is
referred to as being tripped. When the circuit breaker cools down, the circuit breaker
can be reset, which causes the contacts to close again and restore current flow in
the circuit. Because a circuit breaker can be reset, this provides an advantage over a
fuse, which must be replaced if blown. Like fuses, circuit breakers have a current
rating and voltage rating. Circuit breakers generally require longer to open than a
comparable fuse for a given amount of excess current, so they are considered time

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delay. The schematic symbol for a circuit breaker (CB) is a sideways C, as shown in
Figure 2.114.

Figure 2.114 Circuit breaker schematic symbol.

Like a fuse, the current rating of the circuit breaker is often displayed next to the
schematic symbol along with identification such as CB3. Circuit breakers are
classified by SAE into three different categories: Type I, Type II, and Type III. The
three categories describe the type of circuit breaker reset mechanism.

SAE Type I circuit breakers are automatic reset devices. Type I circuit breakers reset
automatically without operator intervention after the bimetallic strip cools down. The
reset action causes the contacts to close and restore current flow to the circuit. If
the circuit is still drawing too much current, the breaker will open or trip again
repeatedly. Type I circuit breakers are commonly used in windshield wiper and
headlamp circuits where the automatic reset feature is desirable. However, the
constant reset action of Type I circuit breakers can cause the circuit breaker
contacts to be damaged from excessive making and breaking of a high-current
circuit.
SAE Type II circuit breakers are modified automatic reset devices. Type II circuit
breakers reset automatically after the cause of the excess current in the circuit is no
longer present. Type II circuit breakers also reset when the voltage supply for the
circuit breaker, such as ignition voltage, is switched off for a few minutes. Type II
circuit breakers contain a heating coil, which causes the bimetallic strip to open
when the device is conducting too much current. Type II circuit breakers are
designed so that current flow through the heating coil continues even after the
circuit breaker trips. When the current through the heating coil decreases after a
repair is made or power is removed from the circuit, the bimetallic strip cools and
automatically closes again like a Type I circuit breaker.
SAE Type III circuit breakers are manual reset devices. A trip indicating button or
lever pops up when the breaker is tripped. After the bimetallic strip cools sufficiently,
the button can be depressed to reset the breaker. Depressing the reset button
before the bimetallic strip has cooled enough will cause the button to pop back up
when released. If the cause of the excess current is still present after the bimetallic
strip has cooled, the circuit breaker will trip again when the bimetallic strip heats up
sufficiently. Like blade fuses, blade-type circuit breakers are common on modern
vehicles. Most blade-type circuit breakers are designed to fit into the same fuse

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block cavities as blade fuses. The footprint of the terminals is the same as a blade
fuse, but the circuit breaker may be wider, thicker, and taller than the blade fuse.
The housing or reset button of most blade-type circuit breakers is color-coded, using
the same coding as the respective blade-type fuse. Other circuit breakers have the
current rating stamped on the circuit breaker housing and have no color-coding. It is
important when replacing a circuit breaker that the OEM’s recommendations for
current rating and reset type are observed.

Fusible Links.

A fusible link is a piece of wire with a high-temperature insulation material that is

flame resistant (Figure 2.115).

Figure 2.155 Fusible link

A fusible link is designed to be similar to the weakest link in a chain. The weakest
link in the chain will break before the stronger links in the chain when subjected to
excessive force. The wire gauge of a fusible link is typically selected so that it is
smaller diameter than the smallest wire that is directly protected by the fusible link.
In the event of a short to ground in a circuit protected by a fusible link, the fusible
link heats up more than any wire that is protected by the fusible link. Excessive
current flow through the fusible link causes the wire to melt like a large fuse
element. The special insulation material used in fusible links does not melt off the
fusible link nor does it support a flame, like many types of standard wire insulation.
Fusible links are like fuses in that once they have melted, they must be replaced.
Fusible links are somewhat difficult to replace because, unlike a fuse, they do not
merely connect to a fuse block like a blade or cartridge fuse. Replacing a fusible link
involves cutting the damaged fusible link out of the wiring harness and splicing a
new fusible link in its place. This can be a very time-consuming process because
fusible links are often located near the starter motor and are difficult to access.
However, fusible links are typically limited to protecting high current circuits such as
alternator charging circuits and cab power supply cables. These types of circuits
should rarely be subjected to currents high enough to cause the fusible link to burn
open. The circuits that fusible links supply are typically branched into other sub-
circuits that are protected by smaller CPDs such as fuses and circuit breakers. Unlike

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fuses, fusible links do not have a current rating. Instead, fusible links are rated by
conductor diameter. The size of the fusible link conductor is stamped on the
insulation. Often, fusible links are sold in metric sizes (mm 2) and converted to the
closest AWG size. A fusible link that has burned open must be replaced with another
fusible link of the same length and gauge. It is critical that the fusible link be
replaced only with fusible link wire of the correct gauge for the application. The
fusible link must be the smallest diameter circuit to provide adequate wiring harness
protection. Standard design practice is for the fusible link to be four AWG sizes
smaller (larger number) than the smallest section of wire that is protected by the
fusible link.

Positive Temperature Coefficient Devices.

Figure 2.116 PTC device operation: high temperature due to excessive

current flow causes the resistance of the device to increase to protect the
circuit

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) circuit protection devices have been used for
many years in automobiles. PTC refers to the property of most conductors where the
resistance of the conductor increases as the temperature of the conductor increases.
PTC circuit protection devices make use of this increase in resistance with increased
current flow to protect wiring from overheating. A typical PTC device contains a
polymer (plastic) such as polyethylene mixed with carbon or graphite. When the
temperature of the PTC device is below the designed ‘‘trip point,’’ the device has
very little resistance across its terminal like a fuse or circuit breaker. As the device
self-heats when current flow through the device increases, the polymer expands
resulting in separation of the carbon chains connecting the two terminals of the
device. The resistance of the PTC device increases at a nonlinear rate as the
temperature increases, resulting in a reduction of circuit current sufficient to protect
the wiring. If the condition causing the high-current flow is resolved, the PTC
material will cool, resulting in the resistance of the device returning to nearly zero.
Thus, the PTC device automatically resets similar to an SAE Type II circuit breaker

SENSORS

Anything that signals input data to a computer system can be described as a sensor.
Sensors may be simple switches that an operator toggles open or closed. Or they
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may be devices that are supplied with a reference voltage, and then send a portion
of that back to the ECM.

Reference Voltage

To begin with we should understand what is meant by reference voltage. Reference

Voltage

The term reference voltage is almost always referred to as V-Ref. Actually V-Ref is
an ECM output. Regardless of manufacturer, V-Ref is specified as 5 VDC. More
correctly, it is a voltage as close to 5 V-DC as the ECM can maintain through
conditions that vary, such as temperature and battery voltage (V-Bat). If you were to
measure V-Ref with an accurate digital multimeter (DMM), you might measure a
value such as 5.014 V-DC when the engine is cold and 4.987 V-DC when at
operating temperature. Because the ECM knows exactly what the V-Ref is at any
given moment of operation, it knows how to interpret the signals that are returned
to it.

Sensors Using V-Ref

Let us now examine some sensors that receive V-Ref. There are four types:

1. thermistors,
2. pressure sensors,
3. position sensors, and
4. induction pulse generators.

Thermistors.

Thermistors precisely measure temperature. To do this they use a variable resistor.

The resistance varies according to temperature. The voltage supplied to the
thermistor is V-Ref.

Thermistors are two-wire devices:

1. V-Ref

2. Signal

Thermistors are classified by whether resistance increases or decreases when a

temperature rise occurs:

1. NTC (negative temperature coefficient): temperature goes up, resistance goes

down

2. PTC (positive temperature coefficient): temperature goes up, resistance goes up

Some examples of thermistors used on diesel engines are:

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 1. coolant temperature sensor
2. ambient temperature sensor
3. oil temperature sensor
4. boost air temperature sensor

Almost without exception, NTC-type temperature sensors are used on diesel engine
systems. This means that as temperature increases, resistance decreases, and
therefore signal voltage (to the ECM) increases.

In summary, we can say that in an NTC thermistor:

As temperature rises, the output voltage signal rises proportionally. Figure 2.117
shows how a typical NTC-type thermistor operates to signal temperatures on a diesel
engine.

Fig.2.117 OPERATION OF AN NTC- TYPE THERMISTER

PRESSURE SENSORS.

Most pressure sensors used in engine management electronics operate on a variable

capacitance principle. These are three-wire sensors that are supplied with V-Ref. In
addition to V-Ref, they also have ground and signal terminals. The device consists of
a ceramic disc behind which is a flat conductive spring and steel disc. Pressure acts
on the ceramic disc and moves it either closer or farther away from the steel disc.
This varies the capacitance of the device and therefore that portion of V-Ref that is
returned as a signal to the ECM. Variable capacitance pressure sensors are used as:

1. oil pressure sensors

2. turbo-boost pressure sensors
3. barometric pressure sensors

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 4. fuel pressure sensors
5. mass airflow sensors (in pairs)

Figure 2.118 Operation of a variable capacitance pressure sensor. Note

how the signal voltage changes in response to a rise in pressure

Figure 2.118 shows how a variable capacitance-type pressure sensor responds to

low and high pressure by outputting different return signals. Piezo-resistive sensors
may be used to signal pressure values. This type of pressure sensor is often used to
measure and signal turbo-boost pressure. They provide greater accuracy than an
equivalent variable capacitance sensor. Piezo-resistive pressure sensors are
sometimes referred to as Wheatstone bridge sensors, a reference to the digital chip
that outputs the signal.

Position Sensors.

A potentiometer is commonly used to signal position to the ECM. They are three-
wire devices:

1. V-Ref

2. ground

3. signal

The output signal portion of the potentiometer is proportional to the movement of a

mechanical device. Potentiometers are voltage dividers. The moving mechanical
device (say, an accelerator pedal) moves a contact wiper over a variable resistor. As
the wiper is moved over the variable resistor, the resistance path changes. This
means that V-Ref is divided between the signal (sent to the ECM) and ground.

Induction Pulse Generator.

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An induction pulse generator does not require a V-Ref input to function. Instead it
generates its own signal using the same principles as those of an electric motor.
Induction pulse generators are used to signal the speed and sometimes position of
anything that rotates. These types of sensors are used in many non-engine systems
for functions such as wheel speed signalling. Their operation is simple enough. A
toothed disc known as a pulse wheel, tone wheel, or chopper wheel is connected to
the rotating component. The pulse wheel is manufactured with evenly spaced teeth.
As the wheel rotates, it is driven through a stationary magnetic field. This induces an
alternating current (AC) voltage in the signal circuit as the magnetic field builds and
collapses. The analogue AC voltage pulses that are generated are signalled to the
ECM. The ECM is not so much interested in the actual voltage value as the
frequency. The faster the pulse wheel rotates, the higher the frequency of the wave
signal produced. The frequency is used to identify a specific rotational speed. Figure
14-5

Fig.2.119 SHOWS THE OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF AN INDUCTION PULSE

GENERATOR

Signalling position inductive pulse generators can also be used to signal position.
simply by adding a tooth in one position on the pulse wheel, a specific position can
be signaled by the change in frequency. An example would be on a camshaft
position sensor. By adding a tooth to the pulse at the number1TDC position, the
ECM is able to reference this for fuel injection timing purposes.

HALL-EFFECT SENSORS.

Hall-effect sensors generate a digital signal and may be used to signal both speed
and position. They may be used to accurately signal both linear and rotational
position. a rotary hall-effect sensor has a rotating disc machined with timing
windows or vanes. the rotating disc is positioned to pass through a magnetic field by
alternately blocking and opening a magnetic field. This produces an on/off effect. in
a rotary hall-effect sensor, the rotating disc is known as a pulse wheel or tone
wheel. Because these terms are also used to describe the rotating disc of an
induction pulse generator, vehiclee should be taken to avoid confusion. We will use

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the term tone wheel here. The frequency and width of the signal provides the ECM
with speed and position data. To signal position data, the tone wheel uses a single
narrow window or vane at one specific position. Power-up a hall-effect sensor, circuit
has to be powered-up. Some OEMS power-up a hall-effect circuit using v-ref. others
power-up a hall-effect circuit using either v-bat or an ECM modulated voltage such
as 8 v-dc. A hall-effect sensor outputs a digital square wave signal as opposed to
the analogue signal of the inductive pulse (ac) generator.

Noncontact TPS.

Hall-effect sensors can also be used as throttle position sensors. Their advantage
over a potentiometer throttle position sensor (TPS) is that there is no mechanical
contact between the moving components. the result is that they tend to be more
reliable. In a hall-effect TPS, a noncontact sliding shutter alternately blocks and
exposes the hall-effect magnetic field to the signalling semiconductor sensor. Mass
Air Flow (MAF) sensors. Mass air flow sensors are required on all current diesel
engines.

Their objective is to provide the ECM with accurate measurement of the weight of air
delivered to the engine cylinders.

MAF sensors may be classified as:

1. hot wire

2. vortex flow

3. critical flow venturi (CFV)

In current diesel engines, the most common type of MAF sensor is the CFV.

ENGINE ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

0008
THE ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED DIESEL ENGINE

The central component in modern diesel engines is the engine electronic control
module (ECM). Some OEMs refer to the ECM as an engine control unit (ECU) or as
an engine electronic control unit (engine ECU). An Electronic control module is an
electronic component that contains a microprocessor. The microprocessor in the
ECM is programmed to make logical ‘‘decisions’’ on how it will control its outputs
based on the information it receives from its inputs. The ECM inputs include a
variety of sensors, such as those that would connect to the engine wiring harness.
However, the primary ECM input is the crankshaft position and speed, which is
typically obtained from the combination of camshaft and crankshaft position sensors.
The vehicle’s torque or speed request, obtained from the accelerator position sensor
(APS), is also an important ECM input

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 Fig.2.200shows components of engine electronic control

The electronic control system has the following major components:

1. Speed sensor or timing sensor

2. Coolant temperature sensor
3. Inlet air temperature sensor
4. Boost pressure sensor
5. Fuel temperature sensor
6. Atmospheric pressure sensor
7. Oil pressure sensor
8. Engine wiring harness
9. Electronic Control Module (ECM)
10. A remote mounted throttle position sensor

The electronic control system, integrally designed into the engine's fuel system,
air inlet and exhaust system provides increased timing control and fuel air
ratio control in comparison to conventional mechanical engines.Injection timing is ac
hieved by precise control
of injector firing time, and engine RPM is controlled by adjusting the
firing duration. The ECM energizes the solenoid in the unit injector in order to
start the injection of fuel and de-energizes
the unit injector solenoids in order to stop injection of fuel.

The engine uses the following three types of electronic components:

1. Input
2. Control
3. Output

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Input
An input component is one that sends a signal to the electronic control module of
the system. The signal that is sent varies in
either voltage or frequency The variation of the signal is in response to
a change in some specific
system of the vehicle. The electronic control module sees the input sensor signal info
rmation about the
condition, environment, or operation of the vehicle.

Control

A control component receives the input signals. Electronic

circuits inside the control evaluate the signals from the
input components. These electronic circuits also supply electrical energy to the outp
ut components of the system.
The electrical energy that is supplied to the output components is based on pre-
determined combinations of input
signal values.

Output

An output component is one that is operated by a control module. The output

component receives electrical energy from the electronic control group. The output
component uses the electrical energy in one of two ways.
The output component can use that electrical energy in order to perform work or
to provide information.
1. A moving solenoid plunger will perform work by functioning to regulate the
vehicle.
2. A dash panel light or
an alarm will provide information to the operator of the vehicle.

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Fig.2.201 A TYPICAL ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED DIESEL ENGINE
CIRCUIT

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BATTERY

Fig.2.202 Shows an automotive battery

Batteries store and transform energy. Batteries store energy in the form of chemical
energy. The stored chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy that causes
a difference in electrical potential (voltage) across the battery’s terminals. This
voltage causes a direct current to flow when a complete electrical circuit is
connected across the battery’s terminals. A battery can only supply direct current
(DC).

Vehicles typically use a type of battery known as a lead acid battery. The acid is
sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The lead and the acid together cause chemical reactions to
occur, which produce a voltage

LEAD ACID BATTERY FUNDAMENTALS

When a lead acid battery is supplying current to an electrical circuit, the battery is
said to be discharging. The direction of conventional current flow is from the
battery-positive terminal, through the load, and back to the battery-negative
terminal. As the battery discharges, the limited supply of stored chemical energy in
the battery is being depleted. The chemical energy in vehicles batteries can be
replenished by causing a direct current to flow through the battery in a direction
opposite from the battery discharge current. When the battery is receiving such a
current, the battery is said to be charging. This charging current is supplied by an

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engine-driven generator that is commonly known as an alternator. The charging
current supplied by the alternator causes the battery to reverse the process and
convert electrical energy back into chemical energy. The current supplied by the
alternator powers the vehicle’s loads, such as lights, and recharges the battery. The
discharging and charging process is repeated each time the vehicle’s engine is
started.

Batteries serve four main purposes in a vehicle’s electrical system:

1. Batteries supply electric current when the vehicles’ engine is not running, to
power ignition off accessories such as hazard flashers.
2. Batteries supply the current for the starter motor to crank the engine.
3. Batteries supply current to the vehicle electrical system when the engine is
running and the combined current demand of devices such as the wiper
motor, blower motor, and lights exceed the vehicle’s alternator output
capability. The batteries also permit the vehicles to be driven for a brief
period of time should the charging system fail.
4. Batteries stabilize the vehicle’s electrical system. The vehicle batteries smooth
out voltage spikes caused by switching, such as the negative voltage spikes
associated with coils. Batteries are also used to supply power during
overnight parking for cab electrical accessories and HVAC systems.

Most modern vehicle batteries are categorized as maintenance-free or low

maintenance batteries. However, older technology batteries known as conventional
batteries may still be used in some equipment. The difference between a
maintenance-free or low maintenance and a conventional battery is the type of
materials utilized in the battery construction. Conventional batteries also have filler
caps to permit the addition of battery water as a maintenance item. The
maintenance-free varieties batteries are sealed and have no such provision for
adding water. Maintenance-free batteries are designed never to need water over the
life of the battery. Non-sealed low-maintenance varieties have provisions for adding
water, but the design and battery construction significantly reduce the amount of
water that the battery requires, compared to conventional batteries.

The chemical reaction that generates voltage in both conventional and a low
maintenance-free battery is nearly the same. However, there are some differences in
how a low maintenance battery and a conventional battery are installed, serviced,
and tested.

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 Internal Battery Components

Fig.2. 203.Shows internal parts of the battery

The internal structure of a battery is composed of lead. The lead is what

makes a battery such a heavy component and is necessary for the chemical
process that produces electricity. The sulfuric acid mixed with water acts as
an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a substance that mixes with water to form a
solution or mixture that conducts electricity. Pure water alone is not a good
conductor of electricity. The fundamental voltage-producing component in a
battery is a pair of plates. The plates are constructed of two different types of
lead (Figure 5-1). One type of plate is a positive plate and is constructed of a
compound made of a combination of lead and oxygen called lead dioxide
(PbO2). The other type of plate is a negative plate and is made of sponge lead
(Pb). The lead material is pasted to a holding structure known as a grid,
which is the foundation on which the plates are constructed. The grid for both
positive and negative plates in low water loss batteries is usually made of lead
calcium and looks like a small chain link fence or expanded metal section. The
grid holds the soft lead material in place. Together, the grid and the pasted-
on lead material make up a positive or negative plate.

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 ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION ONE

a. Briefly explain the how the cooling system aids the engine to quickly attain its
operating temperature.
b. With the help of a neat diagram, briefly describe the operation of the radiator
cap when the operating pressure is exceeded in the cooling system
c. Discuss why electrically operated fans are preferred to mechanically operated
fans.
d. Briefly describe two main factors, why modern vehicle manufacturers prefer
cross type radiator to vertical.

QUESTION TWO

a. Intake and exhaust systems are equally important systems in engine

operation. State the functions of the following components:
i. Intercooler 1mark
ii. Exhaust silencer 1mark
iii. Catalytic convertor 1mark
b. With the aid of block diagram, show the arrangement of components
in an engine equipped with an intercooler and a turbo charger 5marks
c. Describe the shut-down procedure of an engine equipped with a
single geometry turbo charger 5marks
d. Give one reason for each of the following components:
i. Waste gate 1mark
ii. Placing the catalytic convertor next to the exhaust manifold 1mark
e. Describe the procedure of servicing a wet type air filter 5marks

QUESTION THREE

a. Define the following terms as applied to the fuel system:

i. Calibration 1mark
ii. Phasing 1mark

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 iii. Cloud point 1mark
b. With the help of neat diagrams, briefly explain the operation of
diaphragm fuel lift pump 5marks
c. Hydraulic Injectors perform important functions in the fuel system.
i. State any two functions that they perform 1mark
ii. Four test carried out to determine their serviceability 4marks
d. Describe the operation of pumping elements in an in-line fuel
injection pump during the pumping stage 5marks

QUESTION FOUR

a. The burning process in CI engine takes place inside the engine:

i. Name the three types of indirect combustion chambers. 3marks
ii. State any two (2) demerits of a direct combustion chambers 2marks
b. The figure below shows the combustion process in a CI engine.
briefly describe the process at phase 1 and phase 2 10marks

c. Define the following terms related to the combustion process of

a CI engine:

Diesel knock 1mark

i. Turbulence 1mark
d. State any three functions of the combustion chamber 3marks

QUESTION FIVE

a. State any
i. four (5) functions of oil 4marks
ii. one function of detergents in oil 1mark

One function of Oxidation inhibitors in oil 1marks

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One function of Pour point depressants in oil 1marks

b. With the aid of a neat diagram, explain the operation of the plunger
type oil pressure relief valve used in the engine lubrication system 5marks

c. Name the parts 1,2, 3, 4 and 5 4marks

d. Briefly describe the operation of the above component. 4marks

QUESTION SIX

a. Briefly explain the how the cooling system aids the engine to quickly
attain its operating temperature 6marks
b. With the help of a neat diagram, briefly describe the operation of the
radiator cap when the operating pressure is exceeded in the cooling
system. 6marks
c. Define the following cooling terms in relationship to the engine
cooling system:
i. Conduction 1mark
ii. Convection 1mark
iii. Radiation 1mark
iv. Overheating 1mark

In relationship to the liquid cooling system List any four possible

causes of engine overheating 6marks

QUESTION SEVEN

The figure below shows a component of the CI fuel injection pump.

268 | P a g e
 a. Name the components labelled A, B, C, D and E in the fuel injection pump
below.
4 marks
b. State any two (2):
i. functions of the fuel delivery valve of an inline
fuel injection pump. 2 marks
ii. State any two (2) filter materials used in manufacture of fuel filters of
CI engines 2 marks

c. Describe the procedure of changing a spin-on fuel filter of a CI engine

QUESTION EIGHT

a. State two:
i. additives added to engine cooling system to improve its
quality. 2marks

ii. types of cooling systems. 2marks

b. Define the three modes of heat transfer in the cooling

System 6marks
c. With the help of a neat diagram, describe the procedure of a
thermostat for proper serviceability 10marks

QUESTION NINE

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 Figure 6

a. Name the component in figure 1

b. Label the parts marked 1-5 in figure 1
c. Briefly explain how air enters the cylinder if the following compression ignition
engine:
i. Natural aspirated engine
ii. Turbo charged engine
iii. Turbo charged after cooled engine
d. Describe the procedure of starting and shutting down a turbo charged diesel
engine
QUESTION TEN

a) Name two types of engine cooling systems.

b) Identify three types of heat transfer during engine operation.
c) State four causes of engine overheating.
d) List two (2) effects of engine over cooling.

QUESTION ELEVEN
a) Draw circuit symbols of the following electronic components:
i. Zener Diode
ii. Light emitting diode
iii. PNP Transistor
iv. NPN Transistor
b) Identify two applications of transistors in an electronic circuit
c) Describe a printed circuit

270 | P a g e
 d) State two (2) advantages of a printed circuit over a common
cable circuit
e) State three (3) advantages of semi-conductors over mechanical
components

QUESTION TWELVE
a) Draw a bridge circuit having four diodes showing the current
through each diode when the battery is being charged.
b) Define a thermistor
c) State any four applications of diodes in a electronic circuit
d) Distinguish a PTC thermistor from an NTC thermistor

QUESTION THIRTEEN
a) Identify the three logic gates
b) State any two (20 logic gates that can be derived from the three
basic logic gates
c) Draw truth tables for each of the basic logic gates

QUESTION FOURTEEN
a) Define the term’ engine management’
b) State four types of engine management controls
c) Outline four (4) advantages of using engine management
systems compared to the common mechanical diesel engines
controls.
d) Explain what is meant by the term ‘lambda diesel sensing’.
Outline any three advantages that comes with this system.
e) List any four (4) preliminary checks that should be made before
testing the engine management system.

QUESTION FIFTEEN

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 References

Angelo, S. ‘et al’. (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment Systems. New
York.
Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems. 4th Ed. Routledge
Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed. Routledge
Heizler, H. (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann
Hillier, V. (2014). Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics. 2nd edn. Oxford
Joseph, A.B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Electricity & Electronics. 2nd edn.
Clifton Park, New York.
Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
Scott, A.H. (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems Approach
(Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty).Pearson Education

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UNIT A7.3: DISASSEMBLING, INSPECTING AND ASSEMBLING DIESEL
ENGINES

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Demonstrating safety procedures
2. Identifying tools and materials required to perform the task
3. Applying correct procedures when performing diesel engine service
4. Use correct oil sampling procedures after service checks

This unit will guide you through a typical diesel engine disassembly. Most of the
procedures and terms used in this chapter have been introduced earlier in this
module. The general objective of this unit is to consolidate the previous information
in a sequence. We can group the steps together as follows:

1. Disassembly and cleaning

2. inspection
3. diagnosis
4. reassembly

A unit such as this should never be used as a replacement for original equipment
manufacturer (OEM) service literature. Every machine chassis presents distinct
challenges when it comes to removal of an engine and every engine OEM tends to
be very specific about how it organizes disassembly and reassembly procedure. For
these reasons, you should learn to use the product-specific guidelines found in the
service literature.

Service Literature

In this textbook we use the term service literature to refer to what used to be known
as a service manual. Service literature today is seldom available in hard format. Most
manufacturers provide service literature using their online service information
systems (SIS). The reason for using SIS in preference to hard copy service manuals
is that information can be easily corrected and updated. In consequence, we use the
term service literature to include any of the following:

1. hard (paper) service manuals

2. data disk (CD, DVD) service literature
3. online service information systems
4. technical service literature

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REMOVAL OF AN ENGINE FROM A VEHICLE

First, identify the engine you are working on. Determine whether the engine is:

1. hydromechanically managed: part of the class of older diesels that were

controlled by a governor
2. electronically managed: most diesel engines today, which are computer
controlled

Identifying the engine is the first step in a disassembly procedure. You will need to
do this to obtain the appropriate service literature.

The initial preparations include the following:

1. Pressure wash or steam clean the engine and engine compartment. This will
remove road grime, grease, and oil. Ensuring the work area is clean will help
you when it comes to inspecting the components as you take them apart. It
will also make a statement about your professionalism as a technician.
2. Park the vehicle on a clean, level surface. Next, make sure that the engine
compartment can be accessed by whatever hoist you are planning to use to
remove the engine from the chassis. Engage the vehicle parking brakes and
block the wheels. Make sure that there is sufficient bench space or a mobile
steel vehiclet on which removed components can be placed. Ensure that some
adhesive labels, tie tags, and masking tape are at hand so that electrical
wiring and fluid hoses can be identified.
3. If the vehicle is of the cab-over-engine (COE) design, make sure that the cab
lift hydraulics operate properly and that the positional locks are in place. With
the COE chassis, the cab usually has to be raised to its extreme travel
position. This means you have to check that the mechanical stops are in place
so that the extended lift rams are not supporting the whole weight of the cab
alone.
4. If the engine is electronically managed, download the engine/chassis
identification data and the customer data programmable options using an
appropriate electronic service tool (EST) and OEM software. The EST is
usually a laptop PC loaded with the OEM software. In most cases, a
communications adapter (CA) will be required to enable the EST to
communicate with the chassis data bus. After downloading the required
information from the engine ECM, disconnect the main battery leads at the
battery terminals. WARNING On electronic engines with a non-volatile RAM
component, all NV-RAM data is lost the instant that the batteries are
disconnected. Check the OEM instructions before disconnecting the batteries.
5. Remove the radiator cap. To avoid injury when removing a radiator cap,
rotate it counter clockwise (CCW) to the first stop, but do not depress. This
will allow any residual pressure to bleed from the cooling system. After the
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 pressure has equalized, press the cap downward and continue turning to
remove. Open the cooling system drain cocks usually located on the lower
radiator tank and somewhere on the engine block to drain the coolant. If the
coolant is to be reused, store it in a sealed container. Do not leave coolant in
drainage tubs exposed to the shop atmosphere. If the coolant is to be
replaced (and it really should be at an engine overhaul), ensure that the used
coolant is disposed of in an environmentally safe manner consistent with
federal and local jurisdictional regulations.
6. Shut off the air supply to any engine air system controls. Air system controls
include devices such as shutter stats, fan controls, puff limiters, and air-
controlled exhaust brakes.
7. Remove the oil pan plug and drain the engine oil. Remove the oil, fuel, and
coolant filters and dispose of them and the engine oil. This must be done in
an environmentally safe manner consistent with federal and local jurisdictional
regulations. Removing the Engine from the Chassis To remove the engine
from the chassis, follow these steps:

1. Disconnect the piping/ducting to charge air coolers (CACs). This includes heat

exchanger components such as aftercoolers, intercoolers, air-to air coolers,

and tip turbine assemblies. Label any plumbing that could be a problem
during reassembly. Remove the intake ducting. Cap the turbocharger intake
and exhaust porting. Ensure that all intake ducts, air hoses, and the air filter
assembly are capped to prevent dirt from entering the intake system.

2. On vehicles with air conditioning (A/C), it is often possible to remove the

engine without losing the refrigerant charge. Remove the condenser from the
heat exchanger cluster at the front of the engine housing and fully support it
so that it is not hanging by its hoses. Remove the A/C compressor, again
without disconnecting its plumbing, and fully support it someplace where it is
not going to hinder further work in the engine compartment. If the refrigerant
must be discharged, connect the appropriate recovery station and evacuate
the system, plugging any open hoses.
3. Usually, the radiator should be removed. In most cases, the radiator tie rods
make access to the engine difficult, so at minimum these should be removed.
To remove the radiator, when possible, leave the air-to-air type, charge air
coolers attached to the rad assembly: remove as a unit by attaching chains to
the radiator upper brackets. Support the assembly using a shop crane (chain
hoist or cherry picker). Next, disconnect the upper and lower radiator hoses.
Inspect the hoses for cracks and general overall condition to note whether
replacement is required. It is very important that you do this on disassembly

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 so that quotes to customers are reliable and parts can be ordered when
necessary. Remove the radiator lower mounting support bolts and rubber
insulators. Lift radiator/air-to-air charge air cooler assembly from the chassis
using the shop crane. Lift slowly and carefully to avoid damaging any
components.
4. When the assembly is out of chassis, separate the two heat exchangers.
Carefully, place the radiator upright on a flat surface. Use extreme vehiclee
when handling heat exchanger cores—they are easily damaged. Remove the
fan shroud, brackets, and other hardware if the radiator is to be reused.
5. Remove fan and fan hub assembly.
6. Tag all the electrical leads before disconnection. Do the same with fuel lines,
all linkages, oil lines, and water hoses. Cap all disconnected fuel lines to keep
out dust.
7. Locate the rear engine mounts. These are either on the engine flywheel
housing or on the transmission bell housing. When the rear engine mounts
are located on the flywheel housing, the transmission must be fully and safely
supported. Position a mechanical transmission jack or blocks under the
transmission. In some vehicles it may be necessary to completely separate
the transmission from the engine before attempting to remove the engine.
8. Loosen and remove the cap screws that hold the transmission bell housing to
the engine flywheel housing.
9. Use a suitable spreader bar and lifting chain so that the engine can be lifted
without lift chain contact to critical engine components. Fit engine lifting eyes
to the OEM-recommended location on the engine. Move into position the hoist
to be used to lift the engine from the chassis. Attach lifting chain hooks to the
engine lifting eyes. CAUTION Never attempt to lift an engine using only rope
slings or cable slings. Never support the engine on its oil pan and never place
any kind of sling around the oil pan. 10. After the hoist is chained to the
engine lift eyes, apply a slight load to the lifting chain.
10. Remove the engine mounting bolts. Perform a thorough visual inspection to
ensure that everything that has to be uncoupled is and that nothing is
obstructing the planned removal path of the engine.
11. Separate the engine from the transmission, taking vehiclee not to force
anything or overload the transmission input shaft. Use the hoist to remove
the engine from the chassis. This may be a two-person operation, depending
on the chassis. If unfamiliar with the chassis, ensure that someone is around
to assist, even if it means just having an extra pair of eyes.
12. Remove external accessories as required: alternator, starter, power steering
pump, oil, coolant and fuel filter mounting pads, and anything else on the
block that might obstruct the engine overhaul mount stand.

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 13. Bolt the engine into the overhaul stand and do not release the weight from
the hoist until the engine stand mounting plate bolts are tight.
14. Remove the hoist chain hooks and then the lifting eyes from the engine
unless they were originally on the engine.
15. Remove the turbocharger oil supply and return lines. Remove the
turbocharger and assess its condition.
16. Remove the crankcase breather assembly if fitted.

Tip:

Work on every engine assuming it may have to be reinstalled by someone other

than you. Tag every electrical wire and hose coupling. Failure to do this can result
in greatly increased reassembly times

Tip:

Work cleanly and methodically. Use several containers to put fasteners in and label
each container by component and location. Inspect every disassembled component
for reusability: by doing this, you make it possible to issue an accurate repair quote
to the customer

ACTIVITY

ENGINE DISASSEMBLY

In most cases, the engine should be removed from the area of the chassis it was
pulled from before it is disassembled. If an engine is to be rebuilt in a general area
of the shop floor, you should make sure that no work, such as welding or other work

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that can create a lot of airborne dust, is going to take place close to the engine
work.

For electronic engines using injectors or pump units with programmable fuel flow
codes, you must tag each unit by cylinder number if you intend to reuse them. On
engines that use integral or unit high-pressure injection pumps, remove the injection
lines and any electrical wiring by separating the connectors. On engines using
integral hydraulic injectors accessible without removing the valve covers, remove the
injectors, capping the leak-off and feed ports. On some engines the high-pressure
pipe is connected to a cylindrical injector through a port in the rocker housing. The
two nuts that locate and seal this connector pipe must be backed off and the pipe
removed before any attempt is made to remove the injector.

CAUTION

You must refer to the OEM service literature before removing injectors and pumps
from engines, especially those controlled by a computer. The consequences of not
doing this can be costly fuel system damage and extended reassembly times.

NOTE

As you disassemble any engine, make a habit of inspecting every component you
remove to evaluate whether it should be reused or replaced. Such an inspection
requires three steps:

1. Thoroughly clean the component using solvent, detergents, and/or compressed

air as appropriate.

2. Decide whether a component can be reused: if replacement is required,

immediately note this on work order.

3. After inspection, seal any component that you are going to reuse. Protect each
component by sealing it using clear plastic wrap. This will help ensure that the
product does not get damaged during the time required to rebuild the engine.

TOPIC: Engines

OBJECTIVE: To disassemble an electronically control diesel engine

TOOLS and EQUIPMENT:

1. PPE
2. Wrap paper
3. Tray
4. Lifting appliance
5. Oil trays

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 6. Necessary spanners

PROCEDURE

1. Remove the exhaust and intake manifolds plus the exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) assembly. Carefully observe the location of sensors and actuators,
tagging each for location. Be especially cautious when disassembling EGR
components. The sensors and actuators located in the EGR heat exchanger(s),
venturi, and mixing chamber(s) are sensitive and easily damaged.
2. Remove the water manifold assembly (if equipped), complete with the
thermostat housing when possible. Sometimes the EGR heat exchanger is
integrated into the water manifold and it may be easier to remove both as a
unit.
3. Separate the vibration damper using great care, especially with viscous-type
units. Inspect the vibration damper to assess whether it can be reused.
4. Next, remove the crank pulley and crankshaft hub assembly. Usually this
requires removing the hub retaining cap screw(s) and then using a universal
T-puller. WARNING Take care when pulling the hub and damper from a
crankshaft. If you damage either a crankshaft or a vibration damper, that will
likely erase any profit that might be earned on the engine overhaul. Always
consult the engine OEM service literature.
5. Remove the engine timing gear cover. If the timing gear cover has thrust
buttons fitted, back these off before removing. On engines where the timing
indicator is bolted on by the timing gear cover screws, remove them first and
ensure that they are not damaged.
6. Remove the oil cooler assembly. With bundle-type oil coolers, test the core
using either the pressure or vacuum methods outlined and then seal using
plastic wrap.
7. Disconnect any plumbing to the water pump not already removed, and then
remove the water pump itself. It has become almost standard practice to
replace water pumps with a rebuilt exchange unit when reconditioning engines
today. But if you plan to reuse the water pump, visually check it for evidence
of weeping at the ceramic seal, and check the seal itself for cracks.
8. Remove the clutch pack assembly from the flywheel and decide whether it will
be reused. Anything more than 50 percent wear of clutch friction faces
probably justifies a clutch pack replacement.
9. Remove the flywheel assembly using a suitable hoist. Remove the flywheel
housing and any attached components, checking for sensors and connecting
wires. Check for eccentricity at the locating dowel holes.
10. Remove all accessory drive components not already removed, such as power
steering pumps, air compressors, and so forth. Remove accessory drive pulleys
using a suitable puller.

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 11. Remove the oil filler and dipstick tubes.
12. Remove the mechanical tachometer drive, if fitted.
13. If the engine is fitted with electronic unit pumps (EUPs), remove them and
store them as per OEM recommendations. If the engine has an inline injection
pump, remove any electrical wiring from the rack actuator housing
(electronically managed, port-helix metering), transducer module, or governor
housing. Disconnect the throttle arm and fuel stop arm from hydromechanical
pumps. Check that all the plumbing is disconnected from both sides of the
pump and remove any support brackets: loosen the pump mounting cap
screws, and using a smooth motion, pull the injection pump away from its
mounting flange. The various types of transfer pumps used with the electronic
unit injector (EUIs) systems are relatively straightforward to remove, but the
OEM literature should be consulted. When performing a complete engine
overhaul, it may be part of the procedure. Removing a pulley using a T-puller.

Engine Removal, Disassembly, Cleaning, Inspection, and Reassembly

Guidelines.

1. Remove the rocker housing covers.

2. Remove the rocker shaft assemblies including valve bridges where used. On
overhead camshaft engines, remove the camshaft assembly.
NOTE: Most OEMs recommend that rocker arm shaft assemblies and valve
bridges/yokes be tagged for position to help maintain the same wear surfaces
if they are to be reused.
3. Remove the injectors, using the appropriate puller. When cylindrical hydraulic
injectors are used, make sure that all the plumbing is clear of the injector seat
before attempting to remove them. Where EUIs, electrohydraulic injectors
(EHIs), EUPs, and hydraulic electronic unit injectors (HEUIs) are used, ensure
that all electrical and hydraulic connections are removed: this is especially
important where transverse cylinder head, high-pressure pipes are used.
4. Check the injector nozzle seal/gasket. If it is not on a removed injector,
remove from the injector bore with a magnet or small tapered rod. Do not
leave nozzle seal/gaskets in the cylinder head on disassembly because this
could cause problems on reassembly.
5. Remove the push tubes or push rods where fitted. It is good practice to
inspect each for serviceability on disassembly. Some OEMs recommend that
the push tubes be tagged for position in the engine.
6. Remove fuel manifolds (internal charge and return lines) where fitted, jumper
pipes, and crossover pipes.
7. Remove all the cylinder head cap screws and washers. Remove the cylinder
head(s).

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 8. Remove the cylinder head gasket and the sealing grommets and fire rings if
not built into the cylinder head gasket assembly. Inspect the cylinder head
gasket for signs of failure, paying special attention to the fire rings.
9. Remove the oil pan cap screws and the oil pan.
10. Remove the oil pump, which may be located in the crankcase or bolted
outside the engine cylinder block.
11. Before removing each piston and connecting rod assemblies, scrape carbon
deposits (ring ridge) from the upper inside wall of each cylinder liner using a
flexible knife. This will make removal of the pistons much easier.
12. Plan to remove the pistons on an inline 6- cylinder engine in companion pairs,
that is, 1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4.
13. Remove the connecting rod bearing bolts and separate each rod cap from the
rod by tapping with a light-duty nylon hammer. Use as little hammering force
as possible, especially where cracked/fractured rod assemblies are used.
14. Remove each connecting rod and piston assembly carefully, guiding the rod
bottom end clear of the piston cooling oil nozzle and avoiding contact with the
liner wall. Arrange the piston assemblies sequentially on a bench, making
note of anything unusual.
15. Remove the cylinder block located piston cooling nozzles. Oil will be trapped
in the gallery that supplies the piston cooling jets, so be prepared to capture
it. If the engine is rotated to an angle on the stand, remove either 1 or 6 first
and allow the oil in the gallery to drain into a container.
16. Disassemble the engine timing gear train. Remove accessory drive gears, idler
gears, and an in-block camshaft gear and camshaft as an assembly. Rotating
the engine upside down will ease the removal of an in-block camshaft
because this will drop the cam follower/lifter assemblies out of the way so
they do not interfere with the cam lobes and journals as the shaft is
withdrawn.
17. Remove the cam follower/tappets/valve lifter assemblies. If the camshaft is to
be reused, inspect and tag individual lifters for reassembly to position. Where
cam follower housings are used, tag for position. In engines where the cam
follower housing shims are used to help define engine timing, make sure you
measure and record the shim (gasket thickness) with a micrometer: you
should do this even when the engine is to be retimed on reassembly because
you can use the previous measurements as a starting point for the timing
procedure.
18. Disassemble any remaining gears in the engine gear-train and remove any
auxiliary or balance shafts remaining in the engine cylinder block.
19. Remove the crankshaft rear seal housing assembly.
20. Remove all the camshaft bushings using the correct sized driver and slide
hammer.

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 21. With the engine still upside down, remove the main bearing bolts, the cap
brackets, and the main bearing caps by gently tapping with a nylon hammer.
Tag the bearings by location for inspection and failure analysis purposes.

CAUTION
Some lightweight cylinder blocks use transverse buttress screws in the main
caps. You will not be able to remove the main caps with these in place and
attempting to do so can damage both the cap and cylinder block.

22. Fit a crank-lifting yoke to the crank throws on a pair of companion cylinders
(preferably 2 and 5 on an inline six). The lift yoke should have rubber
insulation installed over the throw hooks to prevent damage to the throw
journals. Lift the crankshaft free from the cylinder block using a hoist.

NOTE:
Due to the weight of the crankshaft, extreme care must be observed during
removal. Lift the crankshaft straight up to avoid damage. No scratches, nicks,
burrs, or any other kinds of distress are permitted on the main or throw
journals and their fillets.
23. Remove the cylinder liners using a suitable puller. Wet liners are sealed by O-
rings and do not usually require a great amount of force to separate them
from the block. Dry liners and combination wet/dry liners may require
considerable force and hydraulic and air-over-hydraulic pullers along with
adapter plates are usually required.
24. All expansion (frost) press fit plugs and threaded oil passage plugs must be
removed from the cylinder block before cleaning.
NOTE
Technicians should get in the habit of inspecting every component as it is
removed and tagging it when it is important for it to be reinstalled in the
same location. Cleaning, inspecting, and making the decision on whether a
component can be reused on disassembly.

CLEANING AND INSPECTING COMPONENTS

The cleaning and inspection of an engine is probably the most important

stage in the engine reconditioning procedure. If the reason for the engine
rebuild is a failure, ensure that the cause is identified before any attempt at
reassembly is made.
1. Use a gasket scraper to remove all the gasket material and heavy dirt from
the cylinder block.

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 2. Install the cylinder block into a preferably heated, soak tank using a heavy-
duty alkaline soak cleaner for a period of one to two hours.

CAUTION

Use extreme care and wear protective clothing when working with the
alkaline solutions used in soak tanks, as they may be caustic.
3. Remove the cylinder block from the cleaning or soak tank. Flush the cylinder
block using a shop high-pressure washer. Make sure all particles and sludge
produced by the block boiling are removed.
4. Visually inspect the cylinder block. Check all the coolant passages making
sure that they are clean and unobstructed. Ream or drill out if necessary to
dislodge any deposits.
5. Check to see that there are no casting fins or residues that might obstruct
coolant flow. You can remove any casting irregularities with a pry bar.
6. Run a cylindrical wire brush through the oil passages to make sure there are
no blockages.
7. Flush the oil passages with air and solvent.

Magnetic Flux Test

A magnetic flux test should be performed on engine cylinder blocks, crankshafts,

and all connecting rods at

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Engines

OBJECTIVE: To remove Engine from machine and disassemble it.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

Lifting apparatus, hand tools, appropriate stands and engine stand.

SAFETY PRCEDURE

 Wear correct safety attire before attempting removal of the engine. If the
engine is supposed to be removed from a loader, dozer, shovel or scraper,
ensure that all hydraulically or mechanically operated equipment are lowered
or supported.

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  Ensure the surrounding areas are kept clean and free of obstruction.

ENGINE REMOVAL

1. Detach all hydraulic (if applicable), electrical or mechanical connections which

may interfere with engine removal.
2. Drain lubrication and cooling systems.
3. Disconnect inlet manifold air ducts.
4. Disconnect exhaust down pipe.
5. Disconnect engine mountings.
6. Connect slings and lifting equipment.
7. Lift out the engine.
8. Visually inspect the engine for oil, fuel or coolant leaks. This might reveal the
repairs to be carried out.
9. Steam clean the engine before disassembling.
10. Secure the engine to the work bench.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURES

Since there are so many designs of engines, it is advisable to refer to the particular
engine workshop manual. However, the general procedure is as follows:

1. Disconnect the inlet and exhaust manifolds from the cylinder head.
2. Remove all attachments:
 Turbocharger (if applicable)
 Water pump
 Fuel Injection pump (if it is a diesel engine).
3. Remove rocker cover and rocker shaft.
4. Remove the cylinder head bolts in the correct sequence, starting with the
outer bolts and working inwards to the centre bolts.
5. Lift off the cylinder head and lay it on the bench, on its side down, to avoid
scratching the mating surface.
NOTE: Never remove cylinder head from a hot engine, as it leads to
distortion.
6. Inspect cylinder head gasket for leaks and burns.
7. Inspect cylinder head sealing surface for cracks, burns, corrosion, pit-marks,
etc.
8. Remove bell housing and flywheel.
9. Remove crankshaft pulley timing covers and timing gears.
10. Remove sump, oil strainer and oil pump.
11. Remove connecting rod caps from pistons in each cylinder.
NOTE: Mark or number each connecting rod and cap to avoid
interchanging the caps.

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 12. Remove each piston/connecting rod assembly from each cylinder and replace
connecting rod cap.
13. Turn engine upside down and mark the main bearing caps.
14. Undo the main caps nuts in the correct sequence, starting with the outermost
caps.
15. Using protective hooks and lifting equipment, lift off the crankshaft.
16. Inspect crankshaft for heavy damage.
NOTE: Store crankshaft in an upright position, on the flange, to avoid
distortion.
17. Remove bearing shells from caps and crankcase and tape them together
facing each other.
18. Inspect the shells for unusual wear.
19. Clean all components.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Disassemble water cooled engine.

PREPARATIONS

Thoroughly clean the outside of the engine and dry with compressed air.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

 Relevant hand tools.

 Number punches.
 Ridge reamer.
 Lifting apparatus.

CYLINDER HEAD REMOVAL

1. Remove inlet and exhaust manifolds and all attachments to the cylinder head.
2. Remove rocker cover, rocker shaft and valve cups.

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 3. Remove push rod and number them for correct reassembly in their exact
locations.
4. Loosen the cylinder head bolts/nuts in the correct sequence; start with
outermost bolts first and work toward the centre.
5. Carefully lift the cylinder head from the block and place on work bench.
Ensure it is place on its side.

PISTON AND CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY REMOVAL

1. Remove oil pan and inspect the inside for any deposits.
NOTE:
Deposits are a good indicator to engine condition.
 Heavy sludge indicates infrequent oil changes.
 Hard carbon indicates overheating.
 Aluminium particles indicate worn bearing shells.
2. Turn cylinder block on its side.
3. Punch mark the connecting rods if they are not factory numbered, so that
they can be reassembled in exactly the same position.

4. If ridge is present it must be removed before piston removal, to prevent ring

catching the ridge and breaking or cracking the piston.
5. Rotate the crankshaft until the piston to be removed is at Bottom Dead
Centre (BDC).
6. Remove the connecting rod nuts so that the cap and its bearing half can be
removed.
7. Fit thread protectors over the connecting rod bolts, to prevent threads from
damaging crankshaft journals, and carefully remove the piston and rod
assembly. Repeat the process to the remaining pistons.

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 8. After removal of each piston, replace the rod cap and nuts to respective rods
to avoid loss and mismatching.

CRANKSHAFT REMOVAL

a) Engine front end disassembly

1. Remove the water pump.
2. Remove the crankshaft vibration damper also called the harmonic
balancer, By loosening the securing bolt and use a puller to pull it off
the crankshaft.

3. Remove the timing cover that exposes the timing gears or chain.
4. Remove timing gears or sprockets and chain.
a. Camshaft removal
1. Place the engine with the front end facing upwards.
2. Remove camshaft thrust plate retaining screws.
3. Insert a long bolt into the threaded hole of the camshaft.
4. Carefully lift out the camshaft from the engine block and avoid
knocking it against the sides to avoid damaging the cam bearings and
lobes.
NOTE:
Bearing surfaces are soft and scratch easily, and the lobes are
hard and can chip easily.
b) Flywheel and clutch assembly removal
1. Place the engine block upside down with the crankshaft facing
upwards.
2. Remove the clutch cover, clutch plate and flywheel.

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 c) Crankshaft removal
1. Before the crankshaft is removed its end float must be checked. (see
handout on end float testing)
2. Check main bearings caps for position markings and identify the side
that faces the front end of the engine, mark them if necessary.

NOTE:

Main bearing caps are machined in place and will not fit perfectly
in any other location.

3. Loosen and remove main caps securing bolts starting with the outer
one and working inwards.
4. Lift out the crankshaft and store in an upright position with the
flywheel flange resting on the ground.

Reinstall bearing caps together with bearings onto the cylinder block to reduce
chance of damage to both bearing and caps.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: HD DIESEL ENGINES

OBJECTIVE: To remove and service HD diesel engine cylinder head.

1. Tools and equipment

 Lifting apparatus.
 Cleaning apparatus.
 Necessary hand and special tools.

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 2. Cylinder head removal
 Remove inlet and exhaust manifolds.
 Remove rocker cover and all accessories attached to the
cylinder head.
 Remove the cylinder head holding bolts/nuts in the correct
sequence.
NOTE:
Start with the outer bolts first and working inwards until you get
the centre bolts.
 Lift the cylinder head off the cylinder block and place it on the
working bench.
 Clean cylinder head by washing in solvent and dry with
compressed air.
3. Cylinder head servicing
Cylinder heads do not require all service checks; however, they should
be reconditioned using the following sequence:
a) Disassemble and clean the cylinder head.
b) Check mating surface for cracks, score marks, burns and
erosion.
c) Check contact surface for warpage or runout and skim if
defective.
d) Check valve guide and replace or repair as necessary.
e) Inspect valve and respective guides, replace or grind as
necessary. Install valves with new valve stem seals.

Two types of cylinder heads are available:

 Overhead camshaft, and

 Overhead valve.

3.1 Disassemble overhead camshaft cylinder head

these

Place the connecting rod in a vice with soft jaws. Remove gudgeon pin
retaining rings.

 Using piston ring expander, remove the rings starting with first
ring.
 Push out gudgeon pin using suitable drift punch.
NOTE:
Note the direction in which each connecting rod is facing.

4. Inspections:

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  Inspect connecting rod for:
- Cracks
- Clogged oil holes
- Using connecting rod aligning tool check it for bend and
twist.
- Gudgeon pin to connecting rod oil clearance
- Big-end bore for roundness
- Gudgeon pin to connecting rod small end clearance

 Inspect piston for:

- Scratches, cracks, fusion, erosion and discolouration of
crown
- Clearance between piston boss and gudgeon pin, if clearance
does not conform to manufacturer’s specification, replace
connecting rod bushing.
- Piston groove to piston ring clearance.

CARRY OUT COMPONENT EVALUATION

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Carry out checks and measurements on engine camshaft.

PREPARATIONS AND TOOLS

Checks and measurements are meant to determine serviceability of the camshaft,

and two methods are available:

1. uninstalled camshaft.
2. Installed camshaft.

TOOLS

 Workbench, Hand tools, Dial gauge indicator, Vee – blocks and Micrometer.

VISUAL INSPECTIONS

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  Check surface condition of the journals.
 Check cam lobes for roughness and scoring.
 Check oil holes for clogging.

PREPARATION FOR CHECKING LOOSE CAMSHAFT

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Carry out checks and measurements on engine camshaft.

PREPARATIONS AND TOOLS

Checks and measurements are meant to determine serviceability of the camshaft,

and two methods are available:

1. uninstalled camshaft.
2. Installed camshaft.

TOOLS

 Workbench, Hand tools, Dial gauge indicator, Vee – blocks and Micrometer.

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VISUAL INSPECTIONS

 Check surface condition of the journals.

 Check cam lobes for roughness and scoring.
 Check oil holes for clogging.

CAMSHAFT INSPECTIONS

Inspect the camshaft cam faces and bearing journals for roughness or
obvious
excessive wear. Measure the cam height with a micrometer, taking
measurement
at the outer edge of the cam on both sides. The surface of the cam must be
clean
to ensure accurate readings.
Replace the camshaft if it is obviously worn/damaged, or if the cam height is
worn beyond limits as listed in the "Camshaft Specifications Chart'' in this
section

CHECKS AND MEASUREMENTS

Camshaft journal and lobe wear

1. Measure journal wear.

2. Measure intake and exhaust lobes.

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Checking camshaft bearing journal out of roundness

Tools

Micrometer Vernier Caliper

Procedure

1. Clean camshaft with suitable solvent

2. Measure the cam height (as shown at A in fig.27) with a micrometer
3. Measure camshaft at B (as shown at A in fig.27)
4. Compare the readings with manufacturers’ specification

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 FIG.1 Camshaft lobe

Note

Measured data analysis

CYL. LOBE LENGTH LENGTH VALVE REPAIR RECOMMENDATION

(a) (b) LIFT LIMIT
NO.
(a – b)

1 IN

EX

2 IN

EX

3 IN

EX

4 IN

EX

Conclusion

If out pf specification, replace camshaft

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Checking camshaft bearing journal out of roundness

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Tools

Micrometer screw gauge

Procedure

5. Clean camshaft with suitable solvent

6. Measure the camshaft bearing journals with a micrometer
7. The cam journals should also be measured at 90 0 angles to determine
elliptical wear
8. Subtract the smaller reading from the larger.
9. Compare the readings with manufacturers’ specification.

Conclusion

If out pf specification, replace camshaft

Figure 7

Camshaft runout

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Checking camshaft run-out

Procedure

1. Place V-blocks even on workbench

2. Place clean papers on v-blocks
3. Smear a film oil on papers
4. Mount the camshaft on metal V-blocks
5. Mount dial gauge on base on workbench while the pointer is touching the
centre bearing (ensuring that the blocks are on the front and rear bearing
journals)
6. Zero the DTI
7. Rotate camshaft and take the readings

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 8. Subtract the smaller reading from the larger.

Note

Compare the readings with what is specified in the OEM manual

Conclusion

If the camshaft run-out is out of specification, replace it with a new one.

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Carry out checks and measurements on engine crankshaft.

OVERVIEW

Preliminary visual inspections and measurable checks are carried out to determine
whether the crankshaft can should be reused, or reground.

PREPARATIONS AND TOOLS

 Crankshaft, workbench, Hand tools, Dial gauge indicator, Vee – blocks and
Micrometer.

INSPECTIONS AND CHECKS:

Crankshaft Service

Remove the crankshaft from the block—a hoist will be required for the heavier shafts
—and make this series of preliminary inspections:

1. If a main bearing cap or rod has turned blue, disvehicled the shaft, together
with the associated cap or rod. The metallurgical changes that have occurred
are irreversible. By the same token, be very leery of a crankshaft that is
known to have suffered a harmonic balancer failure.

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 2. Check the fit of a new key in the accessory-drive keyway. There should be no
perceptible wobble.

CHECKS AND MEASUREMENTS

Camshaft runout

1. Adjust dial gauge indicator so that a little pressure is applied on the spindle.
2. Zero the gauge.
3. Rotate the camshaft and record the needle deflection.
4. Compare the readings with manufacturers’ specification.

Camshaft journal and lobe wear

3. Measure journal wear.

4. Measure intake and exhaust lobes.
5. Subtract smaller reading from larger reading to determine lobe lift wear.

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Carry out checks and measurements on engine crankshaft.

OVERVIEW

Preliminary visual inspections and measurable checks are carried out to

determine whether the crankshaft can should be reused, or reground.

PREPARATIONS AND TOOLS

 Crankshaft, workbench, Hand tools, Dial gauge indicator, Vee – blocks and
Micrometer.

INSPECTIONS AND CHECKS:

Crankshaft Service

Remove the crankshaft from the block—a hoist will be required for the heavier
shafts—and make this series of preliminary inspections:

3. If a main bearing cap or rod has turned blue, discard the shaft, together with
the associated cap or rod. The metallurgical changes that have occurred are
irreversible. By the same token, be very leery of a crankshaft that is known to
have suffered a harmonic balancer failure.
4. Check the fit of a new key in the accessory-drive keyway. There should be no
perceptible wobble.

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 Crankshaft measurement points

5. Check the timing-gear teeth for wear and chipping. Magnetic-particle testing
can be of some value when applied to the hub area, but cannot detect the
subsurface cracks that signal gear-tooth failure. Timing gear sprockets and
related hardware should be replaced as a routine precaution during major
repairs.
6. Measure the journals and pins as shown in Fig. 8-60 for:
i. Compare taper
ii. out of roundness
iii. diameter
against factory wear limits.

7. If corrective machining does not appear necessary, remove with crocus cloth
all light scratches and the superficial ridging left by bearing oil grooves. Tear
off a strip of crocus cloth long enough to encircle the journal. Wrap the cloth
with a leather thong, crossing the ends, to apply force evenly over the whole
diameter of the journal. Work the crocus cloth vigorously, stopping at
intervals to check progress.
8. Back-drilled sections of these passages serve as chip catchers, and must be
thoroughly cleaned. Compressed air, shown in Fig. 8-61, helps.

9. Check trueness with one or, preferably, tandem dial indicators while rotating
the crank in precision V-blocks (Fig. 8-62).

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 Visual inspections:

3. Inspect journals and side walls for:

 Chatter marks.
 Bearing smear.
 Embedded materials.
 Scratches and,
 Discolouration.

CHECKS AND MEASUREMENTS

Crankshaft runout

5. Place crankshaft in vee-blocks located on a flat work bench.

6. Locate the dial indicator on the centre journal.
7. Put a little pressure on the pointer.
8. Zero the gauge.
9. Rotate the camshaft and record the needle deflection.
10. Compare the readings with manufacturers’ specification.

Crankshaft journals wear

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Determine serviceability of cylinder block.

PREPARATIONS

Thoroughly clean the cylinder block’s water jackets and sleeves of all scales and
carbon deposits. Lubricate the cylinder bores and place the block on a flat surface.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

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  Straight edge and feeler gauge.
 Telescopic gauge.
 Bore gauge.
 Pressure testing equipment.
 Dial gauge indicator.
 Counter boring tool or ridge remover.
 Honing tool.
 Relevant hand tools.

VISUAL INSPECTIONS/CHECKS

6. Check for the presence of loose scales in the water jackets.

7. Check for eroded or pitted water holes.
8. Check for cracks, porosity and leaks.
9. Check cylinder sleeves for ridge wear, score and heat marks.
10. Check all threaded holes and if necessary restore any damaged threads.

STRAIGHTEDGE CHECKS

9. Check all mounting surfaces for flatness.

10. Check for raised areas around bolt and stud holes, if required, refinish
according manufacture’s specifications.
11. Check the cylinder block top surface for flatness, both transversely and
longitudinally, (should the tolerance exceed the specifications, refinish the
surface).

PRESSURE TESTING CYLINDER BLOCK

1. Seal all coolant openings with gaskets and plates.

2. If block has wet liners, ensure these are held in position.
3. Fill the water jackets with antifreeze solution.
4. Pressurize water jackets to about 550 kPa.
5. Leave for two hours.
6. If block has any cracks, the colour of the coolant will show.

OR

1. Seal all coolant openings with gaskets and plates.

2. If block has wet liners, ensure these are held in position.
3. Fill a tank with water solution and heat the solution to about 82 0C.
4. Pressurize water jackets with compressed air.
5. Immerse the cylinder block into the heated solution.
6. Leave the block in the heated solution until it attains the same temperature.
7. Watch solution for any bubbles, as they indicate a leak.

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 TOPIC: Assembling piston and connecting rod

OBJECTIVE: Assembling piston and connecting rod.

Tools and equipment

 Relevant spanners and sockets.
 Punches and specialized tools.

Procedure

 Clean piston, oil holes ring grooves and avoid scratching the
piston ring grooves.
 Ensure that axial clearance of the piston rings does not exceed
permitted value.
 Place connecting rod in a soft jawed vice, install piston the
right/correct way.
 Install circlip on one side of the piston boss.
 Install gudgeon pin and the remaining circlip.

Test the piston and gudgeon pin for free swivel movement

TOPIC: Cylinder head removal and service.

OBJECTIVE: To remove, dismantle and service cylinder head

assembly.

5. Tools and equipment

 Relevant spanners and sockets.
 Punches and specialized tools.
 Lifting apparatus.
6. Removal
 Remove the intake manifold, exhaust manifold and
turbocharger.
 Drain coolant from the block and remove radiator hoses.
 Remove injector high pressure pipes, and protect pump and
injector connections with plastic caps.
 Undo the injector holding nuts and extract the injectors and
copper washers.
NOTE:
Ensure that all valve mechanism components are marked for
correct installation in the same positions.
 Remove rocker cover and valve mechanism.

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  Lift out the pushrods.
 Remove the cylinder head bolts and lift off the cylinder head.
Place it on a soft surface to avoid damage to the mating
surface.
7. Inspection before disassembling:
Vehicleeful inspection of the cylinder head and valves can reveal the
cause of failure. The table below shows some valve related faults.

FAULT POSIBLE CAUSES

Poor valve seating 1. Too small valve

clearance/lash
2. Carbon deposits
3. Excessive valve stem-to-
guide clearance
4. Out of square guide or seat
High carbon deposits 1. Excessive valve stem-to-
guide clearance
2. Worn inlet valve stem seals
Valve burning 1. Overheating caused by
blocked water passages
2. Retarded fuel injection
timing
High velocity seating of valve Indicated by excessive valve face
wear is caused by:

1. Excessive valve
clearance/lash
2. Worn valve operating
mechanism
3. Pitted rocker arm

CYLINDER HEAD INSPECTIONS

Disassembling

Before carrying out inspections:

 Remove valve stem caps.

 Compress valve springs, remove collets.
 Remove valve spring compressor. Remove valve spring collars,
valve springs and valves.

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  Place the valves in a numbered mount for fitting in the same
places.

Visual Inspections

Make a vehicleeful examination of the mating surfaces on both the head and block.

Check for:

1. fret marks
2. cracks
3. pitting
4. highly polished area
5. erosion around water-jacket ports
6. scores that would compromise the gasket seal.
Measurable inspections

WARPAGE

The next step is to determine the degree of head warpage

Tools

1. feeler gauge
2. straightedge
Procedure

1. Using a straightedge and feeler gauges, measure for warpage as illustrated in

Fig. 7-21.

Figure 8 Checking for warpage

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 Figure 9 planes for warpage Checks

2. Head warp should be checked in three planes: diagonally as shown,

longitudinally, and transversely with particular attention to areas between
combustion chambers
Note

1. Distortion limits vary with the application and range from as little as 0.003–
0.008.
2. If the cylinder head is not excessively warped, take the cylinder head for
scheming.
3. If the cylinder head is excessively warped, discard it.
CRACK DETECTION

Several methods can be used to detect cracks on the cylinder head. These
include:

1. Magnetic particle testing (Magnaflux)

2. Penetrant dye detecting
3. Pressure testing

Magnetic particle testing (Magnaflux)

Cylinder heads should be crack tested before and after resurfacing. The
apparatus used for ferrous parts generates a powerful magnetic field that passes
through the part under test. Cracks and other discontinuities at right angles to
the field become polarized and reveal their presence by attracting iron filings.
The magnetic particle test, known generically by the trade name Magnaflux, is
useful within its limits. It cannot detect subsurface flaws, nor does it work on
nonferrous metals. But fatigue and thermal cracks always start at the surface,
and will be seen.

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 Penetrant dye detecting

Nonferrous parts are tested with a penetrant dye (Fig. 7-24). A special dye is
sprayed on the part, the excess is wiped off, and the part is treated with a
developer that draws the dye to the surface, outlining the cracks. In general,
penetrant dye is considered less accurate than Magnaflux, but, short of x-ray, it
remains the best method available for detecting flaws in aluminum and other
nonmagnetic parts.

Figure 7-25 illustrates a cylinder head, partially dressed out for pressure
testing.

Pressure testing

Procedure
Introduce high-pressure water into the jacket and look for leaks, which might
take the form of barely perceptible seepage.
air be used as the working fluid. This approach calls for pressurizing the head
to 30 psi and immersing the casting in hot (200 0F) water for 30 minutes.
Leaks register as bubbles.

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 The water jacket should be sealed as shown, pressurized to about 30 psi, and
immersed in hot water. Bubbles indicate the presence of cracks.

Inspections, changing and repairing:

Figure 10

 Checking valve stem and valve guide:

- Measure the valve stem in two locations.

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 Fig. 2(a) Valve (b) Valve guide
- Using bore gauge measure inside diameter of valve guide.
- Subtract valve stem measurements from valve guide
readings for each valve/guide.
- If reading exceeds repair limit, replace valve guides.

 Checking valve springs and collars:

- Visual inspections:
 Cracks.
 Wear and ridge wear.

- Measurable inspections:
 Spring free length.
 Squareness.

SPRING SERVICE DATA

CYLIND SPRING FREE NOMINAL DIFFEREN RECOMENDATI

ER LENGTH/SQUAREN DIMENSI CE ON
NUMBER ESS ON

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 INLET EXHAUST
VALVE VALVE

 Changing valve guides:

- Measure valve guide protrusion.
- Using correct size of drift, press out the valve guides.
- Press in new valve guides to correct protrusion.
- Try the valve in the guide for correct clearance.

 Changing valve stem seals:

- Remove valve stem seals.
- Fit a new seal using installation tool.
NOTE:
Do not hammer on the seal so hard to avoid displacing valve
guide.

 Checking seats:
- Using valve lapper and grinding paste. Grind the valve
against the seat determine concentricity.
- Valve seat angle.
- Valve seat width.

NOTE:

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 If irregular, cut seats with carbide stone or replace with new
ones.

 Changing valve seats:

 Removing seat:
- Install the old valve onto its seat and weld the valve head to
the valve seat.
- Tap the valve stem to remove the valve, the valve seat will
be removed in the process.
- The other method of removal is to cut the seat off using a
seat cutter.

 Installing new seat:

- Clean valve seat recess thoroughly.
- Pre-heat the cylinder head or freeze the valve seat insert to
about (-800 C).
- Install seat insert into its recess and leave to either cool
down or heat up.
- Cut seat with carbide stone to correct angle, (Ensure a
correct spindle, for the available valve guide is selected).
- Lap valve/seat surfaces to ensure true sealing.
 Rocker shaft and rocker arms:
 Check rocker arm for:
- Rocker arm:
 Clogged oil hole.
 Cracked contact surface.
 Ridge wear on contact surface.
 Wear on contact surface of adjuster.
 Damaged thread of adjusting screw.
- Rocker shaft/arm:
 Oil clearance.

TOPIC: Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Lapping cylinder head valves using coarse and fine grinding
paste and testing valves for leaks.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

1. Valve spring compressor.

2. Lapping stick.
3. Grinding/lapping compound.
4. Mutton cloth.

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 5. Engine oil.
6. Cleaning solvent.
7. Compressed air.

PROCEDURE:

Disassembling:

1. Remove valve stem caps.

2. Compress valve springs, remove collets.
3. Remove valve spring compressor. Remove valve spring collars, valve springs
and valves.
4. Place the valves in a numbered mount for fitting in the same places.

Lapping valves with coarse paste

1. Apply coarse lapping paste to the valve face, at least in three places. Avoid
applying paste to valve stem.
2. Apply a few drops of engine oil to the valve face and stem before inserting
valve onto its seat.
3. Ensure the valve head is clean, dry and free of oil before pressing the rubber
sucker of lapping stick to the valve head.
4. Press the lapping stick gently and rotate the valve on its seat. A grinding
noise will be heard.
5. Lift the valve off its seat, rotate and press again to grind until grinding noise
ceases.
6. Lift out the valve. Clean the valve face and check its condition before applying
a fresh coat of coarse paste.
7. Grinding with coarse paste continues until the valve face and seat are free of
carbon.

Lapping with fine paste

1. Clean valve face seat using cleaning solvent.

2. Apply fine paste in at least three places of the valve seat.
3. Lubricate valve face and seat and insert valve onto its seat.
4. Press rubber sucker gently onto valve head and grind until grinding noise
ceases.
5. Wipe off the paste and check the condition of the face and seat.
6. Continue lapping until shiny ring appears on the valve face and seat.
7. After grinding clean cylinder head with solvent and blow with compressed air.

Testing valves for leaks

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 1. Assemble the valves in their correct seats with springs collars and collets
installed.
2. Pour suitable solvent into inlet and exhaust ports.
3. Leave head for some time to allow the solvent to settle.
4. Poorly lapped valves will leak within 45 seconds.
5. Re-lap the leaking valves until they seal.

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Determine serviceability of cylinder liners/sleeves and methods of

installing them.

PREPARATIONS AND TOOLS

Checks and measurements are meant to determine whether cylinder liners/sleeves

can be reused, reconditioned or replaced.

TOOLS

 Hand tools.
 Internal micro-meter.
 Telescopic gauge.
 Bore gauge.
 Workbench.

VISUAL INSPECTIONS/CHECK

 Check excessive wear.

 Check for cracks, scores, and heat marks.

MEASUREMENTS

Several are available, and include the following:

 Protrusion on top of the cylinder block.

 Taper.
 Out of round.
 Wear.

Wear.

Measured in two directions and at least three locations:

 Directions.
1. Parallel to the crankshaft at A-A.
2. 900 to the crankshaft axis at B-B.

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  Locations.
1. Just below the top ring travel at C-C.
2. Mid-stroke position at D-D.
3. At location E-E within the area of piston travel.

CYLINDER LINER #

ONE (1) TWO (2) THREE FOUR (4) FIVE (5) SIX (6)
(3)

DIRECTI DIRECTI DIRECTI DIRECTI DIRECTI DIRECTI

ON ON ON ON ON ON

A B A B A B A B A B A B

1(C-C)

2(D-D)

3(E-E)

PISTON

CLEARANCE

RECOMMEND
ATION

Taper:

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 Measured at two locations and parallel to the crankshaft axis:

CYLINDER LINER #

ONE (1) TWO (2) THREE FOUR FIVE (5) SIX (6)
(3) (4)

READING

B-B

C-C

TAPER: (B-B) –
(C-C)

RECOMMENDATIO
N

Out-of-round:

 Measure bore just below first ring

TOPIC: Connecting rod and piston assembly

OBJECTIVE: To remove and dismantle connecting rod and piston assembly.

8. Tools and equipment

 Lifting apparatus.
 Necessary hand tools.

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 9. Removal
 Remove cylinder head and oil sump.
 Remove piston cooling nozzle in the cylinder block (Scania CV
AV).
NOTE:
The piston cooling nozzles should not be damaged, if
damaged, change them. They should not be
straightened as they may spray oil at wrong spots.
 Tape connecting rod bolts to avoid damage to crank pin.
Remove bearing cap and bearing halves. Tape oil holes on the
crankshaft, to avoid dirt ingress.
 Lift out the piston and connecting rod.
10. Disassembling
 Place the connecting rod in a vice with soft jaws. Remove
gudgeon pin retaining rings.
 Using piston ring expander, remove the rings starting with first
ring.
 Push out gudgeon pin using suitable drift punch.
NOTE:
observe the direction that each connecting rod faces.
11. Inspections:
 Inspect connecting rod for:
- Cracks
- Clogged oil holes
- Using connecting rod aligning tool check it for bend and
twist.
- Gudgeon pin to connecting rod oil clearance
- Big-end bore for roundness
 Inspect piston for:
- Scratches, cracks, fusion, erosion and discolouration of
crown
- Clearance between piston boss and gudgeon pin, if clearance
does not conform to manufacturer’s specification, replace
connecting rod bushing.
- Piston groove to piston ring clearance.
- Measure piston taper (measured at skirt and crown).
- Measure piston ovality (measured along gudgeon pin axis
and at 900 to gudgeon pin axis).
- Measure piston size (measured at skirt on thrust side, at 90 0
to pin axis).

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 12. Assembling piston and connecting rod
 Clean piston, oil holes ring grooves and avoid scratching the
piston ring grooves.
 Ensure that axial clearance of the piston rings does not exceed
permitted value.
 Place connecting rod in a soft jawed vice, install piston the
right/correct way.
 Install circlip on one side of the piston boss.
 Install gudgeon pin and the remaining circlip.

Test the piston and gudgeon pin for free swivel movement

TOPIC: Connecting rod and piston assembly

OBJECTIVE: To remove and dismantle connecting rod and piston assembly.

13. Tools and equipment

 Lifting apparatus.
 Necessary hand tools.
14. Removal
 Remove cylinder head and oil sump.
 Remove piston cooling nozzle in the cylinder block (Scania CV
AV).
NOTE:
The piston cooling nozzles should not be damaged, if
damaged, change them. They should not be
straightened as they may spray oil at wrong spots.
 Tape connecting rod bolts to avoid damage to crank pin.
Remove bearing cap and bearing halves. Tape oil holes on the
crankshaft, to avoid dirt ingress.
 Lift out the piston and connecting rod.
15. Disassembling
 Place the connecting rod in a vice with soft jaws. Remove
gudgeon pin retaining rings.
 Using piston ring expander, remove the rings starting with first
ring.
 Push out gudgeon pin using suitable drift punch.
NOTE:
observe the direction that each connecting rod faces.
16. Inspections:
 Inspect connecting rod for:
- Cracks

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 - Clogged oil holes
- Using connecting rod aligning tool check it for bend and
twist.
- Gudgeon pin to connecting rod oil clearance
- Big-end bore for roundness
 Inspect piston for:
- Scratches, cracks, fusion, erosion and discolouration of
crown
- Clearance between piston boss and gudgeon pin, if clearance
does not conform to manufacturer’s specification, replace
connecting rod bushing.
- Piston groove to piston ring clearance.
- Measure piston taper (measured at skirt and crown).
- Measure piston ovality (measured along gudgeon pin axis
and at 900 to gudgeon pin axis).
- Measure piston size (measured at skirt on thrust side, at 90 0
to pin axis).

17. Assembling piston and connecting rod

 Clean piston, oil holes ring grooves and avoid scratching the
piston ring grooves.
 Ensure that axial clearance of the piston rings does not exceed
permitted value.
 Place connecting rod in a soft jawed vice, install piston the
right/correct way.
 Install circlip on one side of the piston boss.
 Install gudgeon pin and the remaining circlip.
 Test the piston and gudgeon pin for free swivel movement.

Measuring Piston protrusion height.

The procedure involves three measurements, detailed as follows:

1. Zero the dial indicator on the fire deck, with the piston down (left-hand
portion of Fig. 7-38).
2. Position the indicator over a designated part of the piston crown, shown
as A in Fig. 7-38.
3. Turn the crankshaft in the normal direction of rotation through tdc. Note
the highest indicator reading.
4. Repeat Step 3, taking the measurement at B.

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 7-38 The first step when measuring piston deck height is to zero the dial
indicator on the fire deck. The second step in the measurement process is to
determine piston protrusion at two points, the average of which gives piston
protrusion
5. Average measurements A and B.
6. Repeat the process for each piston. Use the piston with the highest
average deck height to determine the thickness of the replacement head
gasket.

RECOMMENDED ASSEMBLING PROCEDURES

Engine sub-assembly

Installing the Crankshaft

1. This discussion applies to engines with two-piece main-bearing shells. 1.

make one final inspection of the block. Critical areas include saddle alignment
Most caps are buttressed laterally by interference fits with their saddles.
Fretting on contact surfaces can, if not corrected, result in crankshaft failure.
2. Verify that main-bearing saddles are clean and dry.
3. Unwrap one set of main-bearing inserts. Bearing size will be stamped on the
back of each insert. Identify the upper insert, which always is ported for
crankshaft lubrication. A few lower shells carry a superfluous port; most are
blanked off and grooved.
4. Roll the upper insert into place on the web, leading with the locating tab, as
shown in Fig. 8-72. Make absolutely certain that the tab indexes with the web
recess. When installed correctly, the ends of the insert stand equally above
the parting face.
5. Verify that the oil passage drilled in the web indexes with the oil port in the
insert.

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 Main bearing inserts roll into place. Slip the bearing into the cap or saddle,
leading with the smooth edge. Then, with thumbs providing the force, push
the insert home, seating the locating tab in its recess

6. Install the remaining upper shells, one of which might be flanged for thrust.
Check each insert for indicated size and, once they are installed, verify that
oiling passages are open.
7. Where appropriate, install the upper half of the rear crankshaft seal, per
manufacturer’s instructions.
8. Saturate the bearings and seal with clean lube oil.
9. Wipe down the crankshaft with paper shop towels. Coat journals and
crankpins with a generous amount of lubricant.
10. Lower the shaft gently and squarely into position on the webs. Exercise care
not to damage thrust flanges.
11. Install lower bearing shells into the caps, lubricating as before.
12. Mount the caps in the correct orientation and sequence. Lightly oil cap bolt
threads.
13. Torque the caps, working from the centre cap outward. Conventional bolts
make up in three steps—1/3, 2/3, and 3/3 torque; torque-to-yield bolts are
run down to a prescribed torque limit and rotated past that limit by a set
amount. After each cap is pulled down, turn the crankshaft to detect possible
binds

Causes of Radius bind

1. Radius ride
This is a condition recognized by bright edges on the bearing shells and
caused by excessively large crankshaft fillets left after regrinding.
2. Dirt on the bearing face or OD.

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 3. Insufficient running clearance
This condition can be determined with Plastigage
4. Bent crankshaft or misaligned bearing saddles. 15CRANKSHAFT END
FLOAT MEASUREMENT

Crankshaft end float must be set within specification. If out of the OEM specification,

Correct end float with the correct size of thrust washers. Location of thrust washers
vary from engine to engine

Crankshaft end float can be measured crankshaft by:

1. Using a lever and a feeler gauge

2. Using a Dial gauge

Using a lever and a feeler gauge

Using a pry bar, lever the crankshaft toward the front of the engine, then pull
back (Fig. 8-73). Measure crankshaft float with a feeler gauge between the thrust
bearing face and crankshaft web

Figure 11

Lever the crankshaft through its full range of axial movement before measuring
thrust bearing clearance. The same measurement can be made with dial indicator,
registering off of the crankshaft nose. Chrysler Corp.

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Piston and rod installation

It is assumed that piston and rod assemblies have already assembled. If this has not
been done, install the rings on the piston. Rings are packaged with detailed
instructions, which supersede those in the factory manual.

Here, it is enough to remind you that:

1. The time required to check ring gap is well spent, because rings, like bearing
inserts, are sometimes mislabelled.
2. Using the flat of the piston as a pilot, insert each compression ring into the
cylinder and compare ring gap with the specification (Fig. 8-74).
3. Ring orientation is important; a reversed scraper ring may increase oil.
4. Using the proper tool, expand the ring just enough to slip over the piston
(Fig. 8-75).
5. Stagger ring gaps, as detailed by the manufacturer.

Figure 12Measure ring gap relative to the lower, and least worn part of
the cylinder

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 Figure 13Install piston rings in the sequence shown

Figure 14

8-76 Piston installation should be a gentle process, involving no more than the force
exerted by one hand.

Installing piston assemblies.

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Follow this procedure:

1. Remove the bearing cap from No. 1 rod and piston assembly
2. Mount an upper bearing shell on the rod, indexing oil ports.
3. Coat the entire bearing surface with fresh lube oil. Repeat the process for the
cap.
4. Protect the crankshaft journals during installation.
5. Turn the crankshaft to bottom dead centre on No. 1 crankpin. Saturate the
crankpin with oil.
6. Install a ring compressor over the piston. The bottom edge of the compressor
should be a 1 /2 in. or so below the oil ring. Tighten the compressor bands
just enough to overcome ring residual tension.
7. With the block upright and the leading side of the piston toward the front of
the engine, place the compressor and captive piston over No. 1 cylinder bore.
A helper should be stationed to guide the rod end over the crankpin. While
holding the compressor firmly against the fire deck, press the piston out of
the tool and into the bore. As shown in Fig. 8-76, thumb pressure should be
sufficient. Stop if the piston binds and reposition the piston in the
compressor.
8. Install the lower bearing shell in the cap; verify that the locating tab indexes
with its groove.
9. Coat the bearing contact surface with lube oil.
10. Pull the connecting rod down over the crankpin. Make up the rod cap, making
sure match-marks align.
11. Torque the rod bolts to spec (Fig. 8-77).
12. Using a hammer handle or brass knocker, gently tap the sides of the big end
journal. The rod should move along the length of the crankpin.

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 Using an accurate torque wrench, pull the rod bolts down evenly to spec.

13. Rotate the crankshaft a few revolutions to detect possible binds and the bore
scratches that mean a broken ring. Resistance to turning will not be uniform:
piston speed increases at mid-stroke, with a corresponding increase in
crankshaft drag.
14. Repeat this operation for remaining pistons.
15. Press or bolt on piston cooling jets, aiming them as the factory manual
indicates.

Checking oil (Bearing) clearance

Tools and Equipment

Torque wrench

Plastigage

Plastic gauge is used to measure oil clearance on journal bearings.

NOTE manufacturers supply color-coded gauge wire together with the necessary
scales that translate wire width into bearing clearance:

Green wire responds to the normal clearance range of 0.0001–0.0003 in.

Red goes somewhat higher—0.0002–0.0006

Blue extends to 0.0009 in.

Procedure

1. Remove a bearing cap and wipe the lubricant off both the cap and the
exposed portion of the journal.
2. Lay a strip of gauge wire longitudinally on the bearing, about 1 /4 in. off-
centre, as shown in Fig. 8-78.

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 Determining bearing clearance using Plastigage

Note: Invert the engine or raise the crankshaft with a jack under an adjacent
counterweight before gauging main-bearing clearances. Otherwise, the weight of the
crankshaft and flywheel will compress the wire and give false readings. 3. Assemble
the cap, torquing the hold-down bolts to specifications. 4. Without turning the
crankshaft, remove the cap. Using the scale printed on the gauge-wire envelope,
read bearing clearance as a function of wire width. Clearance should fall within
factory assembly specifications. If it does not, remove the crankshaft and return it to
the machinist. Scrape or wipe off the gauge wire with a rag soaked in lacquer
thinner. Reoil the bearing and journal before final assembly.

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Carry out compression test on an engine.

COMPRESSION TEST

An engine compression test is the fundamental diagnosis performed on an engine.

For smooth engine operation all cylinders must have equal compression. An engine
can lose compression by leaking air through any of the following routes:

 Inlet and exhaust valves.

 Cylinder head gasket leakages.
 Piston rings, liners (if scored) or piston (if it has a hole).

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Measurements are intended for compression comparisons between cylinders, and
lower compression indicates abnormal wear or damage to that cylinder.

TOOLS

 Assorted hand tools.

 Compression tester and accessories.
 Caps for injectors and injection pump.

PREPARATION

 Start and run the engine until operating temperature is attained.

 Disconnect fuel supply lines to injection pump.
 Clean areas around injectors.
 Remove high pressure and leak-off pipes, injectors and injector washers.
 Place protective caps on injectors and pump delivery valve holders, to prevent
dirt ingress.

TESTING

Dry test: - tests for leaking valves/cylinder head gasket or worn rings

11. Crank engine several times to remove soot and residue fuel from the cylinder.
12. Connect the compression tester to injector aperture on one cylinder.
13. Crank the engine through at least four compression strokes. Note the reading
of the first compression.
NOTE:
Each compression stroke makes a puffing sound and the first puff
reading should be about half the highest reading. A low first-puff
reading indicates possible weak piston rings.

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 14. Zero the gauge by releasing the pressure and repeat the process for the
remaining cylinders.
15. Record the highest reading on each cylinder and compare the results.
NOTE:
Most Manufacturers specify maximum allowable difference,
between highest and lowest compression reading of 20%, e.g.
If high reading is 150psi
Less 20% -30psi
Lowest allowable compression is 120psi

Wet test: - tests leaking valves/cylinder head gaskets and eliminates

piston rings

This compression test is carried out when low compression is indicated in one or
more cylinders.

1. Add three squirts of oil, from a hand operated oil squirt can, to the cylinder to
be tested.
NOTE:
Do not add more than three squirts, as too much may result to an
hydraulic lock ending with damaged piston rings.
2. Carry out the compression test on all cylinders. Record and evaluate readings.

NOTE:
If the first-puff readings are much higher than those of the dry test, then the
cause of low compression is worn or defective piston rings. If there is a slight
improvement in compression, then the cause can either be defective valves or
leaking cylinder head gasket

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ANALYSIS – DRY AND WET TESTS

Cyl. High Low Reading High Low Difference Comment

reading reading less 20% Reading reading
No. Wet - Dry
(Dry) (1 -puff)
st
(Wet) (1 -puff)
st

hig low
h

RECOMMENDATIONS:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

CARRY OUT MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINE COMPONENTS SERVICING

OBJECTIVE: inspect engine block for visible wear.

PREPARATIONS

Thoroughly clean the cylinder block’s water jackets and sleeves of all scales and
carbon deposits. Lubricate the cylinder bores and place the block on a flat surface.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

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  Relevant cleaning material.

VISUAL INSPECTIONS/CHECKS

11. Check for the presence of loose scales in the water jackets.
12. Check for eroded or pitted water holes.
13. Check for cracks, porosity and leaks.
14. Check cylinder sleeves for ridge wear, score and heat marks.
15. Check all threaded holes and if necessary restore any damaged threads.

STRAIGHTEDGE CHECKS

12. Check all mounting surfaces for flatness.

13. Check for raised areas around bolt and stud holes, if required, refinish
according manufacture’s specifications.
Check the cylinder block top surface for flatness

TRADE PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Engines

OBJECTIVE: Lapping cylinder head valves using coarse and fine grinding paste and
testing valves for leaks.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

8. Valve spring compressor.

9. Lapping stick.
10. Grinding/lapping compound.
11. Mutton cloth.
12. Engine oil.
13. Cleaning solvent.
14. Compressed air.

PROCEDURE:

Disassembling:

5. Remove valve stem caps.

6. Compress valve springs, remove collets.
7. Remove valve spring compressor. Remove valve spring collars, valve springs
and valves.
8. Place the valves in a numbered mount for fitting in the same places.

Lapping valves with coarse paste

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 8. Apply coarse lapping paste to the valve face, at least in three places. Avoid
applying paste to valve stem.
9. Apply a few drops of engine oil to the valve face and stem before inserting
valve onto its seat.
10. Ensure the valve head is clean, dry and free of oil before pressing the rubber
sucker of lapping stick to the valve head.
11. Press the lapping stick gently and rotate the valve on its seat. A grinding
noise will be heard.
12. Lift the valve off its seat, rotate and press again to grind until grinding noise
ceases.
13. Lift out the valve. Clean the valve face and check its condition before applying
a fresh coat of coarse paste.
14. Grinding with coarse paste continues until the valve face and seat are free of
carbon.

Lapping with fine paste

8. Clean valve face seat using cleaning solvent.

9. Apply fine paste in at least three places of the valve seat.
10. Lubricate valve face and seat and insert valve onto its seat.
11. Press rubber sucker gently onto valve head and grind until grinding noise
ceases.
12. Wipe off the paste and check the condition of the face and seat.
13. Continue lapping until shiny ring appears on the valve face and seat.
14. After grinding clean cylinder head with solvent and blow with compressed air.

Testing valves for leaks

6. Assemble the valves in their correct seats with springs collars and collets
installed.
7. Pour suitable solvent into inlet and exhaust ports.
8. Leave head for some time to allow the solvent to settle.
9. Poorly lapped valves will leak within 45 seconds.
10. Re-lap the leaking valves until they seal.

TOPIC: Diesel Engine

OBJECTIVE: Cylinder head bolt tightening.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
Lifting apparatus
Torque Wrench
Appropriate stands and engine stand.
Appropriate service manual

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 Procedure
Always refer to OEM manual for torque specifications and method of
tightening cylinder head bolts. Two methods that can be used are:
1. Criss-crossing method
2. Spiral method

Example of cylinder head bolt tightening sequence

The cylinder head bolts should be tightened in stages, starting from the
centre and working outwards, as shown below. The torque should be
applied in stages using a torque wrench. The actual torque wrench
setting will vary from engine to engine and it should always be checked
against the manufacturer’s recommended figures.

Fig.2.18 Example of cylinder head bolt

tightening sequence

TOPIC: DIESEL ENGINES

OBJECTIVE: To carry out cylinder leakage test.

18. Tools and equipment

 A whistle stop.
 Cylinder leakage tester.
 Relevant hand tools.

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This test determines the exact cause or location of low compression pressure in an
engine. It involves the injection of air into the cylinder, and the amount and location
of escaping air assists the Technician to determine the condition of the engine.

19. Testing Procedure:

 Start and run the engine until it attains the operating
temperature.
 Remove injector pipes and injectors.
 Fit the whistle stop into the injector hole.
 Rotate the engine by hand, the whistle produces a sound when
the piston is on the compression stroke, and stops at the end of
the stroke – TDC.
NOTE:
Leakage test is carried out with piston at TDC on
compression stroke, as the greatest wear is at the top
near the cylinder head, due to the high temperatures
generated and the flexing of the rings.
 Remove the whistle stop and replace it with the leakage tester,
set pressure tester to manufacturer’s pressure specifications.
 Using pressure tester pump air into the cylinder being tested
and hold for five seconds while observing pressure drop.
 Repeat the process to every cylinder and evaluate the results.

Analysis:

Less than 10% leakage - Good

Less than 20% leakage - Acceptable

Less than 30% leakage - Poor

More than 30% leakage - Definite problem

Determining the source of the air leakage:

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 Source of air leakage Faulty component

1. Air escaping from oil filler Piston rings worn or

cap broken

2. Air bubbling out of the Burnt cylinder head

radiator gasket

Cracked cylinder head

3. Air hissing from inlet Defective inlet valve

manifold
4. Air coming out of exhaust Defective exhaust valve
tail pipe

ACTIVITY
(CLEARANCE)
VALVE CLEARANCE (VALVE LASH)
There must always be a working clearance in the valve operating gear when the
valve is in its closed position to ensure that the valve will close completely. When the
clearance is checked, allowance must be made for the fact that under different
running conditions the amount of clearance will be altered by different temperatures.
The valve, cylinder block, cylinder head and valve operating mechanism will all
expand at different rates
Depending on the design and type of valve actuation (e.g. pushrod system,
overhead camshaft system etc.) the working clearance increases or decreases with
changes in engine temperature and operating conditions. Additionally, wear of the
valve face, cam and follower (and also the pushrod) will result in a change to the
working clearance. If the clearance is too large, this will result in excessive noise and
component wear. If the clearance is too small, the valve may not be able to close
fully. If the valve is not able to close fully, it can cause a loss of pressure in the
cylinder and burnt valves (more often the exhaust valves). The burning is caused
because one of the paths for the escape of heat is cut off if the valve does not close
properly, and gas at a very high temperature will be forced at high speed through
the gap between valve face and seating

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Fig. 3. Valve Lash Setting

TOOLS

(1) Feeler gauge

(2) Suitable Spanner

(3) Screw driver (flat)

Typical example of a four-cylinder engine;

1. Rotate the crankshaft in a clockwise direction (seen at front of engine) until

the exhaust valve of No. 1 cylinder is nearly closed and the inlet valve for No.
1 cylinder is starting to open (valve overlap)

2. Piston of cylinder number 1 and cylinder number 4 are now at TDC

3. With both, inlet and exhaust valve in overlap position (cyl.no. 1), you can
measure the clearance between inlet and exhaust valve of cylinder number 4

4. If a valve needs adjustment, loosen the valve adjustment screw locknut that
is on the adjustment screw

5. Place the appropriate feeler gauge between the rocker arm and the valve.

6. Adjust the valve lash until the correct specification is achieved

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 7. After each adjustment, tighten the valve adjustment screw locknut while
adjustment screw is being held from turning

8. Rotate the crankshaft in a clockwise direction through an additional 360

degrees and check for valve overlap at cylinder number 4. Now you are ready
to check valve lash on both valves of cylinder number 1

9. Rotate the engine crankshaft in a clockwise direction until the exhaust valve
for No.2
cylinder is nearly closed and the inlet valve for No. 2 cylinder is starting to
open. You can now check valve lash at cylinder No. 3

10. Rotate the engine crankshaft in a clockwise direction until the exhaust valve
for No.3
cylinder is nearly closed and the inlet valve for No. 3 cylinder is starting to
open. You can now check valve lash at cylinder No. 2

NOTE IT

Understanding the working of an engine will help you to perform valve adjustment
with minimum crankshaft rotation. A training model mounted on a stand, can easy
be rotated, but once fitted in an engine compartment, it will be more difficult to turn
the crankshaft.
EXERCISE
Observe the working diagram of a 4-cylinder four stroke engine pictured herewith
below

1. name the valves that can be adjusted when both valves of cylinder number 1
are in overlap.
2. Name the valves that are ready for adjustment when the crankshaft is rotated
another 360o

0 60 120 180o 360o 540o 720o

Cylinder 1 P E I C

Cylinder 2 E I C P

Cylinder 3 C P E I

Cylinder 4 I C P E

I = Inlet C = Compression P = Power E = Exhaust

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Answer: With valve overlap on cylinder No.1, both inlet- and exhaust valves of
cylinder No.4 can be adjusted. Holding the crankshaft in the same position, exhaust
valve of cylinder No.2 and Inlet valve of cylinder No.3 can be adjusted.

This procedure takes into account the total number of valves for the respective
engine.

VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES FOR A FOUR CYLINDER

INLINE ENGINE
FOUR CYLINDER ENGINE WITH EIGHT VALVES

(RULE OF 9TH RULE)

FULLY OPEN VALVE NO. ADJUST VALVE NO.

1 8 = 9

2 7 = 9

3 6 = 9

4 5 = 9

5 4 = 9

6 3 = 9

7 2 = 9

8 1 = 9

VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES FOR A SIX-CYLINDER

INLINE ENGINE
FOUR CYLINDER ENGINE WITH EIGHT VALVES

(13TH RULE)
FULLY OPEN VALVE NO. ADJUST VALVE NO
1 12 = 13
2 11 = 13
3 10 = 13
4 9 = 13
5 8 = 13
6 7 = 13
7 6 = 13
8 5 = 13

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 9 4 = 13
10 3 = 13
11 2 = 13
12 1 = 14

This procedure takes into account the overlap period and is commonly referred to as
the OVERLAP METHOD

VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES FOR A FOUR CYLINDER

INLINE ENGINE
OVERLAP METHOD

(FOUR CYLINDER ENGINE)

OVERLAP VALVE ON CYLINDER NO. ADJUSTVALVES ON CYLINDER NO.

1 4

2 3

3 2

4 1

VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES FOR A SIX CYLINDER

INLINE ENGINE
OVERLAP METHOD

(SIX CYLINDER ENGINE)

OVERLAP VALVE ON CYLINDER NO. ADJUSTVALVES ON CYLINDER NO.

1 6

2 5

3 4

4 3

5 2

6 1

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UNIT A7.4 SERVICING DIESEL ENGINES:

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Demonstrate safety procedures
2. Identify tools and materials required to perform the task
3. Apply correct procedures when performing diesel engine service
4. Use appropriate procedure to service the engine systems

DEMONSTRATE SAFETY PROCEDURES

IDENTIFY TOOLS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED TO PERFORM THE TASK

Tool box

Most of the toolboxes will contain the following hand tools:

TOPIC: Workshop tools and equipment.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and use hand tools:

1. Variety of hand tools

1.0 HAND TOOLS

Ensure that hand tools are kept clean with varying types and sizes stored in separate
trays for easy accessibility. Several types of hand tools are available, and include:

1.0.1 Wrenches:

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 1.0.2 Ratchets, sockets and extensions:
A socket fits over a fastener and is rotated by either a Breaker bar (flex bar)
or ratchet:

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 1.0.3 Screwdrivers:
These are available in many sizes and used to tighten and or loosen small
fasteners, e.g screws

1.0.4 Hammers and Mallets:

Hammers and mallets are used to force objects together or apart, and are
classified according to the shape of the head.

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 1.0.5 Pliers:
Pliers are used for holding, twisting, bending and cutting objects, and it is an
extremely important tool for Technicians.

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 1.0.6 Files and Cutters:
Files – Used to smoothen metals and are constructed of hardened steel bars
with diagonal rows of teeth.
Cutters – Are used for cutting sheet metal and gaskets. Normally comprise
snips and knives.

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 1.0.7 Punches and Chisels:
a. Punches:
A punch is a small diameter steel rod with one end ground to a
smaller diameter. It is used to drive out pins that hold two pieces
together. They come in different sizes.

b. Chisels:

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 A chisel has a sharp straight, sharp cutting end used for cutting rivets
or to separate two components. The most common type for
automotive work is called a cold chisel.
c. Safe usage of punches and chisels:
 Always wear eye protection when using a punch or chisel,
because they are brittle and chips might injure the user.
 Always ground off mushroomed or rounded tops to avoid
injury.

1.0.8 Safety tips when using Hand Tools:

a. Always Pull a wrench toward you for better control and safety. Never
Push a wrench.
b. Keep wrenches and all hand tools clean to allow for better and firmer
grip.
c. Always use a 6-point socket or box-end wrench to torque or untorque
bolts and nuts.
d. Always use box-end torquing and open-end for speed tightening or
loosening.
e. Always use proper and correct tool for the job.
f. Never expose tools to excessive heat.
g. Always replace damaged or tools to avoid slippage and injury.
h. Always grind off rounded edges of punches and chisels.
i. Ensure that hammer handles are rigidly fixed in the heads.
j. Always use the correct tool for the right job.

APPLY CORRECT PROCEDURES WHEN PERFORMING DIESEL ENGINE

SERVICE

INTERPRETING OIL ANALYSES

Oil analysis has become a key component of good preventative maintenance (PM)
practice. This is because it can save operators money. Performing the analyses at

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each PM and responding appropriately to the lab reports is key to making them cost-
effective. An oil analysis is performed to determine:

1. Viscosity
2. presence of coolant
3. dirt contamination
4. abnormal wear contamination.

OIL SAMPLE COLLECTION

The engine oil temperature should be close to operating temperature when drawing
a sample. Although the Condition Monitoring Companies have guidelines on how to
draw off oil samples, they are not always easy to observe. Many oil condition
monitoring companies recommend that an oil sample syringe be ported directly into
the main lube gallery being especially vehicleeful to avoid dead zones.

The engine oil should be at operating temperature with the engine running before
drawing the sample. However, in practice most oil samples are taken from diesel
engines during routine PM oil change operations while draining oil from the engine.
Avoid taking the sample from either the beginning or end of the drain-off: midway
through the runoff is preferred. Take precautions to avoid burns from the oil while
obtaining the sample by wearing insulated rubber chemical-handling gloves. Also
avoid contaminating the sample after it has been taken. Label the container and
complete the engine identification form that accompanies the sample to the
laboratory. If the objective of the sample is diagnosis of a condition, you have no
choice but to syringe the sample either from the oil pan or a lubrication gallery.
Again, the oil sample should be at running temperature when the sample is drawn.

Types of Testing

When used engine oil is analysed, the objective is to produce a report vehicled on
the rate of engine wear and the suitability of the oil change interval to the
application, and perhaps to identify a potential engine failure before it becomes an
actual failure. Oil-testing laboratories use blotter and spectrographic testing to
produce reports that reference the engine OEM limit specifications. A blotter test kit
is available for nonlaboratory testing of engine oil. A blotter test is a relatively crude
means of testing some of the oil’s characteristics.

A change in the oil’s viscosity can be determined using a flow comparator. A

significant increase in the engine oil’s viscosity can be caused by prolonged high
temperature operation, aerated lubricant, extended service intervals, or coolant
contamination. A decrease in viscosity is normally attributable to fuel contamination.
All commercial diesel engine oil is affected by a small amount of fuel contamination;
however, this should not be sufficient to cause any significant alteration in viscosity.

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Next, a measured drop of used oil is dropped on a test paper or blotter. The
darkness of the sample relative to that on a code chart is used to indicate the
amount of soot, dirt, and other suspended material in the sample. On some blotter
test kits, the acidity can also be read on the test paper by a change of colour.
Laboratories perform more comprehensive testing usually involving the use of
spectrochemical analyses. Spectrographic testing produces more specific results and
is used to identify metallic and organic contaminants in oil. A quantity of the sample
is boiled off, and then subjected to ultraviolet radiation. Contaminants are identified
by the way they react to the radiation. Oil sample analyses must be interpreted
comparatively not only with the OEM maximum specifications but also with the
vehicle’s service application. They are most meaningful when interpreted by a fleet
equipped with identical engines in units engaged in similar operating modes.

ELEMENTS FOUND ON A TYPICAL OIL ANALYSIS REPORT

The following list includes some of the elements found on a typical oil analysis
report:

1. Al—aluminum. A constituent of many friction bearings, pistons, turbo impeller

housings, Roots blowers.
2. B—boron. An engine coolant SCA (supplemental cooling additive) and an
engine oil additive. Cr—chromium. A common piston ring coating.
3. Cu—copper. A constituent of many oil cooler bundles, friction bearings,
engine bushings, and thrust washers. Copper levels tend to be higher when
an engine is new (100 ppm) and should drop down to lower levels (20 ppm)
after several months of usage
4. Fe—iron. Most of the engine components are iron based alloys. High Fe
readings could be an indication of rapid wear on almost any engine
component exposed to the lube oil; engine cylinder and valvetrain
components should be suspected first.
5. Pb—lead. A constituent of most friction bearings.
6. Si—silicon. Silicon dioxide from airborne fine sands and dusts ingested by the
engine intake system often indicate malfunctioning air filter or intake ducting
leaks. Silicon is a constituent of new engine oil in which it serves as an
antifoam agent, so the silicon level reported by the laboratory is corrected to
read only externally acquired silicon.
7. Na—sodium. Found in some lubricants as an additive, so the laboratory
reading must be corrected to read acquired sodium. When the source is other
than the engine oil, the culprit is usually coolant SCAs.
8. Sn—tin. A constituent of most friction bearings and occasionally used to coat
pistons. Soot—also known as total solids. Soot is a form of fine carbon
particle, a combustion by-product that is not readily identifiable in routine lab
testing; in fact, some laboratories report total suspended particles as soot

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 level. Fuel soot is present in all engine oil. It can generally be regarded as
nonabrasive but in the presence of moisture may crystallize when it becomes
abrasive. Accumulated soot loads may increase the oil’s viscosity.

Tip:
Whenever a high reading in an oil analysis chart cannot be explained, contact
the engine OEM or dealer before taking any other action. Their experience of
failure feedback from across their product may produce a simple explanation
of the problem that could avoid an unnecessary engine disassembling.

USE APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE TO SERVICE THE FOLLOWING ENGINE

SYSTEMS

CARRY OUT MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM (COMPONENTS)

SERVICING

Maintaining the Air-cooled System

You may think that because the air-cooled system is so simple it requires no
maintenance. Many mechanics think this way and many air-cooled engine failures
occur as a result. Maintenance of an air-cooled system consists primarily of keeping
cooling components clean. Clean components permit rapid transfer of heat and
ensure that nothing prevents the continuous flow and circulation of air. To
accomplish this, keep fans, shrouds, baffles, and fins free of dirt, bugs, grease, and
other foreign matter. The engine may look clean from the outside, but what is under
the shroud? An accumulation of dirt and debris here can cause real problems;
therefore, keep this area between the engine and shroud clean.

SERVICING THE LIQUID-COOLED SYSTEM

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COOLING SYSTEM SERVICE

PROCEDURE

CAUTION

Do not attempt to open the radiator immediately after switching off the engine. The
effect would be as dangerous as discharging a hot water on the face and body.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS CONSIDERED WHEN WORKING ON COOLING SYSTEM

1. Keep your hands away from the moving fan.

2. Never stand in a direct line with the fan always examine the fan before
starting the engine.
3. Electric fans can turn an unexpectedly, especially if the engine is warm.
Always disconnect the fan before working in the fan area.
4. Keep your fingers away from the moving belt and pulleys.
5. Never attempt to remove the radiator cap from an engine that is near or
above its normal operating temperature. Releasing the pressure cap may
cause instant boiling of the coolant. Allow the engine to cool before removing
the radiator cap.
6. Coolant is poisonous! It can cause serious illness or even death if swallowed.
Always wash your hands if you get coolant on them.
7. A puddle of drained coolant will poison any pet drinking from it. Coolant is a
hazardous material. Dispose it in a safe and legal manner.
8. Under some conditions, the ethylene glycol in antifreeze is combustible. Do
not spill antifreeze on the exhaust manifold or other hot engine parts.
9. If the engine overheats, turn off the engine as soon as it is safe to do so.
Continued operation of an overheated engine may cause a fire, possibility of
personal injury, and severe vehicle damage.
10. Never disconnect a hose or attempt to replace any cooling system component
if the system is hot, that may cause hot coolant to spray out, burning or
scalding you.

Note location of each bolt to aid reassembly

Un efficient cooling system is as a result of coolant leak, overheating and

overcooling. A bad water pump may leak coolant (worn seal,) fail to circulate coolant
(broken or damaged impeller), or it may produce a grinding sound. (Faulty pump
bearings). Rust in the cooling system or lack of rust and corrosion inhibitor are
common reasons for the pump failure. These conditions could speed up seal, shaft
and bearing wear. An over-tightened fan belt is another common cause for
premature water pump failure.

PREPARATION

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Clean the engine compartment

SAFETY:

Park the vehicle on the level ground, choke the wheels, apply hand brake and
remove keys from the ignition switch.

TOOLS/EQUIPMENT:

10mm Spanner, 12 -13mm ring spanner, 13mm combination spanner, 14mm

combination spanner, 17mm combination spanner, Cutting Pliers, Water pump
pliers,25-piece ½” drive Socket box, Cooling system tester (analyzer)

CHECKING COOLANT LEAKS

1. Check for bad water pump seal, pressure test the system and watch for
leakage at the pump.

2. Check for coolant leak out of the small drain hole at the bottom of pump or at
the end of the pump shaft. (Remember caution)

INSPECTION COOLING SYSTEM HOSES

Checking and replacing a coolant hose

SUMMARY

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check, remove and replace
coolant hoses. Never try to assess the serviceability of a coolant hose while the
engine is hot.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

Check, remove and replace coolant hoses.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

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If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Never try to assess the serviceability of a coolant hose while the engine is
hot. Let it cool down so that you can handle the hoses comfortably and
safely.
 Always ensure the engine is turned 'off' before attempting to check the
radiator hoses.
 Always make sure that you wear the appropriate personal protection
equipment before starting the job. It is very easy to hurt yourself even when
the most exhaustive protection measures are taken.
 Always make sure that your work area/environment is as safe as you can
make it. Do not use damaged, broken or worn out workshop equipment.
 Always follow any manufacturer's personal safety instructions to prevent
damage to the vehicle you are servicing.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 If you find one defective hose, the chances are that the other hose(s) may be
deteriorating in the same way and will soon need to be replaced. For this
reason, most technicians will generally replace both hoses at once as a
sensible precaution.
 You may need to use a torch to inspect the coolant hoses so that you can
clearly see if the surface is starting to crack.

RADIATOR HOSE PROBLEMS:

Check coolant hoses for hardening, internal flaking, chafed or burned, oil or swollen,
cracks and breaks

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CLAMP TYPES

NOTE

 Clamps are not expensive, so it is good practice to fit new ones at the same
time as new hoses. Even if not corroded, the old clamps may have become
distorted when being removed from an unserviceable hose.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Inspect hoses and clamps

Locate both the hoses that carry coolant between the radiator and the
engine. One is at the top and the other is at the bottom of the radiator.
Squeeze each hose. It should feel pliable and springy. If it feels very soft and
weak, or very hard and brittle, it will need to be replaced. Look for signs of
swelling or cracking, particularly on the vulnerable underside of the lower
hose. Check that the clamps are holding the hoses firmly in position and are
not corroded.

2. Remove hose

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 Drain the coolant from the system before removing either of the hoses.
Remove the clamp using the appropriate tool. If the hose is stuck and won’t
pull off easily, be vehicleeful you do not damage the radiator fitting by using
too much force. It is better to cut the hose in several places so that you can
remove it easily. Clean the hose fittings thoroughly on both the engine and
the radiator with fine sandpaper or emery cloth, so that it will make a good
seal with the new hose.

3. Verify replacement

Obtain new hoses and compare them with the removed hoses to make sure
they are the same length and diameter. If the hose is a moulded type, the
new one must also have the same pre-formed curve.

4. Refit hose

Apply some sealing compound to the hose fittings and place the loosened
clamps over the hose ends before sliding the hose into position on the block
and radiator fittings. Tighten the clamps securely about a quarter of an inch
or 6mm from the end of the hose. Be vehicleeful not to over tighten and
damage the hoses, but it is important they do not fall off once the pressure in
the cooling system increases.

5. Refill cooling system and check

Refill the cooling system, and then run the engine for a few minutes. Check
the hose connections to make sure that there are no leaks. When the engine
is at its normal operating temperature, check the tightness of the clamps
again, as the clamps and hoses will both expand at different rates as they
heat up.

INSPECTING WATER PUMP FOR WORN BEARINGS

Check for worn pump bearing, try to wiggle the fan or pump pulley up and down

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Wiggle engine fan up and down to check for water pump bearing wear. Pump shaft
should not wiggle.

INSPECTING PUMP ACTION

3. Squeeze the top radiator hose while someone starts the engine,
4. Feel a pressure surge (those swelling) if the pump is working If not, pump
shaft or impeller problems are indicated
5. Watch for coolant circulation in the radiator with the engine at operating
temperature

REMOVING WATER PUMP

After the inspection is done and water is found to be leaking from the tail tell hole,
or if the pump shaft is loose in the bearing case the pump bearings are badly worn
Pump replacement would usually be necessary
6. To remove the water pump, unbolt all brackets and other components (air
conditioning compressor, power steering pump, alternator, shroud, fan belts)
preventing pump removal.
7. Unscrew the bolts holding the pump to the engine.

NOTE: Scrape off old gasket or sealer material from the engine to pump mating
surfaces which must be perfectly clean to prevent coolant leak.

8. On soft aluminum parts, be careful not to gouge or scratch the sealing

surface.

INSTALLING PUMP

To install a water pump gasket, use approved sealer to stick the new gasket to
pump. This will keep the gasket in alignment over the bolt holes during pump
installation. To use a chemical silicon gasket (sealer used in place of fibre gasket)
squeeze out a bead of approved sealer around the pump surface.

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Gasket is used to seal water pump to engine sealing surface. Make sure gasket is
correct one and aligned.

9. Form a continuous bead of consistent width about 3mm

10. Fit the pump onto the engine
11. Move it straight into place
12. Do not shift gasket or break the sealant bead
13. Start all of the bolts by hand screwing them in about two turns by hand
14. Check that all bolt lengths are correct Each bolt should be sticking out the
same amount
15. Torque all of the fasteners a little at a time in a crisscross pattern
16. Go over the bolts several times to assure correct tightening
17. Install the other parts and tighten the belt properly.
18. Fill in water and coolant in the radiator in the ration recommended by the
OEM
19. Running the engine to confirm that there is no coolant leak

DRAINING AND REFILLING COOLANTI

Introduction

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to drain cooling system and refill
with correct mixture of engine coolant. Some vehicles have drain plugs on the side
of the engine block. The shop service manual will tell you if these need to be opened
when draining the coolant.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

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Drain cooling system and refill with correct mixture of engine coolant.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Never drain and refill the cooling system of a hot engine. Wait for it to cool
down first.
 Always make sure that you wear the appropriate personal protection
equipment before starting the job. It is very easy to hurt yourself even when
the most exhaustive protection measures are taken.
 Always make sure that your work area/environment is as safe as you can
make it. Do not use damaged, broken or worn out workshop equipment.
 Always follow any manufacturer's personal safety instructions to prevent
damage to the vehicle you are servicing.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 Some vehicles have drain plugs on the side of the engine block. The shop
service manual will tell you if these need to be opened when draining the
coolant.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Locate drain plug

Locate the cooling system drain plug or valve on the bottom tank of the
radiator. Place a clean drain pan large enough to contain all the coolant
underneath the drain valve.

2. Drain radiator

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 Carefully remove the radiator pressure cap. This will allow air into the cooling
system so that it can drain quickly and completely. Open the drain valve so
that the coolant can drain into the pan below. When all the coolant has
drained out, close the drain valve.

3. Refill coolant system

Check the shop service manual for the capacity of the system, and the
recommended type and mixture of coolant for the operating conditions of the
vehicle. Measure the recommended amount of coolant and using a funnel
pour it in through the top of the radiator.

4. Start engine and verify

Air can be trapped in the cooling system, so leave the radiator cap off to
allow it to escape, and run the engine for a few minutes to allow the coolant
to circulate and get rid of trapped air. Then replace the radiator cap and bring
the engine up to operating temperature. Check the coolant level in the
reservoir and top it up to the high or hot engine mark.

5. Dispose of waste

Antifreeze is toxic, so dispose of the waste coolant carefully and in an

environmentally recommended way.

REMOVING AND REPLACING A THERMOSTAT

SUMMARY

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely remove and replace a
cooling system thermostat. Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling
point. Never open a radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

Safely remove and replace a cooling system thermostat.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs

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  Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling point. Never open a
radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.
 Before removing the pressure cap, check the temperature of the cooling
system with an infrared temperature gun if you have one available.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Before commencing a repair or service task on the cooling system and allow
approximately 30 minutes for the system to cool sufficiently before opening
the pressurized system.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 Drain the at least 50% of the coolant in the system to avoid spills.
 Position the thermostat air bleed valve (if fitted) in the proper position.
 Make sure the thermostat is fully seated in the groove and stays there before
fitting the housing. Failure to do so will damage the new thermostat and
possibly break the housing as it is tightened up.
 Tighten the housing bolts to the correct torque.
 Make sure to use the manufacturer’s procedure to properly bleed all air from
the cooling system.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Remove the thermostat

Unbolt the thermostat housing from the engine block. Be very vehicleeful not
to damage the housing as it is generally made from aluminum or a similar
fragile material. Remove the thermostat.

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 2. Inspect the mating surfaces

Inspect the thermostat housing and remove any gasket material from the
mating surface of the housing. Inspect the engine block and remove any
gasket material from its mating surface.

3. Install the new thermostat

Inspect the new thermostat to ensure that the identification number is the
same as the one you have removed. Fit the new thermostat, ensuring the air
bleed hole is in the correct position. Check the thermostat is fully seated in its
groove. Fit the correct type of gasket for the vehicle you are working on.
Carefully refit the thermostat housing to the engine block and bolt it into
place.

4. Refill the cooling system

Refill the system with coolant. Run the engine to circulate the coolant and
remove any air trapped in the system. Check that the temperature indicator
gauge shows the coolant temperature is in the normal operational range. Top
up the radiator or reservoir with coolant if necessary

REPLACING AN ENGINE DRIVE BELT

SUMMARY

Many vehicles require the technician to manually adjust the tension on the belt.
Other vehicles have an automatic spring tensioning system. Depending on the
system used on the particular vehicle, you should always follow the manufacturer's
service instructions. The objective of this procedure is to show you how to remove
and replace an engine accessory drive belt.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

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Remove and replace an engine accessory drive belt.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Never try to inspect belts with the engine running.

 Always make sure that you wear the appropriate personal protection
equipment before starting the job. It is very easy to hurt yourself even when
the most exhaustive protection measures are taken.
 Always make sure that your work area/environment is as safe as you can
make it. Do not use damaged, broken or worn out workshop equipment.
 Always follow any manufacturer's instructions in relation to personal safety
and prevention of damage to the vehicle you are working on.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 There are two types of drive belts:

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'BOTTOMING-OUT'

When a V-type belt becomes very worn, the bottom of the V-shape may contact the
bottom of the groove in the pulley, preventing the sides of the belt from making
good contact with the sides of the pulley groove. This reduced friction causes
slippage; a belt worn enough to bottom-out should be replaced.

Many vehicles require the technician to manually adjust the tension on the belt.
Other vehicles have an automatic spring tensioning system. Depending on the
system used on the particular vehicle, you should always follow the manufacturer's
service instructions.

There are a number of different types of tension gauges. Follow the operating
instructions on the tool. If you don't have a tension gauge, you can estimate the
tension by pushing the belt inwards with your hand. If it's correctly tensioned you
should be able to deflect the belt about 1.25 centimetres for each 30cm of belt.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Loosen tension and remove belt

Locate the adjustment fastener and loosen it. This is usually on the alternator
mounting or on a separate pulley wheel. Move the adjusting mechanism in far
enough to allow you to remove the belt. Some vehicles use an automatic
spring tension system. In that case, pull the tensioning device back so that
you can remove the belt.

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 2. Inspect drive & driven pulleys

Check the drive and pulley wheels. Look for cracks and other forms of
damage. Check that there is no sideways movement indicating worn bearings,
and spin the pulley wheels by hand to check that the bearings are rotating
freely.

3. Select correct replacement belt

Obtain the correct size and type of replacement belt specified in the workshop
manual, and compare it with the belt you have just removed. They should be
very similar, although the old belt may have stretched in use.

4. Install V- belt

Install the new belt, making sure that it is properly seated in the V-shape
groove, or the multiple grooves in the pulley, depending on its construction.

5. Install Serpentine belt

If the belt is a Serpentine type, then make sure that it is the correct width
and squarely aligned in the pulley grooves. If it is not correctly aligned, the
belt will be thrown off the pulley wheels.

6. Correctly tension new belt

Tension the belt using a wrench and a pry bar, then check it with a tension
gauge. With automatic tension systems, gently allow this to apply the tension
to the belt.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

i. Inspect and check belt condition

Twist the belt so that you can see the underside of the ‘V’ shape or the ribs
on a Serpentine belt. Look for signs of wear and damage. You may need a
flashlight to see these clearly. A cracked or glazed or torn belt will need to be
replaced.

ii. Check tension

Check the belt tension by attaching the tension gauge to the longest belt
span, and pulling it to measure the tension. Compare your reading to the
specifications in the vehicle workshop manual.

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 iii. Choose the correct tools

Select the correct wrench to loosen the tension adjustment fastener. This is
usually on the Alternator mounting or on a separate idler pulley wheel. You
will also need a pry bar, which is a metal bar you can use as a lever to apply
tension on the belt.

iv. Adjust belt tension

Loosen the adjustment fastener, then wedge the pry bar between the
alternator and a strong part of the engine and pull in the direction that will
apply tension to the belt. Tighten the adjustment fastener.

v. Check tension again and readjust if necessary

Check the tension again with the gauge, and if necessary loosen the fastener
and adjust the belt again until it is at the correct tension for the vehicle.

7. Start the engine

Start the engine, and observe the belt to make sure that it is properly seated
and operating correctly. Stop the engine again, and recheck the tension.

TESTING COOLING SYSTEM PRESSURE

SUMMARY

To test the cooling system for both internal and external leaks, a pressure tester is
normally used. These are often referred to as cooling system testers or analyzers.
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to test a cooling system to
confirm that it is without leaks and has the ability to hold the pressure specified by
the manufacturer.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

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Test a cooling system to confirm that it is without leaks and has the ability to hold
the pressure specified by the manufacturer.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 When working around the cooling system, vehiclee must be taken particularly
if the engine is at operating temperature, as the coolant may be hot enough
to scald.
 Always allow the system to cool before removing the radiator cap.
 Do not remove a radiator cap from a hot cooling system.
 Always use extreme caution when removing the radiator cap. Releasing the
pressure cap, on an engine at operating temperature, may cause the hot
coolant to superheat.
 If you must remove the radiator cap from a hot system, wear protective
gloves and eyewear and remove it slowly, to the first (safety) point, to
prevent the pressure inside from erupting. If you don’t this could cause the
scalding hot coolant to spill hot fluid over you or someone standing nearby.
 Make sure the engine is off when carrying out any visual inspection of the
system or when you connect the tester. You may be required to run the
engine after the tester has been installed and pressurized.
 When the engine is running, make sure that you keep any loose clothing
away from rotating parts.
 When pressure testing a system, make sure you do not exceed the
manufacturer’s maximum pressure.
 Have a qualified instructor show you the correct operation of the tester.
 Make sure that you understand and comply with all environmental and
occupational health and safety standards for your workplace at all times. If
you are unsure of what these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 To test the cooling system for both internal and external leaks, a pressure
tester is normally used. These are often referred to as cooling system testers

361 | P a g e
 or analyzers. There are a number of different analyzers used today. Make
sure you are familiar with the system used in your workshop.
 If you need to replace a pressure cap, use only a cap with the correct
recommended pressure. If a cap with a lower pressure rating is fitted, it will
lower the boiling point of the coolant. Alternatively, a higher rated cap will
increase the boiling point.

 Each 10 kPa (1.45 PSI) of cap-rated pressure changes the boiling point by
2°C (3.6°F). For example: A 90 kPa (13 PSI) radiator cap will increase the
boiling point from 100°C (212°F) to 118°C (244°F). Similarly, a 100 kPa (14.5
PSI) radiator cap will raise the boiling point from 100°C (212°F) to 120°C
(248°F).
 Pressure testing kits come with a number of adapters for various cooling
systems. These adapters can be used to connect the tester to the radiator or
to the radiator cap.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Inspect cooling system visually

Before pressure testing the system, visually inspect the system for any
obvious signs of leaks or wear in the radiator core, radiator tanks, coolant and
heater hoses, water pump, all accessible engine core plugs,
cooling fan, drive belt and radiator cap and seals.

REMOVING AND REPLACING A RADIATOR

SUMMARY

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely remove and replace a
radiator. Once the radiator has been removes carry out a visual inspection of the
radiator to ensure that it is suitable for reinstallation in the vehicle.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

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Safely remove and replace a radiator.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling point. Never open a
radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 Make sure the coolant catch tray is large enough to catch any spills and has
the capacity to hold all the system coolant.
 If changing coolant, dispose of the old coolant properly in accordance with
environmental and legislative requirements.
 If reusing the old fluid, keep it stored in a covered and uncontaminated
container.
 Inspect the cooling system hoses and clamps. Replace them if worn or
damaged.
 When removing the hoses from the radiator fittings do NOT twist them as this
can cause internal damage to the hose and the fitting. If they do not easily
release, carefully work a tool between the hose and fitting breaking it loose
all the way around. If the hoses are to be replaced, you can slit them with a
knife and peel them off the fitting.
 When refitting or replacing hoses, reinstall them all the way on the fittings.
Make sure the clamps are installed at the proper place on the fitting, beyond
the flared segment, not on top of it.
 Some vehicles have transmission cooler lines attached to the radiator.
Remember to disconnect these lines when removing the radiator and always
refit before refilling the system with coolant.

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  Refill the system with the correct coolant at the proper anti-freeze/water
ratio.
 There are a number of different types of coolant, often recognized by colour,
as they have different chemical additives that can affect the materials that the
engine and system components are made from.
 It is advisable to pressure test the system to check for leaks on completion of
the job.
 Start the engine, warm it up until the thermostat has opened and check for
proper operation of the cabin heater.
 Check for proper coolant level after it cools sufficiently.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

1. Drain the coolant

Place a drain pan below the radiator and remove the drain plug. Drain the
coolant from the system. Replace the drain plug and dispose of the drained
coolant in an environmentally approved manner.

2. Remove the radiator

Carefully remove any hoses that are attached to the radiator. Unscrew any
cowlings or covers from the radiator. Remove the bolts or screws that hold
the radiator in position in the engine bay, and lift the radiator from its
location.

3. Inspect the radiator

Carry out a visual inspection of the radiator to ensure that it is suitable for
reinstallation in the vehicle. If the radiator fins are blocked by debris carefully
clean the fins with a dry brush. If the radiator is damaged, advise your
supervisor so a decision can be made whether to repair it or replace it.

4. Replace the radiator

Place the radiator into position and replace the securing bolts or screws. Refit
the cowlings or covers. Rotate the fan and belts by hand to check the covers
do not restrict movement. Attach the coolant hoses to the radiator,

5. Refill the system

Refill the system with new coolant of the correct type. Run the engine to
circulate the coolant and remove any air trapped in the system. Check that
the temperature indicator gauge shows the coolant temperature is in the
normal operational range. Top up the radiator or reservoir with coolant if
necessary.

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*IMPORTANT SAFETY REMINDER: Do not attempt to loosen or remove the radiator
cap while the engine is hot. Serious injury can result! Your cooling system is hot!

 Drain the Radiator Flush Solution.

 Drain the contents of the radiator.
 Once the engine has cooled down, open the drain and completely empty the
contents of the radiator. Your radiator flush is almost finished!
 Depending on the size of your coolant receptacle and cooling system, you
might have to empty it into a separate container to make room for the second
draining. No matter what, never pour coolant on the ground!
 Refill the Radiator - Radiator Flush Complete!
 Now that you have performed a radiator and cooling system flush, all you
need to do is refill the radiator with fresh coolant.
 Replace the radiator drain plug or fully close the petcock.
 Using a funnel to eliminate spills, fill the radiator with a 50/50 mixture of
coolant and water. I'm a big fan of the premixed coolant that's become
popular lately, it eliminates the measuring or guessing step. With the radiator
filled, go ahead and fill the plastic coolant reservoir if your vehicle has
separate openings, again with a 50/50 mix.
 Tighten all of your radiator pressure cap
 It's a good idea to check your radiator coolant level in a day or so to be sure
it's proper, sometimes an air bubble works its way out and you need to add a
little.

COOLING SYSTEM CHECKS AND TESTS

CHECKING COOLANT LEVEL

 Never remove the radiator cap from a hot engine! Boiling coolant and steam
could erupt from the filler neck and scald you. Allow the engine to cool before
removing the cap.
 Some vehicles may have an aftermarket safety cap on the radiator. The
safety cap has a button or lever on top, pressing the button or raising the
lever relieves the pressure in the system. Then the cap can be removed.
 On most vehicles, the radiator cap should be removed for major service such
as flushing the cooling system. The radiator cap should not be removed just
to check the coolant level or to add coolant. The expansion tank keeps the
cooling system completely filled. Removing the radiator cap may allow the
loss of a significant amount of coolant.

TESTING ANTIFREEZE STRENGTH

The strength of the antifreeze can be checked with either a float or a ball
hydrometer.

1. FLOAT HYDROMETER.
a. It has a float.

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 b. Place the end of the rubber tube into the coolant.
c. Squeeze and release the rubber bulb. This draws coolant up into the
hydrometer. The height of the float indicates the strength of the antifreeze.
 The stronger the antifreeze, the higher the float steam sticks out of the
coolant
 A thermometer and scale on the hydrometer shows the temperature of
the coolant and how low the temperature must go before the coolant
would freeze.

2. BALL HYDROMETER.

This hydrometer has four or five balls in a small plastic tube. Coolant is drawn
in by squeezing and releasing the bulb. The stronger the solution, the more
balls that float.

TESTING THE THERMOSTAT

1. One recommended procedure of testing thermostat is to suspend the

thermostat in a solution of coolant.
2. Heat the coolant to 14◦c above the temperature stamped on the thermostat.
 The thermostat should open.

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 3. Then submerge the thermostat in the same solution after it has cooled to
5.5◦c below the temperature stamped on the thermostat.
 The thermostat should close completely.

NOTE: If the thermostat does not open and close properly, replace it. Both the
thermostat and the thermometer must be suspended so they do not touch the
container.

CHECKING FOR EXHAUST GAS LEAKAGE INTO COOLING SYSTEM

1. A defective head gasket may allow exhaust gas to leak into the cooling
system.
a. This is very damaging.
b. Strong acids can form as the gas unites with water in the coolant.
c. These acids corrode the radiator and other cooling system parts.
2. An exhaust-gas analyzer can be used to check for exhaust-gas leakage into
the cooling system.
3. With the radiator cap removed and engine running.
4. Hold the analyzer probe into the coolant.
5. If there is exhaust-gas leakage, the analyzer will defect it.

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PRESSURE TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM

CHECK THE OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS OF THE TESTER

Refer to the pressure tester’s manual for correct operation. The outside of the
radiator cap should be marked with its operating pressure. When this pressure is
reached, the pressure relief valve in the cap will allow a discharge into the overflow
system.

1. Fill the radiator to about 13mm below the bottom of the filler neck.
2. Then wipe the neck sealing surface and attach the tester.
3. Operate the pump to supply a pressure that does not exceed 3psi (21kpa)
above the manufacturer’s specification.
4. If the pressure drops, there are leaks.

NOTE:

a. A further check can be made with the engine warm and running about 3000
rpm. A fluctuating needle on the pressure gauge indicates an exhaust-gas
leak.
b. It is probably through the cylinder-head gasket.
c. If the needle does not fluctuate, accelerate the engine several times.
d. Check for abnormal discharge of fluid or white smoke from the tail pipe.
e. This indicates a cracked block or head, or a leaking head gasket.

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PRESSURE TESTING THE RADIATOR CAP

1. Make a pressure test of the radiator cap using the pressure tester.
2. Attach the radiator cap onto the tester as shown.
3. Pump the tester until the pressure reaches that stamped on the cap.
4. If the cap cannot hold its rated pressure, replace the cap.
5. A defective cap may also allow coolant loss and engine overheating.

REMOVING AND REPLACING A THERMOSTAT

SUMMARY

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely remove and replace a
cooling system thermostat. Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling
point. Never open a radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

Safely remove and replace a cooling system thermostat.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

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  Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling point. Never open a
radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.
 Before removing the pressure cap, check the temperature of the cooling
system with an infrared temperature gun if you have one available.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Before commencing a repair or service task on the cooling system and allow
approximately 30 minutes for the system to cool sufficiently before opening
the pressurized system.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 Drain the at least 50% of the coolant in the system to avoid spills.
 Position the thermostat air bleed valve (if fitted) in the proper position.
 Make sure the thermostat is fully seated in the groove and stays there before
fitting the housing. Failure to do so will damage the new thermostat and
possibly break the housing as it is tightened up.
 Tighten the housing bolts to the correct torque.
 Make sure to use the manufacturer’s procedure to properly bleed all air from
the cooling system.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

5. Remove the thermostat

Unbolt the thermostat housing from the engine block. Be very vehicleeful not
to damage the housing as it is generally made from aluminum or a similar
fragile material. Remove the thermostat.

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 6. Inspect the mating surfaces

Inspect the thermostat housing and remove any gasket material from the
mating surface of the housing. Inspect the engine block and remove any
gasket material from its mating surface.

7. Install the new thermostat

Inspect the new thermostat to ensure that the identification number is the
same as the one you have removed. Fit the new thermostat, ensuring the air
bleed hole is in the correct position. Check the thermostat is fully seated in its
groove. Fit the correct type of gasket for the vehicle you are working on.
Carefully refit the thermostat housing to the engine block and bolt it into
place.

8. Refill the cooling system

Refill the system with coolant. Run the engine to circulate the coolant and
remove any air trapped in the system. Check that the temperature indicator
gauge shows the coolant temperature is in the normal operational range. Top
up the radiator or reservoir with coolant if necessary

REMOVING AND REPLACING A RADIATOR

SUMMARY

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely remove and replace a
radiator. Once the radiator has been removes carry out a visual inspection of the
radiator to ensure that it is suitable for reinstallation in the vehicle.

PREPARATION AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVE

Safely remove and replace a radiator.

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PERSONAL SAFETY

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to your
local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

 Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

 Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
 Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
 Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
 Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.

SAFETY CHECK

 Coolant in the cooling system could be above its boiling point. Never open a
radiator cap fully until ALL pressure has been released.
 When removing a radiator cap, use appropriate gloves, clothes, full face
shield, etc.
 Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.

POINTS TO NOTE

 Make sure the coolant catch tray is large enough to catch any spills and has
the capacity to hold all the system coolant.
 If changing coolant, dispose of the old coolant properly in accordance with
environmental and legislative requirements.
 If reusing the old fluid, keep it stored in a covered and uncontaminated
container.
 Inspect the cooling system hoses and clamps. Replace them if worn or
damaged.
 When removing the hoses from the radiator fittings do NOT twist them as this
can cause internal damage to the hose and the fitting. If they do not easily
release, carefully work a tool between the hose and fitting breaking it loose
all the way around. If the hoses are to be replaced, you can slit them with a
knife and peel them off the fitting.
 When refitting or replacing hoses, reinstall them all the way on the fittings.
Make sure the clamps are installed at the proper place on the fitting, beyond
the flared segment, not on top of it.
 Some vehicles have transmission cooler lines attached to the radiator.
Remember to disconnect these lines when removing the radiator and always
refit before refilling the system with coolant.
 Refill the system with the correct coolant at the proper anti-freeze/water
ratio.

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  There are a number of different types of coolant, often recognized by colour,
as they have different chemical additives that can affect the materials that the
engine and system components are made from.
 It is advisable to pressure test the system to check for leaks on completion of
the job.
 Start the engine, warm it up until the thermostat has opened and check for
proper operation of the cabin heater.
 Check for proper coolant level after it cools sufficiently.

STEP-BY-STEP INSTRUCTION

6. Drain the coolant

Place a drain pan below the radiator and remove the drain plug. Drain the
coolant from the system. Replace the drain plug and dispose of the drained
coolant in an environmentally approved manner.

7. Remove the radiator

Carefully remove any hoses that are attached to the radiator. Unscrew any
cowlings or covers from the radiator. Remove the bolts or screws that hold
the radiator in position in the engine bay, and lift the radiator from its
location.

8. Inspect the radiator

Carrry out a visual inspection of the radiator to ensure that it is suitable for
reinstallation in the vehicle. If the radiator fins are blocked by debris carefully
clean the fins with a dry brush. If the radiator is damaged, advise your
supervisor so a decision can be made whether to repair it or replace it.

9. Replace the radiator

Place the radiator into position and replace the securing bolts or screws. Refit
the cowlings or covers. Rotate the fan and belts by hand to check the covers
do not restrict movement. Attach the coolant hoses to the radiator,

10. Refill the system

Refill the system with new coolant of the correct type. Run the engine to
circulate the coolant and remove any air trapped in the system. Check that
the temperature indicator gauge shows the coolant temperature is in the
normal operational range. Top up the radiator or reservoir with coolant if
necessary.

CHECKING COOLANT LEVEL

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  Never remove the radiator cap from a hot engine! Boiling coolant and steam
could erupt from the filler neck and scald you. Allow the engine to cool before
removing the cap.
 Some vehicles may have an aftermarket safety cap on the radiator. The
safety cap has a button or lever on top, pressing the button or raising the
lever relieves the pressure in the system. Then the cap can be removed.
 On most vehicles, the radiator cap should be removed for major service such
as flushing the cooling system. The radiator cap should not be removed just
to check the coolant level or to add coolant. The expansion tank keeps the
cooling system completely filled. Removing the radiator cap may allow the
loss of a significant amount of coolant.

FLUSHING THE ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE

Clean the cooling system at least once in a year.

SAFETY

Pack the vehicle on clear place and chock the wheels. Use the right tools for the job.

BACK FLUSH METHOD

i. Run the engine for some minutes and allow it to reach normal operating
temperature,
ii. Stop the engine and let it cool down,
iii. Drain coolant and remove the thermostat,
iv. Disconnect the radiator bottom hose connection from the water pump,

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 v. Take the flushing gun connected to water/air lines and connect it to the
radiator bottom hose,
vi. Open the flushing gun at a relatively minimal pressure,
vii. Observe the water coming out from the pump inlet side until you see clean
water coming out,
The system has been flushed.
viii.Replace the thermostat,
ix. Connect back the bottom radiator hose,
x. Fill up coolant to correct level,
xi. Start the engine and observe for leakages.

HOW TO PERFORM A RADIATOR FLUSH

Preparing For Your Vehicle Radiator Flush

Your vehicle's radiator and cooling system needs to be clean to be cool. As time
goes on, your vehicle's radiator builds solid deposits that can clog the cooling
system. A quick, inexpensive radiator flush can keep the system in shape. It's
important to change your antifreeze seasonally.

TOOLS/EQUIPMENTS

 Phillips head screwdriver or wrench (whichever your radiator drain requires)

 Cloth rag
 Radiator Flush solution
 Coolant
 Funnel
 Used coolant receptacle

*Be sure to let your engine cool completely before you loosen or remove the
radiator cap. Hot coolant can be painful!

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  The first step in your radiator and cooling system flush is to drain the old
coolant from the radiator.
 Using your owner's manual or your eyeballs, locate your radiator's drain plug.
It could be anywhere along the bottom of the radiator, and will be either a
screw plug, bolt plug or a petcock (simple drain valve). Be sure you have your
used coolant receptacle in place under the drain before you open it up.
 With your coolant catcher underneath the drain, unscrew it and let the
coolant empty completely. If you have a screw or bolt type radiator drain
plug, remove it completely. If your radiator has a petcock, open it all the way.

*IMPORTANT: Coolant can be very dangerous to pets. It tastes sweet to them but
ingesting it can be fatal. Be sure not to leave any -- even a small puddle -- where an
animal could drink it.

 Add the Radiator Flush Cleaning Solution.

 Add all of the radiator flush solution.
 Once all of the coolant has drained from the radiator, replace the drain plug
and remove the radiator cap. Add the contents of the radiator flush solution
to the radiator, then fill it to the top with water.
 Replace and tighten the radiator cap. Now start the vehicle and let it run until
it gets to its operating temperature.
 Turn your heater on and move the temperature control to the hottest
position. Let the vehicle run for 10 minutes with the heater on.
 Turn the vehicle off and wait for the engine to cool off. If the radiator cap or
metal radiator is hot to the touch, it's still too hot to open.

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A cooling system is extremely important to the performance and service life of the
engine. Major engine damage could occur in a matter of minutes without proper
cooling because combustion heat collects in metal engine parts. This heat can
melt pistons, crack or warp the cylinder head or block, cause valves to burn, or the
head gasket to "blow." To prevent these costly problems, keep the cooling system in
good condition.

Reverse flushing of a radiator.

Figure 6-15. - Reverse flushing of a radiator

Reverse flushing of a the engine

Reverse flushing can also be used on the engine block and head (fig. 6-15).

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Procedure

First, remove the thermostat and disconnect the upper radiator hose. Then
disconnect the lower radiator hose at the water pump. Insert the flushing equipment
in the upper radiator hose. Reverse flush the system by sending water and air
through the water jackets. Following the flushing, replace the thermostat and hoses
so the system can be refilled. When reverse flushing equipment is not available, you
can still reverse flush the system with a garden hose. This is often effective following
the use of a chemical cleaner.

Chemical flushing is needed when a scale buildup in the system is causing engine
overheating. Add the chemical cleaner to the coolant. Run the engine at fast idle for
about 20 minutes. Wait for the engine to cool. Then drain out the coolant and
cleaner solution. Using a garden hose, flush out the loosened rust and scale.
Continue to flush until the water runs clear.

CAUTION Always follow manufacturer's instructions when using a cooling

system cleaning agent. Wear protective gloves and goggles when handling cleaning
agents. Chemicals may cause eye and skin burns.

COOLING SYSTEM TESTS

It is often necessary to check the cooling system for cooling system problems.
Cooling system problems can be grouped into three general categories:

1. COOLANT LEAKS - crack or rupture, allowing pressure cap action to push coolant
out of the system.

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2. OVERHEATING - engine operating temperature too high, warning light on,
temperature gauge shows hot, or coolant and steam is blowing out the overflow.

3. OVERCOOLING - engine fails to reach full operating temperature, engine

performance poor or sluggish.

To diagnose and repair cooling system problems, perform several tests. These tests
include the following - cooling system pressure test, combustion leak test,
thermostat test, engine fan test, and fan belt test.

Cooling System Pressure Test

A cooling system pressure test is used to locate leaks quickly. Low air pressure is
forced into the system, causing coolant to pour or drip from any leak in the system.

A pressure tester is a hand-operated air pump used to pressurize the system for leak
detection. Install the pressure tester on the radiator filler neck. Then pump

Engine Fan Test

A faulty engine fan can cause overheating, overcooling, vibration, and water pump
wear, or damage. Testing the fan ensures that it is operating properly.

To test a thermostatic fan clutch, start the engine. The fan should slip when cold; as
the engine warms up, the clutch should engage. Air should begin to flow through the
radiator and over the engine. You will be able to hear and feel the air when the fan
clutch locks up.

If the fan clutch is locked all the time (cold or hot), it is defective and must be
replaced. Excessive play or oil leakage also indicates fan clutch failure.

When testing an electric cooling fan, observe whether the fan turns ON when the
engine is warm. Make sure the fan motor is spinning at normal speed and forcing
enough air through the radiator.

Faulty Water Pump

A bad water pump may leak coolant, fail to circulate coolant, or it may produce a
grinding sound. Rust in the cooling system or lack of antifreeze is the most common
causes for pump failure.

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These conditions can accelerate seal, shaft, and bearing wear. An over-tightened fan
belt will also cause water pump failure.

To check for a worn water pump seal, pressure test the system and watch for
coolant leakage. Coolant will leak out of the small drain hole at the bottom of the
pump or at the end of the pump shaft. Worn water pump bearings are checked by
wiggling the fan or pump pulley up and down. If the pump shaft is loose in its
housing, the pump bearings are badly worn

Water pump action can be checked with a warm engine. Squeeze the top radiator
hose while someone starts the engine. You should feel a pressure surge (hose
swelling) if the pump is working. If not, pump shaft or impeller problems are
indicated. You can also watch for coolant circulation in the radiator with the engine
at operating temperature. Whether a defective pump is replaced or rebuilt depends
on parts supply and cost. The removal and installation of the water pump varies with
different vehicles. Therefore, the applicable shop manual must be consulted for the
step-by-step procedures.

When you replace a pump, install a new gasket. Make sure the mating surfaces are
clean and smooth. The application of a gasket sealer to both sides of the gasket is
recommended. Then after refilling the cooling system, the pump should be checked
for leaks, noise, and proper operation.

Thermostat

There are no repairs or adjustments to be made on the thermostat. The unit must
be replaced when it is not operating properly. A stuck thermostat can either cause
engine overheating or overcooling.

If a thermostat is stuck closed, coolant will not circulate through the radiator. As a
result, overheating could make the coolant boil.

When a thermostat is stuck open, too much coolant may circulate through the
radiator and the engine may not reach proper operating temperature. The engine
may run poorly for extended periods in cold weather. Engine efficiency (power, fuel
mileage, and driveability) will be reduced.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: engine Cooling service.

OBJECTIVE: To determine serviceability of the cooling system and its components.

Tools and equipment

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1. Volt meter.
2. Radiator pressure tester.
3. Heating apparatus.
4. Thermometer.
5. Thermostat.
6. hydrometer
7. Relevant hand tools
Methods of checking:

1. Coolant testing:
Normal coolant tests include:

1. Visual inspection – coolant should be clean and bright.

2. Freezing/boiling point.
3. Galvanic activity (coolant voltage)
4. pH – meaning ‘power of hydrogen’ is the measure of the coolant’s acidity or
alkaline.

FREEZING/BOILING POINT

This can be measured the following instruments:

1. hydrometer test

The hydrometer measures the density of the coolant. A higher density

signifies a concentration of anti-freeze in the water.

Coolant hydrometers measure the freezing and boiling points of the coolant.

2. Refractometer test

Using the Refractometer is a more accurate method of checking the freezing point of
coolant.

Hoses

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Old radiator hoses and heater hoses are frequent causes of cooling
system problems. Hoses should be checked periodically for leakage and general
condition. The leakage may often be corrected by tightening or replacing hose
clamps. After a few years of use, hoses deteriorate. They may become soft and
mushy, or hard and brittle. Deteriorated hoses should be replaced to preclude future
troubles. Cooling system pressure can rupture the hoses and result in coolant loss.

Inspect the radiator and heater hoses for cracks, bulges, cuts, or any other sign
of deterioration. Squeeze the hoses to check whether they are hardened or softened
and faulty. Flex or bend heater hoses and watch for signs of surface cracks. If any
problem is detected, the affected hose should be replaced. However, where spiral
spring stiffeners are used to control the tendency to collapse, such test will not work
and the hose must be removed for inspection.

Fan and Belt

One of the easiest and quickest checks to the cooling system is the fan and fan belt.
Check the fan for bent blades, cracks, and other problems. A bent or distorted fan
on one with a loose blade should be replaced. Where the fan is just loose on its
mounting, tightening is in order.

Fan belts, or drive belts, should be checked for wear and tension. Most wear occurs
on the underside of the belt. To check a V-belt, twist the belt with your fingers.
Check for small cracks, grease, glazing, and tears or splits. Small cracks will enlarge
as the belt is flexed. Grease rots the rubber and makes the side slick so that the belt
slips easily. A high-pitched squeal results from slippage. Large tears or splits in a belt
allow it to be tossed from the pulley. On vehicles with a set of two belts, replace
both if one is worn and requires replacement.

A slipping belt can cause overheating and a run- down battery. These troubles result
because a slipping belt cannot drive the water pump and alternator fast enough for
normal operation. Sometimes a belt will slip and make noise even after it is adjusted
to the proper tension. Several types of belt dressing are available which can be
applied to both sides of the belt to prevent this problem. Belt dressing helps to
eliminate noise and increase belt friction.

The fan belt should be checked every time a vehicle comes in for preventive
maintenance (PM) to make sure it is in good condition. A fan belt that has become
frayed, or has separated plies, should be replaced.

Replacement of a defective belt is usually made by loosening the alternator or

generator mounting bolts. With the mounting bolts loose, push
the alternator or generator closer to the engine. This action provides enough slack in

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the belt so it can be removed and a new one installed. After installing a new belt,
adjust it to the proper tension and tighten the mounting bolts.

Radiator and Pressure Cap

WARNING

DO NOT REMOVE THE RADIATOR CAP WHEN THE ENGINE IS HOT. SERIOUS
BURNS CAN RESULT AS THE RADIADITOR IS PRESSURISED AND COOLANT IS HOT

When overheating problems occur and the system is not leaking, check the radiator
and pressure cap. They are common sources of overheating. The pressure cap could
have bad seals, allowing pressure loss. The radiator may be clogged and not
permitting adequate air flow or coolant flow.

Bent fins should he straightened and the radiator core checked for any obstructions
tending to restrict the airflow. Radiator air power passages can be cleaned by
blowing them out with an air hose in the direction opposite to the ordinary flow of
air. Water can also be used to soften obstructions before applying the air blast. In
any event, the cleaning gets rid of dirt, bugs, leaves, straw, and other debris which
otherwise would clog the radiator and reduce its cooling efficiency. Sometimes
screens are used in front of the radiator core to reduce this type of clogging.

The radiator can be checked for internal clogging by removing the hose connections
and draining the coolant. Use a garden hose to introduce a stream of water into the
top of the radiator. If the flow is sluggish, the radiator is partially clogged. Another
way to check for this condition is to feel the radiator with your hand. The radiator
should be warm at the bottom and hot at the top, with the temperature uniformly
increasing from bottom to top. Any clogged sections will feel cool.

CAUTION
Be sure the engine is not running when making this test to avoid injury from the fan.

When the use of cleaning compounds and reverse flushing fails to relieve a clogged
core, the radiator must be removed for mechanical cleaning. This requires the

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removal of upper and lower radiator tanks and rodding out the accumulated rust and
scale from the water tubes of the core.

The radiator pressure cap should also be checked for condition and proper
operation. If it is dirty, the cap can be cleaned with soap and water, then rinsed.
The seating surface of the vacuum and pressure valves should be smooth and
undamaged. The valves should operate freely when pressed against their spring
pressure and should seal properly when closed.

During the vehicles preventive maintenance (PM) inspection, the radiator should be
checked for leaks, particularly where the tanks are soldered to the core, since
vibration and pulsation from pressure can cause fatigue of soldered joints or seams.
Neglect of small leaks may result in complete radiator failure, excessive leakage, rust
clogging, and overheating. Thus, it is extremely important to keep the radiator
mounting properly adjusted and tight at all times and to detect and correct even the
smallest leaks.

A leak usually reveals its presence by scale marks or watermarks below the leak on
the outside of the core. Permanent antifreeze does not leak through spaces where
water cannot pass. The antifreeze leak is more noticeable, since it does not
evaporate as quickly as water.

Stop-leak compounds can be effective to stop small leaks at least temporarily. Stop-
leak compounds harden upon contact with the air, thus sealing off any small
openings. The main problem is that they give the mechanic a sense of false security.
For example, stop leak may prevent leakage at a hose connection through the inner
lining, but finally the hose will rot and burst, losing coolant and overheating the
engine.

Stop-leak compounds can lead to radiator clogging if water tubes already contain
deposits that act as a strainer. If coolant level gets too low, some stop-leak
ingredients may harden in the upper radiator and block it.

NOTE
Before using stop leak, check your service manual. The compound must be
compatible with the antifreeze and the inhibitors and must be installed correctly and
in the right quantity.

When large leaks or considerable damage is present, removal of the radiator for

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extensive repair or replacement is usually required.

COOLING SYSTEM TROUBLE-SHOOTING

NO FAULTY POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Leak, loss of Pressure cap and gasket Inspect, wash and pressure
coolant defective. test. Replace if cap will not hold
pressure.

Leakage Pressure test system.

External leakages Inspect hoses, connections,

gasket, core plugs, drain plugs,
oil coolers lines, water pump,
expansion tank and hose,
radiator heater system
components. Repair or replace
as required.

Internal leakages  Check head bolt torque.

 Disassemble engine as
necessary.
 Check for cracked intake
manifold, blown head
gasket, cracked head or
block.

2 Engine overheats Low coolant Fill, check for leakages

Loose belt Adjust, replace if worn

Pressure cap defective Test, replace if cannot hold

pressure.

Radiator or air conditioner Replace bugs, leaves, debris.

condenser obstructed

Thermostat stuck closed Test, replace if defective

Fan clutch Replace

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LIQUID COOLING SYSTEMS FAULT CHART

Fault Possible cause

External leakage 1. Loose hose clips or split rubber hose
2. Damaged radiator (cracked joints or corroded core)
3. Water pump leaking (bearing worn)
4. Water pump leaking (bearing worn)
5. Damaged gaskets
6. Interior heater, hoses, valves
7. Temperature sensor connection leaking

Internal leakage 1. Defective cylinder head gasket

2. Cylinder head not correctly tightened
3. Cracked water jacket internal wall
4. Defective cylinder liner seals

Water loss 1. Boiling

2. Leaks external and internal and external
3. Restriction in radiator
4. Airways in radiator matrix blocked

Dirty coolant (corrosion) 1. Excessive impurity in coolant water

Infrequent draining and flushing of system (where
required)
2. Incorrect antifreeze mixtures

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 3. Lack of inhibitor

Overheating 1. Loose, broken, worn or incorrect fan-belt tension

2. Defective thermostat
3. Water pump impeller loose on shaft
4. Restricted circulation e through radiator, hoses,
etc.
5. Radiator airways choked
6. Incorrect ignition timing
7. Incorrect valve timing
8. Tight engine
9. Low oil level
10. Insufficient coolant in system

Overcooling 1. Defective thermostat

2. Temperature gauge incorrect
3. Electric fan operating continuously

COOLING SYSTEM TROUBLE-SHOOTING

NO FAULTY POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Leak, loss of Pressure cap and gasket Inspect, wash and pressure
coolant defective. test. Replace if cap will not
hold pressure.

Leakage Pressure test system.

External leakages Inspect hoses, connections,

gasket, core plugs, drain plugs,
oil coolers lines, water pump,
expansion tank and hose,
radiator heater system
components. Repair or replace
as required.

Internal leakages  Check head bolt torque.

 Disassemble engine as
necessary.
 Check for cracked intake
manifold, blown head
gasket, cracked head or

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 block.

2 Engine overheats Low coolant Fill, check for leakages

Loose belt Adjust, replace if worn

Pressure cap defective Test, replace if cannot hold

pressure.

Radiator or air Replace bugs, leaves, debris.

conditioner condenser
obstructed

Thermostat stuck closed Test, replace if defective

Fan clutch Replace

Electric fan motor or Replace

switch defective

3 Engine does not Stuck open or missing Replace thermostat

reach operating thermostat
temperature, slow
to warm up

CARRY OUT MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINE LUBRICATION SERVICING

Frequency of oil and filter change is dependent upon manufacturer’s

recommendations and conditions in which the machine is subjected to.

Objective: To change engine oil at recommended intervals

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 Tools:

Rag

Drain container

Suitable spanners

Procedure:

 Warm engine
 Park at level ground and chock wheels
 Carry out tag procedure
 Remove negative battery terminal
NOTE:
At times addition of engine flush is necessary, to assist in sludge
removal.
 Unscrew and remove oil filler cap.
 Place drain bucket under the drain plug of the sump.
 Remove the drain plug and allow oil to drain out.
 Replace drain plug, after cleaning it
 Fill oil to correct level
 Check oil level with deep stick

Objective: changing spin-on engine oil filter

Tools:
Rag
Drain container
Suitable filter wrench

Procedure:

 Warm engine
 Park at level ground and chock wheels
 Carry out tag procedure
Remove negative battery terminal
NOTE:
Avoid oil spillages, both on hands and floor.
Read fitting instructions on the filter
 Using filter strap, remove oil filter
 Wipe filter base
 Smear a film of oil on filter seal
 Screw on filter until it contacts the filter base
 Lubricate the filter seal before installation.

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  Screw filter, by hand, until seal touches the sealing surface.
 Further tighten the filter two to three turns.
 Run engine and test for leaks

NOTE:

Overfilling and under-filling the sump results in the following consequences:

Overfilling

 Excessive crankcase pressure build-up, which may damage oil

seals, or let oil into combustion chambers leading to engine
emitting blue exhaust smoke.
 May damage sump cork gaskets, which may lead to external oil
leaks.
 Crankshaft may splash oil on cylinders, which may lead to
excessive oil consumption and blue exhaust smoke.
 Rings may stick into grooves due to excessive oil reaching them.

Under-filling

 Low oil pressure due to suction pipe being above oil level in the
sump.
 During cornering or braking oil may be pushed to one side or
forward, rendering the suction pipe, to be exposed to air and
not oil.
 Overheating of oil, due to reduced circulation of the oil, resulting
in an oil losing its properties and so accelerates engine wear.
 Shortens life span of an oil without the operator being aware.

Dip Stick usage

Before starting the vehicle check if

(a) Oil appears milky. This is an indication oil mixing with coolant
(b) Oil not sticking to dip stick. This is an indication of oil mixing with fuel

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: engine lubrication service.

OBJECTIVE: To determine serviceability of lubrication system components.

Tools and equipment

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  Assorted pumps:
i. External gear.
ii. Eccentric bi-rotor.
iii. Internal gear crescent pump.
iv. Sliding vane and eccentric rotor.
Oil coolers:
i. Liquid cooled.
ii. Air cooled.
 Hand tools & equipment:
i. Feeler gauge.
ii. Straight edge.
iii. Steel rule.
iv. External micrometer.
v. Plastigauge.
vi. Relevant hand tools.
 Engine oil.
 Pressure relief valve.
i. Ball type.
ii. Plunger type.
iii. Disc type.

Methods of checking:

1. External spur gear pump:

Comprises two identical meshing spur gears housed in a pump body, with the
driving gear being shrunk to the oil pump shaft or is retained by a keyway.
The pump components are checked for correct clearance and wear, using
feeler gauges:
a. Measure the clearance between the gear tips and pump body, by
inserting a feeler gauge between the two components, (clearance
should not exceed 0.2mm).
b. Measure backlash between meshing gears, by inserting feeler gauge
between the gears, (should be between 0.1 and 0.2mm).
c. Measure end-float between end plate and gears, by placing straight
edge across the gears and inserting a feeler gauge between the
straight edge and gears, (clearance should not exceed 0.1mm).
 Start and run engine until oil is hot (80 – 120 0 C).

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Checking the inner rotor to outer rotor clearance

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Inner rotor-to-outer rotor tally marks used for alignment when assembling the oil
pump

PUMP BODY-TO-SHAFT CLEARANCE

Make this check using a dial indicator mounted on a magnet base. Bear the indicator
on the drive gear. Clearance should not exceed 0.10mm (0.003937 in.). If it does,
replace the pump.

INNER-TO-OUTER ROTOR CLEARANCE

Using a feeler gauge, check between the lobes of the rotors. Standard clearance
should be 0.05–0.15mm. If the clearance is greater than 0.25mm, replace both
rotors.

OUTER ROTOR-TO-PUMP BODY CLEARANCE

Insert a feeler gauge between the outer rotor and the pump body. Standard
clearance is 0.15–0.25mm. If clearance exceeds 0.30mm, replace the rotor or body.

ROTOR END FLOAT

Place a straightedge across the pump body and measure the clearance between the
rotor and the straightedge with a feeler gauge. Then, place the straightedge across
the pump cover and, with a feeler gauge, measure between the straightedge and
the cover centre. If the total of these two measurements exceeds 0.15mm, the
condition may be corrected by grinding the cover or replacing the cover or pump
body.

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Inner (left) and outer (right) gear tooth tip-to crescent clearance measurements

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Outer gear-to-pump body clearance measurement
NOTE: The crescent referred to in these procedures is the crescent-shaped
slinger between the inner and outer pump gears.
OUTER GEAR TOOTH TIP TO CRESCENT CLEARANCE
Check this clearance with a feeler gauge. If the clearance exceeds 0.33mm, replace
the gear.
INNER GEAR TOOTH TIP-TO-CRESCENT CLEARANCE
Check this clearance with a feeler gauge. If the clearance exceeds 0.40mm, replace
the gear.

SIDE CLEARANCE
Lay a straightedge across the pump body and, using a feeler gauge, measure
between the gear faces and straightedge. If the clearance exceeds 0.10mm, replace
the pump.

OUTER GEAR-TO-PUMP BODY CLEARANCE

Insert a feeler gauge between the outer gear and the pump body. If the clearance
exceeds 0.20mm (0.00787 in.), replace the gear or pump body.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems Components.

OBJECTIVE: To disassemble, inspect and assemble inline injection pumps.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 A variety of HD vehicle inline fuel injection pumps.

 Assortment of hand tools, plastic hammer, diesel and mutton clothe.

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  Injection tool kit.
 Tray for storing dismantled parts.
 “C” clamp.
 Swivel vice with special holding fixture.

PREPARATION:

1. Ensure the premises are free of dust and foreign particles.

2. Thoroughly clean tools and work area.
3. Arrange parts tray to receive dismantled parts in their systematic assembly
order.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

NOTE: The procedure varies according to manufacturers or different models

within the same manufacturer.

1. Mount pump in a swivel vice or holding fixture.

2. Remove inspection cover and governor assembly.
3. Remove pump timing gear and housing.
4. Turn camshaft to lift tappet.

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 5. Insert a tappet holder between lower spring retainer and upper surface, to
relieve camshaft, of spring force.
6. Remove the rear and front camshaft bearings.
7. Pull out/extract the camshaft.
8. Unscrew the pump base plugs after mounting the pump horizontally.
9. Tap out the pump element assemblies and tappet holders, and place them
in numbered mounts.
10. Place pump in a vertical position and remove the locking plate and delivery
valve holders.
11. Lift out delivery valve spring, delivery valve, and delivery valve
housing/seat.
12. Unscrew barrel locking screws and push out the barrel through the top
end.
13. Remove control rod/rack screw and withdraw the control rod.

INSPECTIONS AND CHECKS:

Remove all gasket material from the pump housing. Wash all components in diesel
and dry with compressed air. The following inspections are carried out:

1. THE PUMP BODY:

 Check control rod/rack bushes for wear.
 Inspect the body for any signs of cracks and deterioration.
 Inspect bearing bores and mounting surfaces for wear.
2. ELEMENTS:
a) Plunger:
 Check for score marks.
 Inspect for erosion.
 Check for chips, cracks and wear.
 Check for any evidence of damage to helix and plunger top
surface.
b) Barrel:
 Check for deep scoring.
 Check for erosive damage.
 Check for fretting on upper surfaces.
 Check for excessive wear, indicated by grey colour.
3. PLUNGER SPRINGS:
 Check for fractures and cracks.
 Check for free length.
 Check for corrosion.
 Check spring squareness or straightness.
4. CONTROL ROD:
 Check shaft freeness, (should slide smoothly but not too loose).
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  Examine gear teeth for wear and backlash with sector teeth.
5. CAMSHAFT:
 Shaft runout.
 Check lobe lift and wear.
 Camshaft bearings for serviceability.
6. TAPPETS:
 Check tappet roller bores for groove wear.
 Examine tappets for roughness or groove wear. Slight wear marks may
be removed by grinding with emery clothe.

ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

(Reverse order of disassembly)

1. Clean and lubricate all mated parts with diesel.

2. Install control rod into housing.
3. Assemble upper spring retainer, sleeve and quadrant.
4. Insert barrels in their correct slots and alignment.
5. Install delivery valve assembly and valve holder.
6. Fit plunger into barrel, ensuring the foot is in correct alignment with the
sleeve lug.
7. Assemble spring and lower return plate.
8. Press fit tappet assembly against plunger spring until it is possible to fit the
tappet holder.
9. Refit camshaft and bearing assemblies.
10. Fit camshaft bearing housing.
11. Install pump inspection cover.
12. Fit governor mechanism.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems Components.

OBJECTIVE: To disassemble, inspect and assemble DPA and VE injection

pumps.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 DPA and VE HD vehicle fuel injection pumps.

 Assortment of hand tools, pullers, plastic hammer, diesel and mutton clothe.
 Injection pump tool kit.
 Tray for storing dismantled parts.
 Swivel vice with special holding fixture.

398 | P a g e
PREPARATION:

4. Ensure the premises are free of dust and foreign particles.

5. Clean work area and tools thoroughly.
6. Clean and dry pump exterior.
7. Drain fuel and lubricating oil.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

NOTE: The procedure varies according to manufacturers, so it is advisable to

follow manufacturer’s instructions. However, the following is the general method
of disassembly:

1. Mount pump in a swivel vice or holding fixture.

14. Remove hub nut and hub.
15. Remove overflow valve, control unit cover and plate, spacer.
16. Disengage control rod whilst sliding out control unit.
17. Loosen but do not remove valve holders.
18. Remove the hydraulic head by, first loosening the four securing bolts and
rotating the camshaft, so that the head rise from its seat.
19. Lift out the tappet guide and roller.
20. Loosen the pressure regulator valve plug and transfer pump securing
bolts.
21. Pry out transfer-pump housing from governor housing.
22. Lift out the governor spring, seat and spacer.
23. Carefully remove the excess fuel device.
24. Remove governor mounting bolts and tap (with soft hammer) to release it
from pump housing and dowels.
25. Remove camshaft front thrust-washer retaining plate and rear bearing
plate.
26. Remove from the rear of the housing.

INSPECTIONS AND CHECKS:

All units and components of the DPA or VE pumps should be inspected individually:

7. EXCESS FUEL AND ANEROID DEVICES:

 Check excess fuel device for damage i.e. bent guide pin or adjusting
bolt, or corrosion. If so replace device.
 Otherwise disassemble and service the device.

8. DRIVE SECTION:
 Wash components in clean diesel and dry with compressed air.

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  Check/inspect housing for cracks and wear.
 Check threaded holes for damaged threads.
 Clean oil passages with compressed air.
 Inspect or measure housing bushings for if so replace housing.
 Inspect tappet sleeve and drive shaft for:
i. Damage or scored taper.
ii. Drive shaft keyway damage, lobe wear, pitting or scoring.
iii. Drive shaft bearing journal for damage or groove wear.
 If there is no visible external wear, disassemble and service the drive
unit.

9. HYDRAULIC HEAD:
 Inspect head for damage and cracks, damaged or leaking discharge
fittings.
 Check for scored or damaged fill and discharge ports.
 Check thrust washer contact surfaces for scores, if present, replace
head.
 Check plunger or sleeve bore for scratches, scuff marks or wear. If
present replace head.
 Check control unit levers for damage looseness or bend.
 Check the shaft for free rotation and that the clearances are with
specification.

ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

Assembling procedure is the reverse of the disassembling procedure.

PUMP INSTALLATION TO ENGINE

The pump should be timed to the engine for correct and efficient running of the
engine:

1. Position the engine timing marks with number 1 piston on compression

stroke.
2. Align pump hub mark with pointer.
3. Mount pump to engine with the pump gear and the timing gear meshing.
4. Tighten the pump holding bolts/nuts.
5. Recheck pump timing by rotating crankshaft 45 0 counter-clockwise, and then
slowly clockwise until the timing marks align.
6. Connect fuel supply lines, throttle and high-pressure pipes.
7. Bleed the air out the of the system:
i. Loosen injector pipes at the injector.

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 ii. Crank the engine until fuel comes out, then tighten the connection.
iii. Start the engine and bring it to operating temperature.

Check the low and high idle speeds. Make the necessary adjustments

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

PTG – FUEL PUMP DISASSEMBLY AND SERVICE

1. Clean the pump thoroughly.

2. Mount the pump in a swivel vice.
3. Start the disassembly procedure from the:
(a) Drive shaft side,
(b) Gear pump side, or
(c) By removing the shut-down valve from the pump housing and then the
filter as follows:
 Remove the cap and seal and lift out the following components:
- Spring,
- Screen, and
- Magnet.
Servicing AFC

 To remove AFC, the following procedure is followed:

- First remove the flow valve from the AFC cover and then
remove the cover.
- Carefully loosen the bellows from its seat and pull out the
following items from the AFC barrel:
o Bellows,
o Piston, and
o Plunger.
- Inspect bellows for puncture, damage or wear.
- Inspect piston and plunger assembly for corrosion wear and
scratches.
Note: Handle the plunger with as any small nicks will render it
unusable.

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Disassembling Pump

1. Loosen the jam nut and screw out the plunger from the centre bolt.
2. Lift off the bellows and piston.
3. Remove the barrel retainer rings from the housing.
4. Use a puller to remove the barrel.
5. Remove the bolts from the front cover and using a soft hammer tap the cover
from the locating dowels.
6. Slide the assembly from the housing.
7. Remove the governor plunger.
8. Remove the weight assist plunger, shims and spring from the bore of the
weight assembly.
9. Remove the throttle retainer and drive screws that hold the cover plate and
carefully slide the throttle from its bore.
10. Loosen the locknut and withdraw the no air adjusting screw.
11. If the tachometer drive requires servicing remove securing screws and drive
the assembly from the fuel pump using a brass punch.
12. Remove check valve elbow and the pump mounting screws from the pump.
Using a soft hammer, lightly tap the gear pump loose from its dowels, and
pull the pump from the housing.
13. Remove the mounting screws for the governor spring pack cover.
14. Remove spring retainer ring that holds the pack in the housing.
15. Lift out the following item from the housing:
(a) Shims,
(b) Spacer, and

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 (c) High speed spring.

16. Remove the following idle spring items:

(a) Plunger guide,
(b) Washer,
(c) Idle speed spring, and
(d) Idle spring plunger.

17. Remove the weight assist plunger, spring and shims.

18. Heat the cover in order to remove the weight carrier assembly with suitable
puller.
INSPECTIONS AND SERVICE

Pump housing

1. Inspect housing for:

(a) Cracks.
(b) Worn or damaged threads on:
- Studs.
- Threaded holes.
Governor barrel and plunger

1. Inspect governor plunger for erosion pit wear, and if worn and plunger is
reusable, replace plunger with that which a class or two larger.
2. Inspect barrel or damage, and if so, replace barrel.
Throttle shaft

1. If throttle shaft and sleeve show erosive wear replace them.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems Components.

OBJECTIVE: To dismantle and assemble different types of transfer pumps.

Tools and Equipment:

 A variety of HD vehicle fuel transfer pumps.

 Assortment of hand tools.

Transfer or feed pumps:

1. External gear pump (positive displacement)

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Fig. 1

 Service checks:
i. Valve sealing
ii. Backlash between gears.
iii. Gear to housing clearance.
iv. End float.
v. Sealing of regulating valves.
2. Single acting plunger transfer pump:

Fig.2
 Service checks:
i. Check valves for sealing.
ii. Check pressure and tappet springs for tension/deterioration and
breakages.
iii. Check diaphragm for cracks and deterioration.

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 3. Double acting plunger transfer/lift pump:

Fig.3
 Service checks:
i. Check valves for sealing.
ii. Hand primer for leaks/operation.
iii. Plunger spring for tension.
iv. Cam lobe and plunger roller for wear. Etc.

4. Diaphragm type transfer pump:

Service checks:
i. Valves for sealing.
ii. Diaphragm for leaks.
iii. Diaphragm spring for tension.
iv. Tappet and cam for groove wear.
v. Rocker arm and oil seal for wear and leaks respectively.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems.

OBJECTIVE: Calibrating and Phasing inline diesel injection pumps.

CALIBRATING:

This is the adjustment of the pumping elements to ensure equal and specified
quantity of fuel delivery. The governor must also be adjusted to ensure low idle,
high idle, and maximum fuel deliveries.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

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 8. Dial gauge indicator with mounting brackets.
9. Necessary hand tools.
10. Special delivery valve holder.
11. Fuel injection pump test rig/stand.
12.

CALIBRATING PROCEDURE:

1. MOUNTING PUMP TO TEST STAND:

a) Mount pump to test stand ensuring drive couplings are aligned and a
small clearance exists between them.
b) Connect pump and governor to an oil supply after pre-fill them with oil.
c) Connect each pumping element to a test injector.
d) Connect pump to fuel supply.
e) Bleed air out of pump and high- pressure pipes.
f)
2. MEASURING AND AJUSTING PRIOR TO CALIBRATION:
a) HEAD CLEARANCE:
 Remove delivery valve holder, spring and valve.
 Connect special delivery valve holder and tighten to specified
torque.
 Connect extension of depth dial indicator in contact the plunger.
 Zero the dial, and gently lift the tappet roller until the plunger
contacts the delivery valve body. This lift is also transmitted to
deflect the dial indicator.
 Adjust the tappet screw until the plunger travel is 1 mm. On
some models, suitable shims or spacers are used for adjustment
of head clearance.

b) PUMP LIFT AND SPILL-TIMING PORT CLOSURE:

 Remove delivery valve holder, spring and valve.
 Connect special delivery valve holder, and install swan neck and
dial gauge indicator.
 Rotate pump camshaft until tappet roller is on the cam base
circle, then zero the dial.
 Rock the camshaft, the dial should remain at zero.
 Open the fuel supply to allow free flow from the swan neck
pipe.
 Turn camshaft clockwise until fuel ceases to flow from the swan
neck pipe.
 Read dial indicator to determine plunger lift (approximately 2.8
to 2.9mm).

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 
Turn camshaft about 300 counter-clockwise until fuel starts
flowing from the swan neck pipe. Note the dial indicator
reading.
 Turn the camshaft clockwise until fuel stops oozing out of the
swan pipe, and note the dial reading.
 Compare the counter-clockwise and clockwise dial readings,
they should be the same. If not adjust as necessary.
3. BALANCING/ADJUSTING PLUNGER DELIVERY.
a) Run and adjust tester motor speed to a rated 1,250 rpm.
b) Set throttle to full fuel position.
c) Set tester counter and trip counter to 1,000 strokes.
d) Each element should produce an output of 69 to 71 cm 3. If not,
adjustments are necessary.
e) Lower idle speed before switching off the motor.
f) Loosen injection line nut and element flange nut.
g) Turn the delivery valve holder assembly, clockwise to increase and
counter clockwise to decrease fuel delivery.
h) Repeat the test after adjustments.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Fuel System.

OBJECTIVE: To inspect and service a Cummins PT fuel pump.

Tools and Equipment

 Cummins PTG pump.

 Relevant hand tools.

Major parts of a PTG

The Cummins PT system of fuel injection, though having gone through refinement,
comprises the following components:

1. Transfer Pump:
Is an engine-driven external gear type with a pulsation damper to smoothen
flow. Fuel is drawn from the tank through a filter.
2. Throttle control:
Combines with the transfer pump to allow the driver to manually control the
engine speed. Rotation of the throttle shaft alters the fuel flow and pressure
delivered to the unit injectors.

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 3. Centrifugal governor:
Combined with the transfer pump, allows for flow of sufficient fuel for idling
when the throttle is in the idle position, and cuts off supply to the unit injector
when maximum rated engine speed is reached. Between idle and maximum
speeds, all fuel to the unit injector flows through the governor and throttle
control.
4. Shut-down valve:
Combined with the transfer pump, cuts off fuel delivery to the unit injectors to
switch off the.
5. Unit injectors:
These introduce fuel into the combustion chambers by metering, timing and
high-pressure injection. Fuel at a low controlled pressure from the common
supply rail, which is used to lubricate and cool the unit injectors, the unused
fuel being returned to the tank.

Inspections and service:

After the pump has been disassembled the following service checks must be carried
out on the pump components:

2. Pump housing:
a. Inspect housing for cracks.
b. Inspect threaded holes, studs and bolts for damage or wear
c. Inspect front cover, shutdown valve and governor spring cap cover
mounting surfaces for flatness, refinish if necessary.

3. Governor barrel and plunger:

a. Inspect plunger and barrel for wear and damage.
b. If barrel is reusable and plunger worn, replace with new plunger and
grind with fine grit lapping compound.
c. If barrel is damaged replace with new one. To remove and fit barrel,
heat pump housing to about 150 0 C ensuring that fuel passages are
aligned.
d. Inspect spring pack housing for wear and replace when necessary.

4. Throttle shaft:
a. Inspect throttle shaft and sleeve for wear and replace when necessary.
b. If the sleeve is excessively worn then the pump housing must be
replaced.

5. Tachometer drive:
a. Inspect tachometer shaft and bushing for wear.
b. Replace the component that is worn.
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 6. Weight retainer:
a. Inspect weights and pins for wear and damage.
b. If there are any traces of wear the weight carrier must be replaced as
a unit.
c. After installation measure weight assist plunger for protrusion using a
dial gauge indicator or depth gauge
.
7. Gear pump:
a. Inspect gears and shaft wear.
b. Measure gear width and height, it should be within specifications.
c. Inspect pump housing for wear and score marks.
d. Inspect end plates for roughness or damage, restore if damaged.
e. During assembly ensure that the parts are lubricated.

8. Pulsation damper:
a. Inspect diaphragm for bend, twist or corrosion. Replace if so.
b. When assembling always coat new O ring seals with grease.
9. Shutdown valve:
a. Using an Ohmmeter measure coil resistance, it should be within
specifications.
b. Inspect valve and seat for wear, bonding failure and corrosion.
c. When assembling measure shaft height from housing face to shaft tip,
replace all O ring seals. Adjust when necessary.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems.

OBJECTIVE: Servicing pulse diesel injectors.

PULSE TYPE INJECTORS:

Injector service Regardless of the nozzle type, injectors should:

1. Discharge cleanly without “after-dribble,” which tends to collect in the cylinder

between cycles.
2. Atomize fuel for rapid combustion.
3. Direct the spray into the far reaches of the cylinder, but without impinging
against the piston or chamber walls.

Most malfunctions are caused by carbon build up on the tip, which distorts the
spray pattern and can sometimes stick the needle or pintle in the open position.

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 Automatic injectors can be tested with the apparatus shown in Fig. 5-23. Similar
tests can be performed on unit injectors by loading the pump cavity with fuel and
applying force to the pump plunger.

WARNING:

Wear eye protection and heavy gloves when testing injectors. Fuel spray can
cause blindness and blood poisoning.

There are four standard tests—spray pattern, NOP, sealing effectiveness, and
chatter

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CHECKS AND ADJUSTMENTS:

Four checks are carried out on injectors:

1. Spray pattern. 3 Opening pressure.

2. Back leakage. 4 Seat tightness or dribble.

PPE

1. Eye Protection
2. Body protection

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Injector testing rig complete with attachments (Pop Tester).

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 2. Assorted injectors.

TESTING PROCEDURE:

4. SPRAY PATTERN:

a) Mount injector on test rig.

b) Close valve to isolate pressure gauge.
c) Operate the hand lever smoothly at a specified rate of strokes.
d) Observe the spray for any distortion of pattern or coarseness
of atomization.

CAUTION:

Under no circumstances must a bare hand be allowed to get in

the way of a fuel spray/jet, as it can penetrate deeply into the
flesh and destroy tissue or cause blood poisoning.

5. SEAT TIGHTNESS OR DRIBBLE:

a) Mount injector on test rig.
b) Open valve to connect pressure gauge.
c) Operate the hand lever slowly so that a specified pressure lower than
the nozzle opening pressure is attained.
d) Check the nozzle tip for fuel dribble or droplets.

NOTE:

Dribble can be corrected by cleaning, lapping or replacing the

valve assembly.

6. OPENING PRESSURE:
a) With the injector still mounted on the test rig.
b) Open valve to connect the pressure gauge.
c) Operation the hand lever slowly and observe the highest pressure
recorded on the gauge before the pointer flicks.

NOTE:

Pointer flicking indicates the opening pressure of the injection

nozzle. This is determined by the spring load/tension on the
needle valve and is set/adjusted by either screwed plug or
shim washer addition or subtraction.

7. BACK LEAKAGE:

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 a) Mount injector to tester and open valve to connect pressure gauge.
b) Operate hand lever slowly to a pressure lower than the nozzle opening
pressure.
c) Switch on the timer to note the time taken when wetting occurs at the
nozzle tip.
d) Count the number of drops per minute occurring at the injector leak-
off orifice.

NOTE:

Dribble is caused by excessive clearance between needle

valve and valve holder and correction is by replacement of
valve assembly.

SPILL TIMING INLINE INJECTION PUMP

OBJECTIVE

To check or reset the injection timing on a compression ignition engine

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Compression ignition engine with fuel injection pump and fuel supply system
2. Swan neck spill pipe
3. Suitable spanners

PROCEDURE

1. Run the engine then switch it off.

2. Remove the rocker cover
3. Turn the engine so that No.1 piston is at TDC at the end of compression
stroke. Both valves should be rocking on the last cylinder either No4 or No. 6
4. Turn the flywheel backwards to the correct distance for the specified amount
of advance required for the pump.
- This is usually from 15 – 26 0 of crank angle and is sometimes given in
centimetres (inches) of the flywheel movement, or stamped ‘SP’ or
‘”INJ” on the flywheel rim, the marks to be aligned with the TDC mark on
the engine clutch housing.
5. Remove the injection pump from the engine
6. Mount the pump on the spill timing stand
7. Remove the pump inspection cover and turn the pump in correct running
direction until No.1 plunger is just about to move upwards from its bottom
position.
8. Remove the delivery valve and spring from No.1 element
9. Replace the valve holder and fit the spill pipe

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 10. Open the air-vent tap and pump fuel through the pump to expel air
11. Move the control lever to the fully open position
- Fuel should be running through the pump and out of the spill pipe
12. Rotate the pump slowly by hand in the correct direction of rotation until the
fuel just ceases to flow out of the spill pipe
13. Determine the position very accurately
14. Refit the pump flange to the driving coupling, adjust as required so as not to
turn the pump coupling of shaft.

RE-CHECK

1. Turn the engine backwards about a quarter (1/4) turn, then turn forward,
watching the fuel flowing from the spill pipe.
2. Stop the engine immediately the fuel ceases to flow and check the
position of the flywheel with the marks
3. Make final adjustments if required
- The timing should be accurate to a few degrees
4. Make final adjustments to the fuel pump coupling while testing the engine
to find the perfect injection point, as this may vary slightly with individual
engines

Or

Spill timing the multi-element pump to the engine

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After mounting the injection pump to the engine and checking that the alignment
and drive coupling clearance are correct, it is necessary to adjust the pump to
ensure that number one cylinder is on compression. Refer to the workshop manual
for the correct static timing (e.g. it may read 28 BTDC).

The correct method would be as follows.

1. Set the engine to 280 BTDC with number one cylinder on compression stroke.
2. Remove the delivery valve from number one cylinder pump element.
3. Replace the delivery valve body and fit the spill pipe.
4. Loosen the pump coupling and fully retard the pump.
5. Ensure that the stop control is in the run position.
6. Operate the lift pump; fuel will now flow from the spill pipe.
7. Whilst maintaining pressure on the lift pump, slowly advance the injection
pump when a reduction in the flow of fuel from the spill pipe will be noticed
as the plunger approaches the spill cut-off point. Continue advancement until
approximately one drop every ten to fifteen seconds issues from the spill
pipe.
8. Tighten the coupling bolts, remove the spill pipe and refit the delivery valve.
The pump is now correctly timed in relation to the engine. Spill timing is shown in
Fig. 3.36.

Bleeding the fuel system

Bleeding the fuel system refers to removing all the air from the pipes, lift pump,
filters, injection pump and injectors. This operation must be carried out if the fuel
system is allowed to run out of fuel, any part of the system is disconnected or the
filter elements are changed.

Assuming the system has been disconnected for some reason the correct method is
as follows.

1. Disconnect the pressure side of the lift pump, operate the lift pump until fuel,
free from air bubbles, flows from the outlet. Reconnect the fuel line.
2. Slacken off the bleed screw of the fuel filter and operate the lift pump until all
the air is expelled from the filter Re-tighten the bleed screw.
3. Open the bleed screw (sometimes called the vent screw) on the injection
pump and operate the lift pump again. When fuel free from air bubbles comes
out re-tighten the screw.
4. It may also be necessary to bleed the high-pressure pipes to the injectors by
slackening the union at the injector and operating the starter until small
amounts of fuel can be seen to be coming from the union.

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 5. Re-tighten the unions and operate the starter to run the engine. Small
amounts of air in the fuel system, though not necessarily enough to prevent
the engine starting, may cause loss of power and erratic running. It is
therefore necessary to carry out this operation methodically and with
vehiclee.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Diesel Fuel Systems Components.

OBJECTIVE: To time Unit fuel Injector.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Complete engine using Unit Injectors (Detroit). Assortment of hand tools,

mutton cloth, Timing gauge and charts.

UNIT INJECTOR TIMING PROCEDURE:

NOTE: During the process of timing Injectors the Injector follower height is
adjusted to a definite to a value relative to the Injector body. Following
the firing order, all Injectors can be timed in one crankshaft rotation.

27. Remove the rocker covers.

28. Adjust exhaust valve clearances, and proceed to time the Injectors.
29. Place the speed control to idle position. If stop lever is fitted, secure it to
No fuel position.
30. Rotate the engine until the exhaust valves, on the cylinder to be adjusted,
are fully open.
31. Place the timing gauge in the provided hole on top of the cylinder head,
with flat surface facing the Injector follower.
32. Loosen Injector rocker arm push rod lock nut.
33. Turn the push rod to adjust the rocker arm until the flat part of the gauge
just passes over the follower.
34. Hold the push rod and tighten the lock nut and recheck the adjustment, if
necessary, readjust.
35. Repeat the timing process to the remaining injectors.
36. When tune-up is completed replace rocker covers.

V.E. (VERTEILER) PUMP SERVICE

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FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

DISASSEMBLING PROCEDURE

1. Clean pump thoroughly.

2. Mount pump in fixture.
3. Remove governor cover and linkages.
4. Remove flyweight assembly.
5. Remove distributor banjo connections, delivery valve holder and shut-off
valve.
6. Remove distributor head.
7. Remove pump plunger.
8. Remove link element.
9. Remove control sleeve (spool).
10. Remove plunger springs.
11. Turn pump upside down and remove advance unit device.
12. Remove cam (disk) plate.
13. Remove rollers.
14. Remove roller ring.

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 15. Remove yoke (cross coupling).
16. Remove pump drive shaft.
17. Remove transfer (feed) pump.

INSPECTION

1. Clean all components in clean diesel.

2. Inspect all components :
 Wear
 Looseness
 Grazing
 Signs of overheating
 Damage
 Excessive free play on components before re-assembly.

REASSEMBLING PROCEDURE

NB: All component parts must be thoroughly clean and work place prepared.

1. Refit transfer pump into housing.

2. Refit drive shaft.
3. Refit yoke.
4. Refit roller ring
5. Refit advance unit
6. Refit rollers.
7. Refit cam plate.
8. Refit pump plunger.
9. Refit link element.
10. Refit control sleeve.
11. Assemble plunger return spring onto distributor head and fit it to assembly.
12. Refit delivery valve and banjo connections.
13. Refit shutoff solenoid.
14. Refits fly weight assembly.
15. Refit governor linkages.
16. Refit governor cover.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
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TOPIC: Changing Fuel Filter.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the practical lesson, TWBAT Change a Spin-On Fuel Filter

LEARNING ELEMENTS: To remove and refit a spin-on fuel filter.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Filter strap.
 Pan.
 Mutton cloth.

SERVICING SPIN-ON FUEL FILTER

Most fuel filters are routinely changed on PM services that are governed by highway
miles, engine hours, or calendar months. They are seldom tested to determine
serviceability. When filters are tested, it is usually to determine if they are restricted
(plugged) to the point where engine power is reduced due to fuel starvation.
Servicing Spin-On Filter Vehicletridges Improper techniques used by service
technicians are responsible for much of the dirt that finds its way into diesel fuel
systems. Most diesel service technicians realize that sets of replacement filters
should be primed, that is, filled with fuel before installation, but few concern
themselves about the source of the fuel. Fuel filters should be primed with filtered
fuel. Shops performing regular engine service should have a reservoir of clean fuel;
any process that requires the technician to remove fuel from a vehicle fuel tank will
probably result in it becoming contaminated, at least to some extent, no matter how
vehicleeful the technician is. The container used to transport the fuel from the tank
to the filter should be cleaned immediately before it is filled with fuel. Paint filters
(the paper cone-shaped type) can be used to filter fuel. The inlet and outlet sections
of the filter vehicletridge should be identified. The filter being primed should be filled
only through the inlet ports, usually located in the outer annulus (ring) of the
vehicletridge, and never directly into the outlet port, usually located at the centre.
Some manufacturers prefer that only the primary filters be primed before installation
during servicing. After the primary filter has been primed and installed, the
secondary filter should be installed dry and primed with a hand primer pump.

Replacement Procedure

1. Remove the old filter vehicletridge from the filter base pad using an
appropriately sized filter wrench. Drain the fuel to an oil disposal container.
2. Ensure that the old filter vehicletridge gasket(s) have been removed from the
filter base. Wipe the filter pad gasket face clean with a lint-free wiper

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 3. Remove the new filter vehicletridge from the shipping wrapping. Fill the filter
vehicletridge with clean, filtered fuel poured carefully into the inlet section.
The inlet ports are usually located in the outer annulus of the vehicletridge.
Fuel poured into the filter inlet ports will pass through the filtering media and
fill the centre or outlet section of the filter; this method will take a little longer
because it will require some time for the fuel to seep through the filtering
medium.
4. The fuel oil itself should provide the gasket and/ or O-ring and mounting
threads with adequate lubricant; it is not necessary or good practice to use
grease or white lube on filter gaskets.
5. Screw the filter vehicletridge clockwise (right-hand threads are used) onto the
mounting pad; after the gasket contacts the pad face, a further rotation of
vehicletridge is usually required. In most cases, hand tightening is sufficient,
but each filter manufacturer has its own specific recommendations on the
tightening procedure, and these should be referenced.

When a hand primer pump is fitted to a fuel system, externally prime only the
primary filter, ensuring that all the fuel is poured through the inlet side only.
Install the secondary filter dry and prime using the hand primer pump.
CAUTION When removing filter vehicletridges, ensure that the gasket is
removed with the old filter. A common source of air in the fuel subsystem is
double gasketing of the primary filter.

Objective: Diagnose a faulty injection nozzle

Tools and materials

1. Basic hand tools

2. Appropriate service manual

3. Remote tachometer

4. Clean diesel fuel

5. Clean shop towels

6. Safety glasses

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 CAUTION: Follow all shop safety procedures.

Procedure

1. Disconnect tacho drive cable.

2. Connect remote tachometer.

3. Start the engine.

4. Loosen Injector line on #1 cylinder. (Figure 14)

Fig.7.14 faulty injection nozzle testing

(NOTE: Fuel flow should be evident.)

Listen for change in engine speed, and watch tachometer for

an rpm drop.
(NOTE: An Injector that Is operating correctly
will cause an rpm drop in the engine; refer to
manufacturer’ specifications for the correct
amount.)

5. Repeat for each cylinder.

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 6. Remove and repair or replace any faulty nozzles.

SERVICING AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEM

Introduction

AIR FILTER SERVICE/ REPLACEMENT

Air cleaners filter all air entering the engine for the combustion process. In time, the
air cleaner will become dirty, causing the air to be restricted from entering the intake
of the engine and resulting in lost horsepower, increased fuel consumption, and
shortened engine life. The speed with which the air cleaner becomes fouled is
proportionate to the conditions the unit is operating in. For example, the air cleaner
will become dirty faster if the unit is operated in dusty areas like secondary or gravel
roads. Air cleaners should be serviced or replaced at every PM service. There are
two styles of air cleaners used in the transport refrigeration industry: oil bath type
and dry type. Older model refrigeration units used air cleaners of the oil bath type
while current units use a much more efficient positive dry type air filter.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Intake and Exhaust Systems.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the practical lesson, SSBAT to Service Oil Bath Type Filter

LEARNING ELEMENTS: Servicing Oil Bath Type Filter

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Assorted spanners.
 Dial Gauge Indicator.
 Plastic hammer, steel hammer, circlip pliers and mutton cloth.
 Bearing puller, feeler gauge, straight edge, etc.

The oil bath air cleaner is a serviceable unit.

Procedure:

1. Remove the lower cup of the assembly and disvehicled the old dirty oil.
2. Wash the cup in solvent to remove sludge that has adhered to the cup
assembly.

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 3. Dry the cup of any solvent residue.
4. Fill the cup to the oil level mark with clean oil of the same weight as that in
the engine’s crankcase.
5. DO NOT OVERFILL THE CUP.
WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Intake and Exhaust Systems.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the practical lesson, TWBAT disassemble, inspect and
reassemble a Roots Blower without difficulty.

LEARNING ELEMENTS: To disassemble, inspect and assemble Roots Blower.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Assorted spanners.
 Dial Gauge Indicator.
 Plastic hammer, steel hammer, circlip pliers and mutton cloth.
 Bearing puller, feeler gauge, straight edge, etc.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

1. Inspections before disassembly:

a. Remove the air shutdown housing.
b. Inspect screen for damage.
c. Inspect valve plate for free rotation and is flat on its seat.
d. Inspect upper and lower rotors for signs of contact or wear.
e. Check backlash on the gears (should be not exceed 0.10mm).
f. Inspect rotors and housing for traces of oil, if present indicates worn
seals.
g. Inspect drive coupling for springing movement (should be within 6
mm).
h. Inspect rotors and end plates for traces of engine oil. If present it
could be due to worn seals, worn bearings, restriction in intake air, or
blocked crankcase breather.

2. Disassembling:
a. Place a clean cloth between the rotors, and remove nuts securing
timing gears to rotor shafts.
b. Remove retaining nuts from the front end of the rotor assembly.
c. Remove front end bearing retainers and bearing spacers.

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 d. Remove front end plate by tapping with plastic hammer to loosen it
from the housing.
e. Remove both timing gears, using bearing puller.
f. Remove shims from the shafts, recording number of shims and
thickness of each shim removed from each shaft.
g. Remove bearing retainers from rear end plate.
h. Detach the rotors from the rear end plate and housing.
i. Remove bearings, bearing races, oil seals and carriers from the shafts
and end plates.
j. Clean all components in readiness for inspections.

3. Inspecting disassembled blower components:

a. Check blower housing for burrs (remove with emery cloth) and scoring.
b. Use straight edge to check all mounting surfaces for flatness (gaskets
are not used between surfaces during assembly).
c. Check bolt holes for elongation and threads for damage.
d. Check end plates and bearing holes for grooving or for evidence that
bearing rotated in its hole.
e. Check bearings and seals for surface wear.
f. Check rotor shaft and gear splines for wear and looseness.
g. Check gears for backlash, teeth wear or damage.
h. Check rotors for evidence of contact or wear.

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WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Air intake and Exhaust systems.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to disassemble,
identify components and assemble Turbocharger.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Turbochargers.
2. Relevant hand tools/tool kit.

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REMOVAL PROCEDURE:

1. Before removing Turbocharger from the machine, clean Turbocharger and

surrounding areas.
2. Remove air inlet pipes and ducts.
3. Remove exhaust pipe and related parts.
4. Disconnect oil feed and drain pipe/hose.
5. Remove Turbocharger from exhaust manifold mounting flange.
6. Cover all openings to prevent dirt from entering.

TURBOCHARGER DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

1. Mount Turbocharger in a vice or suitable fixture.

2. Mark turbine and compressor housing in relation to centre housing.
3. Remove band couplings holding turbine and compressor housings to centre
housing.
4. Remove turbine housing.
5. Remove compressor wheel or impeller from the turbine wheel shaft.
6. Pull out the turbine wheel shaft, from the centre housing, on the turbine side.
7. Remove circlips and bearings from centre housing.
8. Clean all parts in solvent, in readiness for inspections, and dry with
compressed air.

INSPECTION OF COMPONENTS:

1. Check compressor housing for cracks and signs of rubbing with

impeller/compressor wheel.
2. Check turbine housing for hair line cracks and rubbing against turbine wheel.
3. Inspect turbine wheel for broken, cracked or bent vanes.
4. Inspect impeller/compressor wheel for broken, cracked or bent vanes.
5. Check condition of oil seals/rings.
6. Inspect turbine shaft for:
 Straightness.
 Wear on bearing journals.
 Worn or damaged threads.
7. Inspect bearings and thrust bearings for wear.
8. Inspect centre housing for:
 Damaged or worn bearing bores.
 Worn or damaged threads.

ASSEMBLING TURBOCHARGER:

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NOTE: Ensure that all oil passages in the centre housing are clean and free of
dirt or foreign material. Lubricate all parts during assembly process.

1. Install shaft bearings and seals in the centre housing and lock the in position
using circlips.
2. Put a shroud on the turbine wheel shaft.
3. Install thrust bearings into centre housing with the bronze side facing
outwards, and lock in position.
4. Install deflector assembly into housing (if fitted).
5. Install turbine wheel/shaft assembly into centre housing.
6. Install impeller or compressor wheel onto shaft and torque nut to correct
torque setting.
7. Align marks on the centre and turbine housings and install coupling band to
correct torque setting.
8. Align marks on the centre and compressor housings and install coupling band
to correct torque.
9. Check shaft for:
 Radial play (up and down movement).
 Axial play (to and from movement).

INSTALLING TURBOCHARGER:

When installing turbocharger ensure that:

1. Intake and exhaust manifolds are free of loose foreign material like: bolts,
lock-washers, dirt, etc.
2. Mounting bolts and those for the exhaust manifold are properly tightened.
3. Inlet ducts are correctly aligned and leak-free.
4. Joints must be secured and fitted with new seals and gaskets.

Before starting engine with new or reconditioned turbocharger, pour clean engine oil
into the inlet port and install pipe (this ensures enough lubrication during initial
start-up).

CAUSES OF TURBOCHARGER FAILURE:

1. Extreme temperature caused by hot shutdown.

2. Restricted air cleaner.
3. Air leaks in the intake system.
4. Leaks in the exhaust system.
5. Dirty compressor wheel/impeller due to leaks in the intake system.
6. Failure to pre-lubricate after turbocharger service or after long periods of
shutdown.

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 7. Restriction or malfunction of the oil supply line.
8. Improper maintenance.

OPERATING PRECAUTIONS:

1. START-UP PROCEDURE:
 To prevent damage to turbocharger bearings, let engine idle for
several minutes. This ensures adequate lubrication.

2. STOPPING PROCEDURE

Since the turbocharger operates at speeds between 40,000 and 100,000 rpm,
it will continue to spin at the same speed when the engine is switched off.

 To prevent damage, the engine should be allowed to idle for a few

minutes before engine shutdown. This allows the lubricating oil to
remove some heat from the bearings and ensures the turbine shaft
runs at low speed when the engine is finally shutdown.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Air intake and Exhaust systems.

OBJECTIVE: Servicing air cleaners.

TYPES OF AIR CLEANERS:

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

13. Compressed air.

14. Cleaning tools.
15. Assorted injectors.

CLEANING PROCEDURE:

8. CYCLONE AND FIBRE ELEMENT (DRY TYPE AIR CLEANER):

e) Removal of air cleaner element:

 Clean the outside of the housing.
 Loosen and remove end cover retaining bolt/clamp.
 Remove endplate and element.
 Clean inside of the housing.

f) Cleaning air cleaner element:

 Inspect element for damage and condition, if damaged or
raptured replace with new one. Otherwise, service the element.
 Direct compressed air (205 kPa) inside along the pleats.
 Direct air outside the element along the pleats.
 Direct air inside the element along the pleats.
 Inspect the element by placing a light inside, and if rips or tears
are found replace.

NOTE: Cleaning procedures vary; it is advisable to always

refer to the manufacturers’ specification and replaced at
recommended intervals.

9. OIL BATH AND MESH:

e) Methods of removal and servicing:

 Loosen the retaining clamp and remove the oil pan from the
housing.
 Drain oil from pan.
 Clean bottom of pan with non-flammable solvent.
 Remove and wash wire gauze in non-flammable solvent and
later in water.
 Leave to dry.
 Fill pan with clean fresh oil to correct level.
 Install wire gauze and oil pan and retaining clamp.

NOTE: Always refer to manufacturers’ manual.

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 10. OIL WETTED AIR CLEANER:

a) Methods of removal and servicing:

 Loosen the retaining clamp and remove the oil pan from the
housing.
 Clean bottom of pan with non-flammable solvent.
 Remove and wash wire gauze in non-flammable solvent and
later in water.
 Leave to dry.
 Soak filter in clean and fresh oil.
 Install wire gauze, bottom pan and retaining clamp.

NOTE: Always refer to manufacturers’ manual

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Intake and Exhaust Systems.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the practical lesson, SSBAT to Service Dry Type Air Filter

LEARNING ELEMENTS: Servicing Dry Type Air Filter

CLEANING OR REPLACING AIR CLEANING FILTER (DRY PAPER TYPE)

It is necessary to clean the element or replace it at the recommended interval, and more
frequent maintenance should do in other dirty operating conditions

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WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Intake and Exhaust Systems.

OBJECTIVE:At the end of the practical lesson, TWBAT disassemble, inspect and
reassemble a Roots Blower without difficulty.

LEARNING ELEMENTS: To disassemble, inspect and assemble Roots Blower.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Assorted spanners.
 Dial Gauge Indicator.
 Plastic hammer, steel hammer, circlip pliers and mutton cloth.
 Bearing puller, feeler gauge, straight edge, etc.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE:

4. Inspections before disassembly:

1. Remove the air shutdown housing.
2. Inspect screen for damage.
3. Inspect valve plate for free rotation and is flat on its seat.
4. Inspect upper and lower rotors for signs of contact or wear.
5. Check backlash on the gears (should be not exceed 0.10mm).
6. Inspect rotors and housing for traces of oil, if present indicates worn seals.
7. Inspect drive coupling for springing movement (should be within 6 mm).
8. Inspect rotors and end plates for traces of engine oil. If present it could be
due to worn seals, worn bearings, restriction in intake air, or blocked
crankcase breather.

9. Disassembling:
10. Place a clean cloth between the rotors, and remove nuts securing timing
gears to rotor shafts.
11. Remove retaining nuts from the front end of the rotor assembly.
12. Remove front end bearing retainers and bearing spacers.
13. Remove front end plate by tapping with plastic hammer to loosen it from the
housing.
14. Remove both timing gears, using bearing puller.
15. Remove shims from the shafts, recording number of shims and thickness of
each shim removed from each shaft.
16. Remove bearing retainers from rear end plate.

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 17. Detach the rotors from the rear end plate and housing.
18. Remove bearings, bearing races, oil seals and carriers from the shafts and
end plates.
19. Clean all components in readiness for inspections.

20. Inspecting disassembled blower components:

21. Check blower housing for burrs (remove with emery cloth) and scoring.
22. Use straight edge to check all mounting surfaces for flatness (gaskets are not
used between surfaces during assembly).
23. Check bolt holes for elongation and threads for damage.
24. Check end plates and bearing holes for grooving or for evidence that bearing
rotated in its hole.
25. Check bearings and seals for surface wear.
26. Check rotor shaft and gear splines for WEAR AND LOOSENESS.
27. CHECK GEARS FOR BACKLASH, TEETH WEAR OR DAMAGE.
28. CHECK ROTORS FOR EVIDENCE OF CONTACT OR WEAR.

Figure 15Roots blower components

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 ACTIVITY

SUBJECT: AIR INTAKE SYSTEM

TOPIC: TURBO CHARGE SERVICING

TURBOCHARGER SERVICE INSTRUCTIONS

Turbocharger inspection

Seven-step inspection procedure:

1. Turbo housing
Before disconnecting the oil lines, examine external surfaces of the housing
for oil leaks, which would almost certainly mean turbo seal failure
2. Compressor housing inlet and wheel
Inspect the compressor wheel for erosion and impact damage. Erosion
comes about because of dust intrusion; impact damage is prima facie
evidence of negligence. Carefully examine the housing ID and compressor
blade tips for evidence of rubbing contact, which means bearing failure.
3. Compressor housing outlet
Check the compressor outlet for dirt, oil, and carbon accumulations. Dirt
points to a filtration failure; oil suggests seal failure, although other
possibilities exist, such as clogged turbo-oil return line or crankcase breather.
Carbon on the compressor wheel might suggest some sort of combustion

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 abnormality, but the phenomenon is also seen on healthy engines. I can only
speculate about the cause.
4. Turbine housing inlet
Inspect the inlet ports for oil, heavy carbon deposits, and erosion. Any of
these symptoms suggest an engine malfunction.
5. Turbine housing outlet and wheel
Examine the blades for impact damage. Look for evidence of rubbing contact
between the turbine wheel and the housing, which would indicate bearing
failure.
6. Oil return port
The shaft is visible on most turbochargers from the oil return port. Excessive
bluing or coking suggests lubrication failure, quite possibly caused by hot
shutdowns.
7. Bearing play measurements
Measurement of radial, or side-to-side, bearing clearance involves moving the
shaft from one travel extreme to another, 180° away (Fig. 9-8A). Hold the
shaft level during this operation, because a rocking motion will not give
correct the results.
Axial motion is measured as travel between shaft thrust faces (Fig. 9-8B). In
very general terms, subject to correction by factory data for the unit in
question, we would be comfortable with 0.002 in. radial and 0.003 in. axial
play.

Figure 16measuring radial play

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 Figure 17 measuring axial play

TURBO CHARGER DISMANTLING AND RE-ASSEMBLING

WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT/TOOLS

 Securely mounted vice.

 Stiff natural or wire brush.
 Plastic scraper.
 A source of clean compressed air.
 Non-flammable solvent.
 Squirt can of clean engine oil.
 Internal circlip pliers (0° tip angle).
 Internal circlip pliers (90° tip angle).
 Snap-action torque spanner.
 Vee block.
 Vapour blasting equipment.
 Sand blasting equipment.
 Dynamic balancing equipment.
 Shaft stretch measurement equipment.
 Long reach socket 11mm.
 T - handle wrench 18mm.
 Two standard, flat ended, screw drivers. 305mm length.
 Plastic tipped mallet 500gms.
 2 x Dial indicator, range: 0 - 25mm and 0 - 2.5mm.
 2 x 12 point socket 20mm and 21mm.
 Torque wrench 70 Nm

DISMANTLING PROCEDURE.

1. Mark the relative positions of the turbine housing and compressor cover to
the bearing housing.
2. Check the motion of the shaft for excessive radial or axial play. Refer to the
'Service limits and Torque Values' Data Sheet.

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 3. Rest the turbocharger on the bench and loosen the turbine housing V-Clamp.
Disengage from the bearing housing flange.
4. Lift off the turbine housing.
5. Repeat 3 for the compressor cover and carefully lift the vehicletridge
assembly from the compressor cover.
6. Clamp the 12 point socket wrench in the vice and place the hub of the turbine
wheel into the socket so that the shaft is in a vertical position. (Fig. 2).
7. Holding the vehicletridge in one hand release the compressor locknut.

NOTE: Left hand thread. Over tightening the nut may cause yield in the shaft.

8. Remove the nut and slide off the compressor wheel.

9. Carefully remove the shaft from the bearing housing assembly by gently
tapping the shaft with a small soft faced hammer.
TAKE VEHICLEE NOT TO BEND OR DAMAGE THE SHAFT.

10. Remove the turbine back plate and sit the bearing housing on the turbine
back plate.

11. Remove the insert circlip using the circlip pliers. Remove the insert assembly
using two levers and remove the flinger sleeve from the insert. (Fig 3).

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 12. Remove the oil deflector, thrust bearing and thrust sleeve from the bearing
housing.
13. Using circlip pliers, remove the outer circlip from both ends of the bearing
housing.
14. Remove the journal bearings.

NOTE: New bearings should be fitted on reassembly.

15. Remove inner circlips.

Figure 18 Parts List

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PARTS CLEAN-UP PROCEDURE

1. Bearing Housing:
a. Scrape, brush or wipe as appropriate, to remove accumulations of residue
from the exterior surfaces.
b. Immerse briefly in safety solvent to remove any oily residue.
c. Blow dry with compressed air.

NOTE: If vapour blasting is used mask the bore with corks or rubber stoppers.

2. Compressor Wheel:
a. Immerse briefly in safety solvent to remove any traces of oily residue.
b. Blow dry with compressed air.

NOTE: If vapour blasting then take vehiclee to mask the bore with corks or
rubber toppers.

3. Shaft and Wheel:

a. Immerse briefly in safety solvent to remove any traces of oily residue.
b. Blow dry with compressed air.

NOTE: If vapour blasting then take vehiclee to mask the entire shaft section
with either appropriately sized rubber hose or adhesive backed cloth
tape.

c. After cleaning mount the shaft and wheel between centres in a lathe and
lightly polish the journal section of the shaft at 300 to 600 rpm with 400 grit
abrasive paper and clean oil.

NOTE: If the shaft and wheel shows any evidence of imbalance (bearing
material smeared on only one side of the shaft) - do not attempt to
reuse.

d. After polishing re-immerse briefly in safety solvent and blow dry with
compressed air.

4. Compressor cover:
a. Scrape, brush or wipe, as appropriate, to remove accumulations of residue
from the exterior surfaces.
b. Immerse briefly in safety solvent to remove any oily residue.
c. Blow dry with compressed air.

NOTE: No masking necessary if vapour blasting.

5. Turbine Housing and Back plate:

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 a. Blast with coarse sand or steel grit to obtain total interior and exterior
cleanliness.
b. Immerse briefly in safety solvent to remove residues.
c. Blow dry with compressed air.

6. V Clamps:
a. Immerse in safety solvent agitating moderately until foreign material deposits
have been softened or dissolved.
b. Blow dry with compressed air.

7. Small Internal Parts:

a. Immerse briefly in clean safety solvent to remove oily residues.
b. Wipe dry with a clean cloth.

INSPECTION OF PARTS FOR RE-USE

1. Bearing Housing
a. Inspect visually for evidence of cracks and fractures, pitting of gasket and
other machined surfaces, or distortion of the turbine end flange. Reject and
replace if any of the above conditions are severe.
b. Closely inspect the bearing bore visually for signs of damage or wear. The
condition of the removed bearings will be a good indicator of the bore
condition. Refer to ‘Service Limits Tables’ for maximum bore diameters. Reject
and replace if bore condition is substandard.
c. Examine the turbine end seal bore for damage and replace bearing housing if
wear is excessive.

NOTE: Do not mistake the machined step and relief groove for a wear ridge.

2. Compressor Wheel
Inspect visually for evidence of bent, burred, nicked or eroded blades and for
evidence of scuffing on the back face. Dynamically balance the Compressor
wheel and reject and replace if any damage has affected wheel balance. Do
not attempt to straighten bent blades.

3. Shaft and Wheel

a. Visually inspect for evidence of bent, burred, nicked or eroded blades and for
evidence of scuffing on the back face. Very minor damage is acceptable but
reject and replace if the damage appears sufficient to affect wheel balance.
Do not attempt to straighten bent blades.
b. Visually inspect hub for evidence of smearing (as with high speed contact
with the bearing house bore) and for deterioration of the original rectangular
configuration of the piston ring groove. Reject and replace if the damage or
wear is excessive.
c. Inspect journal diameter for wear. If this appears reusable the diameter
should be checked with a micrometer referring to the ‘Service Limits Tables’.

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 d. Measure eccentricity between the large and small shaft diameters with a test
dial indicator and vee-block, referring to ‘Service Limits Tables’. (Fig. 4).
e. Dynamically balance the shaft and wheel assembly, referring to the ‘Service
Limits Tables’. Do not attempt to straighten a bent shaft.

4. Compressor Cover
Visually inspect for evidence of contour damage (as from high speed wheel
contact). Reject and replace if damage is excessive. It is permissible to polish
out minor surface damage in the contour.

5. Turbine Housing and Back plate

Visually inspect for evidence of contour damage (as from high speed wheel
contact) and for evidence of overheating damage such as cracking, pitting,
distortion or erosion. Reject and replace if damage is excessive.

6. Insert
Inspect the insert bore for evidence of surface damage. If there is evidence of
contact with rotating components or if the piston ring wear has created a
ridge the insert should be rejected and replaced.

7. Flinger Sleeve
Visually inspect for evidence of surface damage from contact with stationary
parts. If piston ring wear has caused the ring groove to deteriorate from its
original rectangular configuration reject and replace the flinger sleeve.

8. V Clamps
Visually inspect for evidence of cracks or distortion of the clamp and T-bolt
threads. Reject and replace if damage is excessive.

RE-ASSEMBLING

1. Re-use only parts complying with the "Inspection of Parts for re-use"
guidelines.
2. Ensure all parts to be re-used have been thoroughly cleaned as described in
the
"Parts Clean-Up Procedure".

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 3. Fit inner circlips to the bearing housing with the chamfered edge towards the
bearing (Fig. 5).
4. Lubricate the new journal bearings with clean oil and fit into the bearing
housing,
using the outer circlips with the chamfered edge towards the bearing. (Fig. 5)

5. Fit the new piston ring into the second groove in the hub of the shaft.
6. Place the bearing housing on the bench turbine end uppermost and fit the
back plate.
7. Lubricate both shaft and piston ring with clean oil and fit the shaft and wheel
assembly into bearing housing (Fig. 6).

TAKE VEHICLEE NOT TO DAMAGE THE PISTON RING.

8. Place the assembly into the turbine housing with the shaft vertically up.
9. Lubricate the new thrust bearing surfaces and fit the new thrust sleeve.
10. Fit the thrust bearing assembly into the bearing housing engaging on the
locating pin, then fit the oil deflector with the oil deflector tongue fitting into
the cutaway section of the thrust bearing (Fig. 7).

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 11. Fit the new 'O' ring onto the insert and a new piston ring into the flinger
sleeve.
12. Fit the flinger sleeve assembly into the insert.

TAKE VEHICLEE NOT TO DAMAGE THE PISTON RING.

13. Lubricate the insert 'O' ring and press the insert into the bearing housing. Fit
the circlip with the gap at 90 degrees to the cutaway section in the thrust
bearing (Fig. 8).

ENSURE THE BEVELLED EDGE IS UPPERMOST AND THE INSERT IS

PRESSED HOME FLAT.

14. Fit the compressor wheel and new locknut.

15. Using the appropriate equipment tighten the locknut in accordance with the
fastener 'Torque Values' Table.
16. For turbochargers which have a compressor end 'O' ring, (see turbocharger
Parts list to check), fit this to the compressor end of the bearing housing and
lubricate with clean engine oil.
17. Rest the compressor cover on the bench with the bearing housing flange
uppermost. Stretch the relevant V-Clamp and place over the flange (Fig. 9).

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 18. Lower the bearing housing into the compressor cover. Stretch and engage the
V-Clamp over both flanges.
19. Screw on the V-Clamp locknut.
20. Repeat the procedure when fitting the turbine housing.
21. Orientate the turbine housing and compressor cover to the desired position
and tighten the locknuts, tapping the V-Clamps around the circumference to
ensure uniform fit. Tighten in accordance with the relevant 'Fastener Torque'
table.

ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION ONE

a. List four tests that are done when servicing a hydraulic

injector
b. Define the following fuel system terms
i. Calibration
ii. phasing
c. Air is said to be entering the diesel fuel system. Suggest at least two
possible entry points where air could be entering the system

QUESTION TWO

a. A compression ignition engine is said to be emitting excessive:

i. Black smoke

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 ii. Blue smoke
I n both cases state any five causes of such a problem
b. List any five effects of a blocked exhaust silencer
c. State any four causes of each of the following engine lubrication
system problems:
i. Low engine oil pressure.
ii. High engine oil pressure.

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UNIT A4.5 DIAGNOSING DIESEL ENGINE FAULTS

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:
1. Operating the engine and assessing its performance
2. Using correct troubleshooting techniques to identify the problem

3. Performing applied failure analysis to rectify the problem

OPERATING AND ASSESSING THE ENGINE PERFORMANCE

INTRODUCTION

The term troubleshooting is generally used to describe noninvasive (meaning that as

little of the engine is disassembled as possible) methods of determining the cause of
an engine problem. These methods can vary from educated guesswork to highly
structured procedures, such as those required when diagnosing electronic engine
management systems. Today’s engines are computer controlled. Yes, the engine is a
mechanical device, but it is entirely controlled and monitored by electronics. For that
reason, in this unit we will take a look at electronic approaches to troubleshooting
diesel engine problems first. In a large majority of cases, electronically driven
diagnostic routines will lead the technician to the source of the problem.

1. Step one is to make sure that you have the manufacturer’s recommended
electronic tooling, software, and service information in your possession. It is a
fool’s game and possibly costly to proceed without them.

2. Step two is to actually use this electronic tooling, software, and service
information in the manner outlined by the manufacturer. Technicians today
do not consult their mechanical instincts and experience as a first step; these
qualities only come into play when the electronic diagnostic routines fail to
produce a conclusive result. So, connect the chassis data bus by means of the
data communication link (DCL) and check for diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
Follow the manufacturer’s routines to source the problem. Never skip steps in
the routine. Do not rely on previous experience of a similar problem to short
circuit a troubleshooting path.

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 Tooling and Training

There will be occasions when strict adherence to a manufacturer’s diagnostic

routines fails to produce a conclusive result. At this point, the power of the
human brain comes into play and can exercise some of its special abilities as yet
beyond the capabilities of computers and their programmers. This is why the
power of the human mind is required to manage diagnostic processes.

Electronic diagnostic routines require two things to function effectively:

1. The manufacturer’s recommended electronic service tool (EST), access to

the manufacturer’s (usually online) service information system (SIS), and
diagnostic software.

2. A technician who has been trained to use the manufacturer’s

recommended tooling, service information, and diagnostic software.

Sounds simple. But a failure at item 1 is a common failure of the service

repair industry today, and it ends up costing vehicle owners millions of dollars
a year. A failure at item 2 is also a problem. Manufacturers’ electronic tooling
and software are not intuitive because unlike Apple, auto manufacturers have
not spent millions of dollars making it do so. Instead, they have engineered it
to be effective in the hands of technically minded persons who fully
understand vehicle systems. The best technician in the world cannot diagnose
the complex computer and networking problems that modern vehicles present
without having been properly trained. And the tooling and training are likely
to be different from one manufacturer to the next. This unit will begin by
taking a look at ESTs and then go on to look at some generic diagnostic
routines. Diagnostic routines fall into two categories. The first is step-by-step,
structured by software. The second is less structured and only comes into
play when the limits of electronic troubleshooting have been exceeded; it
depends more on having a good understanding of failure profiles. As a
technician today, you will be required to possess all the skills that the
technician of your parents’ generation had, plus all those computer skills just
emphasized.

ELECTRONIC SERVICE TOOLS

The acronym EST (electronic service tool) can be generally used in the automotive
industry to describe a range of electronic service instruments ranging from onboard
diagnostic/malfunction lights to sophisticated computer-based communications
equipment. ESTs may be generic and capable of working with multiple
manufacturers’ equipment, or they may be proprietary, such as the hand-held Volvo

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Tech II scan tool, designed to work exclusively with one manufacturer’s chassis
electronics. Generic scan tools such as the Bosch MasterTech are widely used in the
industry but tend to have limited functionality with late-model chassis electronics,
and they may not be enabled for programming changes. The automotive repair
industry has relied on scan tools for the past couple of decades, but this is rapidly
changing. The bottom line is that scan tools have too little computing power and
speed to effectively diagnose and reprogram modern automobile data bus– driven
systems, along with limited or no Web access. In addition, these instruments are
costly and cumbersome to update/upgrade compared with laptop computers. Low-
cost, powerful PCs whose hardware and software can be cheaply upgraded are the
way of the present and the future of automobile diagnostics.

Onboard Diagnostic

Lights Blink or flash codes (manufacturers use both terms) are an onboard means of
troubleshooting using a dash or PCM-mounted electronic malfunction light or check
engine light (CEL). Usually, only active codes (ones that indicate a malfunction at the
time of reading) can be read, but some also display historic (inactive) codes. This is
the simplest method of accessing the data bus in a vehicle that has no dash digital
display unit (DDU).

Data Connector Standards

The first step in communicating with the chassis data bus is to connect with it using
an appropriate data link connector (DLC). DLCs have passed through several
generations, but the connection on a current vehicle is usually made by means of a
16-pin, J1962 connector. A data connector also goes by the name assembly line data
link (ALDL). A connection to the chassis data bus is usually made by a compatible
mating connector, but in cases where it is required to couple a lab scope or DMM
with the connector, the cavity pin assignments should be known. Connecting to the
Chassis Data Bus Depending on the vehicle manufacturer, the technician is often
required to access the chassis data bus even if it is to do something as simple as
performing a routine service. Although there is more than one way of doing this,
connecting to a chassis data bus usually requires the following procedure:

i. A Windows PC with Web access, loaded with manufacturer-specific software n

A communications adapter (CA) to act as a serial link.

a) USB to CA cable

b) CA to the J1962 DLC

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Depending on what you are trying to achieve while connected to the data bus, it
may also be necessary to connect to the manufacturer’s data hub via the Internet.

Communications Adapters

A communications adapter (CA) acts as a serial link and transducer to connect

chassis electronics with a PC loaded with the appropriate software required to work
with data bus–gleaned information. CAs used to access CAN should be J2534
compliant (on any light duty vehicle), meaning that theoretically they should all
speak the same language. However, although it is mandatory that generic ESTs
access OBD II data (relating to emissions only), manufacturers often use lockout
security to ensure that any non-emissions–related data requires a specific CA to be
connected to the bus. Figure 15-1 shows how a CA interfaces between the chassis
data bus and a PC loaded with proprietary software.

Figure 15-1 The CA interface between the chassis data bus on a light truck and a PC
loaded with proprietary software.

Illustration 1 2 3

(1) PC

(2) 353 - 5083 cable as (USB)

(3) 317 - 7485 communication adaptor (3)

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(4) 327 - 8981 cable as (data link)

Scopemeters

Scopemeters and graphing meters are designed to display waveforms produced by a

variety of electrical signals. They do not get used that often on the shop floor today
because manufacturer diagnostic software can usually do the same job more rapidly
when it is important to interpret a waveform anomaly. However, they may be used
to determine whether activity on a communication bus line falls within its specified
range or whether injector driver actuation pulses spread a normal or abnormal
profile. In addition, scopemeters are useful instruments in a learning environment
because they help students to ‘‘see’’ electrical signals. As a learning tool, a
scopemeter provides a visual image to the waveform produced by a PWM driver
command for an injector: because most of us are visual learners, this can help
retention.

Scan Tools

Generic and proprietary scan tools are microcomputer-based ESTs designed to read
and reprogram controllers on a data bus, providing they are loaded with the
appropriate software vehicletridge. These are usually tough, portable, and have
become widely accepted by technicians working in the automotive industry.
However, they are severely handicapped when it comes to working with the complex
networks found on modern vehicles. For example, a General Motors (GM) Tech II
scan tool functions at a maximum speed of 18 kb/s with a maximum main memory
(RAM) of 32 megabytes (10 megabytes is standard). When such an instrument has
to interact with a data bus that transacts at speeds over 50 times faster, it obviously
has limitations.

Personal Computers (PCs)

All the automobile manufacturers are either making, or are in the process of making,
the generic PC and Windows environment operating systems their diagnostic and
programming tool of choice. PCs are inexpensive, easily upgradable, and have vast
computing power and speed when compared with scan tools. Hardware upgrades
are simple, and software upgrades can be downloaded online from the manufacturer
data hub. PCs are connected to a vehicle data bus through the chassis data
connector; a communications adapter (CA) or serial link is also required, depending
on the system and the production year. Some are capable of wireless connectivity.
Chassis manufacturers use a MS Windows environment to run their software. All of
the manufacturers offer comprehensive courses on their own management systems;
although navigating manufacturer software has become progressively more user-
friendly, technicians are advised to take manufacturer courses so they can get the
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best out of the system. Most of these courses can be taken online with manufacturer
data hub access.

Web-Based SIS

As we have said earlier in this unit, most manufacturers prefer that the first step in
any troubleshooting procedure be to log onto their Web-based service information
system (SIS), whether you are working on an electronic engine or one of an earlier
vintage. Subscription fees are charged.

Diagnostic Software

Each engine manufacturer produces its own diagnostic software, and if you are to do
anything more than just scan a data bus, you must use this software along with the
appropriate EST. Many manufacturers combine their diagnostic software with their
SIS, so both are accessed from the same portal using the same subscription. Each
manufacturer uses its own system specific software; an example is the Global
Diagnostic System (GDS) used by GM. Although GM is vehicleeful to point out that
GDS does not replace the Tech II, they add that it is required for post-2010 GM
vehicles. SIS and Diagnostic Web Software Most manufacturers bundle their Web
SIS and diagnostic software into a single interactive package.

EST Wireless Connectivity.

Manufacturers are increasingly making use of ESTs that can make wireless
connections to the chassis data bus. The current generation of wireless ESTs tend to
produce some communications glitches, so while some troubleshooting operations
are made easier and pose little risk, when performing programming it is best to
ensure that you have a hard wire backup in the event of a communications failure.
Dropping an Internet connection midway through a data hub–driven programming
sequence can disable a PCM/ECM, resulting in a downed vehicle with a dysfunctional
control module(s).

Troubleshooting Toolkit

In order to effectively use electronic troubleshooting methods, the technician should

be capable of using:

i. The manufacturer online service information system (SIS)

ii. The manufacturer diagnostic software

iii. The appropriate EST and CA

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 iv. A DM

v. should possess basic understanding of electrical and electronic circuitry

vi. Electrical schematics

vii. The correct tools, including terminal spoons, breakout Ts, and breakout boxes
Making use of the correct tools is often overlooked. When the use of a
breakout box is mandated, make sure that it is used; the consequence of not
using it is costly damage to wiring and connectors. Also, it should be
remembered that electrostatic discharge can damage solid-state components,
so it is good practice to wear a ground strap when opening up any housing
that contains a microprocessor, especially if you are inside the vehicle when
doing so. When you are testing separated weatherproofed connectors with a
DMM, ensure that the sockets have been correctly identified.

viii. The correct tools, including terminal spoons, breakout Ts, and breakout boxes
Making use of the correct tools is often overlooked. When the use of a
breakout box is mandated, make sure that it is used; the consequence of not
using it is costly damage to wiring and connectors. Also, it should be
remembered that electrostatic discharge can damage solid-state components,
so it is good practice to wear a ground strap when opening up any housing
that contains a microprocessor, especially if you are inside the vehicle.

Engine identification

In order to carry out correct diagnostics, engine, a technician should be able to be

interpret information on the engine Data plate. An example is the information give
below for a Volvo D13H engine

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 Figure 19 show engine identification data plate

The decal with the engine ‘s serial number and the software’s ID. number are
fastened on the rocker cover. It ensures that the correct ECU is installed on the
engine in production.

The engine designation, serial Number, part number and assembly factory are
stamped in two fields on the block’s left side and at the front of the engine.

Information about engine control unit (part number) is found on the back of the
control unit

DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

A digital multimeter (DMM) (see Figure 15-3) is simply a tool for making electrical
measurements. DMMs may have any number of special features, but essentially,
they measure electrical pressure (volts), electrical current quantitative flow (amps),
and electrical resistance (ohms). A DMM is one of the most important tools in the
technician’s toolbox. Surprisingly, too many technicians do not understand how
powerful a diagnostic instrument a good-quality DMM can be. Most electronic circuit
testing requires the use of a DMM. Avoid using analog multimeters when attempting
to diagnose circuit malfunctions; you may find analog multimeters in some older
shop VATs (volts-amps testers), and these can damage solid-state components.
Reliability, accuracy, and ease of use are all factors that should be considered when
selecting a DMM for purchase. Some options the technician may wish to consider are

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a protective rubber holster (will greatly extend the life of the instrument!), analog
bar graphs, and enhanced resolution.

This unit deals with the practice of using DMMs; a knowledge of basic electricity and
the meter itself is assumed. Some Typical DMM Tests Always perform tests in
accordance with the vehicle manufacturer’s specifications; never jump sequence or
skip steps in sequential troubleshooting charts. Most DMM tests on vehicle electronic
systems will be used in conjunction with a scan tool or PC driven diagnostic routines.
The following tests

Figure 15-3 Navistar breakout box, which is used in conjunction with a DMM

The following tests

Engine Position, Cam, and Crank Position Sensors.

PROCEDURE

This procedure tests Hall effect sensors, so make sure you correctly identify the
sensor (it could be an analog inductive pulse generator):

a. Cycle the ignition key, then off.

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 b. Switch meter to measure V-DC/rpm.

c. Identify the ground and signal terminals at the Hall sensor. Connect the
positive (+) test lead to the signal terminal and the negative (–) test lead to
the ground terminal. Crank the engine. At cranking speeds, the analog bar
graph should pulse; at idle speeds or above, the pulses are too fast for bar
graph readout.

d. Press the duty cycle button once. Duty cycle can indicate square wave quality,
with poor-quality signals having a low duty cycle.

Functioning Hall-effect sensors should have a duty cycle of around 50 percent,

depending on the sensor. Check to specifications.

Potentiometer-Type TPS.

Resistance test:

PROCEDURE

a. Key off.

b. Disconnect the TPS.

c. Select O on the DMM. Connect the test probes to the signal and ground
terminals. Next, move the accelerator through its stroke while observing the
DMM display.

d. The analog bar should move smoothly without jumps or steps. If it steps,
there may be a bad spot in the sensor.

Voltage test:

PROCEDURE

a. Key on, engine off.

b. Set the meter to read V-DC. Connect the negative lead to ground.

c. With the positive lead, check the reference voltage value and compare to
specifications. Next, check the signal voltage (to the PCM) value through the
accelerator pedal stroke. Check values to specification. Also observe the analog
pointer; as with the resistance test, this should move smoothly through the
accelerator stroke. Note: This test will not work on those systems that digitize

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 the signal to produce a PWM input to the PCM, nor will it work on ‘‘noncontact’’
TPSs that use a Hall effect principle.

Inductive Pulse Generator Sensors. Inductive pulse generator–type sensors are

often used as shaft speed and position sensors. They may also be known as
magnetic or variable reluctance sensors. A toothed wheel cuts through a
magnetic field, which induces an AC signal voltage in the signal (output)
terminal: the PCM reads the frequency of the AC signal to determine a shaft
speed. The AC voltage rises proportionally with rotational speed increase and
ranges from 0.1V up to 5.0V AC, the peak voltage depending on what shaft rpm
the sensor is measuring. Vehicle speed sensors (VSS), engine speed sensors
(ESS), and anti-lock braking system (ABS) wheel speed sensors all use this
method of determining rotational speed. Test using the V-AC switch setting,
locating test leads across the appropriate terminals, then spin up the device.
Min/Max Average

Test for NOx and O2 Sensors.

The foregoing test can be used to test the operation of some types of NOx
sensors used on the DPFs on diesel engines, but the manufacturer specifications
and test instructions must be observed.

PROCEDURE

a. Key on, engine running DMM set at V-DC. Select the correct voltage range.

b. Connect the negative test lead to a chassis ground and the positive test lead
to the signal wire from the lambda sensor. Press the DMM Min/Max button

c. Make sure that the engine is at operating temperature (thermostat open but
not close to the high end of normal operating temperatures). Run at no load,
varying the rpm between low and peak torque rpm to enable the DMM to sample
a scatter of readings.

d. Press the Min/Max button slowly three times while watching the DMM display.
Record the voltage output values. You will have to correlate the voltage readings
to manufacturer specifications, and these may be difficult to locate. However,
you can conclude that higher levels of oxygen dump result in lower voltage
readings, and vice versa.

e. Next, hold the engine rpm to no load, high idle to induce a lean burn
condition. Repeat steps c and d to read the average voltage. Average voltage
readings should drop lower, indicating a lean condition.

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 f. Oxygen/NOx sensor tests may be performed while road testing the vehicle, but
when testing NOx sensors, you should consult the manufacturer literature.

Thermistors.

Most thermistors used in computerized engine systems are supplied with V-Ref
(5V) and have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC), meaning that as the
sensor temperature increases, its resistance decreases. They should be checked
to specifications using the DMM ohmmeter function and an accurate temperature
measurement instrument.

Applying DMM Tests.

Manufacturers seldom suggest random testing of suspect components. The

preceding tests are typical procedures. Circuit testing in today’s computerized
engine management systems is highly structured and part of sequential
troubleshooting procedure. It is important to perform each step in the sequence
precisely; skipping a step can invalidate every step that follows.

Breakout Boxes and Breakout Ts

The DMM is often used in conjunction with a breakout box or breakout T.

Breakout devices are designed to be teed into an electrical circuit to enable
circuit measurements to be made on both closed (active) and de-energized
circuits. The objective is to access a circuit with a test instrument without
interrupting the circuit. A breakout T is a simpler diagnostic device that is
inserted into a simple two- or three-wire circuit such as that used to connect an
individual sensor, while a breakout box accesses multiple-wire circuits for
diagnostic analyses of circuit conditions

Most of the electronic engine management system manufacturers use a breakout

box that is often inserted into the interface connection between the engine
electronics and chassis electronics harnesses. The face of the breakout box
displays a number of coded sockets into which the probes of a DMM can be
safely inserted to read circuit conditions. Electronic troubleshooting sequencing is
often structured based on the data read by a DMM accessing a circuit. A primary
advantage of breakout diagnostic devices is the fact that they permit the reading
of an active electronic circuit, for instance, while an engine is running.

The next section introduces some simple tasks that can be performed by low-end
DMMs using components readily available in introductory electricity/electronics
labs.

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 Testing Resistors.

Most carbon resistors used in electronic circuits are color-coded. Although

individual resistors would seldom be tested in the real world, testing them in a
teaching/learning environment can be a great way of getting to know the
ohmmeter function of your DMM. You can grab a pile of resistors and check the
color-coded resistance value against the actual measurement. First, you have to
understand the color codes:

Color Value

Black 0, Brown 1, Red 2, Orange3, Yellow 4,Green 5, Blue 6, Violet 7, Gray 8,

White 9 In the preceding list, note that the darkest colors like black and brown
are used for the lowest numeric values (0 and 1) moving up to white, which is
given the highest numeric value. These codes are standardized by the Electronics
Industries Association (EIA) and are also used for capacitors. In addition, the
colors gold and silver are used to rate tolerance or the percentage amount that
similarly rated resistors can differ from each other and still function within
specification. Gold indicates 5 percent and silver 10 percent tolerance. Figure 15-
4 shows the significance of each band used on a resistor. Next, we can look at
two actual examples shown in Figure 15-5. In Figure 15-5A the arrangement is:
1st stripe = red = 2 2nd stripe = green = 5 3rd stripe = red = multiplier to
power of 2 or 102 , so you add 2 zeros = 2,500 O 4th stripe = gold = tolerance
rated at within 5%

Figure 15-4 Interpreting bands on a carbon resistor.

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 A: R = 2500 Ω ±5%

Figure 15-5 Interpreting band resistance codes

At first glance, Figure 15-5B does not appear to be unlike the previous resistor:

1st stripe = red = 2

2nd stripe = green = 5

3rd stripe = black = multiplier is zero, so the value is 25 OHMS

4th stripe = silver = tolerance rated at within 10 percent

MECHANICAL TROUBLESHOOTING

As we have progressed through this unit, we have taken a look at some of the
characteristics of mechanical failures in diesel engines. Technicians who have grown
up in the computer age should remind themselves from time to time that diesel
engines sometimes malfunction mechanically.

Smoke Analysis

An engine can emit from its exhaust noxious gases, water, and carbon dioxide.
When these emissions remain in the gaseous state they cannot be seen exiting the

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exhaust piping. For exhaust gas to be identified as smoke, the emission must be in a
liquid or a solid state.

When smoke appears to be black, the state of the emission is solid; specifically,
particulate solids through which light will not pass at all, making the smoke appear
black to the observer’s eye. The root causes of black smoke are associated with
incompletely burnt fuel.

When exhaust smoke is white, the emission is in the form of condensing l droplets,
making it appear white to the observer’s eye. The condensing liquid could be engine
coolant, when cold enough, the water that is a normal product of combustion.

When smoke is blue, it is normally associated with engine oil emission. This is
usually classified as a condensing liquid emission from which light is mainly reflected.
The technician analysing the smoke emitted from a diesel engine is seeing on the
state of the emission. It is important to note that the absence of observable smoke
does not mean that the engine is not producing noxious emissions—for example,
NOx emissions are gaseous and therefore cannot be seen. Gaseous emissions can
only be identified using exhaust gas analysis equipment. Nevertheless, observable
smoke emitted from an engine tells a story, and the technician should have some
ability to interpret the causes of a smoking engine.

Black Smoke

Some solid matter (particulate) is contained in the exhaust gas. It is the result of the
incomplete combustion of fuel and therefore has many causes, the most common of
which are:

1. Insufficient combustion air

2. Restricted exhaust n EGR failure
3. DPF failure
4. Excess or irregular fuel distribution
5. Improper grade of fuel

When black smoke is observed from the tailpipe of any highway diesel manufactured
after 2007 regardless of cause, the diesel particulate filter (DPF) is likely to be
damaged to the point that it requires replacement. Insufficient Combustion Air. The
causes for insufficient combustion air are air starvation caused by a performance
defect in the air intake system components, from the air filter, turbocharger, and
boost air/ heat exchanger, to a plugged EGR heat exchanger or EGR control valve
failure, through to intake valve problems, restricting emergency stop gate, and so
on. Check for a problem that can be read electronically first in electronically
managed engines.

Exhaust System Restriction.

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Exhaust system restriction problems can usually be related to turbocharger failure,
collapsed exhaust system piping, internal failure of engine silencer or catalytic
converter, a plugged-up diesel particulate filter, or exhaust brake malfunction.
Because of emissions systems electronic monitoring found in most post-2004 and all
post-2007 highway diesel engines, connect to the chassis data bus to troubleshoot
the condition, even if a fault code has not been logged.

Excess Fuel/Irregular Fuel Distribution.

Excess fuel (over-fueling) or irregular fuel distribution can be caused by out-of-spec

injection timing (intentional or accidental), injector nozzle failure, variable timing
control device failure, unbalanced fuel rack settings, lugging engine (operation at
high loads at speeds below peak torque rpm), incorrect governor settings,
inoperative or tampered with manifold boost management system, or defective
barometric capsule (altitude compensator). When you are troubleshooting
electronically managed engines, make sure you connect to the chassis data bus,
select the engine PCM, and when possible, perform an electronic cylinder cut-out
test: this can pinpoint unbalanced cylinder fueling and usually identify the cause.

Improper Fuel Grade.

When fuel is stored for prolonged periods, the more volatile fractions evaporate,
altering the fuel’s chemical properties. Additionally, fuel suppliers seasonally adjust
fuel to accommodate temperature extremes, so using summer fuel in the middle of
winter can cause problems. Although the practice is generally illegal, using used
engine lube/ fuel mixers produces smoking and can seriously damage exhaust
aftertreatment devices in post-2007 vehicles. Heavier residual oils may not vaporize,
and even if they do, there is insufficient time to properly combust them. This
practice may also cause high acidity in the exhaust gas (high sulfur), which may rust
out exhaust systems unusually quickly.

White Smoke

White smoke is caused by condensing liquid in the exhaust gas stream. Temperature
usually plays a role when white smoke is observed, both ambient temperature and
the engine-operating temperature. Remember that water is a natural product of the
combustion of any hydrocarbon fuel, and in northern midwinter conditions it is
normal for some of this to condense in the exhaust gas. However, when white
smoke is a problem, the following are some of the possible causes.

1. Cylinder Misfire.
Check for a problem that can be read electronically first on electronically
managed engines; perform an electronic cylinder cut-out test using an EST.

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 With nonelectronic engines, disable each injector by cracking (loosening the
line nut) high pressure pipes in hydromechanical PLN systems.
CAUTION
Never attempt to mechanically disable the injectors on electronically
controlled diesel engines. WARNING When cracking high-pressure pipes,
ensure that suitable eye protection is worn and that spilled fuel is not in
danger of igniting. Low Cylinder Compression Pressure. There are a number
of possible causes of low cylinder compression. These are usually mechanical
problems that prevent the cylinder from sealing properly.

Low-Cetane Number Fuel.

This is more likely to be a problem experienced by operators that bulk-
purchase fuel in large volumes (farms) and then store it for prolonged
periods. Diesel fuel CN is defined by its most volatile fractions, and it is these
that are most likely to boil off when exposed to high temperatures. Low-CN
fuel may produce white smoke emission; this appears as a haze in the
exhaust gas stream when fueling a warm engine. Test the fuel’s specific
gravity using a fuel hydrometer, and compare it to the fuel supplier’s
specification. Consult the fuel supplier as to the correct additive and
proportions to correct a CN deficiency in a storage tank.

Air Pumped through the High-Pressure Injection Pump Circuit.

Check the fuel subsystem because this is usually the source of the air,
depending on the type of system. This condition is normally accompanied by
rough engine operation. Using a diagnostic sight glass can help you to
diagnose the problem and locate it.

Coolant Leakage to Cylinders.

Confirm that the emission truly is coolant. Engine coolant has an acrid,
bittersweet odour that is very noticeable at the tailpipe.
Locate the source. Some possibilities are injector cup failure, head gasket (fire
ring) failure, or a cracked cylinder head. Coolant leakage may be difficult to
locate; if the failure is not immediately evident, drop the oil pan, pressurize
the cooling system, and observe. If necessary, place clean vehicledboard
under the engine with the cooling system pressurized and leave for a while to
attempt to identify the source; this may save an unnecessary engine
disassembly. It is often easier to identify an internal coolant leak with the
engine intact rather than disassembled, so explore all the options with the

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 engine assembled first. Check out the exhaust aftertreatment apparatus (SCR
and DPF) after completing repairs.

Low Combustion Temperatures.

Low combustion temperatures may be the result of extreme low-temperature

conditions or a fault in the cooling system management system, such as a
defective thermostat, fan drive mechanism, or shutters. If the emission is just
water it is not harmful to the environment, but it does compromise the
efficacy of the SCR and DPF systems.

Blue Smoke

Blue smoke is usually caused by lube oil getting involved in the combustion
process. Some possible causes are turbocharger seal failure, pullover of lube
oil from an oil bath air cleaner sump, worn valve guides, ring failure, glazed
cylinder liners, high oil sump level, excessive big end bearing oil throw off,
low-grade fuel, fuel contaminated with automatic transmission fluid (ATF), or
engine lube placed in fuel tanks as an additive. Any blue smoke condition can
seriously damage aftertreatment hardware, so the condition should be
resolved quickly.

Low Oil Pressure Verify the problem: 1. Check the oil sump level and
correct if necessary. 2. Install a master gauge (an accurate, fluid-filled
gauge). 3. Warm engine to operating temperature and check oil psi. 4.
Investigate oil consumption history. 5. Determine the cause. Some possible
causes and suggested solutions: n Restricted oil filter or oil cooler bundle:
change the oil and filter(s). If the problem persists, clean or replace the oil
cooler bundle (core), and check or clean the filter and oil cooler bypass
valves.
n Contaminated lube (fuel): detect by oil analysis or by odour. Engine lube
contaminated with fuel can have a darker appearance and feel thin to the
touch. If the cause is fuel, locate the source. This may be difficult, and the
procedure varies with the type of fuel system and the routing of the fuel to
the injector. Pressure testing the fuel delivery components may be required.
Porosity in the cylinder head casting, failed injector O-ring seals, leaking fuel
jumper pipes, and cracked cylinder head galleries are some possible causes.
Perform repairs as required, then service the oil and filters. n Excessive
crankshaft bearing clearance: inspect the bearings to determine the cause.
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 Visually check the crank journals to determine whether removal is required.
Replace the bearings, ensuring that the clearance of the new bearings is
checked. n Excessive camshaft or rocker shaft bearing clearance: replace the
bearings. n Pump relief valve spring stuck open or fatigued: clean the valve
and housing, replacing parts as necessary. Check the bypass/diverter valves
in the oil cooler and filter mounting pad. n Oil pump defect: recondition or
replace the oil pump. n Oil suction pipe defect: replace the oil suction pipe. n
Defective oil pressure gauge or sending unit: replace the oil pressure gauge
or sending unit. n Broken-down (chemically degraded) lube oil: change the oil
and filters. High Oil Consumption Verify the condition by monitoring oil
consumption and analysing exhaust smoke. Some possible causes and
suggested solutions: n Excess cylinder wall lubrication: high oil sump level,
excessive connecting rod and big end bearing oil throw off, plugged oil
control/wiper rings, oil pressure too high, or oil diluted with fuel. This type of
problem usually requires engine disassembly to diagnose and repair. n
External oil leaks: steam or pressure wash the engine, then load on a chassis
dynamometer or road test to determine the source. n High oil temperatures:
malfunctioning boost air heat exchanger, lug down engine loading, over-
fueling, incorrect fuel injection timing, or problem with the oil cooler or engine
cooling system.
1. Worn piston ring fit abnormality: replace the rings.
2. Piston ring failure: determine cause. Check for other damage, then replace
the rings.
3. Turbocharger seal failure: recondition the turbocharger (recore or replace).
4. High oil sump level: this causes aeration. Determine the cause of high oil
level. Check for operator or service error first, then for the presence of fuel
and engine coolant in oil.
5. Glazed cylinder liners or sleeves: caused by improper break-in procedure or
prolonged engine idling. Replace cylinder liners/sleeves or use a glaze buster
to re-establish crosshatch.
6. Worn cylinder head valve guides or seals: measure to specification and
recondition the cylinder head if required. n Improper dipstick marking: drain
oil, fill sump to manufacturer specification, then check/alter dipstick markings.
High Oil Temperature Some possible causes and suggested solutions:
7. Insufficient oil in circulation: check sump level, pump pressure, and
lubrication circuit restrictions. Repair as required. n High water jacket
temperatures: test cooling system performance.
8. Plugged/failed oil cooler: disassemble and inspect galleries, bundle, and
bypass valve for restrictions and scaling. Service the cooling system afterward
to prevent a recurrence.
9. Oil badly contaminated: submit sample for analysis and repair cause.

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 10. Engine lugdown: provide some driver training; the problem is more common
when standard transmissions are used. Cooling System Problems Cooling
system problems can be grouped into the following categories:
11. Overheating n Overcooling
12. Loss of coolant
13. Defective radiator cap
14. Defective thermostat

From the troubleshooting perspective, we can study these problems by looking at

the performance problems they produce:

1. High coolant temperatures

2. Low coolant temperatures

High Coolant Temperature. Accurately verify the condition:

1. Check coolant level in the radiator.

2. Install a master gauge to verify the problem.
3. Observe exhaust pyrometer readings and compare to specification. Some
possible causes and solutions: Incorrect mixture:
a. the correct mixture for EGs is usually an equal proportion of water and
antifreeze with somewhere between 3 percent and 6 percent coolant
conditioner. Increasing the antifreeze proportion with both EG and PG
reduces cooling efficiency, but when high concentrations of PG are
used for arctic operation, you may have no choice.
b. Aerated coolant: usually caused by combustion gases entering the
cooling circuit through a defective cylinder head or failed fire
ring/cylinder head gasket. Heat is not transferred efficiently through a
gas. Verify the condition:
i. check for bubbles at the water manifold.
c. Fan clutch: test fanstat/thermal fan operation using a master gauge
and loading the engine until it reaches the temperature required to
cycle the fan.
d. Radiator:
i. check for internal and external flow restrictions. Clean
externally. Internal restrictions usually require the removal of
the radiator and either re-coring or the use of specialized
reconditioning equipment.
ii. System does not seal: this permits the coolant to boil at a lower
temperature and cause boilover. Test with a cooling system
pressure tester. Check and repair/replace the defective radiator
cap and/or pressure relief valves.

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 e. Improper air flow: incorrectly sized fan or missing/damaged radiator
shroud may significantly reduce flow through the radiator and engine
compartment.
f. Loose pump and fan drive belts: this will cause a reduction in coolant
and/or air flow. Check visually and with a belt tension gauge.
g. Coolant hoses: rubber-based coolant hoses should be changed every
couple of years, silicone hoses every five years. Hoses often fail
internally while appearing sound externally. A collapsed hose may
cause a significant flow restriction.
h. Restricted air intake: may cause high engine temperatures. Test inlet
restriction with a water manometer. Check with the manufacturer
recommended maximum specifications, usually logged in mm of H 2O
restriction.
i. Exhaust restriction: causes high engine temperatures. Uncouple the
exhaust piping from turbo or remove the exhaust manifold to see if
the condition is corrected. Check the aftertreatment canister(s)
(muffler, catalytic converter[s], SCR, and DPF) for restriction and
internal collapse.
j. Shunt line failure: a restriction in the shunt line from the radiator top
tank to the water pump inlet may cause a boil condition at the inlet,
reducing coolant flow and causing overheating.
k. Thermostat: test out of engine for opening value and full open position
using a boiler and a thermometer.
l. Water pump: remove and check for a loose or damaged impeller and
check the impeller-to-housing clearance against specification. Rebuild
or replace as required.
m. Boost air heat exchanger: an air flow or internal restriction will cause a
rise in engine temperatures. Test air flow through the engine
compartment. Bug and winter grille covers impede air flow through the
heat exchangers and may unevenly load the fan. The same applies to
snow plows and other front bumper–mounted equipment. n High-
altitude operation: cooling system efficiency diminishes as altitude
increases. Therefore, larger cooling system capacity is required for
high-altitude operation.
n. Lugging: operating an engine at high loads and lower speeds means
high temperatures and reduced coolant flow. Driver training is
required.
o. Over-fueling: this raises the amount of rejected heat and may exceed
the cooling system’s ability to handle it. Recalibrate engine fueling to
specification.
p. Fuel injection timing: depending on the type of fuel system, both
retarding and advancing fuel injection timing may result in engine
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 overheating. Fuel injection timing is commonly tampered with; fuel
injection timing should be set to manufacturer specification. Greatly
diminished engine life is the consequence of minor injection timing
adjustments, whereas major component failure is the consequence of
more dramatic adjustments.

Low Coolant Temperature.

Accurately verify the condition:

1. Check cooling system temperature management components such

as shutter and fan operation.
2. Install a master gauge to verify the problem.
3. Observe exhaust pyrometer readings and compare to specification.
Some possible causes and solutions:
4. Thermostat: a thermostat that is stuck in the open position will
cause the engine to run cool. Remove the thermostat and check its
start-to-open and fully open temperature specifications.
5. Air vent valve: if stuck in the open position, this may cause low
coolant temperatures when the engine is under light loads.
6. Prolonged idle or light load operation: when little fuel is being used
by the engine, there is less rejected heat for the cooling system to
handle, and operating temperatures may be lower.
7. Fan clutch: test thermal fan operation using a master gauge and
loading the engine until it reaches the temperature required to
cycle the fan. Ensure that this occurs at the specified temperature
and not at a lower value.
8. Improper air flow: incorrectly sized fan or missing/damaged
radiator shroud may result in overcooling by creating irregular flow
through the engine compartment.

Cylinder Compression Problems

Although current certification testing requires technicians to be able to

use both a cylinder pressure and cylinder leakage test, both are
effectively obsolete when it comes to testing cylinder compression
problems in any automotive diesel engine built since 2001. The correct
way to determine cylinder leakage and/or balance problems is to
perform an electronic cylinder balance test using the manufacturer
diagnostic software. Overall low or unbalanced cylinder compression
can create problems of excessive blowby, low power, and vibration.
When any of these driveability conditions are evident, cylinder balance
should be checked.

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 Cylinder Pressure Test.

Cylinder pressure may be checked using a compression tester. In

diesel engines, the compression test should be performed when the
engine is close to operating temperature by first removing all of the
injectors, fitting the compression test gauge to the injector bore in one
of the cylinders, and then cranking through five rotations. The
batteries should be fully charged during this test because cranking
velocity should exceed 250 rpm; this is why all of the injectors should
be removed. Test each cylinder sequentially and match the test results
to specifications. The results should be within the engine
manufacturer’s cylinder compression parameters and normally within
10 percent of each other. Compression testing will locate which
cylinder(s) is/are at fault, but not the cause of the problem. Figure 15-
6 shows the cylinder compression test adapter recommended by Ford
in the Power Stroke engine; the adapter is inserted into the injector
bore and a gauge attached. Cylinder Leakage Test. A cylinder leakage
or air test kit sometimes stands a better chance of identifying the
cause of a problem. The cylinder leakage test consists of a pressure
regulator and couplings that fit to the injector bores. Once again, the
engine should be close to its operating temperature at the beginning
of the test. The test is performed with the piston in the cylinder to be
tested at TDC, and regulated air pressure is delivered to the cylinder.
The test may indicate valve seal leaks, head gasket leaks, leaks to the
water jacket, leaking piston rings, and defective pistons. The cylinder
leakage test regulator delivers air at a controlled volume and pressure,
then measures the percentage of leakage. High Exhaust Temperature
Readings When diagnosing high exhaust temperatures on highway
diesel engines equipped with catalytic converters and diesel particulate
filters, always use the engine manufacturer’s recommended procedure.
In post-2007 diesel engines, thermocouple-type pyrometers are used
in some DPFs to help manage regeneration cycles. Those not using
pyrometers use resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), also known
as platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). In pre2007 chassis with
high exhaust temperatures, first verify the condition: 1. Install a
master pyrometer (do not rely solely on the vehicle pyrometer). 2.
Chassis dynamometer test using a full instrumentation readout. 3. If a
dynamometer is not available, load the unit to its maximum extent off
a test bed. Tech Tip: Transient (temporary) high exhaust temperatures
are normal on post-2007 vehicles equipped with oxidation catalysts,
dosed reduction catalysts, and diesel particulate filters (DPFs). During
DPF regenerative cycles, transient high exhaust temperatures are

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 normal (may cause a visible glow at night) and can be ignored unless
they log a fault code. Some possible causes and solutions to high
exhaust temperatures are: n Air inlet restriction: test inlet restriction
value to specification using a manometer. n Flow restricted, boost air
heat exchanger: check air flow through the hood intake grille. n High
engine load, low air flow operation: engines using air-to-air boost air
cooling require air flow through the heat exchanger. A pickup truck
with air-to-air boost cooling operating in a construction environment
under extreme temperatures may produce high exhaust temperature
readings even when operated skillfully. n Fuel injection timing: check
to specification. n Overfueling: look for other indicators of an
overfueling condition and check fuel settings to specification.

Sudden Engine Shutdown

This can result from a number of conditions. First, try to determine

whether the check engine lamp (CEL) or stop engine lamp (SEL) is
illuminated. If this was the case, connect to the chassis data bus, and
access the engine PCM for active and inactive DTCs. Some possible
causes and solutions: n Electrical failure: use the appropriate electrical
circuit troubleshooting to locate the problem. Check the most obvious
causes first. n No fuel: refuel tanks and use an appropriate priming
method to get the engine running again. Remember that most current
light duty diesels are self-priming. n Air in fuel system: air may be
pulled into the fuel subsystem from any of a number of locations;
common causes are the fuel filter sealing gaskets, double gaskets
(caused by failure to remove a used gasket during servicing), and a
failed filter mounting pad assembly. n Water in fuel system: most
current secondary filters will plug on small quantities of water. Locate
the source of the water. Replace and prime filters. n Plugged fuel line:
sequentially work through the fuel subsystem circuit to locate the
failed component. An internally failed fuel hose can be difficult to
locate because an internal flap may require moving fuel through the
circuit to block flow. Similarly, something simple, such as a small decal
floating in the fuel tank, can plug a fuel pickup line and shut down the
engine, after which it floats away. n Lubrication failure: caused by a
failed lubrication circuit component. A lubrication circuit failure will
rapidly develop into a seized engine. Try to manually bar the engine
over. A lubrication failure often results in a complete engine
disassembly. Engine Runs Rough This describes a condition in which
the engine produces an inconsistent rpm roll (nonrhythmic), hunting
(rhythmic), cylinder misfire, or surging at a specific rpm or throughout

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 the engine operating range. Some possible causes and solutions: n Air
in fuel system: often accompanied by white smoke emission. Locate
the source of the air, checking the suction side of the fuel subsystem
first. n Any problems in the engine breathing circuit including heat
exchangers, EGR coolers, venturi control valves, VGT turbos,
aftertreatment hardware, and DPFs. n Leak or restriction on the
charge side of the fuel subsystem: repair a leak if evident. Use a
pressure gauge to check charging pressure to specification.

n Injection nozzle failure(s): this results in a cylinder misfire condition.

Locate the affected cylinder by disabling each injector sequentially.
Crack the high-pressure pipe nuts at the pump on hydromechanical
injector systems. When checking electronically managed engines, use
the electronically driven diagnostics and never mechanically short out
an injector. n CN value of fuel is too low: this occurs when fuel is
stored for prolonged periods either in the vehicle or in base storage
tanks, and the fuel deteriorates chemically or biochemically. n Fuel
cloud point is high: when fuel begins to wax, it can restrict filters and
pumping apparatus. Analyze the fuel and add an approved cloud point
depressant as required. n Advanced injection timing: a common
tampering problem in older hydromechanical engines. Check injection
timing and reset to specification if required. n Maladjusted valves:
perform an overhead adjustment. n Cylinder leakage: caused by a
failed fire ring(s), a crack in the cylinder head/block, or valve leakage.
Perform an electronic cylinder balance test, cylinder leakage test, or
cylinder compression test.

Engine Blowby

Because rings create the seal of a piston in a cylinder bore, some

blowby is inevitable, due to the end-gap requirement. Normally,
blowby is a specification determined by the manufacturer. Remember,
piston rings seal most efficiently when cylinder pressures are highest,
and engine rpm is high when there is less time for gas blowby. Some
causes and solutions of excessive engine blowby are:

1. Cracked head or piston: diagnose cause and recondition engine.

2. Worn, stuck, or broken piston rings: diagnose cause and recondition engine.
3. Glazed liner/sleeve inside wall (due to improper break-in practice or
prolonged idling): diagnose cause and recondition engine.
4. Poor-quality or degraded engine lube: change the oil and filters. High
crankcase pressures can also be caused by:

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 5. Air compressor (plugged discharge line, worn rings, air pumped through oil
return line): test air compressor operation.
6. Turbocharger (seal failure allows turbine housing to leak pressurized air
through to the turbine shaft and back through the oil return piping): test
turbocharger operation and recondition or replace as required.

Engine Will Not Crank

Determine whether the problem is related to the cranking circuit (electrical or

pneumatic problem) or a mechanical engine condition. Focus on the cranking circuit
first and eliminate any obvious causes; in most cases, the cause of a failure-to-crank
condition will be found here. Try to bar the engine over by hand. If it cannot be
turned over, check the engine externally and both the clutch and transmission: jack
a drive wheel off the ground if necessary. If engine seizure is suspected, remove all
the injectors and again attempt to bar the engine over by hand before beginning to
disassemble the engine. If disassembly is required, carefully remove and label
components so that the root cause of the failure can be determined.

Lack of Power ‘‘Lack of power’’ (LOP) has a way of commonly showing up on shop
work orders, and without running the unit on a dynamometer it can be difficult to
convince a skeptical customer that the condition may lie more in his head than on
the chassis. In many cases, the lack of power is more closely associated with driver
expectations than a genuine engine problem. Although the technician can eliminate
many causes of low power, realistically, the only proof available is a chassis
dynamometer test, which usually involves taking the unit to a heavy duty auto shop.
It makes a lot of economic sense for shops that work frequently on low-power
complaints to prepare a strategy check sheet that addresses the specific equipment
worked on; this ensures that the work is performed sequentially (eliminating
obvious/quick-to-perform tasks first) and enables each technician to pursue the
steps in more or less the same manner. Figure 15-7 shows a power and torque
graph produced by a 2011 Ford Power Stroke engine. Note the wide torque band
profile that characterizes the performance. There are too many variables based on
engine manufacturer and fuel system type to provide definitive lack-of-power
troubleshooting strategies. The following is a general list of some causes of low
power and their solutions:

1. Restricted fuel filters: replace the filters. Check the vehicle fuel tanks for
contamination.
2. Restricted air inlet system: test the inlet restriction value using a manometer.
Remember, air filter elements are best tested without removal from the
canister—do not replace unless they fail an inlet restriction test or have
exceeded the in-service time limit.

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 3. Leaks in the boost air circuit: test for leakage using a manufacturer-approved
method such as direct application of a soap solution with the engine under
load, ether spray at idle, or others. Small leaks in charge air cooler cores can
be difficult to locate and may require removal and pressure testing. When
dynamometer testing, always fit instrumentation to read manifold boost.
4. Low manifold boost—turbocharger problem: visually inspect the
turbocharger, checking radial play and endplay; check for rotation drag
caused by carbon deposits (coking). n Restricted exhaust system: this
condition is usually accompanied by poor engine response. Check piping,
engine muffler(s), DPFs, and catalytic converters when equipped. Mufflers
can fail internally when baffles and resonator walls collapse; test
backpressure value to specification.
5. Low fuel subsystem charging pressure: fit a pressure gauge and test fuel
pressure at idle and high-idle speeds, comparing results to the specifications.
6. Valve lash bad justment: often accompanied by smoking and top end/valve
clatter. Adjust valves to specification.
7. Defective boost pressure sensing and fuel control devices: all current engines
use either variable capacitance or piezo-resistive turbo-boost sensors that
seldom malfunction. Older engines used different types of aneroid devices.
The devices used on hydromechanical engines were not only more likely to
malfunction, they could be easily tampered with. Most aneroids had a set
trigger specification (predetermined manifold boost value), and their function
was to limit fueling until there was enough air in the cylinders to properly
combust it. Some aneroids permitted a graduated increase of fueling,
proportional to increase in manifold boost, whereas others simply switch at a
predetermined boost value, limiting fueling until it is achieved. Replacing a
properly functioning boost fueling control device with one with a lower trigger
value will not cure a low-power complaint or increase engine power, although
it will cause puff smoking at shifting, waste fuel, and contaminate the
atmosphere. Use the manufacturer method of testing the device, and ensure
that the correct one is fitted. Some use an intake manifold sensor and system
air pressure to actuate a governor-located pilot plunger—these must be
precisely set to specification.
8. Governor badly adjusted: usually a result of repeated tampering with
components that should only be adjusted on a pump comparator bench.
Performance test the engine on a dynamometer if possible and reset the
governor, removing, if required, the fuel injection pump assembly if the
governor is integral.
9. Contaminated fuel: fuel is abused unknowingly by both drivers and
technicians whenever they add any substance to vehicle fuel tanks other than
diesel fuel. Some of these additives may create conditions that result in lack-
of-power complaints. There are certainly seasonal conditions that mandate
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 the addition of alcohols to fuel tanks (crossover pipe freeze-up), but drivers
and technicians should be educated to understand that dumping additives
into fuel tanks, especially aftermarket additives of dubious chemistry, should
be avoided. Purchasing number 1D fuel is much cheaper than purchasing
inexpensive, summer grade number 2D fuel and paying for the problems it
creates when operating equipment in extreme winter conditions.
10. Defective fuel: not a common problem in North America and difficult to
diagnose without the use of specialized equipment. Check with the fuel
supplier. Testing specific gravity may identify a fuel in which the lighter
fractions have boiled off, lowering the CN, but the exact original values must
be known. Defective fuel problems are usually the consequence of storing a
fuel for prolonged periods or using fuels outside the season in which they
were purchased. Engine Vibration While driveline vibrations are not
uncommon, true engine vibrations are not often a problem. When
investigating a vibration complaint, the technician should eliminate all
possible causes in the driveline behind the engine first. In doing this, it
should be remembered that the clutch may disengage the driveline from the
transmission and beyond from the engine, but that most of the mass of the
clutch is rotated with the engine, engaged and disengaged. n Cylinder
misfire: see section ‘‘Engine Runs Rough.’’
11. Loose vibration damper: check bolts for shear damage and damper fastener
holes for elongation. Visually inspect damper for other damage. Retorque and
test operation.
12. Defective vibration damper: viscous-type dampers should be replaced at each
engine overhaul but seldom are—visually inspect. The slightest external
defect is reason to replace the unit. To dynamically test a vibration damper, a
lathe and dynamic balance apparatus is required—a procedure beyond the
scope of most shops. Visually inspect rubber drive ring dampers.
13. Defective external driven component: every driven engine accessory is
capable of unbalancing the engine. Some common accessories that may
cause an unbalanced engine condition when they or their bearings fail are
the fan assembly (broken/damaged blades, failed bearings), water pump,
accessory drive bearings, idler pulley bearings, alternator, and others. Soot in
Inlet Manifold Some soot in the intake manifold is normal in most diesel
engines. It is a common indicator of an engine operated at low loads and
speeds for prolonged periods if the engine was manufactured prior to 2004.
Under such operating conditions, the valve overlap duration is at a maximum
in real-time values and manifold boost is minimal or non-existent. Excessive
soot in the intake manifold may be an indication of imminent turbocharger
failure, an injection timing problem, or a problem related to the EGR circuit in
post-2004 diesels. We take a brief look at EGR circuit troubleshooting in the
next section.
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 EGR Circuit Malfunctions

When the EGR circuit fails, in most cases, at least one fault code is logged
because the circuit is so thoroughly monitored. When a fault code is logged,
make sure you adhere to the manufacturer software driven diagnostic routine.
Typical diagnostic fault codes that relate to the EGR circuit: n Short to ground n
Dead short n EGR valve position circuit fault A typical manufacturer diagnostic
routine to verify EGR PWM-actuated valve function would appear as follows: n
Check for multiple codes: when other engine codes are logged, these should be
solved first

1. Disconnect the EGR valve electrical connector: check for pin damage and
corrosion and repair as necessary.
2. Reconnect the EGR valve electrical connector. Key on, engine off (KOEF):
use the manufacturer software to monitor the EGR valve’s actual position.
3. If it reads less than the specified KOEF position (usually expressed as a
percentage): command the EGR PW to step to 50 percent. If it fails to
move to within 5 percent of the input 50 percent, the EGR valve is
defective and should be replaced. If it moves within 5 percent of the
requested 50 percent, next command it to move to 100 percent PW. In
this position, actual valve position should be at 95 percent or higher. If it
is not, replace the valve. If it is:
4. Remove the EGR valve and check for physical damage and carbon/sludge
build-up. Either condition requires the valve to be replaced, but in the
case of carbon/sludge build-up, check the EGR cooler for internal failure,
which can result in coolant leakage and sludge build-up. Figure 15-8
shows a Ford EGR pressure tester used to test EGR heat exchanger
coolant leaks.
Manifold Boost Problems
5. When manifold boost is either too high or too low, engine performance
complaints results. Common causes of lower-than-specified manifold
boost are:
a) Air system restriction upstream or downstream from turbocharger
impeller
b) Air leakage downstream from turbocharger impeller
c) Low fuel delivery
d) Mismatched turbocharger
6. Low-grade fuel: fuel with a low Cetane Number (caused by additive
contamination, prolonged storage etc.) will extend the ignition lag phase.
This results in excess fuel in the cylinder at the time of ignition, rapid
pressure-rise and detonation. Analyze the fuel quality using the fuel
supplier/refiner’s recommended procedure.

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 7. Fueling out of balance: a maladjusted rocker over an EUI can produce
combustion knock. Check overhead adjustment. Check individual EUI
rockers for binding.
8. Fuel Pump/Injector Scuffing
Fuel injector pump plunger scuffing has become a problem in recent years
in part due to the lower lubricity of Low Sulphur and the current Utra-Low
Sulphur diesel fuels, and excessive addition of alcohol into fuel. Surface
scuffing of the pump plungers can be difficult to diagnose, especially
when the surface scuffing is minor. This type of failure is not common,
but when it appears, it is usually found on PLN, EUI, HEUI, and EUP high-
pressure pump plungers. Its causes are water in the fuel or low-lubricity
fuel. To overcome the problem, some manufacturers coat both the
plunger and barrel assembly of high-pressure fuel injectors with tungsten
vehiclebide. The symptoms of fuel injector scuffing are:
a) Low power: results from severe scuffing.
b) Slight engine misfiring: most notable at low-load operation.
9. Common causes of higher-than-specified manifold boost are as follows: n
Mismatched turbocharger n Sticking vane ring on VGT turbos n
Excessively high inlet air temperatures n Deposits on turbine volute or
nozzle n Overfueling caused by governor or by calibration programming n
Advanced fuel injection timing DPF Malfunctions DPF malfunctions are
characterized by one or more of the following: n Black smoke emission n
DPF collects excessive soot n DPF is restricted n DPF temperatures are
high Begin troubleshooting a DPF malfunction by inspecting it externally
for indications of dents or cracks. Remove the DPF and check for
indications of fuel or engine oil. If fuel is present, perform a cylinder
balance test to identify a defective injector. Check cylinder exhaust tracts
with an infrared gun; look for an exhaust tract variable of greater than 10
percent. If oil is present, check the turbocharger(s) for oil leakage. Note
that any problem upstream in the engine breathing circuit can produce
excessive soot loads and black smoke. Pay special attention to the venturi
for the EGR system, EGR mixing valves, and the aftercooler. DPF
Restriction. The engine management electronics are designed to respond
to DPF restriction caused by excessive soot dump by logging fault codes
and power derate strategies. This type of malfunction can be caused by
operating the vehicle for prolonged periods when passive regeneration
cycles are inhibited either by the driver or by the mode of operation. Most
have a threshold that once exceeded requires an active regeneration cycle
to be commanded. In some cases, when the soot load threshold has been
exceeded by a considerable margin (say 200 percent), a factory password
may have to be downloaded to clear the code and derate condition. DPF
Differential Pressure Problems. DPF high differential pressure problems
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 are usually caused by a build-up of soot or ash in the particulate trap. The
appropriate repair strategy is to command an active regeneration cycle if
this is still possible. If not, the unit must be either laundered on-chassis or
removed and replaced, depending on manufacturer. Low differential
pressure is usually caused by a failure of the tubing between the
10. particulate trap and the pressure differential sensor. Check this circuit and
replace components as necessary. High DPF Intake Temperatures. High
DPF intake temperatures can be caused by a range of engine circuits
upstream from the DPF, including: n Restricted boost air heat exchanger
n Air inlet restriction n Exhaust restriction n High-altitude operation n Over
fueling n Low coolant level In every case, to troubleshoot high DPF intake
temperatures, check for any active and historical codes: in most cases,
high DPF intake temperatures are not sourced in the DPF, although an
exhaust restriction downstream from the aftertreatment canister could
cause this condition. Mechanical Engine Knock n Bottom end knock:
produces an easily recognizable low-frequency thump. The cause is big
end or connecting rod journal bearing failure, a condition that rapidly
develops into a crankshaft failure if not attended to. Replace the bearings
and thoroughly inspect and measure the throw journals. n Failed
crankshaft: diagnose the problem in chassis by visual inspection of
journals and their bearings and the critical crankshaft stress points. n
Damaged gears: often identified by a high-frequency whine. Remove the
timing gear cover and replace failed components, remembering that
debris from the failure may have been pumped through the entire
lubrication circuit. n Failure of feedback circuit component: check rocker
trains and camshaft. Repair components as required, once again
remembering that debris from the failure may have been pumped through
the entire lubrication circuit. Combustion Knock This is sometimes known
as diesel knock. If the noise is rhythmic, it may be that it is being
produced from one engine cylinder, which may be verified by comparing
cylinder temperatures with an infrared thermometer. Some causes and
solutions: n Fuel injection timing: usually produces erratic knock,
amplified at higher loads and rpms. Check fuel injection timing to
specification. n Air in fuel: usually accompanied by white smoke emission.
Check for air admission on the suction side of the fuel subsystem.
Low-grade fuel: fuel with a low CN (caused by additive contamination,
prolonged storage, nonhighway ASTM grade, etc.) will extend the ignition
lag phase. This results in excess fuel in the cylinder at the time of ignition,
rapid pressure rise and detonation. Analyze the fuel quality using the fuel
supplier/refiner’s recommended procedure. n Fueling out of balance: a
maladjusted rocker over an EUI (VW prior to 2010) can produce
combustion knock. Check overhead adjustment. Check individual EUI
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 rockers for binding. Fuel Pump/Injector Scuffing Fuel injector pump
plunger scuffing has become a problem in recent years in part due to the
lower lubricity of LS and the current ULS diesel fuels, and excessive
addition of alcohol into fuel. Surface scuffing of the pump plungers can be
difficult to diagnose, especially when the surface scuffing is minor. This
type of failure is not common, but when it appears, it is usually found on
PLN, EUI, HEUI, and EUP high pressure pump plungers. Its causes are
water in the fuel (usually in solution with methyl hydrate alcohols allowing
it to pass through separators) or low-lubricity fuel. To overcome the
problem, some manufacturers coat both the plunger and barrel assembly
of high-pressure fuel injectors with tungsten vehiclebide. The symptoms
of fuel injector scuffing are: n Low power: results from severe scuffing. n
Slight engine miss: most notable at low-load operation.
n Misfire: again, most notable under low-load operation. n Smoking: some
high-load hazing evident when multiple injectors are affected. An
electronic cylinder balance test (aka cylinder contribution test [CCT]) can
sometimes identify an injector scuffing condition before it sets fault codes,
especially when using diagnostic software capable of graphing displays.
Severe cases are more likely in older electronic and hydromechanical
diesel engines that lack the diagnostic software capable of identifying the
condition. Tech Tip: Caution owners against adding excessive quantities
of methyl hydrate and diesel fuel conditioners to fuel tanks. Both form a
solution with any water present in the fuel tank, and the solution can
bypass water separators to enter the high-pressure fuel injection circuit,
where it causes the scuffing damage. QUICK REFERENCE DIAGNOSTIC
CHARTS The following sets of diagnostic charts (see Table 15-2 to Table
15-17) repeat some of the information we have already outlined and are
intended as a guideline to diagnose some typical problems. As much as
possible the approach is generic, but where it is not, the specific engine or
fuel system is referenced.

: SYMPTOM: ENGINE WILL NOT CRANK

Possible Cause Action

Discharged or dead Test battery. Charge or replace as required

batteries

Loose or corroded Identify location using voltage drop (VD)

terminals testing. Clean, tighten, or replace terminals.

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 High resistance in VD test cables: (1) Switch to starter. (2)
cranking circuit cables Battery to starter motor. Replace as required.

Defective starter Check operation using DMM. Repair as

motor or starter required.
solenoid

Defective key switch Test and repair as indicated by electronic

troubleshooting. Replacement switch may
require reprogramming

Seized engine Attempt to manually bar engine over through

two revolutions. Diagnose cause of seizure.

Wake-up circuit not Connect EST to the DDL. Verify communication

energized/activated or into the powertrain gateway.
not communicating
with powertrain data
bus

Driver door module Connect EST to the DDL. Verify communication

circuit not into the powertrain gateway and check
communicating with antitheft logic status
powertrain bus,
launching antitheft
strategy

SYMPTOM: ENGINE CRANKS, WILL NOT STAR

Possible Cause Action

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TROUBLESHOOTING TECHNIQUES TO IDENTIFY A PROBLEM

Introduction

When diagnosing and rebuilding engines, accurate specifications are important.

FIGURE 4.7 shows a listing of typical engine specifications. The Automotive Engine
Rebuilders Association (AERA) has a system called Prosis, covering over 6,500
engines, 36,000 casting numbers, and over 3,000 technical bulletins The system is
available on DVDs or on the Web at http://www.webprosis .com

This unit focuses on how to troubleshoot problems on a running engine. Also

discussed are some of the external causes of engine problems that can result in a
repeat of a previous engine failure, if allowed to continue unresolved. Internal
engine parts are shown here to illustrate some of the causes and results of these
problems.

It is very important that you diagnose the cause of a problem before performing a
repair. It is not unusual for technicians to spend many hours of work only to
discover that the repair was unnecessary.

Five major diagnosis areas are covered:

1. Possible reasons for oil consumption

2. Causes of rough running or a loss of engine power
3. Engine noises
4. Oil pressure problems
5. Cooling system problems
There are many causes of engine problems. Some are the result of normal wear and
tear or lack of maintenance. Engine problems also might be due to previous work on
the engine. Problems that appear to be engine related can also be caused by other
automotive specialty areas, such as the transmission or emission controls.
Sometimes a problem with a system causes an engine to fail. If the problem is not
taken vehiclee of, the failure will recur.

DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS BEFORE A REPAIR

An engine should be correctly diagnosed before disassembly for two reasons. It

should be determined that an overhaul is really necessary. The exact location of a
problem should be determined while the engine is running. A thorough discussion of

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the problem with the owner/driver of the vehicle is also helpful. Sometimes an
owner’s driving habits or maintenance procedures can be the cause of the problem.

OIL CONSUMPTION

Piston rings are usually the first thing a customer suspects when a vehicle starts to
use oil, even though oil can be lost through a variety of other conditions. Oil loss can
be due to either external leakage or internal oil consumption. Excessive internal oil
consumption can sometimes be spotted as an oily coating on the inside of the
exhaust pipe. Black soot at the exhaust pipe often indicates an overly rich air-fuel
mixture, not oil consumption. What Is Acceptable Oil Consumption? The rate of
normal oil consumption depends on such things as the size of the engine, the weight
and shape of the vehicle, the viscosity and service rating of the oil, engine rpm and
load during use, engine temperature, and the amount of oxidation and dilution of
the oil. Information about oil is covered in detail in Chapter 13. All manufacturers
have a level of acceptable oil consumption. For instance, one General Motors
technical service bulletin (TSB) states that the accepted rate of oil consumption is 1
quart (0.946 litre) in 2,000 miles (3,200 km). Oil consumption will be more if a
vehicle is “driven in an aggressive manner, at high RPM, high speeds, or is a truck
running under a loaded condition.” The TSB also states that oil level should be
checked when it is at the same temperature as when checked previously and the
engine has been off for at least 15 minutes. This will ensure that all of the oil in the
engine has had time to drip back down into the crankcase. Aggressive driving is
often associated with manual transmissions and means 3,000 rpm to red line with
frequent deceleration (engine braking). This can result in oil consumption of 1 quart
(0.946 L) in 500 miles (805 km). Under these driving conditions, this amount of oil
consumption is considered normal with no repair required. Trailer towing can also
increase oil consumption, especially at freeway speeds. According to the GM TSB
referenced earlier, new engines require a break-in period of at least 4,000 miles
(6,400 km) before testing oil consumption. An exception is allowed if the engine is
using more than a quart of oil in 1,000 miles (1,600 km). From time to time an
owner will complain of an occasional rapid oil loss. This might be a normal condition
that sometimes occurs after 1,000 or more miles of city driving followed by a
highway trip. City driving can result in extra fuel and water dilution in the oil. Before
leaving on a long vacation trip, the customer checks the oil and the dipstick registers
“full.” But when the diluted oil becomes thoroughly heated, evaporation of the
pollutants gives the appearance of rapid oil consumption as the oil level drops a
quart in a few hundred miles.

Bad Valve Guides or Seals

The cause of internal oil consumption is often worn valve guides or defective valve
guide seals. There might be exhaust smoke during deceleration because of oil

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leaking into the combustion chamber through the intake valve guides. Deceleration
causes very high engine vacuum, which pulls oil into the combustion chamber. A
spark plug that is oil fouled on only one side indicates leaking valve guide seals.
Carbon deposits on the necks of the intake valves are another indication (Figure
3.2). Look for carbon deposits when disassembling the cylinder head. Different types
of valve guide seals are described in detail in Chapter 7. Valve guide seals should
always be replaced during a valve job while the heads are disassembled. Chapter 7
includes a procedure for replacing valve guide seals without removing the heads
from the engine. Oil Consumption from Piston Rings When oil is consumed past
piston rings, one common cause on high-mileage engines is lack of ring tension
resulting from cylinder wall and ring wear. A record of poor engine oil maintenance
contributes greatly to an increased wear factor. An engine that suffers from a lack of
regular oil changes will often have plugged oil control rings (Figure 3.3). The piston’s
oil-control rings need to be able to scrape oil from the cylinder walls and return it to
the crankcase through the underside of the piston (Figure 3.4)

Oil Consumption from Worn Compression Rings Combustion pressure leaks past the
piston rings when compression rings become worn, resulting in higher pressure in
the crankcase. Remember from Chapter 1 that this is called blowby (see Figure
1.11). During the intake stroke, there is higher engine vacuum in the cylinder above
the piston, but there is also higher pressure in the crankcase below the piston rings.
Therefore, oil takes the path of least resistance and migrates up the cylinder wall
into the combustion chamber, resulting in oil consumption. In extreme cases,
exhaust smoke can be visible either during acceleration or deceleration. When
looking for the cause of excessive oil consumption, technicians will often do a
compression test (covered later in this chapter). Although this procedure might
locate worn or broken compression rings, it does not check the condition of oil
control rings. Injectors provide a window to conditions in the cylinder because they
extend into the combustion chamber.

Increased Oil Consumption after a Valve Job

Consider the condition of the entire engine before doing a valve job. If the rest of
the engine is worn, sometimes an engine starts to consume oil after a valve job. The
valve job increases compression, but it also increases engine vacuum. This can
result in more oil being sucked past the worn piston rings into the combustion
chamber. When cylinder heads are removed for a valve job, look at the tops of the
pistons to see if oil consumption might be caused by worn or stuck piston rings (see
Figure 4.99). Excessive Rod Bearing Clearance A high-mileage engine will probably
have worn crankshaft bearings. Excessive bearing-to-crankshaft journal oil clearance
can result in low oil pressure at idle. Oil consumption can increase at higher engine
rpm as oil leaks out between the connecting rod journal and the rod bearing. At
higher engine speeds, this can result in too much oil being thrown onto the cylinder

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walls, overwhelming the oil rings, which cannot return all of the oil to the crankcase
(Figure 3.6). Whatever oil enters the combustion chamber Even with normal rod
bearing clearance, high-speed driving can cause increased oil consumption due to
extra oil thrown from the rods. In one test, an engine run at 70 mph used seven
times the oil that it used at 40 mph.

Incorrect Engine Oil Dipstick

It is especially important to make sure that the correct oil dipstick is used after an
engine change or short block installation. Manufacturers sometimes install the same
engine in different vehicle models. Depending on the vehicle, the engine can be
equipped with a different oil pan, which sometimes requires a different length oil
dipstick. Excessive oil consumption can result from too short a dipstick. Every time
the owner mistakenly adds a quart of oil to the crankcase, the crankshaft throws the
oil on the cylinder walls and the overfull engine burns off the excess. Plugged
Cylinder Head Drain-back Holes Cylinder heads have passages to allow oil to return
to the sump in the oil pan (Figure 3.7a). When engine oil has not been changed
often enough, thick sludge can plug the oil return holes in the cylinder head. These
drain-back holes allow rocker arm oil to return to the crankcase. The problem can be
temporarily solved by cleaning out the holes, but it is a symptom of a poorly
maintained engine and major service will soon be needed. The oil remains in the
valve cover area instead of returning to the crankcase; it floods the valve guide,
making the valve stem seal ineffective Leaking V-Type Intake Manifold Gasket Intake
manifold vacuum can draw oil into the intake ports from the lifter-valley area under
some intake manifolds (Figure 3.8). This is a tough problem to find. A smoke test is
a good way of finding an intake manifold leak. A cranking vacuum is another way to
test for internal air leaks before the engine is disassembled. These procedures are
covered later in this chapter. When removing an intake manifold, always visually
inspect for the possibility of previous intake gasket leakage. V-type engines equipped
with an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve on the intake manifold often
experience oil-fouling of the spark plugs that are closest to the EGR valve. This is
caused when the intake manifold warps or the manifold gasket fails. Replace the
gasket with one designed for high-temperature applications.

Crankcase Pressure Normally, there is a slight vacuum in the crankcase. One

possible reason for excessive oil leakage is a positive crankcase ventilation (PCV)
valve that is plugged. This can cause pressure to build up in the crankcase at low
rpm. Crankcase pressure can result in increased internal oil consumption, too.

To see if the PCV valve is working properly: ■■ Pinch the line that leads to it, or
cover the end of the PCV valve with your thumb. ■■ With computer idle speed
adjust disabled, if the PCV valve is good, idle speed should drop. Blocking the flow of
air to the PCV valve enriches the air-fuel mixture.

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If the PCV system is to be effective, the entire crankcase must remain sealed. A
leaking or misplaced gasket can cause enough air leakage to result in failure of the
PCV system. This includes the timing cover, oil pan, valve cover gaskets, and
crankshaft seals. If the engine is not airtight, suction from the PCV valve will not
create sufficient vacuum in the crankcase. An oily air cleaner, or oil in the hose to
the air cleaner, often points to a crankcase pressure problem.

A ring seal tester can be used to test an engine’s amount of blowby. It measures
airflow out of the crankcase in cubic feet per minute (cfm). Normal airflow is about
5–8 cfm. Above 8 cfm indicates that the rings are not sealing properly. Unfiltered air
allows dirt to enter the engine, causing engine wear. This can result from leaking
vacuum hoses, vacuum control units, vacuum accessories, or manifold leaks. To
locate a leak in the PCV system: ■■ Seal the breather and PCV valve. ■■ Use a
smoke tester into the dipstick tube with a rubber-tipped blowgun (regulated to no
more than 2–3 psi). Listen for leaks, using a piece of hose or a stethoscope with the
metal end pulled off. A leak is often not readily apparent, especially at the top side
of a valve cover gasket or where the intake manifold meets the block at the front or
back. Oil might not leak out because of gravity and suction from the crankcase
vacuum of the PCV system.

OIL LEAKS

Oil that leaks through gaskets and seals is a common cause of oil consumption.
Besides the problem of an irritated customer with drops of oil on his or her garage
floor, oil leakage can result in serious engine damage. For instance, oil leaking onto
a timing belt might cause the belt to slip on its

Rear Crankshaft Seal Leaks

A rear main bearing seal leak can be identified when oil is found on the engine side
of the flywheel or torque converter. Oil on the opposite side indicates front
transmission seal leakage. Oil that has been sprayed in a circular pattern is also
indicative of a crankshaft seal leak. Most crankshaft seal leaks are caused by
excessive crankcase pressure. Oil leaks streaking down the block can be due to a
leaking oil gallery plug, cam plug, or seal retainer block. The block could also be
porous or cracked.

FUEL MIXTURE PROBLEMS

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Emission control and fuel system malfunctions sometimes mimic engine problems.
Occasionally, important items are neglected during an engine job. Larger engine
shops often employ specialists capable of diagnosing these complicated problems.

An air-fuel mixture that is too lean (too much air/too little fuel) can cause burned
internal engine parts. Oil/Fuel Wash An overly rich mixture (too much fuel/too little
air) can cause fuel wash or oil wash (when oil is washed from cylinder walls,
resulting in cylinder wall wear). Leaking fuel injectors can result in cylinder wall oil
wash, too. They can also cause intake valve deposits that will affect engine idle and
emissions. A bad vapor canister purge valve can also cause oil wash. When only one
side of a piston is worn, this is often due to oil wash. The worn side will be the
major thrust side.

Oxygen Sensor Problems Modern engines use oxygen sensors in the exhaust to
compare the oxygen content of the exhaust with that of the outside air. After a short
warm-up period, it gives the computer information to control the air-fuel mixture. If
the engine runs rough when cold but the problem goes away after a short warm-up,
the oxygen sensor could be masking an air leak. Check to see that the sensor is not
dirty. Dirt or undercoating can plug the sensor’s outside air intake port, affecting the
signal from the sensor. This can result in a richer than normal air-fuel mixture.

COMPRESSION LOSS

Compression loss, another reason for an engine overhaul, can be traced to two
causes: compression leaks and engine breathing problems. Compression Leaks
Compression can leak due to several causes:

1. a blown head gasket

Photo courtesy of Tim Gilles.

(Figure 3.10)
2. burned valves (Figure 3.11), worn or broken piston rings, a damaged piston
(Figure 3.12), or a broken valve spring (Figure 3.13).
3. When valve clearances are too tight the valves cannot seal against their
valve seats, resulting in a compression leak.
4. Tight valve clearances can result from wear to the valve faces (Figure 3.14)
or valve seats, either of which allows the valve stem tips to move deeper into
the cylinder heads. Closer valve clearance can also result when valves have
been adjusted incorrectly.
5. Exhaust leaks make noise at 1/2 crankshaft rpm.

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Breathing Problems

An engine that cannot breathe properly is suffocating and will not be able to develop
sufficient compression. Engine vacuum will drop off, further lowering compression.
Late valve timing can cause a breathing problem. This can be a subtle problem when
a dual overhead cam (DOHC) V-type engine has one camshaft sprocket installed in a
position that is one tooth off during a timing belt replacement. The owner might
complain that the engine lacks power that it earlier had when accelerating on a
freeway on-ramp. Valve timing can also become retarded (late) when a timing chain
becomes so worn that it skips a tooth. If the timing chain has skipped and valve
timing is retarded, suction will be felt at the exhaust pipe. This happens because the
exhaust valve is still open during the piston’s intake stroke. Breathing problems can
also be traced to carbon build-up around the neck of the valve (Figure 3.16) or to
restrictions such as a dirty air cleaner or a blocked exhaust. Catalytic converters in
the exhaust system can become plugged after running for a prolonged period with
an ignition system defect. A rich air-fuel mixture can also cause a converter to plug
when it overheats and melts internally. OBD II vehicles (later than 1996) will go into
limp-in mode when the computer senses a catalyst-damaging misfire. An exhaust
restriction can also cause an automatic transmission to shift harshly or late due to
the resulting faulty vacuum signal or increased throttle pressure in the transmission.
Exhaust backpressure can be tested using a fuel pump vacuum/pressure tester
connected to the smog pump lines into the exhaust manifold, or an adapter can be
substituted for the EGR valve. Removing the oxygen sensor to perform the test can
give an inaccurate reading due to a Venturi effect in the exhaust system.
Specifications vary among manufacturers. As a general rule, pressure should not
exceed 1.75 psi at wide-open throttle (WOT) under full load. Breathing problems can
also be found using a vacuum gauge.

ENGINE NOISES

Noises can be located by listening through a stethoscope (Figure 3.43). The end of
a large screwdriver, a piece of hose, and a long wooden dowel are other listening
tools to help pinpoint noises. An amplified stethoscope is very effective as well
(Figure 3.44).

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 Or

It is important to try to determine the location of noises before disassembling the

engine. There have been cases where engines have been disassembled, inspected,
and rebuilt, and when reinstalled in the vehicle, still had the same problem.
Pinpointing the origin of the noise might have resulted in more vehicleeful scrutiny of
the offending part while the engine was apart.

Accessory Noises Noises are often transmitted from their origins to other locations
and can be difficult to locate. Accessories often cause noises that can be mistaken
for other problems. Be sure to check alternators, smog pumps, air-conditioning
compressors, and coolant pumps carefully. Belts are a common source of noise. If
you suspect a belt of making noise, disconnect the belt and run the engine for a
short time, or spray soapy water on the belt while the engine runs to see if the noise
changes. A fan clutch on the coolant pump can cause a serious-sounding noise that
is hard to pinpoint. A stethoscope cannot be used to listen to the noise because the
fan is spinning when the engine runs. Sometimes the extra looseness in the fan
clutch can be felt when the engine is off. To isolate the problem, remove the drive
belt and run the engine.

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Crankshaft Noises Crankshaft noises can be caused by a variety of things. They are
generally deeper in pitch than other engine noises. It is important to isolate the
source of the noise so that an accurate diagnosis can be made. ■■ Front Main
Bearing Knock. Excessive front main bearing clearance results in a heavy knock
when the engine warms up. The knock is generally most pronounced at 1,500–2,500
rpm. Loosening accessory drive belts will often reduce the intensity of the knock

Thrust Bearing Knock.

End thrust is movement of the crankshaft in a forward and backward direction (see
Chapter 11). The crankshaft has a machined surface that controls end thrust. It can
be worn, allowing the crank to move back and forth. Excessive end thrust will cause
a clunk to happen when the vehicle leaves a stop sign. This is usually more
pronounced on vehicles with standard transmissions. ■■ Rod Knock. Excessive
clearance at a connecting rod journal causes a rod knock. During a cylinder power
balance test, the intensity of the knock will diminish, or disappear altogether, as the
offending cylinder’s spark plug is grounded out. This condition is sometimes
accompanied by low oil pressure, especially at idle.

Related Noises.

A loose flywheel, torque converter, or vibration damper can cause a very serious-
sounding noise. Torque converter flexplates sometimes crack, causing a serious-
sounding sharp knock. To test for this: ■■ Run the engine at fast idle about 2,000
rpm. ■■ Turn the key off and then on, listening for a knock as the engine restarts.
■■ Shut off the engine and use an inspection mirror (Figure 3.45) to look for a crack
in the flexplate. A broken flexplate often results from misalignment with the engine,
either sideways or in height. Sideways misalignment can be caused by uneven
mounting of the flexplate to the crankshaft or by dirt or a burr between the engine
and the transmission. When access is available from the bottom, an effective test for
height misalignment is to use a dial indicator mounted to the crankshaft. Rotate the
crankshaft to sweep the indicator against the bore where the automatic transmission
pump mounts. A machinist can correct this using eccentric sleeves that fit over the
alignment dowels. The transmission housing is drilled oversize to match. Bent Oil
Pan. A bent oil pan can cause a deep sound when the connecting rod hits the
dented spot. Complete engines can weigh several hundred pounds. It is not
uncommon for engine sheet metal, such as an oil pan or valve cover, to become
dented when the engine is removed or replaced in the vehicle. Connecting Rod Side
Clearance. Excessive clearance on the sides of connecting rods can sometimes cause
a ticking sound that resembles a valvetrain noise but comes from the crankcase. The
noise can go away during a power balance test. To correct this problem, General
Motors used to supply connecting rods that were 0.010 inch wider than stock for a
few engines. Spark knock (discussed later in this chapter) can intensify noise caused

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by excessive rod side clearance. EGR Valve Knock. When there is a low-speed knock,
check the EGR valve by manually opening the valve and accelerating the engine to
about 2,000 rpm to see if the noise disappears. If it does, replace the EGR valve.

Piston Noises

There are several types of piston noise, including cracked pistons, piston slap, piston
pin noise, and others.

Cracked Piston.

A cracked piston is sometimes the source of noise (Figure 3.47).

FIGURE 3.47 A cracked piston

The noise is a higher-pitched noise than a crank related noise and can be confused
with a valvetrain noise, except that it occurs at a faster rate. ■■ Cracked pistons are
often the result of a broken timing chain or incorrect valve timing, which can allow a
valve to strike a piston (see explanation on interference engines in Chapter 9).
Piston Slap. Piston slap is caused by excessive clearance between the piston skirt
and the cylinder wall. ■■ Sometimes the noise gets louder during acceleration and
goes away when the engine warms up. ■■ Piston slap at TDC and BDC causes oval
wear as the piston rings scrub the sides of the cylinder. ■■ Look for worn or
collapsed piston skirts when excess oval cylinder wall wear is found. Piston Pin
Noise. Noise from excessive piston pin clearance makes a “double click” sound at
idle or fast idle that usually diminishes or goes away when the engine warms up. ■■
Pin noise can become more intense after the installation of new piston rings. The
noise will gradually diminish as the rings wear.

■■With the engine running at the speed where the most noise occurs, crack the
injector union, the noise level might not increase, but it will not decrease. Piston
inertia is what causes the noise, which is why the noise does not go away when the
fuel supp[y is cut off.

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Other Piston Sounds.

A broken ring can rattle during acceleration.

Valvetrain Noises

Valvetrain noises are the most common engine noises, making a loud “ticking”
sound. Pushing with your finger placed on the valve spring retainer while the engine
idles will produce a shock each time the loose valve hits its seat,

Valvetrain noises can result from a variety of sources. ■■ Excessive Valve Stem-to-
Guide Clearance. Noise from excessive valve stem-to-guide clearance can be
pinpointed with the engine running. Squirt oil on the suspected guide to take up the
clearance and stop the noise. ■■ Sticking Valve. A sticking intake valve can result in
a popping noise at the throttle plate as burning gases escape into the intake
manifold past the valve■ Worn Cam Lobe. When an engine has a smooth idle but
runs rough under acceleration, “popping back” through the intake valve, this can
often be traced to an exhaust lobe on the cam that has “gone flat.” Pressure builds
up on the power stroke and cannot escape during the exhaust stroke, so it goes
back up the intake port. The lobe can go bad fairly quickly once it starts to wear, so
the condition seems to occur overnight.

■ Timing Components. Valvetrain noises coming from inside the timing cover can be
caused by a bad timing chain or chain guide (Figure 3.48a) or a loose sprocket or
gear. The noise usually is a rattle or knock that becomes louder when decelerating.
For engines with a timing chain tensioner, a worn chain can become loose enough
on the sprocket to rattle whenever the engine floats or cruises between load and
coast conditions. In severe cases, a chain can actually wear a hole in the timing
cover, resulting in an oil leak (Figure 3.48b). Severely worn cam bearings can also
be the cause of excessive timing chain slack. Depending on the design of the
lubrication system, this problem can also be accompanied by low oil pressure at idle.
■■ Excessive Valve Lash. When an engine has adjustable mechanical valve lash
clearance, excessive valve lash can occur due to wear between valvetrain parts.
Periodic valve adjustment is part of the service requirements on these engines.

Lifter Noise.

A common valve noise is caused by a noisy valve lifter. Sometimes this occurs when
the engine is first started because some lifters have lost their oil while the engine
was off. Whenever an engine is shut off, some of the valves are held open, putting
spring pressure on lifters to bleed them down after start-up. When pressurized oil
reaches the lifter, the noise goes away. This is considered normal if the noise goes
away in less than 15 seconds. Some other lifter noises and their causes are as
follows: ■■ Intermittent noise at idle or low speed. This can often be traced to dirt

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or wear in the lifter check valve (see Chapter 9). ■■ Noise at idle that goes away at
higher speeds. This usually indicates excessive wear between the lifter body and its
plunger. This noise could also be caused by low oil pressure or oil that is
contaminated with fuel. ■■ Quiet at idle but noisy at high speed. The oil could be full
of air. This occurs when the oil level is so high that the crank whips the oil, filling it
with air. It could also happen because there is air leaking into the suction side of the
oil pump (see Chapter 13). lowing: ■■ Dirt or varnish build-up inside the lifter ■■
Worn parts such as worn rocker arms or a cam lobe that is going flat ■■ An
insufficient oil supply ■■ Oil too thin ■■ Oil pressure too low

Broken Engine Mount

The engine is attached to the frame with a rubber and metal engine mount, often
called a motor mount. Some of the results of a broken engine mount (Figure 3.58)
include vibrations, a sticking throttle and/or shift linkages, a torn radiator hose,
interference between the fan and radiator, and broken electrical cables or ground
straps from the engine to the firewall or frame. A typical symptom of a bad engine
mount is a vibration that occurs in Drive, but not in Reverse. Late-model engine
mounts are designed with safety provisions so that even when they fail, the engine
will still be restrained. To check for a broken engine mount, have another person put
the transmission in both forward and reverse while keeping the vehicle braked. This
will cause the engine to lift on one side and then on the other.

OIL PRESSURE PROBLEMS

Although oil pressure can be too low or too high, low oil pressure is far more
common. Engines with advancing mileage begin to use oil between oil changes.
When people neglect to check the engine’s oil level at each fill-up, the oil level can
drop too low, causing major engine damage. Usually the first thing to happen is
lower main bearing wear (Figure 3.59). After this happens, oil pressure will remain
permanently low at idle speed but may be acceptable at higher rpm. Low Oil
Pressure Low oil pressure can ruin an otherwise good engine in a short time. A faulty
oil pressure sending unit is sometimes the cause of a low oil pressure reading on an
electric dash gauge or light

■ Test the gauge by grounding the wire that leads to the sending unit on the block.
When the wire is grounded with the key switch on, the gauge should show full oil
pressure, or the light should go on. If either happens, the gauge is good and the
sending unit is at fault. ■■ Pressure can be tested by temporarily installing a gauge
in place of the sending unit (Figure 3.60a). Use an oil sending unit socket to remove
the sender (Figure 3.60b) because pliers can damage it. The oil pump can also
cause low oil pressure. It might be worn excessively, or have a sticking relief valve.
The intake screen can be loose or partially plugged, or the pump body could be
loose on the block.
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High Oil Pressure

A rare condition is when an engine has oil pressure that is too high. This can lead to
oil consumption, bearing material being washed from the bearings, or a bursting oil
filter. The problem can be caused by a stuck pressure relief valve in the oil pump or
by a severe blockage in an oil gallery near the cam or crank (close to the oil pump).
In either case, the oil pump relief valve would be unable to bypass enough oil at
high speeds. Oil problems and the process for checking oil pressure are covered in
detail in Chapter 13.

COOLING SYSTEM PROBLEMS

Cooling systems are sometimes neglected. When a customer spends a great deal of
money on an engine rebuild, he or she will not be getting a complete repair if the
cooling system is not put in like-new condition, too. Radiators are sometimes
restricted or rotten. If a radiator cannot conduct enough heat to the surrounding air,
the engine will overheat at freeway speeds. Water jackets sometimes have mineral
and scale buildup. If the engine is removed from the vehicle for a rebuild, the block
will probably be hot tanked or cleaned in a bake oven. Acid cleaning by a specialty
shop is required for scale removal. Chapter 5 covers engine cleaning in detail.
Internal and External Cooling System Leakage Steam from the exhaust is a normal
condition in the morning. Excessive coolant from the exhaust can be caused by a
crack in the combustion chamber or a head gasket leak. Internal leaks can happen
in the following locations: ■■ In the coolant-crossover passage of the intake
manifold on most V-type engines ■■ In threaded plugs in cylinder heads ■■ In
combustion areas like the head gasket (Figure 3.61) ■■ In a cracked head or block
When coolant has been leaking into a combustion chamber, this can be spotted
easily during engine disassembly. A small amount of carbon is normal in a
combustion chamber. The cylinder with the leak will not have any carbon in it
(Figure 3.62). Internal leaks are diagnosed using the block tester, pressure tester, or
infrared analyzer.

Checking for cracks after disassembly is covered in Chapter 7. Coolant leaking into
the crankcase will contaminate the oil (Figure 3.63). This is called cross fluid
contamination. The condition will be evident when a valve cover or an oil filler cap is
removed (Figure 3.64)

An internal coolant leak can occur when a loose timing chain wears a hole in the
inside of a timing cover that has the coolant pump mounted to it. Another problem
resulting from an internal leak is when an oxygen sensor fails due to silicate
contamination coating the sensor. Silicates are part of the additive package of some
coolants. A similar problem can result when the wrong type of silicone RTV sealant is
used (see Chapter 15). When there is a crack or a head gasket leak, sometimes
pressurized coolant can leak when the engine is shut off, filling a cylinder, and
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resulting in hydro-lock. If both of that cylinder’s valves are closed, the engine will
not be able to turn completely over when cranked. If the spark plugs are removed,
the engine will be able to turn over with coolant pouring out of the offending plug
hole.

When a leak occurs between oil and coolant passageways, pressurized oil
(approximately 30 psi) will force its way into the cooling system (approximately15
psi) (Figure 3.65). The engine will overheat and pour a messy oil and water mixture
from the radiator overflow. Beneath an OHC camshaft, there is a trough that
provides clearance for the camshaft. Because oil collects in this trough, should this
area become cracked, the oil will be sucked into the cooling system as the engine
cools. Cross fluid contamination can also occur when there is a leaking automatic
transmission cooler. The transmission will fill with coolant when the engine is turned
off and ATF will leak into the coolant when the engine is running. A cooling system
pressure test can be used to pinpoint a leak in an automatic transmission heat
exchanger.

Exhaust Gas in the Coolant.

A leaking head gasket will not always be evident using a cooling system pressure
tester. Another means of testing for leakage of exhaust gas into the cooling system
is the combustion leak tester, also called block check tester, shown in Figure 3.68.
The tester samples air in the filler neck of the radiator. ■■ Unlike the pressure
tester, the combustion leak tester is used with the engine running. ■■ Carbon
monoxide (CO) exhaust gas in the radiator will change the colour of the liquid in the
tester. ■ CO is a by-product of combustion, so the tester will not work if the leaking
cylinder’s spark plug is not firing. ■■ If compression is too low or if coolant entering
the cylinder causes the plug not to fire, the tester will not give a reading. ■■ The
block check tester can sometimes give a false reading with coolant. It works best on
pure water.

Seized Engine

When a starter motor will not crank the engine over and the crankshaft cannot be
turned with a socket and breaker bar, loosen all accessory drive belts. A frozen smog
pump, power steering pump, water pump, or other belt-driven accessory can
actually keep an engine from turning over. The overheated drive belt can melt and
stick to the pulley when the engine is shut off. If the engine will not turn in either
direction with the belts loose, the cause could be coolant thermoplastic seizure (or
other serious engine damage, such as piston seizure, seized bearings, a broken
crank, or a seized rod or valve. The problem could also be a broken starter motor or
housing or seized torque convertor

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Turbocharger fault diagnosis

Excessive oil consumption, blue or white exhaust smoke

Symptom Probable cause Corrective actions

Condition may be 1. High restriction in the Clean or replace filter

accompanied by oil stains air inlet element. Repair turbo.
in the in-let and/or outlet 2. Worn turbocharger
seal possibly
ducting, or, in extreme
associated with
cases, by oil drips from bearing failure
the turbocharger housing and/or wheel
imbalance

Engine lacks power, black smoke in exhaust

1. Insufficient boost 1. Clogged air filter Clean or replace

pressure; element. element
compressor wheel 2. Restriction in air
coasts to a smooth intake. Remove restriction
stop when engine 3. Air leak downstream
is shut down; turns of compressor
easily by hand 4. Insufficient exhaust
gas energy:
 Exhaust leaks
Repair leak.
upstream of
turbocharger Remove restriction
 Exhaust
restriction
down-stream
of
turbocharger.

2. Insufficient boost 1. Carbon Disassemble, clean

pressure; accumulations on turbocharger and
compressor wheel turbine-shaft oil change oil and filter
does not turn or seats
judders during 2. Bearing failure,
coast down; drags traceable to:
or binds when  Normal wear. Rebuild turbo.
turned by hand.
 Insufficient Rebuild turbo. Inspect
oil. oil supply/return circuit
and repair a necessary
to restore full flow.
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 Change engine oil and
filter

Rebuild turbo. Clean oil

cooler (if fitted);
 Excessive oil
temp change engine oil and
filter. Monitor oil temp.

Rebuild and balance

 Turbo rotating turbo.
assembly out
of balance. Rebuild turbo. Train
operators. A pre-lube
 Bad operating system may extend
practices turbo life in harsh
application of
operating
full throttle
environments.
upon start-up
and/or hot
shutdown.
Rebuild turbo.
Determine cause of
failure and correct
3. Rotating assembly
makes rubbing
contact with case. Rebuild turbo. Inspect
Leading causes are: air cleaner

 Bearing
failure Rebuild turbo.

 Entry of
foreign matter
Turbo rpm is a function
into
compressor of exhaust gas
temperature (engine
 Excessive load). Check air filter
turbo speed. for restrictions, bar over
engine to verify that
crankshaft rotates
freely. If necessary,

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 adjust governor to
reduce engine power
output

Repair turbo, review-

service procedures.

 Improper
assembly.
Abnormal turbocharger lag

1. Engine power Carbon build-up on Disassemble and clean

output exhibits a compressor wheel and turbo
pronounced “flat housing.
spot” during
acceleration. Fuel
system appears to
function normally.
Unusual noise or vibration

1. “Chuffing” noise, 1. Surging caused by Disassemble and clean

often most restriction at turbo.
pronounced during compressor
acceleration. discharge nozzle.

2. Knocking or squeal 1. Rotating elements in Replace or rebuild turbo

contact with housing
because of bearing
failure or impact
damage.
1. Loose turbocharger Tighten
mounts
2. Rotating elements in Replace or rebuild
contact with housing turbo.

3. Speed-sensitive 3. Severe turbine shaft Rebuild and balance

imbalance

Overheating problems and causes

Problem Possible causes

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 Low coolant level External leaks at hoses, radiator, and
radiator cap Internal leaks at head
gasket, cylinder head, aftercooler,
torque-converter cooler, etc

Low heat transfer Clogged radiator Scale accumulations in

water jacket Marine growth on keel
cooler or insufficient flow of raw water
through heat exchanger

Insufficient coolant flow Thermostat stuck closed Loose water-

pump belts Water-pump failure Clogged
radiator core

Insufficient coolant pressure Failed radiator pressure cap Failed

coolant-pressure relief valve (when
fitted)

Coolant overflow Combustion gases entering system—

loose or cracked cylinder head, leaks at
head gasket, pre-combustion chamber,
cylinder liner Entrapped air in cooling
system

Insufficient air flow through radiator Low or no fan speed—electric or

hydraulic fan drive failure loose belts,
worn pulleys Fan installed backwards
Shutter not opening Shrouding not
installed properly

High inlet air temperature or restriction Clogged air cleaner

Clogged aftercooler Turbocharger

failure

Exhaust restriction Turbocharger failure Water in muffler or

loose muffler baffle Clogged particulate
trap/catalytic converter (when fitted)

DIAGNOSIS BY EXHAUST SMOKE COLOUR

Symptom Probable cause Remedial action

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 Black or dark grey smoke

Smokes under load, Injector pump timing Set timing.

especially at high and retarded
medium speed. Engine
quieter than normal

Smokes under load, Injector pump timing Set timing.

especially at low and advanced
medium speed. Engine
noisier than normal.

Smokes under load at all Weak cylinder Repair engine.

speeds, but most compression.
apparent at low and
medium speeds. Engine
may be difficult to start

Smokes under load, Restricted air cleaner. Clean/replace air filter

especially at high speed. element.

Smokes under load, Turbocharger Check boost pressure.

noticeable loss of power. malfunction.

Smokes under load, Dirty injector, nozzle(s). Clean/replace injectors

especially at high and
medium speeds. Power
may be down.

Smokes under load, Clogged/restricted fuel Clean/replace fuel lines.

especially at low and lines.
medium speeds. Power
may be down.

Puffs of black smoke, Sticking injectors. Repair/replace injectors.

sometimes with blue or
white component. Engine
may knock.

Blue, blue-grey, or grey-white smoke

Whitish or blue smoke at Injector pump timing Set timing.

high speed and light load, retarded.
especially when engine is
cold. As temperature

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 rises, smoke colour
changes to black. Power
loss across the rpm band,
especially at full throttle.

Whitish or blue smoke Leaking injector(s). Repair/replace injector(s).

under light load after
engine reaches operating
temperature. Knocking
may be present.

Blue smoke under Leaking valve seals. Replace seals, check

acceleration after valve guides/stems.
prolonged period at idle.
Smoke may disappear
under steady throttle.

Persistent blue smoke at Worn rings/cylinders. Overhaul/rebuild engine

all speeds, loads and
operating temperatures

Light blue or whitish Over-cooling. Replace thermostat.

smoke at high speed
under light load. Pungent
odour.

FAILURE ANALYSIS TO RECTIFY THE PROBLEM

INTERPRETING OIL ANALYSES

Oil analysis is the best index of wear. Oil analysis can predict engine failure with
some Oil sample undergoes spectroscopic analysis to identify 16 or more elements
with an accuracy of within one part per million. Bearing wear shows up as lead,
silver, tin, and aluminum; liner and ring wear as iron and chromium; valve wear as
nickel; and bushings as copper. Silicon and aluminum particles suggest air filter
failure.

Benefits of Oil Analysis

1. Oil analysis has become a key component of good preventative maintenance

(PM) practice. This is because it can save operators money. Performing the
analyses at each PM and responding appropriately to the lab reports is key to
making them cost-effective.

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 2. When used engine oil is analysed, the objective is to produce a report
vehicled on the rate of engine wear and the suitability of the oil change
interval to the application, and perhaps to identify a potential engine failure
before it becomes an actual failure

An oil analysis is performed to determine:

1. viscosity
2. presence of coolant
3. dirt contamination
4. abnormal wear contamination
The engine oil temperature should be close to operating temperature when drawing
a sample. Although Oil Testing Laboratories have guidelines on how to draw off oil
samples, they are not always easy to observe. Some laboratories recommend that
an oil sample syringe be ported directly into the main lube gallery being especially
vehicleeful to avoid dead zones. The engine oil should be at operating temperature
with the engine running before drawing the sample. However, in practice most oil
samples are taken from diesel engines during routine PM oil change operations while
draining oil from the engine. Avoid taking the sample from either the beginning or
end of the drain-off: midway through the runoff is preferred. Take precautions to
avoid burns from the oil while obtaining the sample by wearing insulated rubber
chemical-handling gloves. Also avoid contaminating the sample after it has been
taken. Label the container and complete the engine identification form that
accompanies the sample to the laboratory. If the objective of the sample is diagnosis
of a condition, you have no choice but to syringe the sample either from the oil pan
or a lubrication gallery. Again, the oil should be at running temperature when the
sample is drawn.

Methods of Testing

Oil-testing laboratories use blotter and spectrographic testing to produce reports that
reference the engine OEM limit specifications. A blotter test kit is available for
nonlaboratory testing of engine oil. A blotter test is a relatively crude means of
testing some of the oil’s characteristics

A change in the oil’s viscosity can be determined using a flow comparator. A

significant increase in the engine oil’s viscosity can be caused by prolonged high
temperature operation, aerated lubricant, extended service intervals, or coolant
contamination. A decrease in viscosity is normally attributable to fuel contamination.
All diesel engine oil is affected by a small amount of fuel contamination; however,
this should not be sufficient to cause any significant alteration in viscosity. Next, a
measured drop of used oil is dropped on a test paper or blotter. The darkness of the
sample relative to that on a code chart is used to indicate the amount of soot, dirt,

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and other suspended material in the sample. On some blotter test kits, the acidity
can also be read on the test paper by a change of colour. Laboratories perform more
comprehensive testing usually involving the use of spectrochemical analyses.

Spectrographic testing produces more specific results and is used to identify metallic
and organic contaminants in oil. A quantity of the sample is boiled off, and then
subjected to ultraviolet radiation. Contaminants are identified by the way they react
to the radiation. Oil sample analyses must be interpreted comparatively not only with
the OEM maximum specifications but also with the vehicle’s service application. They
are most meaningful when interpreted by a fleet equipped with identical engines in
units engaged in similar operating modes.

The following list includes some of the elements found on a typical oil analysis
report:

1. Al—aluminum. A constituent of many friction bearings, pistons, turbo impeller

housings, Roots blowers.
2. B—boron. An engine coolant SCA (supplemental cooling additive) and an
engine oil additive.
3. Cr—chromium. A common piston ring coating.
4. Cu—copper. A constituent of many oil cooler bundles, friction bearings,
engine bushings, and thrust washers. Copper levels tend to be higher when
an engine is new (100 ppm) and should drop down to lower levels (20 ppm)
after 100,000 miles (160,000 km).
5. Fe—iron. Most of the engine components are iron based alloys. High Fe
readings could be an indication of rapid wear on almost any engine
component exposed to the lube oil; engine cylinder and valvetrain
components should be suspected first.
6. Pb—lead. A constituent of most friction bearings.
7. Si—silicon. Silicon dioxide from airborne fine sands and dusts ingested by the
engine intake system often indicate malfunctioning air filter or intake ducting
leaks.
8. Silicon is a constituent of new engine oil in which it serves as an antifoam
agent, so the silicon level reported by the laboratory is corrected to read only
externally acquired silicon
9. Na—sodium. Found in some lubricants as an additive, so the laboratory
reading must be corrected to read acquired sodium. When the source is
other than the engine oil, the culprit is usually coolant SCAs.
10. Sn—tin. A constituent of most friction bearings and occasionally used to coat
pistons. Soot—also known as total solids. Soot is a form of fine carbon
particle, a combustion by-product that is not readily identifiable in routine lab
testing; in fact, some laboratories report total suspended particles as soot
level. Fuel soot is present in all engine oil. It can generally be regarded as

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 nonabrasive but in the presence of moisture may crystallize when it becomes
abrasive. Accumulated soot loads may increase the oil’s viscosity

UNIT A4.6 DESCRIBING THE FUNCTIONS AND OPERATION OF

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Describe transmission system

2. Explain construction and operation of Clutch system
3. Explain construction and operation of standard transmissions/gear box
4. Explain construction and operation of standard transmissions/gear box
5. Explain construction and operation of transfer case/drop box
6. Explain construction and operation of propeller shaft
7. Explain construction and operation of final drive/differential unit

DESCRIBE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

What is a transmission system?
This is the mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of the
vehicle to the driving wheels or implement connected to the engine.

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Introduction

Torque produced by the engine must reach the road wheels with minimum losses.
This torque flows through a series of components collectively known as the drive
train or transmission system. It should be noted that torque directly available from
the engine is not always strong enough for acceleration and hill climbing of the
motor vehicle. Some means must be employed to multiply the engine torque so that,
by the time it reaches the driving wheels, it is strong enough. One function of the
gearbox and transmission system is to provide a range of torque multipliers that
enable the engine to meet all the demands placed on it. The gearbox provides a
range of gear ratios to meet different driving conditions, the gearbox must provide a
neutral and a reverse gear. The basic gearbox meets these. The transmission system
should also provide the necessary speed reduction when required to do so. The
basic final drive assembly performs this function.

Functions of power transmission system

The transmission system performs the following functions:

1. to transmit power from the engine to the road wheels of the vehicle
2. to alter the ratio of wheel speed and engine speed in order to suit the road
and load conditions
3. to transmit power through right angle drive because the crankshaft and rear
axle are normally at right angles to each other in some vehicles.

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The power transmission system consists of:

(a) Clutch

(b) Transmission gears

(c) Differential

(d) Final drive

(e) Rear axle

(f) Rear wheels.

(g) transfer gearbox

Combination of all these components is responsible for transmission of power.

Describing transmission system

 Standard clutches
 Standard transmission/gearbox

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  Powershift transmission
 Transfer case/drop box
 Propeller shafts
Final drives/differentials

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF CLUTCH SYSTEM

CLUTCH

Introduction

A clutch is a component used to engage smoothly two shafts in relative motion, one
of which may be stationary, and to release them quickly or slowly at will. These
clutch assemblies can be manual (dry) clutches used in conjunction with manual
gearboxes or hydrokinetic (wet) clutches used in conjunction with powershift
transmissions.

The clutch is the first component in the drive train. It is located between the engine
and transmission. It is used to disconnect the gearbox during gear change. After
change it reconnects the gearbox to the engine. These clutch assemblies can be
diaphragm or multi-coil type and depend on friction for their operation.

PURPOSE

The purpose of fitting a clutch between the engine and gearbox of a vehicle is to
satisfy the following requirements:

1. To connect a running engine smoothly and gradually to the remainder of the

transmission system.
2. To permit gear changing when a vehicle is in motion.
3. To allow the engine to continue running when a vehicle is temporarily halted
in gear with the clutch pedal depressed to disengage drive.

Types of clutches

There two types of clutches:

1. Friction clutches
2. Hydrokinetic clutches

STANDARD CLUTCHES

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FRICTION (DRY) CLUTCHES

The clutch consists of the following components as shown in fig.9.1:

1. Flywheel
2. Clutch plate
3. Pressure plate
4. Operating mechanism

Fig.9 1 Automotive Clutch

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FIGURE 20SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH

Clutch Capacity

Clutch capacity is the amount of torque a clutch can transmit before it starts to slip.
Generally speaking, clutch capacity is affected by three factors:

1. coefficient of friction of the materials used in the clutch’s manufacture

2. surface area of the materials in contact
3. clamp load (the force that squeezes or pushes the components of the clutch
together).

Most clutches are manufactured with cast iron flywheels and pressure plates, which
have similarly rough surfaces at the microscopic level, so the coefficient of friction of
the cutch disc facing material is the important element here. The larger the surface
area of the components in contact with each other, the more torque that can be
transmitted. That is the reason that many clutches are manufactured with dual or
multiple friction discs. The clamp load is the next factor in clutch capacity. The
greater the force pushing or squeezing the clutch components together, the more
torque that the clutch can handle without slipping

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FIGURE 21 MULTI-PLATE CLUTCH

Their torque carrying capacity can be increased by:

1. Increasing the coefficient of friction

2. Increasing the size of contact surfaces
3. Increasing the number of friction plates
4. Increasing the size of springs.
5. Increasing the number of springs

Flywheel (driving member)

This part of the clutch is driven permanently by the engine crankshaft. It comprises
partly the engine flywheel and partly the clutch cover bolted to it. The non-engine
side of the flywheel supplies one of the unlined friction contact surfaces

THE DRIVEN MEMBER (CLUTCH PLATE)

Clutch Disc Assembly

Clutch Friction Discs Clutch friction discs are the only driven member of the clutch assembly. The
friction discs must transfer all of the engine torque to the driveline without slipping. Today’s clutch
discs must also absorb damaging engine torsional vibrations, cushion shock loads, and prevent gear
rattle at idle. The clutch disc must do all this for many years of machine operation. For those
reasons, the clutch discs can be thought of as the heart of the clutch. They are essential to successful
clutch operation. Different types of clutch discs contribute varying benefits to the clutch system. The
friction facings on the clutch discs come in two distinct categories: organic and ceramic. Both are
available in rigid and/or dampened disc styles. The dampened disc style provides vibration control

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This is commonly termed the centre plate because it is sandwiched between the
friction contact surfaces of the flywheel and the clutch pressure plate. The centre
plate is connected to the input or primary shaft of the gearbox by means of a splined
hub so that it can float between the separated contact surfaces of the flywheel face
and pressure plate when the clutch is disengaged. Each side of the centre plate is
faced with a ring of friction material, known as a clutch liner, which may be secured
by either riveting or bonding. Cushioning leaf springs may be provided between the
clutch liners and the centre plate to permit smooth, gradual engagement. Cushioning
devices acting in the rotational sense may also be incorporated at the hub
connection to the centre plate, their purpose being explained at a later stage

The Pressure plate

The pressure plate rotates permanently with the driving member, supplies the other
unlined friction contact surface, and conveys the clamping force of the clutch springs
to the driven member.

Types and Design of Clutches

As mentioned earlier in this unit, there are many types of clutches used in heavy
equipment applications. Automotive dry friction clutches are now almost obsolete in
new off-road machines. These have given way to torque converters, which can be

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used to engage and disengage the driveline. However, the automotive dry friction
clutch, as can be seen in FIGURE 43-3, is still used in a few applications.

The automotive dry friction type of clutch consists of:

1. two or more driving components (the flywheel and the pressure plate)-which
transmit torque to one or more driven friction discs attached to the
transmission input shaft or the components to be driven.
2. The flywheel is a heavy, round metal disc bolted to the end of the engine
crankshaft. It provides one of the friction surfaces for the clutch disc(s).
3. The clutch cover is the outside part of the clutch typically bolted to the
flywheel and which holds all of the other clutch components, except the
clutch disc. It is mistakenly, but commonly, called the pressure plate. The
pressure plate is actually contained inside the clutch cover.
4. The pressure plate is the friction surface in the clutch cover that squeezes
the clutch disc against the flywheel. Together, these components clamp the
friction disc(s) between them. That action connects the friction disc(s) to the
engine output, allowing torque to be transmitted to the driveline.

Two basic types of automotive clutches are used in the industry:

1. the push type

2. the pull type.

“Push” and “pull” refer to the direction in which the release fingers or levers have to
be moved to disengage the clutch.

In a push-type clutch, the release fingers or levers are pushed toward the engine
flywheel away from the flywheel to disengage. Push-type clutches are also available
with dual or multiple friction discs for more severe-duty applications. Using multiple
friction discs allows the clutch capacity to be increased without changing the clamp
load or the diameter of the clutch, if a clutch has more than one friction disc, it will
have a driven intermediate plate between each pair of discs so that each friction
surface of the discs is transmitting torque.

The single-disc push-type clutch illustrated in Figure 43-3 is typical of a light duty
application.

Pull-type clutches, such as the one shown in FIGURE 43-4, are not very common any
more but are sometimes used in heavier applications with unsynchronized
transmissions.

Using a pull-type clutch allows the use of a clutch brake to slow and stop the
transmission gearing when first or reverse gear is being selected. Pull-type clutches
are also available in dual or multiple disc designs for increased clutch torque
capacity.

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Automotive dry friction clutches are further broken down by the type of clutch cover
used. The clutch cover is the component that houses the functioning parts of the
clutch, the actuating levers, the springs, and the pressure plate. The clutch cover is
sometimes referred to simply as the pressure plate; however, the pressure plate is
just one of its components.

There are three broad design categories for clutch covers:

1. The coil spring style, available in push or pull type, uses a set of coil springs
perpendicular to the pressure plate to apply clamp force.
2. The diaphragm spring style, available in push or pull type, uses a single one-
piece diaphragm spring to apply clamp force.

Multi-Coil Spring Clutch

The coil spring–style clutch uses perpendicular coil springs that act directly against
the back of the pressure plate to supply clamping force. In a push-type coil spring
clutch, such as the one illustrated in FIGURE 43-5, a series of levers are attached to
a pivot point, which is in turn attached to the clutch cover. The outer edges of the
levers are attached to the pressure plate. When disengagement is required, the
release bearing is pushed against the inner surface of these levers. The release
bearing is a hollow bearing that the shaft passes through and that allows the
pushing or pulling of clutch release levers to release the clutch. The levers actually
pull the pressure plate away from the flywheel, caging (or collapsing) the pressure
springs. The same method is used in a pull-type coil spring clutch, except that in
that case, the pivot point and contact point of the levers are merely reversed. The
pivot point of the levers is now at the levers’ outer edge, and the attachment point
to the pressure plate is further inboard. In both push and pull types, in order to
compensate for the discs wearing, the pressure plate moves closer to the flywheel.
This causes the coil springs to extend in order to keep contact with the pressure
plate.

As the friction disc wears, the coil springs extend. That extension of the springs
reduces the force against the pressure plate. Therefore, the more that the clutch
disc wears, the less clamping force and therefore clutch capacity it has. To
compensate for less clamp force as the discs wear, coil spring clutches are built with
very strong springs. The strong springs can make coil spring clutches more difficult
for the driver to disengage when the clutch is new. In any clutch, the clutch cover is
the component that is bolted to the flywheel, so the driving torque must be
transferred from the cover to the pressure plate. Coil spring clutches transfer this
torque to the pressure plate in one of two ways, depending on whether the cover is
cast iron or aluminum or formed from stamped steel.

The stamped steel version normally has pockets or notches formed in the stamped
steel cover and drive lugs cast into the pressure plate. This allows positive torque

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transfer while allowing the pressure plate to move forward and backward as it
engages and disengages. The cast cover version may use a similar arrangement to
transfer torque to the pressure plate, or it may have copper touts in the cover that
engage notches in the pressure plate. Coil spring clutches have mostly given way to
diaphragm spring clutches

Diaphragm Spring Clutch

Clutch Cover

Drive Strap

Pressure Plate

The diaphragm spring clutch uses a single diaphragm spring (or Belleville spring) to
provide the clamping force. A diaphragm spring clutch may have a stamped steel,
cast iron, or aluminum cover. The cover is bolted to the engine flywheel and
therefore turns with it. Normally, in both the push-type and pull-type diaphragm
style, driving torque is transmitted to the pressure plate through a series of drive
straps attached to both the clutch cover and the pressure plate. These straps are
made from laminated spring steel and have two functions. The first is to linearly
transfer the driving torque to the pressure plate, as mentioned above. The second
function of the straps is to act as return springs and move the pressure plate away
from the clutch disc when it is disengaged. In their normal, relaxed position, the
drive straps are straight. As the clutch is engaged, the pressure plate moves toward
the flywheel, and this movement bends the straps slightly. When the clutch is
disengaged, the straps straighten out and pull the pressure plate back. Drive straps
are shown in FIGURE 43-8. These straps must be strong enough to withstand
maximum engine torque with a safety margin. If the drive straps are overloaded,
they can permanently deform, causing poor clutch release symptoms. Some
diaphragm spring clutches will have small coil springs or metal links attached to the
pressure plate to pull it back when the clutch is disengaged. A diaphragm spring
clutch is illustrated in FIGURE 43-9. A diaphragm spring clutch creates clamp load
with the use of a single diaphragm spring pushing on the pressure plate. The
diaphragm spring is a single cone-shaped steel spring. Its outer edge rests against
the pressure plate, and the inner part of the spring is cut into segments called
fingers. These fingers act as the release levers. A pivot ring is installed inside the

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clutch cover between the outside edge of the spring and the fingers. To disengage
the push-type diaphragm clutch, the release bearing is pushed against the release
fingers. The pivot ring acts as a fulcrum, and the outer edge of the spring is pulled
away from the pressure plate. The plate drive straps return to their normal straight
shape, pulling the pressure plate away from the clutch disc. A diaphragm spring is
shown in FIGURE 4

Rather than lose pressure as disc wear occurs (which happens in the coil spring
type), the diaphragm spring clutch is designed to actually increase loading on the
pressure plate as disc wear occurs until it is approximately 50% worn. At that point,
the pressure gradually decreases again for the second 50% of wear until the
pressure returns to the original loading. This varying clamp load is accomplished
through the changing contact point of the diaphragm spring with a specially
designed lobe on the pressure plate and the pivot ring, which changes the effective
lever length of the diaphragm spring. The pull-type version of the diaphragm spring
style clutch, shown in FIGURE 43-11, arranges the diaphragm spring differently. The
pivot point changes to the outer edge, and it engages the pressure plate further in
toward the centre. This has the effect of reversing the release direction. In the pull-
type diaphragm spring–style clutch, the drive torque may be transferred to the
pressure plate through either drive straps or pockets in the cover and lugs on the
pressure plate. If the clutch does not have drive straps, the pressure plate will be
drawn away from the friction disc by several small springs or metal links when the
clutch is disengaged

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Figure 22 Figure 23 Diaphragm spring type pressure plate assembly

Clutch Operation

Clutches are usually engaged by spring force, meaning that when an operator
approaches a machine, the clutch will be engaged and the operator must disengage
the clutch before the machine is started.

Basic Operation:

1. First, the operator will disengage the clutch by pushing the clutch
pedal. This action moves the release fork through either the
mechanical or the hydraulic linkage system discussed above.
2. The release fork then pushes or pulls the release bearing toward or
away from the clutch assembly, depending on whether the clutch is a
push or pull type.
3. As the release bearing moves, it pushes or pulls the levers inside the
clutch that will release the force applied by the coil or diaphragm
springs clamping the pressure plate against the friction disc and locking
it to the flywheel.
4. As the levers are moved, the spring clamping force is caged
(collapsed), and either drive straps or small springs will pull the
pressure plate away from the friction disc or discs, allowing the disc or

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 discs (if it is a multiple plate clutch) to be free between the pressure
plate and the flywheel.
5. As the disc is splined to the transmissions input shaft, this action
disconnects the engine and the transmission. The operator can now
start the machine safely because the clutch disengaged and there is no
contact between the friction disc and the flywheel or pressure plate.
6. To engage the clutch and operate the machine, the operator slowly
engages the clutch by letting up on the clutch pedal. This is the most
critical time in the operation of any clutch, because the point of
engagement of the clutch is the only time that clutch friction disc wear
occurs unless of course the clutch is slipping when it should not be

Engaged Position

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Disengaged Position

CLUTCH OPERATING MECHANISMS

The clutch release bearing is fitted to the clutch release fork. When the clutch pedal
is pressed down by the driver, pressure is exerted against the diaphragm spring
fingers by the release bearing forcing them towards the flywheel; this action
disengages the drive from the engine.

The operating mechanism may be either mechanical or hydraulic. It must be flexibly

mounted as the engine (which is mounted on rubbers) may move independently of
the body/chassis. Common clutch operating mechanisms used in motor vehicles are:

1. Mechanical clutch operating mechanisms

2. Hydraulic clutch operating mechanism

Hydraulic clutch operating mechanism

Pilot Bearings and Release Bearings

Pilot bearings are called so because they carry the pilot end of the input shaft. This often-overlooked
bearing is extremely important. It allows the input shaft to be supported straddle style. That is, the
front of the shaft in the pilot bearing and the rear of the shaft in the transmission input bearing are
mounted in the transmission case. This holds the shaft solidly when the clutch discs are disengaged
and ensures the shaft remains cantred. This bearing is typically a ball bearing mounted in the centre
of the flywheel, as shown in FIGURE 43-25. It is recommended that the pilot bearing be replaced
when the clutch is replaced, even if it seems fine. The added cost to replace it during a clutch

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servicing is incidental compared to the costs that would be incurred to replace the bearing
separately at a later date if it fails. Release Bearing As its name implies, the release bearing is used to
release the clutch discs. This bearing allows a stationary clutch fork to apply pressure to a rotating
clutch’s release levers or fingers. The pressure allows the clutch to cage the pressure plate spring(s)
and interrupt power flow to the transmission. In a push-type clutch, the release bearing is part of a
housing with a hollow center. The hollow part of this housing rides on a sleeve that is part of the
transmission input bearing cover. The input shaft passes through this sleeve, and the release bearing
housing is on the outside of the sleeve. The release bearing itself is a ball bearing that is specially
designed so that it can withstand both axial and radial loading. The push-type clutch release bearing
shown in FIGURE 43-26 is typical in that it is a sealed unit. That means that it cannot be lubricated
periodically, but there may be a grease fitting to lubricate the release bearing housing where it slides
on the input shaft sleeve. The release fork (yoke) is the lever that is actuated by the clutch linkage
and that moves the release bearing. The release fork engages a groove in the release bearing
housing. The release fork is mounted on a pivot in the clutch bell housing so that when the driver
pushes the clutch pedal down the release bearing and its housing move toward the clutch release
levers or fingers. The release bearing in a push-type clutch does not actually rotate until it comes in
contact with the release fingers or levers of the pressure plate. This is important to remember when
diagnosing clutch noise complaints. Once the bearing is pushed against the fingers or levers with
sufficient force, the pressure plate spring(s) are caged and the clutch is disengaged. Even though the
push-type clutch release bearing is more expensive than a pilot bearing, the release bearing should
always be replaced when a clutch is replaced. Like the flywheel ball bearing, replacing the release
bearing during a clutch replacement is less expensive than doing it separately because of failure
later. The release bearing in a push-type clutch is designed only for periodic rotation when
disengaging the clutch. If the driver rides the pedal or if the clutch adjustment is incorrect, the
bearing will be constantly rotating. That constant rotation will cause it to overheat and cause the
permanent lubricating grease to liquefy and run out of the bearing, leading to premature bearing
failure. In a pull-type clutch, the release bearing performs the same function as in a push-type clutch
—that is, to release the type clutch release bearing is integral to the clutch. That means it is attached
to the clutch cover and in most cases is not serviced separately. See FIGURE 43-27. The release
bearing for a pull-type clutch is integral to (attached to) the clutch. The release bearing again is
usually a ball bearing designed to handle axial and radial thrust loads. The transmission input bearing
cover used with a pull-type clutch does not have a sleeve as it does in the push-type clutch. Instead,
the release bearing is encompassed in a hollow housing. The outer race of the bearing is attached to
the housing itself, and the inner race is attached to a sleeve. Inside the sleeve, there are two bronze
bushings that allow the sleeve to ride on the transmission input shaft. This sleeve, in turn, attaches
to what is commonly referred to as a retainer. It is the retainer that actually engages the release
levers. Release bearings for pull-type clutches usually require periodic lubrication. It is important to
not overlook this service procedure. Release Fork The release fork or lever in a pull-type clutch is U
shaped and is attached to a cross-shaft that is mounted inside the clutch bell housing as shown in
FIGURE 43-28. The shape of the fork fits closely over the outside of the release bearing housing from
the top, holding it stationary. As noted earlier in this section, the inner race of the release bearing is
attached to the sleeve and the retainer. The retainer is fixed to the release levers, so all three turn
with the clutch. Consequently, the inner race of the release bearing rotates any time the engine is
running. To disengage the clutch, the driver actuates the clutch pedal. Actuating the pedal causes
the cross-shaft and the U-shaped fork to rotate the ends of the U-shaped contact wear pads located

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on the front of the release bearing housing and push the bearing to the rear. This action pulls the
retainer and the release levers to the rear, which cages the pressure plate spring(s) disengaging the
clutch. Most pull-type clutch release bearings need to be lubricated as part of regular maintenance
procedures and are equipped with a grease fitting to allow this. There are, however, some
permanently lubed designs as well. In some installations, a tube is attached to the release bearing
and connected to a grease zerk, or grease nipple, on the outside of the bell housing so that the
bearing can be lubricated more easily.

Fig.8.24 CABLE CLUTCH OPERATING MECHANISM

HYDRAULIC CLUTCH OPERATING MECHANISM

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Fig.9.3 Hydraulic clutch operating mechanisms

Many vehicle manufacturers use hydraulic clutch release mechanisms, as shown in

Figure 9.3.

OPERATION OF THE CLUTCH HYDRUALIC SYSTEM

1. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the pedal acts on a piston within the
clutch master cylinder.
2. The piston passes fluid through the pipe to the clutch slave cylinder, which is
located near the bell housing.
3. The clutch fluid pipe is flexible to allow for the movement between the body
of the vehicle and the engine/gearbox assembly.
4. The pressure of the fluid from the master cylinder pushes the piston within
the slave cylinder outwards.
5. The slave cylinder piston acts on the clutch release fork, disengaging the
clutch.

NOTE

1. The fluid used in clutch hydraulic systems has similar properties to the fluid
used in the braking system. Either a vegetable-based or mineral-based oil is
used. Note that on some vehicles, the clutch and braking system may share
the same fluid reservoir.
2. If any of the hydraulic components are disconnected, it is necessary to bleed
air from the system after reconnection. The system is normally bled from a
bleed nipple located on the clutch slave cylinder.

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 3. The hydraulic clutch mechanism is self-adjusting, although it may be
necessary to initially follow an adjustment procedure to set up the correct
free movement when replacing any of the clutch components

EXPLAIN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF STANDARD

TRANSMISSIONS/GEAR BOX

TRANSMISSION AND TRANSAXLES

GEARBOX

It is an assembly of different gear ratios on mounted on shafts and enclosed in a

casing.

PURPOSE

Automotive gearboxes perform the following functions:

1. To permit the driver to select the most appropriate ratio.

2. To provide the torque to move the vehicle under a variety of load and road
conditions. It does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine
crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.
3. Provides reverse so that the vehicle can move backwards.
4. Provides a neutral position so that the engine can be started without the road
wheels turning.
5. Provides a low gear to slow down the vehicle on steep hill.

TYPES OF GEARS FOUND IN GEARBOXES

i. Spur gears
ii. Helical gears
iii. Epicyclic gears or planetary gears

SPUR GEARS

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Fig 1

TOOTH PROFILE

Spur gears have teeth cut straight across the circumference.

Construction

i. Materials-gearbox pinions are manufactured from low-alloy nickel-chromium

molybdenum steels.
ii. Case-hardened steel
iii. The gears are used to connect shafts which are parallel to each other, e. g. in
a sliding gearbox.
iv. They impart a radial load on their shafts.

Disadvantages

i. They are noisy in operation

ii. Few teeth are in contact at any one time and therefore do not provide a
greater load distribution of the load.

HELICLE GEARS

TOOTH PROFILE

Helical gears teeth are cut at an angle in a helical manner.

USE

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 i. Helical gears are used in constant mesh gear boxes or transmissions

Advantages

i. The provide a greater distribution of the load as more teeth are in contact
ii. They are quieter in operation
iii. The exert a side thrust along their shaft

EPICYCLIC GEARS (OR PLANETARY GEARS)

Figure 25 PLANETARY GEARS

CONSTRUCTION

This combination of internal and external pinions.

USE

They are used in automatic transmission

ADVANTAGES

i. They are compact in design

ii. They are quieter in operation
iii. They can produce a number of gear ratios

GEAR RATIOS

DEFINATION

It is a measure of the relationship between two or more gear wheels that are in
mesh/contact with each other.

In automotive industry, gear ratios are mainly considered in terms of:

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 i. Speed
ii. Diameter
iii. Number of teeth
iv. Torque

i. Gear Ratio꞊ Output Gear Speed / Input gear Speed

Or
Driven Gear Speed/ Driver Gear Speed
ii. Gear Ratio꞊ Output Gear Diameter / Input gear Diameter
Or
Driven Gear Diameter/ Driver Gear Diameter
iii. Gear Ratio꞊ Output Number of Teeth / Input Number of Teeth
Or
Driven Number of Teeth / Driver Number of Teeth
iv. Gear Ratio꞊ Output Torque / Input Torque
Or
Driven Torque / Driver Torque
v. Overall Gear Ratio ꞊ Gearbox Ratio × Final drive ratio

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF STANDARD TRANSMISSIONS/GEAR

BOX

GEAR TRAIN

A gear box is define as an assembly of gears mounted on a shaft and enclosed in a

box

If two gear wheels are meshed in series, either in the same plane or in different
planes, they are said to have formed a gear train.

TYPES OF GEAR TRAINS

(i) SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN

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 a. This is when the gears are supported on separate shafts and are in the
same plane e. g. input shaft gearbox pinion and lay-shaft pinion.
b. If only two gear wheels are involved, this forms a single gear train. This
is mostly used with front wheel drive gear boxes.

(ii)COMPOUND OR MULTI STAGE GEAR TRAIN

If two or more pairs of gear wheels in series and driven gear wheel of one
gear train is connected by a common shaft to the driver of the next train,
these gears are said to form a compound train.

(iii)DOUBLE STAGE

When two gear wheels are joined together by a single shaft, a double shaft
compound gear train is formed.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEARBOXES

i. Selective type
ii. Progressive type
iii. Epicyclic or planetary type

Selective type

a. It is that transmission in which any speed may be selected from the neutral
position.
b. Neutral position has to be selected before selecting any forward or reverse
position.

Direction of rotation of gears

TYPES OF GEARBOXES AND TRANSAXLES

There are two types namely:

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 a. Manual- can be shifted manually or by hand
b. Automatic-can shifted automatically with no help from driver

STANDARD MANUAL GEARBOXES AND TRANSAXLES

Standard manual gear boxes are generally classified according to the gear selection
method they use. The three main types of transmission gear selection systems are
the sliding gear transmission, the sliding clutch or sliding collar transmission, and the
synchronized transmission. Hence, these gear boxes can be referred to as:
i. Sliding mesh
ii. Constant mesh
iii. Synchromesh

All these gearboxes can be in one of the following speed ranges

a. Three speed units

b. Four speed units
c. Five speed
d. Six speed

Three speed units-these have:

a. Three forward gear ratios or speeds

b. Reverse and neutral

Four speed unit

Four speed units-these have:

a. Four forward gear ratios or speeds

b. Reverse and neutral

Five speed unit

Five speed units-these have:

a. Five forward gear ratios or speeds

b. Overdrive unit in some cases
c. Reverse and neutral

Six speed unit

Six speed units-these have:

a. Six forward gear ratios or speeds

b. Overdrive unit in some cases
c. Reverse and neutral

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OVER DRIVE UNITS

In this type of unit, the output shaft turns faster than the input shaft this
arrangement offers the following advantages:

a. Provides better economy

b. Provides reduced engine wear
c. Provides less noise
d. Provides less vibration

DISADVANTAGE:

This unit can not usually used in city driving or heavy traffic.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MANUAL GEARBOXES AND TRANSAXLES

MANUAL GEARBOXES TRANSAXLES

1. Used in some front-wheel drive 1. It is attached to front mounted

vehicles and in front engine –rear transverse engine and drives front
wheel drive. wheels
2. It is positioned between the a. Rear-engine vehicles use an
clutch and the drive shaft that engine mounted transaxle to drive
carries torque to the drive the rear axles
wheels. b. A few front-engine vehicles drive
3. The components parts are all in the rear wheels through a rear
line. The engine, clutch, gearbox mounted transaxle
and propeller (Drive shaft) shaft. 2. There is no propeller(drive) shaft
4. No viscous coupling. 3. The final drive and a differential
are together without a shaft
between them.
4. Some transaxles include a viscous
coupling and a centre differential.
These are used in front-wheel
drive and all wheels drive the
power train.

GEARBOX SHAFTS

A basic gearbox will have at least four shafts running parallel to each other and
installed in a housing known as the gearbox case:

1. the input shaft

2. the countershaft
3. the main shaft or output shaft

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 4. the reverse idler shaft.

Engine torque is introduced to the gearbox through the clutch disc or discs, which
are splined to the input shaft. Input shaft and countershaft

The input gear is part of, or splined to, the input shaft. The input shaft is the input
to the gearbox driven by the clutch friction disc. The countershaft is the shaft inside
the gearbox, driven by the input gear. The countershaft is a shaft with various sizes
of gears attached to it.

The input gear is in constant mesh with the countershaft driven gear. That is, the
gears are always in mesh. The countershaft range gears are part of, or keyed to, the
countershaft. Consequently, when the input gear turns the countershaft driven gear,
all of the countershaft gears turn with it.

Main Shaft

The main shaft is the shaft that carries the range or speed gears that are driven by
the countershaft, and it provides output for the transmission. For this reason, the
main shaft is also called the output shaft. This shaft usually supports the range or
speed gears on bushings or bearings. The speed gears on the countershaft and the
main shaft create the transmission’s ratios. Ratios are the speed and torque
relationship between two or more gears in mesh and can increase torque and
decrease speed, decrease torque and increase speed, or transfer power without
changing speed and torque. Most modern transmissions will have all of the main
shaft gears in constant mesh with their mating countershaft gears and are therefore
known as constant mesh transmissions. The speed gears are usually not splined to
the shaft and therefore are free to turn. In order for rotational power to flow
through the transmission, the main shaft gears must be driven by the corresponding
countershaft gears, and they then must transfer this power to the main shaft. There
are several different systems used to connect the main shaft gears to the main
shaft, which we will discuss later on, in the section on transmission types.

Countershaft (Layshaft)

This shaft carries pinions that a machined together with it or pressed to it. It gets
drive from the input shaft and sends it to the main shaft gears through the
mainshaft gears.

Reverse Idler Shaft

The final shaft essential for transmission operation is the reverse idler shaft, which
supports the reverse idler gear. This gear is in mesh or is slid into mesh (depending
on the particular transmission) between the countershaft reverse gear and the main
shaft reverse gear to provide a means to move the vehicle backward. Remember

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that that the engine and the transmission input gear typically both turn clockwise
when viewed from the front. The input gear turns the countershaft counter-
clockwise, and the countershaft gears then turn the main shaft gears clockwise. The
result is forward motion.

Sliding the idler gear in between the countershaft reverse gear and the main shaft
reverse gear means the countershaft reverse gear turns the idler clockwise. Then,
the idler turns the main shaft reverse gear counter-clockwise to achieve reverse.

SLIDING MESH GEARBOX

The first type is the sliding gear gearbox. In sliding gear gearboxes, a main shaft
gear that is splined to the main shaft is slid into and out of mesh with a
corresponding countershaft gear to create the ratio. With these gear boxes shifting
them can be quite difficult to accomplish without gear clash. The image in Figure
23A shows a sliding gear gearbox.

Figure 26A basic sliding mesh gearbox

Construction

The gearbox consists of:

1. Gearbox housing
2. Input shaft (supported by the spigot bearing and input shaft bearing)
3. Lay shaft
4. Output (main shaft)
5. Pinions

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 6. Reverse shaft
7. Selector forks
8. Reverse idler gear

Note

a. Main shaft pinions are splined

b. The output shaft is splined.

Operation

Power flow

Purpose of knowing Power Flow in the Gearbox:

1. To assist in the understanding of the operation of the gearbox.

2. To assist in the diagnosis of problems in the gearbox.

First gear

1. Selector is moved to the right

2. Pinion 7 and 8 meshed
3. Power flow is from pinion 1 to 2 then 7 and 8

Second gear

1. Selector is moved to the left

2. Pinion 5 meshes with pinion 6
3. Power flow is gear 1 and 2 then 5 to 6

Third gear

1. Selector for gear three and four is moved to the right

2. Pinion 3 and 4 get meshed
3. Power flow is pinion 1 to 2 then 3 to 4

Fourth gear

1. Selector for gear three and four is moved to the right

2. Pinion 4 is locked to pinion 1
3. Power flow is pinion 1 to 4 i.e. direct drive (top gear)

Reverse

1. Pinion 9 meshes with pinion 8 and pinion 10 meshes with pinion 7

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 2. Power flow is from pinion 1 to 2 then 7 to 10, pinion 10 to 9 and 9 to 8

GEARBOX LUBRICATION

i. Method –splash feed

ii. Type of oil-Gearbox oil (SAE 90 or EP90)

Constant Mesh Gearbox

The second type of manual gear boxes is the Constant mesh gear box. The
selection method is by using sliding dogs or clutches (also known as the sliding
collar). This is an improvement on the sliding mesh gearbox.

A constant mesh gearbox uses sliding dogs (collars or clutches) to select gear
ratios. In this type of gearbox, the main shaft speed gears are in constant mesh with
the countershaft speed gears. The main shaft gears are not splined to the main
shaft. The speed gears are connected to the main shaft to create a ratio by sliding
dogs (collars or clutches) that are splined to the main shaft. These dogs (collars or
clutches) slide along the main shaft to engage “dog” teeth, or clutching teeth, on the
gears to lock them to the shaft. The terms “sliding clutch” and “sliding collar” are

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used synonymously. However, to be correct, a sliding clutch will have internal splines
to connect it to the main shaft and external clutching teeth to engage the internal
clutching teeth of the main shaft gear, whereas a sliding collar will have only internal
clutching teeth. The collar slides on an externally splined hub, which is in turn
splined to the main shaft and held in place by snap rings. The internal clutching
teeth of the collar will engage external clutching teeth, also known as dog teeth, on
the main shaft gear to lock the gear to the main shaft.

Figure 27 Constant Mesh Gearbox

CONSTRUCTION

i. Pinions on the main shaft have no splines or teeth

ii. The dogs attached to pinion 8 and the one between pinion 1 and 4 have
internal teeth for locking to the main shaft.

OPERATION

i. All pinions on the main shaft are free to rotate freely when not engaged apart
from pinion 8.
ii. Selection is similar to the sliding gearbox type.
iii. Reverse selection too is similar to the sliding gearbox type.

SYNCHROMESH GEARBOX
It is similar to constant mesh gearbox except that the coupling members are
replaced by synchromesh units.

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FIGURE 28 SYNCHROMESH GEARBOX

CONSTRUCTION

1. CASING
 It is usually made of aluminium alloy or cast iron
 It is rigid and robust in construction to locate and retain the shaft and
bearings in their correct position.
 Some casings have the clutch or bell housing as an integral part of their
construction, while other designs have the bell housing separate.
 The gear change mechanism and extension housing are attached to the
gearbox housing.
2. INPUT SHAFT
 One end of the gearbox is supported by the pilot bearing in the flywheel.
 The other end is geared and has a bearing which locates and supports it in
the gearbox housing.
 The input shaft is splined and the clutch plate fits onto these splines.

3. COUNTER SHAFT (LAY SHAFT) CLUSTER GEAR

 This consists of a number of gears cast in one unit.
 The shaft rotates in the needle roller bearings fitted in the casing.
 The first cluster gear is in constant mesh with the input shaft gear.
 The remaining cluster gears are in constant mesh with the gears on the
output (main) shaft.

4. MAIN (OUTPUT) SHAFT

 One end of the output shaft is supported by roller bearings in the input shaft.

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  The other end is supported in the gearbox housing by ball bearings.
 The first, second, and third gear revolve on the main output shaft freely, as
they have neither internal teeth nor splines.
 The two synchromesh hub units are pressed on and attached to the main
output shaft.

OPERATION

FIRST GEAR

When the first gear is selected:

1. The selector fork is moved to the left to have the synchronizer and lock the
biggest pinion to the mainshaft (output)
2. Power flow is:
 The engine power flows through the clutch plate to the input shaft.
 From the input shaft if flows to the input gear integral with the input
shaft.
 From the input gear it flows to the first cluster gear on the lay shaft.
 From the first lay-shaft gear, it goes to the last pinion of the lay-shaft.
 From the last pinion on the lay shaft it is transmitted to the last pinion
on the main (output) shaft.

SECOND GEAR

When the second gear is selected:

1. The selector fork is moved to the right to have the synchronizer and lock the
pinion number on the main shaft.
2. The synchronizer sleeve slides over the dog teeth on the second gear
engaging the second gear to the main shaft.
3. Power flow is:
 Input pinion to the first lay shaft pinion
 From the first lay shaft pinion to the third lay shaft pinion.
 From the third lay shaft pinion to the second main output pinion then
out.

THIRD GEAR

When the third gear is selected:

1. The selector fork is moved to the right to have the synchronizer and lock the
pinion number on the main shaft.
2. Power flow becomes:
 Input pinion to the first lay shaft pinion
 Lay shaft pinion to the second lay shaft pinion.
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  Lay shaft pinion to the first output shaft, then out.

FOURTH GEAR

When the fourth gear is selected:

1. The selector fork is moved to the left to move the synchronizer and lock the
pinion number of the main shaft directly with the first pinion of the main
shaft.
2. The two shafts locked i. e. the output and the main output shaft.
3. Power flow becomes:
 Engine to clutch plate
 Clutch plate to the input shaft then to its pinion (as it is integral with it)
 From input shaft to the main output shaft.

REVERSE GEAR

When the reverse gear is selected:

1. The reverse idler is shifted between the lay shaft pinion (B) and the main
output shaft.
2. Power flow becomes:
 From clutch plate to the input shaft.
 Input shaft to pinion on the first lay shaft pinion.
 First lay shaft pinion to the fourth lay shaft pinion.
 From fourth lay shaft pinion to the idler pinion.
 From idler pinion to the third main shaft pinion.

Figure 29 REVERSE GEAR

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SYNCHROMESH UNITS
FUNCTION

Its function is to prevent clash of gears during gear engagement or shifting

 There normally four synchromesh units in the four-speed gearbox

 The hub of these units is pressed on and attached to the output shaft.
 The synchronizer sleeves slide on the hub and connect their respective gears
on to the main shaft.
 One unit is for first and second gears and the other for third and fourth gears.

TYPES OF SYNCHRONIZER UNITS

There are two main types:

1. Baulk ring (baulk pin, or split baulk pin)

2. Constant–load

Figure 30 Block Ring Synchroniser unit

OR

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 Figure 31B Block- or cone-type synchronizer components.

CONSTRUCTION

1. The baulk ring and cone are the first components parts after the hub.
2. Three keys are fitted into slots of the synchronizer hub.
3. The inner hub is splined to the gearbox output shaft.
4. A pair of ring-shaped synchronizer springs which apply a slight outward force
against the keys.
5. The synchronizer sleeve fits over the hub. It has internal splines or teeth that
mesh with the external splines of the hub.
6. Keys have raised sections that fit in the detent groove if the sleeve.

OPERATION

It is a three-stage operation:

1. Synchronizer unit in neutral

2. Synchronizer unit in action
3. Complete synchronization

Synchronizer unit in neutral

 No action is received from the driver

 The synchronizer unit stays put between gears.

Synchronizer unit in action

 The driver shifts the selector fork.

 The synchronizer sleeve moves with the selector fork towards the gear.

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  The sleeve slides on the splines and carries the three keys with it.
 The keys lock the synchronizer ring and push it towards the gear.
 The movement of the synchronizer ring brings the cone surface in the ring
into contact with the cone surface on the gear.

Complete synchronization

When the external teeth on the synchronizer ring and the gear rotate at the same
speed:

 The sleeve slides over the external teeth of synchronizer ring. This action
locks the gear to the shaft and hence completes the shift.
 Power shift becomes, from input gear through synchromesh sleeve to inner
hub with splines to the main output shaft.

Features

1. The cone pressure or load is proportional to the speed change.

2. An interception device prevents positive gear engagement until the speed of
two members is equal.

SHIFT LEVER

It enables to select or shift into desired gears.

Position

It can be located on:

1. Steering column
2. Flow or in the centre console.

SELECTOR GEAR INTERLOCK MECHANISM

Purpose

 To prevent section of two gears at the same time.

TYPES OF INTER LOCK MECHANISMS

There mainly four types:

1. Plate inter lock

2. Ball spring inter lock
3. Ball interlock
4. Roller detents and detents.

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FIGURE 31 TYPES OF INTER LOCK MECHANISMS

DETENTS

It is a small depression in a shaft or rod into which a pawl or ball drops when the
shaft, rail or rod is removed. This provides a locking effect.

EXPLAIN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF HYDRO-KINETIC

CLUTCHES AND POWERSHIFT TRANSMISSIONS

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID COUPLING AND TORQUE CONVERTER

(HYDROKINETIC CLUTCHES)

Automatic gearboxes are driven by a fluid coupling or a torque converter. These, like
friction clutch assemblies, are located between the engine flywheel and gearbox.
They operate on the hydrodynamic torque principle during engine torque transfer to
the gearbox, without a direct mechanical link between the two components

TERMINOLOGIES

Stall

This is the condition which occurs when the impeller is rotating and the turbine is
stationary.

Coupling stage

The condition that exists when the speed of the turbine is almost that of the impeller

Vortex flow

Vortex flow is the flow of oil between the impeller to the turbine through the stator
and back again,

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Rotary flow

The flow of oil that replace vortex flow during the coupling stage.

Spiral flow

This is the flow oil between vortex flow and rotary flow

FLUID COUPLING

It is used in place of a friction clutch in vehicles with pre-selector gearbox.

1. It is a form of clutch in which crankshaft torque is sent to the input shaft of

the gearbox through the effect of centrifugal force upon low-viscosity oil.
2. The percentage of torque gearbox by the coupling depends upon the speed of
the engine. i.e. the operation of the unit is controlled by the accelerator pedal

Figure 32 Shows components of the torque convertor

CONSTRUCTION

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It consists of two torus-shaped members which have flat and radially arranged
vanes.

Impeller

It is coupled to the flywheel and form a tight oil seal

1. It is a driving member
2. The gearbox shaft passes through it but supported and located by opposed
ball thrust bearings.
3. A special designed of adjustable or spring -loaded oil seal is fitted over the
shaft.
4. The outer face of the impeller carries two screwed filler plugs
5. It normally has more vanes than the turbine

Turbine

1. It is arranged inside the flywheel – impeller chamber

2. It is the fluid flywheel driven member
3. Its vanes oppose those of the impeller
4. It is mounted on the output shaft
5. It has fewer vanes than the Impeller to:
a. Reduce oil turbulence
b. Reduce heat loses
6. Some incorporate oil director ring or baffle ring fitted at the centre in
order to reduce its drag at very low engine speeds
7. Changes the slip characteristic slightly

OPERATION

IDLE SPEED
1. Oil between the vanes of the impeller is forced outward from the centre by
centrifugal force.
2. The shape of the impeller directs the oil on to the outer parts of the vanes of
the turbine.
3. A slow circulation of oil is therefore established between the two-impeller and
turbine.
4. Centrifugal force is relatively low
5. Oil velocity and kinetic energy is too low.
6. The gearbox drags or resistance (potential energy) offered to the turbine is
more than received from the oil forced by impeller.
7. The turbine remains stationary.
8. No torque is transmitted to the gearbox and slip is 100 %

MEDIUM RUNNING SPEED

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 1. As the engine speed increases so does the centrifugal force acting upon
the oil in the turbine vanes.
2. The high oil velocity and kinetic energy developed from increased engine
speed overcome the gearbox resistance offered to the turbine.
3. The turning of the turbine is slow. There is still a large degree of 'slip' in
the unit, the output shaft is therefore rotating more slowly than input
shaft.

MEDIUM TO HIGH SPEED

1. Once the engine reaches a pre-set speed, the force of the oil is sufficient to
transmit full power. This gives in effect a direct drive with the output shaft
rotating at about 98 0/0 of the speed of the input shaft.
2. This is referred to as fluid flywheel slip stage as slip diminishes to as little as
2%
MERITS OF THE FLUID FLYWHEEL

1. Almost maintenance free

2. Oil dampens the noise
3. Rapid and smooth reduction slip
4. Reduces the shock of drive take-up
5. Provides a much smoother or more regular torque at the gearbox units.
6. It has well maintained
Demerit

1. Does not increase torque under any circumstances

2. Can not be used on heavy vehicles

TOEQUE CONVERTOR

As the name implies, it converts the torque or turning effort, of the engine
into the higher torque needed by the vehicle at low road speeds i.e.
a. vehicles is l: 2
b. In Heavy Equipment Repair l: 7
An increase in torque has the same effect as changing to a lower gear; so, a
torque converter is also a gear reducer, acting like an extra set of gears
before the engine drive reaches the gearbox
The automatic gearbox torque converter is located at the front of the gearbox
bellhousing. The torque converter transmits torque from the engine to the
input or turbine shaft of the gearbox. The torque convertor consists of the
following parts
1. Torque converter (housing)
2. Impeller assembly
3. Turbine assembly

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 4. Stator assembly
5. Torque converter clutch (TCC) assembly

Figure 33 Sectioned view of torque convertor

FUNCTIONS OF TORQUE CONVERTER

Its main functions are:

1. It transfers the power from the engine to the gearbox input shaft
2. It isolates the engine from the load when the vehicle is stationary.
3. It multiplies the torque of the engine and transmits it to the gearbox. It almost
doubles the output torque.

PARTS OF TORQUE CONVERTER

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IMPELLER

This is the driving member and rotates with the engine, it is located on the gearbox
side of the converter. The impeller is also called the pump

It is an integral part of the torque converter housing and has vanes brazed into the
torque converter cover. The impeller consists of curved vanes placed radially along
the inside of the housing on the gearbox side of the torque converter. As the engine
rotates, the torque housing and impeller rotate to set the fluid in motion. The
impeller always rotates at same speed as the engine crankshaft .

TURBINE

The turbine is located opposite of the impeller inside the torque converter housing.
The turbine connects to the gearbox input shaft through splines. The design of the
turbine is similar to the impeller, except that the vanes of the turbine are curved
opposite of the impeller vanes. As the fluid is put into motion by the impeller vanes,
it strikes the vanes of the turbine. Some of the energy and rotational force is
transferred into the turbine. This causes the turbine and input shaft to rotate in the
same direction as the impeller.

STATOR

As the fluid leaves the turbine, it strikes the vanes of the stator. The stator also
contains an overrunning (freewheeling) clutch. The stator assembly is mounted on a
stationary shaft that is connected to the case or the oil pump. The stator is located
between the impeller and turbine inside the torque converter housing. The
overrunning clutch of the stator allows the stator to rotate only in the same direction
as the impeller. Torque multiplication is achieved when the overrunning clutch holds
the stator to its shaft.

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 Figure 3: Location of Stator in a Torque Converter

TORQUE MULTIPLICATION conditions

1. It happens during low speed or heavy load conditions. This means during the
time the vehicle:
a. Starts from rest
b. Accelerates
c. Going up hill
OPERATION
Due to centrifugal force and the curvature of the impeller at high speed
creates a high kinetic energy and strikes the vanes of the stationary
turbine.
The oil velocity reduces and most of its kinetic energy is given to the turbine.
causing it to rotate because a torque is being applied to it.
The angle at which this returning oil strikes the stator vanes is in such a way
that the stator tries to rotate in the same direction. This rotation is prevented
by the locking action of the unidirectional clutch, and the oil is therefore
redirected by these fixed vanes into the impeller in the direction of impeller
rotation
A further increase in the velocity and kinetic energy occurs as the oil passes
along the stator vanes and this energy is added to that imparted b) the
impeller vanes
At this stage the oil leaves the impeller at even greater velocity and gives
even more kinetic energy to the turbine, i.e. the turbine is rotated at Greater
Torque, torque multiplication occurs, the stator reverses the flow of oil into a
helping direction and this multiplies torque

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LOCK-UP CLUTCH AND TORQUE DIVIDER

LOCK-UP CLUTCH

The stator, which helps increase vortex flow, can create resistance to rotary
flow when the fluid is trying to rotate as a single mass. For this reason, many
torque converter stators are equipped with an overrunning clutch. An
overrunning clutch on the stator allows the stator to be stationary during
vortex flow and to freewheel when rotary flow is achieved (see Figure 35).
Another efficiency factor of the torque converter is the speed differential
between the pump and turbine. There is typically a 10% loss between input
(pump) and output (turbine) speed at what is known as ‘‘coupling phase.’’
Therefore, many torque converters are equipped with a lockup clutch. A
lockup clutch, as shown in Figure 36, locks the turbine and the torque
converter housing together to achieve a 1:1 ratio output between the engine
and torque converter.

Figure 34 Roller-type overrunning clutch.

Most torque converters with a lockup clutch are equipped with a stator that
incorporates an overrunning clutch. These torque converters are immune to
stall speed and lockup speed issues. It should be noted that the application of
the vehicle and the manufacturer’s decision determines whether or not the
torque converter is equipped with a lockup clutch and/or a freewheeling
stator. Most bulldozer applications use a stationary stator with no lockup
feature because bulldozers typically work under stall conditions and rarely
reach rotary flow for any extended time. Rock trucks or scrapers that may
have to carry a load for long distances may utilize a lockup feature in the
torque converter. Once the vehicle is in top speed and rotary flow is at its

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maximum, locking the torque converter makes the vehicle more efficient to
run.

Figure 35 Lockup clutch locking together the turbine and torque converter
housing.

Torque Divider
A torque divider provides both a hydraulic and a mechanical connection by
using a planetary gear set from the engine to the transmission. The torque
converter provides the hydraulic connection, while the planetary gear set
provides the mechanical connection. During operation, the planetary gear set
and the torque converter work together to provide torque multiplication as
load on the machine increases. Figure 37 shows a typical torque divider as is
used in the Caterpillar D8R.

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 Figure 36 Torque divider with planetary gear set

The pump/impeller, torque converter housing, and sun gear are on a direct
mechanical connection to the engine flywheel. The turbine and the ring gear
are connected and rotate together. The output shaft is splined to the
planetary carrier. The stator is stationary; it is not equipped with an
overrunning clutch. Because the sun gear and the pump/ impeller are
connected to the flywheel, they will always rotate at engine speed. As the
impeller rotates, it directs fluid against the turbine blades, causing the turbine
to rotate. The turbine and ring gear are connected, so the turbine rotation
causes the ring gear to rotate. During no-load conditions, the components of
the planetary gear set rotate as a unit, and the planetary gears do not rotate
on their shafts. The torque converter is in a rotary flow condition. Therefore,
output speed ratio between the engine and torque converter is 1:1. When the
operator places a load on the machine, the output shaft slows down. A
decrease in output shaft speed causes the rpm of the planetary carrier to
decrease. Decreasing the planetary carrier rotation causes the planetary gears
to rotate, which decreases the rpm of the ring gear and the turbine. The

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torque converter goes into a vortex flow condition and the torque splits with
the torque converter (multiplying the torque hydraulically) and the planetary
gear set (multiplying the torque mechanically). An extremely heavy load can
stall the machine. If the machine stalls, the output shaft and the planetary
carrier will not rotate. This torque converter stall condition causes the ring
gear and turbine to rotate slowly opposite to the direction of engine rotation.
Maximum torque multiplication is achieved just as the ring gear and turbine
begin to turn in the opposite direction. Avoid holding a machine in a stall
condition for any extended period. During all load conditions, the torque
converter provides 70% of the output and the planetary gear set provides the
remaining 30%. The size of the planetary gears establishes the torque split
between hydraulic torque and mechanical torque.

Summary of torque converter

Operation
The impeller sends oil towards the turbine. The turbine vanes reverse the
direction of oil flow and sends it back toward the impeller. The stator reverses
the flow of the oil into a helping direction and (his multiplies the torque. When
the turbine speed nears the impeller speed, the oil strikes the backs of the
stator vanes, ensuring the stator to spin forward, this prevents the stator
vanes from interfering with oil flow
The stator begins to turn when the turbine speed approaches the impeller
speed.
The freewheel clutch locks when torque multiplication stars
Torque multiplication occurs during low speed or heavy load conditions
Note:
The vanes in each of the three elements of the torque convertor are curved to allow
for:
a. Increased angle of the fluid flow,
b. Increased fluid force, and
c. Improved hydraulic oil advantage

Torque Dividers
Torque dividers will have all of the same components as torque converters, but they
also contain a planetary gear set that allows a split torque input. The torque-
converter housing, and therefore the impeller, is driven by the engine flywheel, as it
is in a normal torque converter, but the sun gear of the planetary gear set is also
driven by the engine flywheel. The turbine in the torque divider is not directly
splined to the input shaft of the gearbox but rather to the ring gear of the planetary
gear set. The carrier of the planetary gear set is connected to the torque-converter
output or directly to the gearbox input shaft. This gives the torque divider two

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separate inputs. We will discuss how this operates in detail after we discuss basic
torque-converter operation.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLUID COUPLINGAND TORUE CONVERTER

NO. BETWEEN FLUID NO. TORUE CONVERTER

1 Does not multiply torque 1 Multiplies torque

2 Vanes are straight 2 Vanes are curved

3 Has three major component 3 Has three major component

parts parts;
i.e. impeller, turbine, stator and
freewheel

4 Can be used only where loads 4 Can be used on heavy vehicle

are low

5 It has limited efficiency 5 More efficient

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF POWERSHIFT GEARBOXES

Introduction

Mobile off-road equipment used in construction, mining, forestry, and

agricultural applications is designed to withstand harsh working environments
while enabling operators to control the equipment safely, comfortably, and
effectively. These machines must also be productive and efficient at moving
material.

Power-Shift Gearbox Operating Fundamentals

The ability of a power-shift gearbox to shift under power is accomplished by

hydraulic clutch packs that engage and disengage a series of gears and are
controlled by a hydraulic system. The specific operator controls that are used
for power-shift gearboxes have changed over time.
Originally, power-shift gearboxes were controlled by the operator through
mechanical linkages in which a series of rods, levers, and ball joints
transferred the motion of two gearshift levers from the cab to a series of

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 spool valves in the gearbox control valve. This mechanical control system
eventually gave way to cables and electrical solenoids. Today, most power-
shift gearboxes are controlled electronically, where the operator is merely
actuating electrical switches that control electric solenoids for both speed
ranges and direction. Machines with power-shift gearboxes today typically
have one control lever that combines both direction and speed range control.
Many modern power-shift gearbox control systems give the operator the
option of being in control or letting an electronic control module (ECM) control
gearbox shifting. In order to optimize equipment efficiency in terms of torque,
fuel economy, and exhaust emissions, different gear ratios need to be
available for each type of machine and each kind of work to be performed.
For this reason, manufacturers offer gearboxes with a variety of gear ratios.
For instance, power-shift gearboxes used in heavy equipment might have 2 to
18 forward speed ranges, or “gears,” and 1 to 8 reverse speeds.

Powershift Gearboxes/Transaxles contain the following components:

1) Torque Converter (In some arrangement there is no torque convertor)
2) The Planetary Gears and holding devices
3) Hydraulic components
Advantages
These type of gear boxes offer the advantages over manual gear boxes:
1. improved power out put
2. less driver fatigue
3. less fuel consumption
4. increased load carrying capacity
5.less power losses
6.no power loss during gear change

There are two main types of power-shift gearboxes:

1. Countershaft
2. Planetary.
These terms refer to the type of gear arrangement used to transfer torque
through the gearbox. Both types are constant-mesh gearboxes, which means
that each of the gears inside the gearbox is always in mesh with another
gear. When one or more gears are locked to a shaft by a hydraulic clutch,
torque is transferred through the gearbox. In a countershaft power-shift
gearbox, the hydraulic clutches control counter-rotating shafts by using
meshed gears. In a planetary power-shift gearbox, the hydraulic clutches
control sets of planetary gears to transfer power.

There are some similarities between countershaft and planetary power-shift

gearboxes. For example, both types of gearboxes use hydraulically actuated
clutches to change speeds and directions by engaging gears to shafts. The

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 main difference between the two types involves the mechanical components
that transfer torque from the input to the output. A power-shift gearbox
provides a way for the operator to easily downshift and upshift—as well as
change direction—under load with little to no loss of power flow to the final
drive components

COUNTERSHAFT POWER-SHIFT TRANSMISSIONS

A countershaft power-shift transmission provides an operator with the ability to

change speed and direction under full power because all gear changes are done with
hydraulic clutches. The gear arrangement is a countershaft constant-mesh design
with two clutches per shaft. To transfer torque from the input shaft to the output
shafts, at least two hydraulic clutches must be engaged

Most power-shift transmissions today are electronically controlled. By integrating

electronics into the transmission controls, the operator will sometimes have different
options or shift modes, such as auto shift, which automatically shifts the
transmission ranges according to inputs to the transmission’s ECM. These inputs are
usually provided by sensors that monitor engine speed, transmission input shaft
speed, transmission output speed, transmission oil temperature, and engine boost
pressure. ECM outputs are likely to include fault-code logging and diagnostic
systems. There might also be shift calibration or shift logic capabilities based on a
machine’s current operating condition

FIGURE 48-14 Countershaft power-shift transmission arrangement in a grader

drivetrain.

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 Figure 37BCountershaft power-shift transmission arrangement in a grader
drivetrain.

This countershaft transmission is driven directly from the engine flywheel. In other
words, there is no torque converter. The input shaft is driven at a 1:1 ratio from the
engine through a torsional damper. There are eight forward and eight reverse gear
ratios available. Each gear selection actuates two clutches: one for speed and one
for direction. Each clutch is engaged hydraulically and controlled by an individual
electronically controlled proportional solenoid valve. The rate of pressure rise behind
each clutch piston is determined by the transmission control unit (TCU) that provides
the solenoids with a 24V pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal to each valve. The
transmission’s output shaft drives a differential assembly that contains planetary
final drives. These final drives power the tandem drive, which in turn drives the
grader’s wheels and tires. The operator inputs include the transmission shift control
lever, an inching pedal, and an auto shift button. The transmission is shifted from
neutral when the operator moves the shift lever to any of eight forward or reverse
detents in the transmission shift switch. The inching pedal will neutralize the
transmission and simulate a mechanical clutch to the operator. If auto shift is
selected, the TCU will select upshift and downshift points only from fifth to eighth
gear if the selector is in the eighth position. The shift points will depend on engine
speed, throttle position, and engine load inputs. These inputs, along with several
speed and temperature values gathered from sensors, are sent to the TCU that will
control clutch engagement by energizing proportional solenoid valves with a PWM
signal

Countershaft Transmission Power Flows

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To understand the power flows of a countershaft power-shift transmission, it helps
to first examine how the shafts are arranged in the transmission housing (FIGURE
48-18). In this transmission, the input shaft is in constant mesh with the forward
and reverse input gears on their shafts. The forward and reverse hub gears are also
in constant mesh. The forward hub gear is in constant mesh with both of the speed
clutch input hub gears. The speed clutch output gears are in constant mesh with the
output gears, which in turn are in constant mesh with the output shaft gear. The
output yoke is driven by the output shaft. When the transmission control lever is
placed in first-speed forward, clutches C and D are engaged (FIGURE 48-19). The
solenoids controlling the transmission clutches are energized by a signal that
produces proportional pressure and flow changes. Engine power comes into the
input shaft (A), where it drives the four input floating gears on the directional clutch
shafts. If one of the forward clutches is engaged, it will send torque to the two
speed clutch cylinders. When system pressure oil is applied to clutch C, the piston
moves to apply pressure to the clutch plates. This clutch can now transfer torque out
through the external gear on its cylinder. The cylinders are the common drum for
the two clutches on each shaft. As soon as any one of the four directional clutches is
engaged, torque will be transferred to that clutch’s output gear. This gear will then
transfer torque down to the bottom shafts and out through the output shaft. In this
case, the first gear clutch is engaged (D) and torque flows out its shaft gear to drive
gear E, which in turn drives gear F and turns gear G on the output shaft, which turns
yoke H.

FIGURE 48-18 Arrangement of shafts in countershaft power-shift transmission.

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 FIGURE 48-19 Power flow in first-speed forward. J K L B A C D E F I H G FIGURE
48-20 Power flow in first-speed reverse.

If one of the reverse range directional clutches is engaged, it will transfer torque
from the transmission’s input shaft to its cylinder, and since this cylinder is in mesh
with only the forward cylinder, the torque will flow through that cylinder. This will
reverse the rotation from the reverse shaft, and when any speed clutch is engaged,
its rotation will be transferred out the transmission in reverse rotation. The forward
shaft then acts as a reverse idler. Power flow through the countershaft power-shift
transmission can also be visualized for the reverse direction. When the transmission
control lever is placed in first-speed reverse, clutches C and E are engaged (FIGURE
48-20). The solenoids controlling the transmission clutches are energized by a signal
that produces proportional pressure and flow changes. Engine power comes into the
input shaft (A) to the first stage gear (back) (B). Power flow is directed to the third-
stage direction clutch C, through the second-stage cylinder gear D to the fourth-
stage speed clutch E, and on through the transmission to the sixth-stage gear F and
middle gear G. Power then flows to the seventh-stage output gear H and out
through the output stage (I)
Countershaft Transmission Power Flows

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Often, a better way to understand the power flows through this type of transmission
is with a chart that shows which clutches are engaged for each speed and direction
range (TABLE 48-3).

FIGURE 48-21 Hydraulically applied, spring-released clutch.

PLANETARY (EPICYCLIC GEARBOX) POWER-SHIFT GEARBOXES

Planetary power-shift gearboxes are used in many types and sizes of heavy
equipment machines, including track-type tractors, graders, wheel loaders, and
machine. They can provide from 2 to 12 forward speed ranges and up to 5 reverse
speeds.
Planetary power-shift gearboxes use:
1. a gear arrangement with one or more planetary gear sets
2. a combination of hydraulic clutches (Holding Devices),
3. Hydraulic (a control) system.

PLANETARY GEARSET

Planetary gear sets consist of a combination of three main components that are used
to transfer torque:
1. a sun gear
2. a planetary pinion carrier (driven or held by planetary pinion gears)
3. a ring gear.
Planetary gear sets have several advantages over conventional gear sets:
1. a more balanced load on gears, shafts, and bearings

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 2. the ability to change gear ratios and directions easily
3. a more compact design.
4. more gear ratios compared to a standard gearbox
OPERATION OF A PLANETARY GEAR SET

NOTE

Two gears with external teeth in mesh rotate in opposite directions in an epicyclic
gear train.

With regard to the direction of rotation, it is helpful to remember two points:

1. Two gears in mesh—one with internal teeth and one with external teeth—
rotate in the same direction.
2. Different combinations of driven gears and held gears produce different gear
ratios or actions.

In a planetary gear set, holding one component while driving another will result in
an output from the third component (FIGURE 48-16). Planetary gear sets can
provide an increase in speed and a decrease in torque, a decrease in speed and an
increase in speed

Figure 38

Power is transferred through planetary gearsets by holding one part of the gearset
and driving another part. Power exits the third part of the gearset.

For example:

Holding the sun gear and driving the planet carrier causes the annulus to rotate.

By holding or driving the gears of a planetary gearset, it is possible to obtain:

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 1. Speed reduction (torque multiplication)
2. Overdrive (speed multiplication)
3. Reverse
4. Direct

NOTE:

1. Gear ratios are dependent on the number of teeth on the sun gear and
annulus gear in every planetary gearset.
2. Direct drive is achieved by driving two members of a planetary gearset at the
same speed.
3. Neutral can be achieved by not holding or driving any one member of the
planetary gearset.
4. Two members of a planetary gearset can be driven at different speeds to
achieve yet another output ratio. This is done in the newer 8- and 9-speed
gearboxes
5. The carrier is the largest gear with the most teeth. The theoretical number of
teeth on the carrier can be determined by adding the tooth count from the
sun and annulus gears. The sun gear is the smallest gear with the least
number of teeth. The annulus gear tooth count is always bigger than the sun
gear, but smaller than the carrier tooth count. The number of teeth on the
planet gears is not used to calculate gear ratios, only the theoretical number
of carrier teeth. When the number of teeth is known, the gear ratio is
determined by:
6. Gear Ratio= Number of teeth on output/Number of teeth on input.
7. Through planetary gearsets, automatic gearboxes can achieve gear reduction.
8. Gear reduction provides increased torque accompanied by reduced output
speed.
9. One method of obtaining a gear reduction is to drive the sun gear and hold
the annulus stationary. Another method is to hold the sun gear stationary
while driving the annulus gear. In both cases, the planetary carrier is the
output.
10. The first method provides maximum speed reduction (torque multiplication)
that can be achieved in one planetary gearset. The second method produces
minimum gear reduction.
11. In direct drive, the gearset acts as a solid unit to transfer power. A planetary
gearset acts as one unit while driving two of its members at the same speed.
The planet gears do not walk around the sun gear or rotate on their axes.
The entire unit is locked together, forming one rotating unit with a 1:1 ratio
between the input and the output.
12. If the sun gear or annulus is held stationary while driving the carrier, the
remaining member (output) is driven at a faster speed than the planetary

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 carrier (input). Driving the carrier produces overdrive in a planetary gearset
with a maximum speed as a result of holding the annulus stationary.
13. A planetary gearset is capable of providing output rotation that is the opposite
of input rotation. Holding the planet carrier and driving the sun gear produces
Reverse. The annulus is the output and turns in the reverse direction of input

Hydraulic Clutch Components

The basic purpose of a hydraulic clutch used in any type of power-shift transmission
is to either lock two rotating components together, such as one gear to another
gear, or stop a rotating component by locking it to a stationary component. A
hydraulic clutch accomplishes these tasks by applying pressurized fluid from the
powertrain hydraulic system to a piston that squeezes plates and discs together.
The torque transfer components inside a hydraulic clutch are plates (sometimes
called separator plates) and discs (sometimes called friction discs) that are
alternately stacked together in groups of 2 to 10. The clutch plates are thin, round
slices of steel or cast iron that have teeth on either the inside or the outside
diameter or tangs on the outside diameter. The teeth or tangs are used to lock the
plates to a component, such as a gear hub, a ring gear, or a housing.
The clutch discs are sandwiched between the clutch plates and have teeth on their
inside diameter or, in some cases, their outside diameter. Each clutch plate and disc
can be 6 mm thick. The torque capacity of a clutch relates to the surface area of the
discs. The greater the surface area of the discs, the higher the torque load that the
clutch can handle. Consequently, clutch discs and plates for low-horsepower
machines may only be 102 mm in diameter, while the ones used for large machines
could be as big as 914 mm in diameter. To increase the maximum amount of torque
that a clutch can transfer, transmission manufacturers either increase the number or
the size of the plates and discs. The clutch plates and discs are designed to operate
in a hydraulic fluid bath for lubrication and cooling purposes. The plates inside a
hydraulic clutch should have a relatively smooth surface, but not one that is
polished. The plate surfaces are usually ground with a crosshatch pattern that
enables them to retain a film of hydraulic fluid to prevent overheating during clutch
application or release (FIGURE 48-22). Whenever plates are removed during a
disassembly procedure, they must be inspected for heat checks, tooth wear,
grooving, and discoloration, and they must be measured for flatness. The discs in a
hydraulic clutch must be able to absorb huge amounts of energy when a shift is
made. There is a brief period between the start of clutch engagement and full
engagement when these clutch discs need to tolerate some slippage. This slippage
generates heat. The discs’ ability to withstand this heat and engage smoothly
depends on the type of material from which they are made. Clutch discs have a base
of steel with a friction material bonded to both sides. This friction material can be
made of various compounds:

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 1. sintered metal combinations of bronze, iron, and copper
2. paper-based or cellulous materials (sometimes called organic materials)
3. elastomeric materials containing a mixture of rubber, inorganic fibres, and
friction particles.

FIGURE 48-22 Clutch plate

FIGURE 48-23 Different types of clutch discs.

Hydraulic Clutch Operation

When a hydraulic clutch needs to be engaged, pressurized fluid from the hydraulic
system is routed through a control valve past a solenoid controlled by the operator.
The clutch apply oil is fed through a bore in the transmission housing that the clutch
shaft rotates in and enters a cross-drilling in the shaft. The cross-drilling is sealed
with O-rings, and the oil then travels through the clutch shaft to another cross-
drilling at the piston housing. Here the oil is then applied to the face of the piston.
This pressure forces the piston to clamp the plates and discs together (FIGURE 48-
24). Seals along the oil flow path and around the piston prevent the oil from leaking
out.

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Once a hydraulic clutch is disengaged, springs in the clutch retract the clutch piston
and allow the plates and discs to rotate independently (FIGURE 48-25). Clutch
release springs are usually one of two types: a series of coil springs spaced around
the circumference of the piston or one or more Belleville springs. A Belleville spring
is shaped like a dished washer and can be used singly or stacked in multiples. Either
way, the spring or springs push on the piston to keep it in the released position.

Hydraulic Clutch Control

The way that hydraulic clutches in a power-shift transmission are controlled depends
on factors such as the type of transmission, the equipment manufacturer, and the
type of control system being used. To better understand the basic principles of
hydraulic clutch control, it helps to start by looking at a block diagram of an
electronic transmission control system (FIGURE 48-26). The transmission control
system in this example consists of the following components:
1. transmission control unit (TCU)
2. engine control unit (ECU)
3. accelerator position sensor
4. transmission speed sensors
i input speed sensor
ii turbine speed sensor
iii output speed sensor
5. transmission shift control
6. transmission control module (TCM)
i pressure switch
ii temperature sensor
iii oil level sensor
iv solenoid valves
v retarder control
7. diagnostic data connector
In this transmission, the accelerator position sensor, the transmission speed sensors,
and the transmission shift control send information via wiring harnesses to the
transmission control unit (TCU). The TCU processes this information and sends
electrical signals to actuate specific solenoid valves. Energizing and deenergizing
these solenoid valves controls the oncoming and off-going clutch pressures to enable
transmission shifts that match engine speed and operating conditions to protect the
transmission from damage.

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 FIGURE 48-26 Transmission control system.

SUMMARY OF A PLANETARY GEAR SET OPERATION

POWER FLOW COMBINATION THROUGH A PLANETARY GEAR SET

SUN CARRIER RING SPEED TORQUE DIRECTION

1 Input Output Held Maximum reduction Increase Same as input

2 Held Output Input Minimum reduction Increase Same as input

3 Output Input Held Maximum increase Reduction Same as input

4 Held Input Output Minimum increase Reduction Same as input

5 Input Held Output Reduction Increase Opposite of input

6 Output Held Input Increase Reduction Opposite of input

7 When any two members are held together, speed and direction are the same as input
ratio is 1:1

If the carrier is:

1- Then the output, under drive results or speed decrease

2- Then the input, over drive results or speed increase
3- Then the held member, or output direction is reversed

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HOLDING DEVICES

Clutch Packs

With planetary gear sets, there must be a means of holding certain components in a
planetary gear set to produce an output. Planetary shift gearboxes use a series of
clutch packs to hold or provide an input to a particular planetary component to
achieve a desired gear ratio through the planetary gear sets. In heavy-duty
equipment, the clutch packs used are a multi-disc clutch consisting of friction discs
and plates. The friction discs are made of ceramic/bronze compounds, elastomer
compounds, or graphite compounds to withstand high heat. These clutch discs are
allocated within the gearbox, and the oil provides cooling for these wet discs and
plates. Some smaller equipment applications may still utilize organic/paper fibres on
their friction discs.

The number of friction discs and plates used within a single clutch pack is strictly
dictated by the application of the clutch pack and the torque loading applied to it.
For example, first-gear clutch pack may utilize four discs and three plates and
second-gear clutch pack may utilize only three discs and two plates of the same
diameter. This is because first gear is exposed to higher torque loads and requires a
higher coefficient of friction than second gear

EXPLAIN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF PROPELLER SHAFT

PROPELLER SHAFT

The propeller shaft is a component of the drive train in a vehicle, with

the purpose of delivering torque from the gearbox to the final drive at different
angles and lengths, which then transmits this torque to the wheels in order to
move the vehicle.

Fundamentals of Driveshaft Systems

Although there are many aspects to a driveshaft, any propeller shaft must
perform the following three basic functions:
1. It must transmit torque through an angle
2. Rotate at necessary speed
3. Transmit torque at varying lengths

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 Characteristics of a good propeller shaft

1. It must be strong enough to withstand the maximum torque from the power
source.
2. It must allow the shaft to change length due to oscillating components.
3. It must transmit torque while allowing the angle of drive to change.
4. operate outside the critical angle
5. vary in length while operating
6. be free of vibrations

Strength
The primary function of a driveshaft is to provide the strength needed to
withstand the peak torque delivered from the engine while providing an ample
safety margin. It might seem that increasing strength can be achieved simply by
increasing the weight of the driveshaft. As the driveshaft is made heavier to carry
more load, however, the shaft’s maximum speed of rotation is affected. The
heavier the shaft is, the lower its maximum speed will be. As a driveshaft’s
rotational speeds goes up, centrifugal force acting on its weight will tend to move
the shaft off its axis of rotation, causing a whipping action.

Critical speed of a propeller shaft

The speed at which the centrifugal force causes the shaft to move off its axis is
known as critical speed. If a shaft operates at or above this speed, the resultant
vibration will destroy the shaft. This problem can be compensated for by making
the shaft lighter, larger in diameter, or shorter in length, but vehicleeful
consideration should be given to adjusting the dimensions. The overall shaft
dimensions must be carefully selected to match the machine and its application.

Length Changes

The second function of a driveshaft is that it must allow the shaft to change in
length due to the varying distance between the driveline components caused by
axle oscillations. As the machine manoeuvres over rough terrain, its suspension
moves. This movement typically changes the distance between the driveline
components, such as the transfer case and the drive axle. Torque effects that
occur as the machine is put under load, or in some cases braking, can also cause
variations in the driveshaft length. For these reasons, it is essential that the
operating length of the driveshaft can change.

Rigid Joint Driveshaft

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 A rigid joint driveshaft can be used to connect two components that are both
rigidly mounted, such as the torque converter at the back of the engine and a
remotely mounted gearbox. This type of driveshaft does not allow for length
changes, because it connects two components that cannot move relative to each
other.

Angle of Drive

The engine, gearbox, transfer case, etc. are fixed to the machine frame and so
are always on the same plane when the machine is operated. This is not always
the case, however, for the drive axles of the machine. The drive axles articulate
according to the operating conditions, so the position of the drive axle relative to
the gearbox will change. A driveshaft must, therefore, be capable of transmitting
torque while operating through changing drive angles. This is the third essential
function of the driveshaft.
TYPES OF PROPEELER SHAFTS

There are many types of propeller shafts used in heavy vehicles out of which we are
going to consider two of these in this unit. They are:

HOTCHKISS DRIVE

Hotchkiss drive is the most widely used type of Rear axle drive. It is also simplest
compared to Torque Tube drive.

1. Hotchkiss Drive
2. Torque Tube Drive

HOTCHKISS DRIVE

Let's discuss the concept of Hotchkiss Drive.

Figure 39Line Diagram of Hotchkiss Drive:

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The line diagram of Hotchkiss Drive is shown in fig.24 whose parts are explained in a
detailed way below.

Parts of Hotchkiss drive:

The parts of Hotchkiss Drive are as follows.

 Universal Joints – 2 No’s

 Propeller Shaft
 Sliding Joint of Propeller shaft
 Bevel Pinion Shaft
 Rear Axle Casing
 Wheel of the Vehicle
 Leaf Spring
 Frame
 Shackle

An explanation for the parts of Hotchkiss Drive:

The detailed explanation for the parts of Hotchkiss Drive are as follows.

Universal Joints:

The universal joint is a connection between two shafts whose axis is inclined to each
other. Two Universal Joints are used at the beginning and end of the propeller shaft.

Propeller Shaft:

It is also known as drive shaft which is used to transmit the power from the engine
shaft to the rear axle casing.

Sliding Joint of Propeller Shaft:

The main purpose of the sliding joint in the propeller shaft is to enlarge and reduce
the length of the propeller shaft while the vehicle is moving on uneven roads.

Bevel Pinion Shaft:

The bevel pinion is placed at the end of the propeller shaft to transmit the power
from the engine to the differential. [The bevel pinion is in direct contact with the
crown wheel of the differential.]

Rear Axle Casing:

It is the casing that was present at the centre of the rear axle which consists of the
mechanism of differential and its connection with bevel pinion shaft.

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The leaf spring is also connected to the rear axle casing.

Wheel of the Vehicle:

The power generated at the engine shaft is to be transmitted finally to the wheels of
the vehicle via the axles.

Leaf Spring:

It plays a vital role in the suspension system. It carries the load of the vehicle,
Driving Thrust, Torque Reaction, and the Side Thrust also while it is under motion. It
is fixed rigidly in the middle of the rear axle.

Frame:

All the components of the Hotchkiss drive are attached to the frame only.

Shackle:

One end of the leaf spring is connected to the frame (which is fixed) and the other
end is connected to the shackle for a slight motion of spring with reference to the
uneven roads.

Working Principle of Hotchkiss Drive:

The parts which are presented above constitute the Hotchkiss drive. The power
generated at the engine is to be transmitted to the Gearbox and from there it is
transmitted to the rear axle casing via propeller shaft.

The Propeller shaft is fixed in between two universal joints and a sliding joint.

In the case of Hotchkiss drive, the entire load of the vehicle is managed by the leaf
spring. Not only the weight of the body but also Driving Thrust, Torque
Reaction, and the Side Thrust are managed by the springs of the vehicle.

The driving thrust is transmitted to the frame by the front half of the springs and
due to Torque reaction, the spring deflects as shown in the figure and this Torque
reaction is taken up by the springs.

Similarly, the springs would deflect in the opposite direction to take up the braking
torque.

Due to this Torque reaction and braking torque, the spring deflects as shown in the
above figure. Due to this, the bevel pinion also changes its position.

Therefore, if only one universal joint is employed at the end of the propeller shaft, it
will bend with reference to the various reactions.

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To avoid the bending of the propeller shaft, another universal joint at the end of the
propeller shaft is used.

During the movement of the vehicle, the rear axle moves up and down and it has to
move in a circle with the front spring support at the frame as a centre.

But for the motion of propeller shaft, the centre is at the front universal joint which
means that during the movement of the rear axle the length of the propeller shaft
has to vary and this can be provided employing sliding joint in the propeller shaft.

The sliding joint is used to increase and decrease the length of the propeller shaft
during running on uneven roads.

Advantages of Hotchkiss Drive:

The advantages of a Hotchkiss drive are as follows.

 It is easy to manufacture and assemble

 high load carrying capability
 Simple design

Disadvantages of Hotchkiss Drive:

The disadvantages of a Hotchkiss drive are as follows.

 It can occupy more space compared to other suspension systems.

Suspension weight is high

TORQUE TUBE DRIVE

In torque drive, the propeller shaft is enclosed in a hollow tube. The tube is
rigidly bolted to the differential housing at one end and is fastened at the
other end to the gearbox through a somewhat flexible joint (universal joint)
situated in spherical cup fixed to the frame. The torque reaction and driving
thrust are taken up by torque tube. When the vehicle comes across a bump
or shocks, the centre line of the bevel pinion shaft will not be shift and always
passes through the centre of spherical cup.
In Torque Tube Drive, only one universal joint is required at front end and no
universal joint at the rear end. The tube incorporates bearing, which support
the propeller shaft. It is usually located between the (gearbox) gear box and
the propeller shaft. No sliding joint is required in the propeller shaft. In this
drive, the leaf springs takes only the side thrust besides supporting weight of
the body.

Components of Driveshafts/ Propeller shafts

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 Figure 40 Components of propeller shaft

Depending on the machine and the installation requirements, many components

can be used to make up a driveline. Certain manufacturers will have a propensity
for using different types of yokes, universal joints, and shaft support systems. In
heavy equipment installations, a driveline can consist of a torque converter,
gearbox, transfer case, and two drive axles connected by driveshafts between
each component. A machine may have other driveshafts driving auxiliary pumps
or mechanisms. All driveshafts, however, will use several common components,
such as:
1. the driveshaft tube
2. driveshaft yokes
3. slip joints
4. coupling shafts
5. universal joints, and fastening systems.

Driveshaft Tube

The driveshaft tube used in off-road equipment is typically made from steel
because of its strength. Steel tubing can be manufactured in several ways. A flat
piece of steel can be bent into the shape of a tube and the seam welded.
Another method of manufacture is by extrusion, where a solid bar is pierced with
a die and a hollow tube is created. This method will form a seamless tube: it has
no seam weld.

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 Regardless of the method of construction, driveshaft tubes are hollow.
Consequently, they tend to amplify any sounds, like a bell does. To combat this,
sound reducers made of a variety of materials, are usually placed into the tube at
manufacture to stop the shaft from conducting noise.

Driveshaft Yokes

All driveshafts have yokes. Three types of yoke are prevalent in heavy-duty
applications: tube, end, and flange.
Tube Yokes
Tube yokes are pressed into the tube at manufacture and welded into place.
Tube yoke have full-round bores that accept two of the pressed-in U-joint
bearing caps. There are several sizes of tube yokes to accommodate different
universal joint sizes. Universal joint bearing caps are retained in the tube yoke
ears by internal or external snap rings or circlips (also known as C-clip), bolt-in
bearing caps, or bolted spring clips.

End Yokes

End yokes are designed to be installed over the splined output shaft of the
gearbox; the splined input shaft of the drive axle; other driveline component or a
splined shaft that is part of the driveshaft itself. End yokes are usually bolted to
their respective shafts. End yokes can come in wing type, full-round or half-round
designs. The wing type allows the bearing caps to be bolted directly to the yokes.
This arrangement uses a notch and key way in the connection that increases
torque capacity. The full-round design allows the bearing caps to be retained by
internal or external snap rings or circlips, bolt-in bearing caps, or bolted spring
clips. Half round designs use attaching hardware such as U-bolts, wing shaped
bearing caps bolted to the yoke, or bolted half-round straps. Half-round yokes
using straps as attaching hardware will usually have small metal tangs cast into
the yoke to prevent the universal joint bearing caps from moving outward.

Flange Yoke

A flange yoke, will hold two of the universal joint bearing caps and incorporate a
flat flange with a series of mounting holes so that the flange can then be
attached to a component. Universal joint bearing caps are retained in the flange
yoke ears by internal or external snap rings or circlips, bolt-in bearing caps, or
bolted spring clips. A flange yoke is designed to be bolted to a matching flange
mounted on the component, called a companion flange. Sometimes, a
companion flange is matched with a flange yoke and used instead of an end
yoke. The flange yoke and the companion flange bolt together when the
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 driveshaft is installed. A companion flange is splined to the output shaft of the
gearbox or the input shaft of the driveline component. A companion flange does
not have bores to accept the universal joint bearing caps and so must be used
with a flange yoke. The flange will be held in place on the shaft by a large nut or
bolt. The companion flange can be round or square in shape but must match the
shape of the flange yoke that will bolt to it.

Slip Joint
The purpose of the slip joint is to allow the propeller shaft to vary in length while
rotating and transmitting torque loads.
A slip joint is a two-piece splined component consisting of a splined shaft fitted
into a splined sleeve. It allows the propeller to lengthen or shorten and is
essential in a non-rigid vehicle to accommodate length changes caused by
suspension oscillation. Some, but not all, slip joints will have a master spline so
that they cannot be reassembled incorrectly. If they do not have a master spline,
you must mark the mating position of the two halves of the slip joint before
removal. Most slip joints used on newer Spicer driveshafts will have a coating
called Glide coat or Teflon which reduce friction and noise between splined
surfaces. This blue nylon coating is designed to reduce friction in the slip joint.

Parts of the Slip Joint

The slip joint consists of a male splined tube shaft (stub) and a female splined
slip yoke (sleeve). A threaded cap is used to retain the lubricant seal.

Universal Joints (UJ)

As earlier mentioned, the purpose of the universal joint is two connect two shafts
together while allowing rotary motion and torque to be transmitted to the other
shaft, even though the two shaft shafts may be at a different angle to each other
and in different planes.
Most universal joints used one heavy vehicles are the Vehicledan, Hookes or
cross type joint.

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 Figure 41Universal joint

The universal (Vehicledan) joint is essential to the operation of today’s motor

vehicles. It consists of a cross with four finely machined round trunnions equally
spaced 90 degrees apart. The trunnions hold the four bearing caps, which are
fitted with long needle bearings to distribute the load. The cross of the joint is
drilled with passages that connect the centre of the four trunnions with a grease
fitting that is installed in the cross at the centre or on the outside of one or two
of the bearing caps. The purpose of the passage is to supply lubricating grease to
all the trunnions and bearing caps. Some U-joints will have a standpipe
incorporated into the lube passages. The standpipe acts as a check valve to
retain the lubricant. The bearing caps fitted over the trunnions contain thrust
washers or hardened thrust surfaces to resist axial movement of the cross. A seal
keeps grease in and dirt out. The seals are specially designed to allow grease to
purge from the seals when the joint is lubricated, but they do not allow water or
dirt to enter. Two of the bearings are fitted into a yoke that is welded to a
driveshaft component. The other two bearings are fitted to a second yoke either
attached to another shaft or fitted into an end yoke that is connected to a
gearbox or a drive axle. The U-joint allows the two connected yokes to rotate at
different angles to each other. Note that some U-joints are permanently
lubricated and do not have grease fittings.

Basic types of universal joint

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 Figure 42Types of universal joint

CROSS-TYPE JOINT

The cross-type universal joint is widely used on prop shafts fitted to rear-wheel
drive vehicles. It is often called a Hooke-type coupling because it was developed
from the joint claimed to have been invented by Robert Hooke in the
seventeenth century. The joints shown in Figure 3.104 are a basic Hooke type
joint and a development known as the cross-type joint. These joints have two
yokes set at 90° to each other; the yokes are joined to each other by a cross
shaped trunnion block. Contact between the yoke and the trunnion is made by
needle roller bearings, which are held in a hardened steel cup retained in each
arm of the yoke. Alignment of the trunnion is achieved by making the bottom of
the cup contact the end of the block.

The merits of this type of joint are:

1. compactness
2. high mechanical efficiency
3. ability to drive through a large occasional ‘bump’ angle (maximum about 25°)
4. accurate centring of shaft, hence the joint is suitable for high-speed
operation

Principles of Operation of Driveshafts and Universal Joints

When a driveshaft is considered for a certain application, several things must be
considered. For example, it is critical to know how much load the shaft must be
capable of transmitting without failure, how fast the shaft must rotate, what
angle it must operate at, and how long the shaft must be.
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 Rubber joints
One disadvantage of the cross-type joint is its lack of flexibility in relation to the
absorption of torsional shocks and drive-line vibrations, especially when a
comparatively rigid gearbox system is used. A smoother and less harsh drive can
be obtained by using one or more rubber joints in the gearbox driveline.
Various types of rubber joints are in use including:
1. Moulton-type
2. Layrub-type
3. doughnut-type.
Moulton-type
This rubber trunnion joint (Figure 23c) is based on a Hooke coupling, but uses
moulded rubber bushings to transmit the drive between the trunnion and yokes.
The synthetic rubber mouldings require no lubrication and their resilience damps
out the torsional shocks generated when the drive is transmitted through an
angle.
Layrub-type
Originally made by the Laycock Company and constructed of a series of rubber
bushings, ‘Layrub-type’ is used to describe this joint, which is shown in Fig.23d.
It consists of a number of moulded rubber blocks, with specially shaped cavities
at their ends, which are sandwiched between two steel pressings. Each shaft is
connected by means of a fork to alternate rubber blocks. The construction allows
the rubber blocks to deform and drive to be transmitted through a small angle.
In addition, the blocks accommodate small axial and angular movements for
shaft length alteration and torsional damping. Although the coupling is rather
large in diameter, the layrub-type offers the following advantages:
1. no lubrication required
2. it is capable of driving through bump angles up to about 15°
3. it allows for axial movement, hence no splining of the shaft is necessary
4. its flexibility damps shocks and insulates the vehicle from gearbox noise.

Doughnut-type

Although rather large, the great flexibility of this type provides a soft cushion to
absorb the majority of torsional shocks produced by the action of other joints or
by vibration from either the engine or road wheels. Fig.23e shows how the
synthetic rubber coupling is near-circular and is moulded around cylindrical steel
inserts that are bolted alternately to the three-arm forks which are attached to
the shafts. The merits of this coupling are similar to the Layrub type

Shaft Mass and Critical Speed

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 The critical speed of the propeller shaft is the speed at which the rotation speed
coincides with the transverse natural vibration frequency of the propeller shaft.
Running the propeller shaft at critical speed will cause vibrations which can cause
damage to propeller shaft components.

The driveshaft and driveline must obviously be made strong enough to carry the
torque load that will be transmitted through them. Manufacturers choose the
strength of a driveshaft to match the machine’s configuration. As the mass of the
shaft increases, the centrifugal force acting on it as it rotates increases. As a
result, the shaft’s critical speed decreases. Critical-speed issues are not usually a
concern in off-road equipment, because driveshaft rotational speed is typically
between 100 and 800 rpm, but speed can be a problem in certain applications.
As the shaft approaches critical speed, it will start to vibrate violently. The
intensity of the vibration will increase until it reaches critical speed. At critical
speed, the shaft will usually fail catastrophically.
One way to combat critical-speed problems is to reduce the mass of the
driveshaft. Doing so, however, will decrease its torque carrying capability. A
second way is to decrease the shaft length. A longer shaft has more of a
tendency to sag, while a shorter shaft reduces this tendency. Using a shorter
shaft will decrease the overall mass of the shaft but will require the use of a
multi-piece driveshaft to reach the required length. Multi-piece driveshafts can
lead to vibration problems caused by non-cancelling universal joint operating
angles. This in turn can lead to premature failures of the U-joints. A third way is
to increase the diameter of the shaft tube. The larger diameter makes the shaft
stronger and less likely to sag, but the larger diameter carries a weight problem.
In addition to certain failure, another phenomenon called a harmonic vibration is
associated with a driveshafts critical speed. A harmonic vibration is an inherent
vibration that occurs at exactly half critical-speed rpm and creates a vibration
that will cause damage to the universal joints and, indeed, the whole driveline.
Although not as severe as critical-speed vibration, harmonic vibration must still
be avoided for a driveline to provide worry-free service. So, carefully selecting
tubing type, length, and driveline components is essential when the machine is
being designed, so that the shaft will not be operating at or near critical speed or
half critical speed during normal use. The bottom line is that a driveshaft is
usually constructed to be as light as possible but as strong as necessary to do
the job required of it.

Non-uniform Velocity

All driveshafts have a natural tendency to vibrate because of a phenomenon

called non-uniform velocity. Non-uniform velocity happens when any shaft with a

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 universal joint operates at an angle different from the axis of rotation of the drive
component.

PHASING

Phase Angle-the phase angle of a propeller shaft is the angular difference

between the connecting yokes. Phasing is used to correct equal angles operating
at each end of the propeller shaft.

The working angles of a driveshaft system must be very carefully selected in

order to prevent unacceptable vibration of the rotating shaft. However, there is
another element to the issue. In order for cancelation to occur and for vibrations
to be eliminated, the cancelling joint angle must be in the same phase in terms
of rotation. Phasing of the universal joint operating angles means that the output
yoke of the joint doing the cancelation of the non-uniform velocity has to be
doing exactly the opposite of the driven yoke of the input universal joint,
meaning that it must decelerate for the first 90 degrees of rotation and
accelerate for the second 90 degrees in order to deliver a uniform velocity to the
component it is connected to. To accomplish this, the inboard yoke ears on either
end of the driven shaft must line up. This will place their respective joints in
phase with accelerations and decelerations of the joints on either end of the
shafts to be out of sync with each other. Failure to correctly phase the universal
joints will worsen the vibration rather than cancel it. The most common cause of
out-of-phase problems is a failure by the technician to mark the slip yoke of a
split driveshaft before disassembly. Always mark the slip yoke position before
removal so that it can be reinstalled correctly.

Fig. Phased Propeller Shaft

CENTRE BEARINGS

The general of in heavy vehicles is that a propeller shaft should not exceed 1.75
m between universal joint centres. If the propeller shaft exceeds this length, a
centre bearing must be used.

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 When two or more drive shafts are connected in tandem, their alignment is
maintained by a rubber bushed centre support bearing (fig. 5-10). The centre
support bearing bolts to the frame or underbody of the vehicle. It supports the
centre of the propeller shaft where the two shafts come together.

A sealed ball bearing allows the drive shaft to spin freely. The outside of the ball
bearing is held by a thick, rubber, doughnut-shaped mount. The rubber mount
prevents vibration and noise from transferring into the operator's compartment.

A bearing similar to the centre support bearing is often used with long drive lines,
containing a single drive shaft. This bearing is called a PILLOW BLOCK BEARING.
It is commonly used in drive lines that power auxiliary equipment. Its purpose is
to provide support for the drive shaft and maintain alignment. When used at or
near the centre of the shaft, it reduces the whipping tendency of the shaft at
high speed or when under heavy loads. The construction of pillow blocks varies.
The simplest form is used on solid power take-off drive shafts, which is no more
than a steel sleeve with a bronze bushing.

Centre bearings are typically permanently lubricated. A bulkhead support bearing

is necessary when a driveshaft has to pass through machine bulkheads.
Typically, a flanged bearing or pillow block type of bearing is used for this
purpose. Pillow block support bearings can also be used when driveshaft length
is excessive. Breaking a long driveshaft into two or more shorter sections
supported by a bearing reduces the shaft’s tendency to bow out or flex under
load. A pillow block support bearing.

Vibrations

Propeller shafts vibration can be caused by:

1. Worn or damaged components
2. Out of balance masses
3. Run out
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 4. Critical speed
propeller

CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINT (CVS)

A constant-velocity (CV) universal joint is a type that provides an output shaft

speed equal to that of the input in all shaft positions within the working range of
the joint. These joints are commonly used in propeller shafts because of their
smooth operation. They were originally introduced for situations where the drive
angle was large, such as at the wheel end of a front-wheel drive vehicle when
the steering is set in the full-lock position. Geometry of a typical CV joint can be
appreciated if the action of a Hooke-type coupling is considered. The speed
variation of a Hooke-type joint is caused by the alteration in leverage between
the yokes and trunnion block. When the coupling is viewed from the side and the
input shaft is rotated through 90°, the trunnion block is seen to oscillate back
and forth from the vertical through an angle equal to the shaft drive angle. A
‘constant angular velocity’ condition occurs with this joint when the trunnion
block is at the mid-point of its rocking movement. If this condition could be
maintained a constant-velocity universal joint would be obtained, i.e. constant-
velocity conditions are achieved when the connecting device between the driving
and driven yokes is positioned in a plane that bisects the angle of drive. The
various CV joints in use have a construction which is based on either the twin
Hooke-type coupling arrangement or on the ‘angle bisect’ principle.

Constant-velocity joints in common use are:

1. Tracta
2. Rzeppa
3. Weiss
4. Tripode.

Tracta CV joints

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 Reference to the line sketch shows that the operating principle is similar to
two Hooke-type joints: the angles are always kept constant and the yokes are
set in the same place. The joint is capable of transmitting a drive through a
maximum angle of about 40° and its strong construction makes it suitable for
agricultural and military vehicles, but the friction of the sliding surfaces makes
it rather inefficient.

Rzeppa (Birfield)-type CV joints

The constructional features of this joint are shown in Figure 3.111. In this
type, the grooves that act as the tracks for the balls are straight instead of
curved as in the fixed version. This allows the drive shaft length to vary up to
about 50 mm. Drive through the joint is produced by the force exerted by the
side of the driving fork on the rollers. This force is transmitted to the tripod
and joint housing. Alteration of the drive angle causes the roller to move
backwards and forwards along the grooved track as the joint rotates through

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 one revolution. A small clearance is given between the roller and track to
permit this movement. Homokinetic motion (constant velocity) is achieved
with a Tripode joint because of the path taken by the rollers with respect to
the contact point on the track. This type of fixed joint accepts an occasional
drive angle up to about 45

This Joint is also referred to as a Birfield joint. Figure 3.108 shows the
construction of a Birfield joint and the line sketch shows its principle of
operation. Constant velocity is achieved if the device (steel balls in this case)
connecting the drive shaft to the driven shaft rotates in a plane that bisects
the angle of drive. The Birfield joint achieves this condition. Drive from the
inner to outer race is by means of longitudinal, elliptical grooves, which hold a
series of steel balls (normally six) in the bisecting plane by a cage. In the
original Rzeppa joint the cage position was controlled by a small plunger fitted
between the two shaft centres, but noise was a problem. In the Birfield
design the plunger is omitted. Instead, the balls are made to take up their
correct positions by offsetting the centres of the radii for inner and outer
grooves. A Birfield joint has a maximum angle of about 45°, but this angle is
far too large for continuous operation because of the heat generated. The
joint is lubricated by grease, the appropriate quantity being packed in the
joint ‘for life’. A synthetic rubber boot seals the CV unit and prevents the
ingress of dirt, etc. Weiss-type CV joints This type was patented in America in
1923 by Weiss and later developed by Bendix. Figure 3.109 shows a simplified
drawing of this type. The two forks have grooves cut in their sides to form
tracks for the steel balls. There are four tracks, so four balls are used to
transmit rotary motion and a fifth ball placed at the centre of the forks locates
the two forks and resists the inward force. The driving balls work in
compression, so two balls take the forward drive and the other two operate
when reverse drive is applied. The complete joint is contained in a housing
filled with grease. Maximum angularity is about 35°.Constant velocity is
achieved in a manner similar to the Rzeppa joint – the balls always take up a
position in a plane that bisects the angle of drive.

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 Figure 43 Weiss-type CV joints

Weiss-type CV joints

This type was patented in America in 1923 by Weiss and later developed by Bendix.
Figure 3.109 shows a simplified drawing of this type. The two forks have grooves cut
in their sides to form tracks for the steel balls. There are four tracks, so four balls
are used to transmit rotary motion and a fifth ball placed at the centre of the forks
locates the two forks and resists the inward force. The driving balls work in
compression, so two balls take the forward drive and the other two operate when
reverse drive is applied. The complete joint is contained in a housing filled with
grease. Maximum angularity is about 35°. Constant velocity is achieved in a manner
similar to the Rzeppa joint – the balls always take up a position in a plane that
bisects the angle of drive.

Tripode-type CV joint

This compact joint has been developed over recent years and, because of its ability
to operate efficiently at high speed, it is widely used by vehicle manufacturers.
Besides providing good resistance to high-speed centrifugal effects, the construction
of this joint, combined with the reduced working clearances achieved by modern
production techniques, produces a gearbox drive line with good noise-vibration
harshness (NVH) performance. In the construction shown in Figure 3.110 the three-
armed support (tripod) carrying the spherically shaped rollers is fixed to the outer
housing. On both sides of each driving fork, which also has three arms, grooves are

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cut to form a bearing track for the rollers. Two plunge joints that are commonly
used by vehicle manufacturers have been developed from the fixed Birfield and
Tripode CV joints.

EXPLAIN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF TRANSFER CASE/DROP BOX

MULTI WHEEL DRIVE

Most off-road vehicles require to have multi-wheel drive axles. Multi-wheel drive is
defined as vehicle which are equipped with front axle driving axles as well as rear
driving axles.

Definitions of Drive Axles

1. 4X4 DRIVE
If a vehicle has a front driving axle as well as a rear driving axle and
no other axles, it is a four-wheel drive vehicle also known as a 4x4 or
referred to in writing as 4WD
2. 6X6
If a vehicle has a front driving axle as well as two rear driving axles
and no other axles, it is a six-wheel drive vehicle also known as a 6X6
or referred to in writing as 6WD
3. 8x8
If a vehicle has a front driving axle as well as three rear driving axles
and no other axles, it is a six-wheel drive vehicle also known as a 6X6
or referred to in writing as 8WD

4. All wheel drive (AWD)

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 If a vehicle is classified as all-wheel drive, it typically means that it is in
front and rear axle drive mode at all times. Therefore, the vehicle must
have an inter-axle differential.

SUMMARY

Most, if not all, heavy machine propeller shafts consist of one or more driveshafts
coupled by universal joints, also known as Vehicledan joints.

1) Robert Hooke discovered that a shaft driven at an angle through a universal

joint accelerates and decelerates twice per revolution. In some places,
universal joints are known as Hooke joints because of this.
2) Most driveshafts must meet three criteria:
i. They must be strong enough to transmit the maximum engine torque
without failure.
ii. They must allow the shaft length to change due to suspension
oscillation and torque wind up.
iii. And they must be able to operate at constantly changing operating
angles.
3) The Spicer Life Series driveshaft is a sealed driveshaft system now being
installed in some heavy equipment.
4) Driveshaft tubing can be seamed or seamless and constructed by being
welded, being forged, or using a welded tube drawn over mandrel.
5) Driveshafts are connected to the machine’s components and to each other
using various yokes. Yokes have two openings, called ears, to accept two of
the universal joint bearing caps. These ears can be full-round (circles), which
use circlips to secure the caps, or half-round, which require bolt-on straps to
secure the caps
6) Tube yokes are welded to the tube ends. End yokes are splined to
components such as drive axles. Both will have full-round or half-round ears.
7) Flange yokes are splined to components and have a flat flange that, in turn, is
bolted to a companion flange with two full-round yoke ears.
8) Machine propeller shafts may have more than one driveshaft, requiring the
use of a centre (hanger) or other support bearing.
9) Slip yokes allow the driveshaft length to change.
10)Most manufacturers recommend that driveshaft attaching bolts and most
hardware be replaced and not reused.
11)The critical speed of a driveshaft is the speed at which it will bow off its
centre-line due to centrifugal force. If operated at or beyond its critical speed,
a driveshaft will fail catastrophically.

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 12)Critical speed can be raised by reducing the shaft weight, increasing shaft
diameter, or by shortening the shaft’s length.
13)The shaft on the driven side of a universal joint operating at an angle
accelerates and decelerates twice per revolution. The rate of this non-uniform
velocity increases as the operating angle of the universal joint increases.
14)The intensity of the acceleration and deceleration causes inertial excitation of
the shaft, leading to vibration. As the operating angles increase, maximum
shaft speed must decrease; otherwise, the U-joint will fail. So, the speed of
the shaft is restricted by its angle of operation
15)The non-uniform velocity of the universal joint must be cancelled out by a
second universal joint with an equal and opposite angle at the other end of
the shaft.
16)This cancelation can be effected in two ways:
a. with a parallel joint arrangement (also known as a waterfall
arrangement) or
b. with an intersecting angle arrangement (also known as a broken back
arrangement).
17)Driveshafts with universal joints must be phased so that the velocity
cancelation occurs during the correct quadrant of rotation.
18)Driveline angles should be at least one-half degree to ensure lubricant
distribution in the joint, the angle at each end of a driveshaft should be equal
to within one degree, and the angles should be kept as small as possible
(three degrees or less) to minimize inertial excitation of the driveshaft.
19)Driveline vibration can be caused by a bent or dented driveshaft, foreign
material build-up on the shaft, worn U-joints or slip yokes, driveshaft
imbalance, driveline angles out or too steep, or a driveshaft being out of
phase.
20)When lubricating U-joints, it is crucial that new grease purges all four caps.
Otherwise, the joint should be replaced.
21)Universal joints should always be replaced using proper tooling only

NOTMulti-wheel drive vehicles are fitted with transfer cases (drop boxes).

TRANSFER CASES

Introduction

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The basic function of the transfer case is to accept torque from the main gear box
then divide and transfer that torque to the driving axles.

FIGURE 45-35 Schematic of a transfer

case with a PTO option

A transfer case is a gearbox arrangement that is either attached to the back of the
main gearbox or connected to it by a short drive shaft. The transfer case allows the
torque from the gearbox to be split between the front and rear driving axles of a
vehicle. The transfer case may also provide a lower gear ratio and PTO options. A
transfer case is pictured in FIGURE 45-35. Transfer cases are sometimes called drop
boxes. It is used to allow torque to be transferred to the driving wheels when it is
engaged by the operator or at all times in case in a constant multi-drive system. In
some cases, the transfer case may also incorporate a third differential.

Construction:

 The input shaft is connected to the gear box and carries on it a member
having axial teeth.
 Two input shaft gears are free to rotate on the shaft. Each of these gears
have bosses on the side which have axial teeth of the same pitch as the
central member on the input shaft.
 Depending upon the movement of the transfer box gear lever, the central
member and thereby the input shaft may be connected either to the small
gear or to the big gear.

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  There are two output shafts, one going to the front axle and the second going
to the rear axle.
 The front output shaft is smaller in diameter and is supported inside the rear
output shaft which is directly connected to the output gear.
 The front output shaft has fitted on it a shifter mechanism and also has
splines over a small length of it, which when engage with the corresponding
internal splines on the rear output shaft, connect the two shafts rotationally
with each other.

Working:

 When the shifter mechanism A is in the centre so that no gear is connected to

the input shaft, the drive is in neutral as shown in Fig.i.

 Fig.ii shows when the shifter mechanism A connects the input shaft with the
big input gear, but the shifter mechanism B disconnects the front output of
shaft from the rear output shaft. In this position, two-wheel drive with the
high gear is obtained.

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  In the same way Fig.iii depicts the situation with four-wheel drive in low.

The transfer case will usually have at least four shafts (illustrated in FIGURE
45-35):
1. the input shaft
2. the countershaft
3. the front axle drive shaft
4. the rear axle drive shaft.
The transfer case may also contain reduction gearing to allow two speeds
(low and high) through the case when desired.

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 A two-speed transfer case will have two sets of gears that can drive the
output shafts. The operator can select these gear sets by using a sliding
clutch splined to the input. The transfer case may or may not contain an
inter-axle differential gear set to allow for speed changes between the front
and rear drive axles. Speed differences between the front and rear drive axles
can be induced by turning and/or unequal road conditions.

Types of Transfer Cases

In this unit we will consider two types of transfer cases. These are:
1. Part time
2. Full time

Part time design

There are two designs of part time transfer cases –

1.Single range part time transfer case

2.Dual range part time transfer case

If the vehicle only uses the front drive axle in off-road or poor traction
conditions, the vehicle is said to have part-time front-wheel drive. In that
situation, an inter-axle differential is not always required. If an inter-axle
differential is present, it will normally have a lockout to prevent the
differential from operating in poor traction conditions. The front axle
engagement, the two-speed shift control, and the inter-axle differential
lockout are all controlled by the operator through a series of control valves on
in the operator station.

Transfer cases come in a variety of designs. Some come equipped with one or
two PTO outputs that can be used to drive accessories on the machine.
Transfer can use splash lubrication systems in which the lower gears rotate in
a bath of lubricant and splash a steady stream of lube onto the higher gears.
Some systems will use an externally filtered lube pump to supply pressurized
oil to critical areas, such as the input shaft needle bearing and gears. This
lubricant will fall down through the transfer case and lubricate the other gears
and shafts on the way down.

SINGLE RANGE PART TIME TRANSFER CASE (SINGLE-SPEED TRANSFER

CASE)

Construction
It consists of four parallel shafts in a housing

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 Operation
It has two operation positions: -the drive to the front axle being engaged or
disengaged
The drive to the front axle is engaged by the operator moving the sliding
clutch (splined tor the rear out-put shaft) into mesh with the splined front
out-put shaft. This locks the transfer case rear output shaft to the front
output shaft. When the sliding sleeve is moved out of mesh, the front output
shaft and the propeller shaft is free to rotate independently of the rear output
shaft.

DUAL RANGE PART TIME TRANSFER CASE (TWO SPEED TRANSFER CASE)

This transfer case is designed so that two ranges are available, high range
which is usually an overdrive ratio and low range which is usually an
underdrive ratio.
Operating positions

This type of transfer case has four operating positions:

1. low range with all wheels driving

2. high range with all the wheels driving

3. neutral with no wheels driving

4. high range with only rear wheels driving

CONSTRUCTION

1. the splined transfer case input shaft is permanently connected to the main
gearbox output shaft

2. the splined transfer case rear output shaft is permanently connected to the
propeller shaft to the rear driving axles

3. the splined transfer case front output shaft is permanently connected to

the propeller shaft to the front driving axle

4. the transfer case idler shaft supports the twin idler gears

5. the high and low range transfer case input gears are free running on the
front input shaft, the idler gears are used to position the front and the rear
propeller shaft below the centre line of the main gearbox and engine
assembly while the output shaft is integral with the transfer case output gear
output gear.

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 6. the front output shaft is fitted with a splined sliding clutch sleeve to engage
or disengage the propeller shaft to the front driving axle.

Operation

The drive to the front axle in low range is engaged by the operator moving
the input shaft high -low range gear sliding clutch to the low range position,
then moving the sliding clutch sleeve (splined to the front output shaft) into
mesh with the splined rear propeller shaft. When the sliding sleeve is
moved out of mesh, the front propeller shaft is free to rotate independently of
the transfer case output shaft.

AN interlock device prevents low range low range being selected, unless four-
wheel drive is also selected. This prevents extreme torque loadings from low
range being applied to only the rear driving axles with the possibility of
breakage,

Figure 44

Full-time four-wheel drive

To enable a four-wheel drive system to be used on hard surfaces, a third differential

is required. The third differential is normally incorporated in the transfer box
assembly, often referred to as the ‘centre’ differential (Figure 3.136). Four-wheel
drive vehicles fitted with a third differential are referred to as having ‘full-time four-
wheel drive, or ‘permanent four-wheel drive’. If a centre differential is fitted to a
vehicle designed for cross-country work, it is necessary to lock the centre differential
when slippery conditions are encountered. Without this centre differential lock, if one
wheel loses adhesion the vehicle would be immobilised by the operation of the
centre differential. If a conventional differential is used, the differential is locked
using a dog clutch. If the traction is lost at either the front or rear wheels, the
differential lock is engaged. The locking mechanism is either operated by the driver
with a lever or is electronically controlled by an electrical solenoid. It is now common

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for full-time drive systems to use a viscous coupling type of differential. In a similar
manner to the action of a viscous coupling used in a limited-slip differential, the
viscous coupling allows some difference in speed between front and rear propeller
shafts, but if there is a substantial difference in speed (such as when the wheels on
one axle lose their grip or traction), the coupling will effectively lock, thus
maintaining power to those wheels that have maintained traction. A The transfer box
fitted to an off-road vehicle is usually equipped with high and low ratio gears. These
additional ratios are achieved by the use of conventional helical gears or an epicyclic
gear train. Engagement of each ratio is achieved with a dog clutch. An increasing
number of four-wheel drive vehicles are fitted with an automatic gearbox, together
with additional electronic controls. Such vehicles can be fitted with high and low
ratios that are obtained through the use of an epicyclic gear set, the high and low
ratios being changed by an electric motor controlled by the gearbox ECU.

ADVANTAGE OF TRANSFER CASES

It allows transfer of available torque from the engine to the road wheels without a
risk of an increase in wheel spin.

EXPLAIN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF FINAL DRIVE/DIFFERENTIAL

UNIT

FINAL DRIVES GEARS

The purpose of the final drive is two-fold:

1. to transmit the drive through an angle of 900 to the road wheels

2. to provide a permanent gear reduction and therefore a torque increase.

TYPES of Final Drive Gears

Several types of gears have been used in the construction of final drive gears. The
common ones being:

1. straight bevel
2. the spiral bevel
3. the hypoid
4. the worm and wheel.

COMPONENTS OF THE FINAL DRIVE ASSEMBLLY

SINGLE REDUCTION FINAL DRIVE

A single reduction final drive consists of:

1. Crown Wheel (Ring Gear)

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 2. Pinion
3. Differential Unit pinion
4. Housing

Figure 45 SINGLE REDUCTION

DOUBLE REDUCTION AXLES

Off-road equipment is often required to haul large, heavy loads. An additional

gear reduction may be required to get the job done. A double reduction axle
uses two gear sets to provide additional torque, as shown in Figure 14-19.
The design uses a conventional pinion ring gear to get the first gear
reduction. The second gear reduction is provided by a helical spur gear and
pinion set. The pinion and ring gear drive work the same as a conventional
differential; however, the differential case is not bolted to the ring gear,
instead it is mounted to the spur gear. The spur pinion is keyed to a shaft
that holds the ring gear to provide drive. The spur pinion and the spur gear
are in constant mesh.
Torque flows into the input shaft and goes through the ring gear to provide
the first reduction. Power now flows to the spur pinion, which is driven
directly by the shaft that the ring gear is mounted to. The second reduction is
achieved through the spur pinion driving the spur gear mounted to the
differential carrier, and power flows through a conventional differential to the
drive axles.

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Figure 46Cutaway of a double reduction drive axle assembly

Standard Differential

A standard differential consists of:

1. Sun gears
2. Spider (or Cross)
3. Side gears
4. Half shafts
5. casing

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The purpose of the differential is to allow the wheels to rotate at different speeds,
while still transmitting an equal turning force (torque) to both wheels.

Construction

The differential gears are contained inside the differential case, which is bolted or
riveted to the drive axle crown gear. When the drive axle pinion gear turns the
crown gear, the case must turn with it. The case is made up of two halves—the
flange half and the plain half—bolted together. The flange half is the side that is
attached to the crown gear. In heavy-duty machines, a four-legged differential cross
(or differential spider) is sandwiched between the two halves of the differential case.
The cross legs are fitted into four holes bored into the differential case. Therefore,
the cross always rotates with the differential case and the crown wheel. Inside the
differential case are the actual differential gears. The typical differential gearset
consists of four bevelled spider gears (sometimes referred to as differential pinion
gears) and two bevelled side gears. The spider gears are fitted to the four legs of
the differential cross, so they must rotate with it. The side gears are splined to the
two axle shafts to drive the wheels. The side gears are in constant mesh with the
differential spider gears. The differential spider gears and side gears normally have
thrust washers between them and the differential case.

Operation

During the Straight-Ahead Position

As the machine moves in a straight direction, the crown gear and the differential
case rotate. As the case rotates, the spider gears basically drag the side gears along
as the cross tumbles end over end with the case. In this kind of operation, the
differential gears are stationary in relation to the differential case. The differential

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gears are not rotating inside the case. They are merely acting as a connection
between the differential case and the two side gears.

When negotiating a turn (During Cornering)

FIG. 47 The need for a differential

The situation changes when the machine starts to turn. When negotiating a turn, it
helps to think of the centreline of the machine as the arc the machine must follow
through the turn. Think of the arc in terms of the speed of the differential case as it
goes through the turn. The wheel on the inside of the turn and its axle shaft and
side gear are on a smaller arc and must turn more slowly than the differential case.
At the same time, the wheel on the outside and its axle shaft and side gear must
turn faster than the case. FIGURE 50-15 illustrates these differences. As the machine
operates through a turn, the side gear splined to the axle on the inside of the turn
slows down and causes the spider gears to turn counter clockwise by the same
amount that the side gear slows. The spider gear is now forced to rotate, and it then
transfers that motion to the other side gear, and pushing it forward by the same
amount therefore causing it to speed up by the exact same amount that the inside
side gear slowed down. The differential gearset allows this to happen because the
spider gears can turn not only with the cross but on the cross as well. As the inner
wheel starts to slow down during the curve, its axle shaft and side gear turn more
slowly than the case and the spider gears. The spider gears start to walk around the
slower moving inner side gear. As they do so, the spider gears’ walking motion is
transferred to the outer side gear, causing it to speed up by the exact same amount.

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This means the outer wheel speeds up by the same amount that the inner wheel
slows down. The power being sent to each side gear is still exactly equal, but they
can turn at different speeds when required.

If a machine were built without a differential, the difference in wheel speeds during
a turn would cause one or the other wheel and axle to scuff, or be dragged through
the turn. The resultant twisting forces could lead to serious fatigue failures of the
axle shafts. It is important to note that the difference in wheel speed encountered in
normal operation is usually very slight. In a normal operating day, the side gears
would only. The advantage of using a differential gearset, however, is also its
primary disadvantage. Because the differential gearset allows one wheel to turn
faster than the other, this can lead to a machine becoming stuck easily when low
traction terrain is encountered. A wheel with good traction can remain stationary
while the wheel with poor traction merely slips, and the machine doesn’t move. For
this reason, most heavy equipment differentials are equipped with differential
gearsets that resist slippage or ones that can prevent differential action from taking
place at all.

Limited Slip Differential

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This design of differential lock, as shown in Figure 14-7, is commonly used on
smaller wheel loaders and backhoe loaders. It is very compact and lends itself to
installation in tight spaces such as those found on small equipment. This design
takes advantage of gear tooth separating forces to apply the clutches. The limited
slip differential applies torque equally to both wheels during normal operation.
Figure 14-7 shows the two separate clutches, one on each side of the differential
housing, connecting the side gear to the differential case.

A small amount of side clearance is left in each clutch during assembly to

ensure that each clutch engages correctly during operation. Under normal
operating conditions with good traction at both wheels, equal torque will be
distributed to each wheel during straight-line operation. In a conventional
differential, if one wheel loses traction and speeds up, the other wheel slows
down in proportion to the speed increase on the free wheel. This affects

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 forward motion with speed and torque losses. If a limited slip differential is
used in this same situation, the clutches make it more difficult for this to
occur because as more input torque is applied to the differential, greater
internal friction develops in the side clutch. The locking effect takes place due
to high internal friction generated by the increased torque being applied. If a
speed difference at the axles occurs, such as during cornering, the separating
forces that occur in the differential during this process compress the clutch
packs and allow the torque in the faster turning wheel to be redirected to the
wheel that has greater traction. During turning, the wheels generate enough
torque to overcome the clutch packs, allowing the wheels to change speed
just as in a conventional differential. Unlike a conventional differential spider,
the spider used in the limited slip differential is a three-piece design. This
design is used on small loaders and backhoes. The longer shaft holds two
pinion gears, while each of the short shafts holds one pinion gear. The ends
of each shaft fit a corresponding bore in the connector, as shown in Figure
14-8. Dowels are used to fasten the shafts to the rotating housing. Internal
slack is present in the arrangement, which allows the gear tooth separating
forces to be transferred to the clutch discs. A side gear sits on top of each
connector and meshes with the differential pinion gears. The clutch packs sit
against the side gear contact face. The discs are splined to the side gears,
while the plates have tangs that connect them to the housing. Whenever a
speed difference is present in the differential, gear tooth separating forces act
on the side gears by axially squeezing the clutch packs together. The amount
of torque is totally dependent on the input torque applied to the differential.
When a clutch pack is engaged on the faster wheel end, the total input torque
will increase, allowing the torque to be split when the clutches are engaged.
The clearance in the clutch packs is adjusted by the use of shims when they
are assembled. On larger equipment a slightly different design is often used.
Load rings are used to provide additional separating forces when a speed
difference is present between the wheel ends. This design uses a two-piece
spider that is notched in the middle to allow the two shafts to intersect with
each other. Both ends of the spider shafts are squared off and mate with
wedges in two pressure rings inside the differential housing. This design uses
a pressure ring to hold the side gear in place. The pressure ring has lugs on
the outside diameter that fit into corresponding slots in the differential
housing. The design is such that the pressure ring is allowed to move axially
in the differential housing whenever the clutch packs are engaged. The spider
shafts are driven by the pressure rings and have a natural tendency to ride up
in the wedge during operation. During axle speed differences, the separating
forces of the gear teeth will force the pressure rings to rotate the spider
shafts. The square end of the spider shafts in the wedge-shaped cut-out try
to resist the rotational forces that are present, increasing the axial forces on
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 the pressure rings. This force engages the clutch packs, resulting in torque
transfer. The spiders are not connected to the differential housing directly;
they are held in place by the pressure ring. Figure 14-9 shows the discs and
plates being installed. The plates have protruding notches on the outside
diameter that match notches in the rotating housing, and the discs have
internal teeth that mesh with the side gears. Axial forces that are generated
by unequal axle speed force the clutch packs to engage. When fully
assembled, the side gears sit on both sides of the spider shafts and pinion
gears. They will mesh together at all times. The notches in the pressure rings
hold the spider shafts in place. The clutch plates sit against the pressure
rings, rotating with the differential housing, while the discs rotate with the
side gear. In Figure 14-10, the equipment is operating in a straight line with
equal traction on each wheel. The torque is divided equally between the two
wheels. The differential pinion gears rotate as a complete unit and do not
rotate on their own axis. If wheel slip occurs, separation forces will engage
the clutch packs, forcing the faster wheel to transfer torque to the slower
wheel. This torque transfer will be proportional to the input torque.

No-Spin Differential

A no-spin type of differential is a mechanical unit that replaces the side gears,
cross, and bevel pinion gears with other mechanical pieces to lock the two
axle shafts together under certain conditions. The no-spin differential consists
of a central spider assembly that replaces the normal differential cross or
spider, two spring-loaded jaw or dog clutches that engage the central spider,
and two “side gears” that spline to the jaw clutches (on the outside) and the
axle shafts (on the inside). FIGURE 50-20 shows a blow-up of the no-spin
differential, also known as a Detroit Locker. These differentials can directly
replace most standard open differentials and are an option available for most
machines. It is recommended to use only one no-spin differential on a
machine. This type of differential mechanically keeps the left and right axles
driving together unless one wheel starts to speed up, as it would when
turning in a high traction situation. The faster wheel is then unlocked and
allowed to freewheel. In simple terms, the no-spin differential is a relatively
simple device with two spring-engaged dog clutches that are normally
engaged until one wheel starts to turn faster than the crown gear. In
operation, this keeps the differential locked unless the machine turns a
corner, and then only the slower wheel is driven. In other words, when the
machine encounters slippery conditions, both wheels continue to drive, but

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 when the machine turns on good footing, differential action is allowed, and
one wheel disengages to allow the wheels to travel at different speeds. This
eases turning and reduces tire wear. Operation of the No-Spin Differential
The crown gear drives the differential case, which in turn drives the central
spider. The spider has dogteeth on each side that engage the teeth of the
spring-loaded clutches. FIGURE 50-21 shows the components of a no-spin
differential. The spring-loaded clutches are splined to the side gears, which in
turn are splined to the axles. In straight-ahead operation, the spider drives
the dog clutches at equal speeds, and there can be no differential action and
therefore no slippage. As the machine starts to turn, the outer wheel must
rotate faster than the inner wheel. The central spider has a cam ring with a
series of teeth at the centre, and the dog clutches have teeth to match. When
the outer wheel and therefore the outer dog clutch starts to turn faster, the
dog clutch cam teeth ride up the cam teeth of the spider, and the clutch
becomes disconnected from the central spider. This action allows the outside
axle and wheel to freewheel as the machine moves through a turn. One
hundred percent of engine torque is now delivered to the inner wheel during
the turn. When the turn is completed and both wheels are again turning the
same speed, the springs force the outer dog clutch inboard to re-engage the
spider, and both wheels are driven once again. It is important to note that
no-spin differentials only allow the outside wheel to turn faster when it has
sufficient traction to cause the unlocking process. In low traction conditions,
the outside wheel will merely slip. For this reason, manufacturers recommend
only using a no-slip differential in one drive axle of a four-wheel-drive
machine. If a no-spin was used in both axles, the machine’s steering could be
severely compromised in low-traction conditions. It is also critical that tire size
on both ends of an axle be perfectly matched when a no-spin differential is
used; unmatched tires cause severe strain on the axles and components.
To increase the load on the clutch pack even further, many designs
incorporate:
1. A Belleville disc-spring washer between the cage and the clutch discs
of each pack to provide an initial load on the discs.

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 2. Angled cam faces between the cage and the cross pins. Driving thrust
exerted by the cage on the pin causes the pin to force the planets
against the side gear ring. When four planets are used, two separate
pins, flexibly linked at the centre and having opposite cam faces, cause
two planets to act on one clutch pack and the other two to exert force
in the opposite direction.

AXLES AND AXLE CASINGS AXLES

Axles may be divided into two types, the live axle and the dead axle. The difference
is that a dead axle only supports the vehicle and its load, whereas a live axle
supports the vehicle, its load, and also contains the final drive assembly.

Axle casings

Three main types of casings are in use:

1. Banjo.
2. Split
3. Carrier

Banjo

The tubular axle section is built up of steel pressings, which are welded together and
suitably strengthened to resist the bending load. The centre of the casing, combined
with the axle tube on one side, resembles a banjo, hence its name. The final drive
assembly, which is mounted in a detachable malleable iron housing, is fitted in the
centre of the axle and secured by a ring of bolts to the axle casing. When the final
drive assembly is in position, the axle shafts are slid in from the road wheel end of
the casing. On some banjo axles a domed plate is bolted to the rear face of the
casing. Removal of this plate allows the final drive gears to be inspected and, in

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cases where the axle shaft is secured to the differential, the access point enables the
axle shaft to be unlocked from the sun gear (side gear). A lubricant level plug, set at
a height about one third up the crown wheel, is screwed into the domed cover or
lubricant level plug, set at a height about one third up the crown wheel, is screwed
into the domed cover or the final drive housing. The correct level is normally set just
below the axle tubes, so lubrication of the hub bearings is from the splash caused by
rotation of the crown wheel. Note: Overfilling of the axle casing should be avoided,
excessive oil can swamp the axle shaft oil seals and cause oil to enter the brakes
which are fitted at either end of the axle casing. When in operation the final drive
assembly becomes hot and the rotation of the gears produces pressure, so some
form of air vent is provided to release the pressure in the axle casing, which
prevents oil being forced past the oil seals.

SPLIT

This is more rigid than the banjo casing. The final drive assembly is mounted directly
into the axle, and the axle tubes are pressed into the central housing and welded
into place. A cover is fitted to the rear of the housing to allow for access and repair.
It is used in off-road and LGVs,

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 Fig.9.11 Split Axle

Carrier axle

The carrier type of axle casing is more rigid than the banjo type casing and is often
used to support a hypoid gear final drive unit. The carrier type of axle is therefore
fitted to vehicles carrying heavy loads, such as commercial vehicles. The final drive
assembly is mounted directly in a rigid, malleable cast iron carrier, into which the
axle tubes are pressed and welded. Extra rigidity is obtained by using reinforcing ribs
that extend from the pinion nose to the main carrier casting. Access to the final drive
gear is by means of a domed plate at the rear of the casing. Note that if repair of
the final drive assembly is necessary, the use of specialized tools may be required to
remove and refit the assembly.

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 Fig.9.12 Carrier Axle

AXLE SHAFTS

The manner in which the axle shafts are supported can be categorised into three
main groups. The type used will depend on the stresses to which the shaft is
subjected during the vehicle’s use. Support may be:

SEMI-FLOATING

Fig.9.12 Semi-floating

A single bearing at the hub end is fitted between the axle shaft and the axle casing,
so the shaft will have to resist all the stresses.

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Although the final-drive oil level is considerably lower than the axle shaft, the large
amount of ‘splash’ causes the lubricant to work along the shaft. To prevent the oil
entering the brake unit, a sealing arrangement is used which normally consists of an
oil seal fitted at the hub end of the shaft. The lip of the seal is positioned towards
the final drive.

THREE-QUARTER FLOATING

Fig.9.13 Three Quarter-floating

Three-quarter floating Having defined the semi- and the fully-floating shaft
arrangements, any alternative between the two may be regarded as a three-quarter
floating shaft. Fig.9.13 shows a construction which has a single bearing mounted
between the hub and the casing. The main shear stress on the shaft is eliminated
but all other stresses still have to be resisted. This type of arrangement is typically
used on light commercial vehicle

FULLY-FLOATING.

A fully-floating axle shaft is generally fitted on vehicles where torque and axle loads
are great. The fully-floating axle shaft is fitted to many four-wheel drive vehicles and
commercial vehicles that are subjected to high stresses and loads. The construction
shown in Fig.9.14 consists of an independently mounted hub, which rotates on two
bearings widely spaced on the axle casing. This arrangement relieves the shaft of all
stresses except torsional, so the construction is very strong. Studs connecting the
shaft to the hub transmit the drive. Note: It may be possible to withdraw the shaft
from the axle without jacking up the vehicle by removing the nuts on these studs.

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 Fig.9.1 Fully -floating

SUMMARY

1. Axles can be divided into two categories— dead axles and live or drive axles.
2. Dead axles merely support the machine weight.
3. Live axles actually drive the machine, so they are also called drive axles.
4. Drive axles allow the power from the engine to turn a 90-degree corner to
send that power to the wheels.
5. Drive axles provide a gear reduction in a drivetrain
6. All drive axle gears are bevel gears, meaning that they intersect at an angle
(in this case, 90 degrees).
7. Final Drive gearsets usually consist of a large crown (or ring) gear and a
smaller pinion gear.
8. Final Drive gears are subdivided into several types, including plain bevel,
spiral bevel, hypoid
9. Plain bevel gears are similar to spur gears and have the same problems with
noise and weakness. Plain bevel gear pinions are mounted at the crown
gear’s centreline.
10. Spiral bevel gears are quieter and stronger than plain bevel and their pinion
gears are mounted at the centre line of the crown gear.
11. Hypoid gears are a type of spiral bevel gear that mounts the pinion below the
centre line of the crown gear.

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 12. The drive axle is commonly misnamed the differential because the differential
gearset is inside the drive axle. The drive axle and the differential are,
however, different.
13. The differential gear arrangement allows the power from the engine to be
split equally between two axle shafts while allowing the axle shafts to turn at
different speeds when required.
14. The differential gearset consists of two side gears, four pinion or spider gears,
and a differential spider or cross.
15. The differential gears are contained in the differential case.
16. As a wheeled machine turns a corner, the inner wheel must slow down and
the outer wheel must speed up. The differential gearset allows this to
happen.
17. The differential always splits the available torque equally between the two
wheels.
18. Differential locks are used during low traction situations only.
19. Double reduction drive axles use two gear reductions at all times
20. Planetary two-speed drive axles use a planetary gearset to produce two ratios
through the drive axle.
21. Tandem systems use interaxle differentials to divide the torque between the
two axles.
22. An interaxle differential splits the available torque between two drive axles,
not the wheels.
23. Axle shafts on lighter duty machines are called semi-floating.
24. Heavier machines use full-floating axle shafts.
25. Drive axle lubrication can effected by splash from the rotation of the crown
wheel or by lube pump
26. Proper maintenance, as with all other components, is essential to the service
life of a drive axle. Timely fluid checks and changes can go a long way to
protecting the equipment.
27. Always check for metal particles in the drive axle lubricant during service.
This can be a good indicator of a failing drive axle.
28. When filling or topping up drive axle lubricant, always use the correct fluid,
and be aware that some drive axles require fluid to be added in more than
one location.
29. All drive axles require the same four adjustments during overhaul: pinion
bearing preload, pinion depth setting, side bearing preload, and the gearset
backlash adjustment.
30. Always mark the components, such as the side bearing retaining caps and the
differential case halves, during disassembly so they can be reassembled
correctly.

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 31. The differential gears, the spider gears, and the side gears run on thrust
washers. These and the surfaces they contact should be carefully inspected
for wear.
32. All components in the axle should be checked for wear and damage—not just
the obviously failed pieces.
33. While rebuilding a drive axle, remember that the cost of replacement parts is
small compared to having to redo the job. Replace all questionable parts.
34. Crown and pinion gears are replaced as a set only.
35. Contact pattern is controlled by pinion depth and gearset backlash.
36. Pinion and side bearing preload ensures rigidity in the gearset.
37. After reassembling a drive axle, it is essential to check and, if necessary,
correct the contact pattern.
38. A conventional contact pattern should have three elements: close to but clear
of the toe of the tooth, centred between the top land and the root, and
extended across at least 50% of the tooth face
39. Component failures occur because of four basic issues: shock load failures,
fatigue failures, lubrication failures, and abuse failures.
40. When a component fails, it is essential to determine the correct cause to
prevent reoccurrence.

ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION ONE

The questions below refer to fig.1

a) Name the parts labelled A, B, and C [3 MARKS]

b) Briefly describe how:

i. Neutral position is achieved [6 MARKS]

ii. First low gear is achieved [6 MARKS]

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 Fig.1

c) State any two (2):

i. differences between wet clutches and dry Clutch [4 MARKS]
ii. advantages of the gear arrangement in fig.1

QUESTION TWO

a) Define the following terms associated with torque convertor

operation:
i. Coupling stage [1 MARKS]
ii. Stall stage [1 MARKS]
iii. Rotary flow [1 MARKS]
iv. Spiral flow [1 MARKS]
v. Vortex flow [1 MARKS]
b) State any two (2) constructional differences between a torque
convertor and a fluid coupling. [2 MARKS]
c) Give any four (4) advantages of a torque convertor over a
fluid coupling [8 MARKS]
d) differentiate between a torque divider and a torque

multiplier [1 MARKS]

QUESTION THREE

a) State any one function of the following components in a

manual gearbox:
i. Detent [2 MARKS]
ii. Interlock mechanism [2 MARKS]
iii. Synchroniser unit [2 MARKS]

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 iv. Bearings [2 MARKS]
b) With the aid of a neat diagram, explain how power flows
when gear number three is selected in a four-speed sliding
mesh gearbox. [8 MARKS]
c) List any two (2) advantages of a synchromesh gearbox over
a constant mesh gearbox [4MARKS]

QUESTION FOUR

The figure 2 shows componenst of the planetary gear set used

in an automatic transmission.

Figure 2

a. Describe how:
i. Minimum and maximum overdrive can be achieved 4MARK
ii. Direct drive is achieved. 1MAR
b. Name any
i. two (2) holding devices for this assembly to achieve
the above actions 2MARKS
ii. three (3) valves found in the automatic transmission
and give one function of the named valve 3MARKS
c. A countershaft gear box is similar to an epicyclic gearbox,
give any three (3) constructional features that make them
similar 3MARKS
d. During service, aluminium particles are observed in oil,
name any two (2) components that could be the source of
such particles 2MARKS
e. Describe the procedure of checking oil level in an automatic
transmission 5MARKS

606 | P a g e
 QUESTION EIVE

a. State any three (3) functions of the vehicle axle. 3MARKS

b. Show by using sketches axle shaft support
i. Three quarter floating and desribe the forces acting
on such arrangements 5MARKS
ii. Full floating and desribe the forces acting on such
arrangements 5MARKS
c. Name any three (3) types of axles. 3MARKS

QUESTION SIX

The figure3 shows the clutch operating mechanism of a manual gearbox

Figure 3

a. Explain the operation of the above clutch when it is engag 5MARKS

b. Name the component marked 4 and state one of its functions 2MARKS
c. State:
i. any four (4) ways of increasing the torque carrying capacity
of the clutch 4MARKS
ii. one function of the tortional spring on component 1MARK
iii. Three causes of clutch slippage 3MARKS

607 | P a g e
 d. Describe the procedure of fitting components 7 and 8 during
service. 5MARKS
QUESTION SEVEN

a. Name the two types of hydrokinetic clutches 2MARKS

b. Describe the operation of the torque convertor during the coupling

stage 5MARKS
c. Outline :
i. the procedure of carrying out stall test on the torque
convertor 5MARKS
ii. two precautions to be taken during the above test 2MARKS
d. State any two differences between a torque covetor and a fluid
coupling 2MARKS
e. Define the following convertor terms
i. Spiral flow 2MARKS
ii. Vortex flow 2MARKS

QUESTION EIGHT

The figure below show a component in the drive train of the motor vehicle

Figure 4

a. Name the joints found at A and B and state one function of each
joint. 4MARKS
b. Give one reason for:
i. phase marks on this component. 1MARK
ii. Balance masses on this component 1MAR
iii. State any four(4) functions of the above component 4MARKS
c. With the help of a neat diagram explain how this component can
be checked for out of roundness. 5MARKS
d. Draw the arrangement of the components in the drive train when

608 | P a g e
 the vehicle span exceeds two(2) meters. 5MARKS

QUESTION NINE

a. Name the major shafts found in a manual gear box. 3MARKS

b. With the aid of neat sketches, describe the flow of power in a fouw
Speed sliding manual gear box when gear number:
i. four is engaged 4MARKS
ii. two is engaged 4MARKS
c. What are the fuctions of the following in a manual gearbox:
i. oil 2MARKS
ii. spiggot bearing 2MARKS
iii. release bearing 2MARKS
d. state any two disadvantages of a sliding mesh gear box 3MARKS
QUESTION TEN

a. With reference to tranfer gear boxes, state any two reasons for the
Use of transfer gear boxes on off- high way vehicles. 2MARKS

Figure 5

b. Describe the operation of the gear box in figure 5 when

torque is requiered on both axles 10MARKS
c. Name:
i. the components marked A, B, C and D. 4MARKS
ii. two types of the above component 2MARKS
d. State any two effects of driving the vehicle while the transfer case
is engaged on non slippery roads in one of the two types of the

609 | P a g e
 transfer boxes 2MARKS

QUESTION ELEVEN

a. State any three (3) functions of the differential assembly. 3MARKS

b. Describe the operation of the differential assembly when the vehicle
Is:
i. negotiating a Corner. 5MARKS
ii. on a straight ahead position 2MARKS
c. State any four (4) measurable checks carried out on the final drive
to ensure its Serviceability. 4MARKS
d. Name the three (3) major components that make up the final drive
assembnly. 3MARKS
QUESTION EIGHT

a. Name the three types of manual transmissions

b. State:
i. The purpose of the inter lock mechanism in a manual gear box.
ii. The three types of interlock mechanisms in a manual gear box
c. Identify at least three causes of clutch slippage
d. List the two components that form the final drive
QUESTION NINE

Figure 6

a. in figure 6, label the parts marked 1-10

b. state:
i. the type of gearbox in figure 6
ii. the name of the gear box in figure 6

610 | P a g e
 iii. the purpose of the synchroniser unit in figure 6
c. explain the causes of clutch slippage and state any two conditions at which it
is more pronounced
QUESTION ELEVEN

a. state the function of a transfer box

b. identify:
i. at least four faults that would prevent a manual shift
gearbox from entering into gear
ii. one clutch component that would not be washed in
solvent when servicing
c. state any causes of increased clutch pedal travel (free-play)

References

Angelo, S. ‘et al’. (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment Systems. New
York.
Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems. 4th Ed. Routledge
Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed. Routledge
Heizler, H. (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann
Hillier, V. (2014). Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics. 2nd edn. Oxford
Joseph, A.B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Electricity & Electronics. 2nd edn.
Clifton Park, New York.
Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
Scott, A.H. (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems Approach
(Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty).Pearson Education

611 | P a g e
UNIT A7.7: DISASSEMBLING, INSPECTING AND ASSEMBLING
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Apply procedure for visual inspection
2. Apply recommended procedure to service transmission system components
3. Apply oil sampling procedures
4. Demonstrate safety procedure

DISASSEMBLE, INSPECT AND ASSEMBLE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

COMPONENTS

APPLYING PROCEDURE FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

APPLY RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE TO SERVICE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

COMPONENTS

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Clutches

OBJECTIVE: To diagnose Manual Clutch Faults

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Clutch faults

These are the most common faults found on the clutch:

Clutch slips

This occurs when the clutch fails to transmit the power delivered by the engine. It
may be caused by one of the following faults:

1. Insufficient ‘free’ movement on the clutch pedal or at the withdrawal (release)

lever. Oil or grease on the friction linings
2. Friction linings worn out.
3. Scored faces on the flywheel or pressure plate.
Clutch drags

This produces some difficulty in engaging and changing gear. It may be caused by
one of the following faults:

1. Insufficiently effective pedal travel (excessive ‘free’ movement on the pedal

or slave cylinder push rod).
2. Hydraulic system defective (due usually to the loss of most, if not all, of the
hydraulic oil).
3. Release lever broken, incorrectly adjusted or seized.
4. Release bearing defective.
5. Clutch plate seized on the gearbox input shaft splines.
6. Clutch shaft spigot bearing (used where the gearbox input shaft is located in
the flywheel) is seized in the flywheel.
7. Clutch linings are cracked or buckled.
8. Oil or grease on the linin
Vibration or judder

This occurs when the drive is gradually taken up.

It can be caused by one of the following faults:

1. Cracked or distorted pressure plate.

2. Loose or badly worn linings.
3. Loose or protruding rivets.
4. Misalignment of the gearbox with the engine, caused by distortion of the bell
housing or the dowels not being located correctly.
5. Engine or gearbox mountings defective.
6. Excessive backlash (play) in the universal joints (UJs) of the drive/prop shafts
(bolts may be loose on the UJ flange).
7. Flywheel bolts loose on the crankshaft flange.

613 | P a g e
 8. Defective release mechanism.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Clutch

OBJECTIVE: To Service Manual Clutch

1. Remove manual transaxle assembly

2. Remove clutch release fork sub–assembly

a. Remove the clutch release fork with clutch release bearing

from the transaxle assembly.

3. Remove clutch release bearing assembly

a. remove the clutch release bearing assembly from the clutch release fork.

4. Remove release fork support

a. remove the release fork support from the transaxle assembly.

5. Remove release bearing hub clip

6. Remove clutch release fork boot

614 | P a g e
7. Remove clutch cover assembly

a. Align the matchmarks on the clutch cover assembly with the one on the
flywheel sub–assembly.
b. loosen each set bolt one turn at a time until spring tension is released.
c. remove the 6 bolts, and pull off the clutch cover assembly.

Notice

: do not drop the clutch disc assembly.

8. Remove clutch disc assembly

Notice
: keep the lining part of the clutch disc assembly, the pressure plate and surface of
the flywheel sub–assembly away from oil and foreign attachment.

9. Inspect clutch disc assembly

a. Using vernier calipers, measure the rivet head depth. If necessary, replace the
clutch disc assembly.

b. install the clutch disc assembly to the transaxle assembly.

615 | P a g e
Notice
: take vehiclee not to insert the clutch disc assembly in the wrong direction.

c. Using a dial indicator, check the clutch disc assembly runout. If necessary,
replace the clutch disc assembly.

10. Inspect clutch cover assembly

a. Using vernier calipers, inspect the diaphragm spring for

depth and width of wear. If necessary, replace clutch cover
assembly.

11. Inspect flywheel sub–assembly

616 | P a g e
 a. Using a dial indicator, inspect the flywheel sub–assembly runout. If necessary,
replace the flywheel sub–assembly.

12. Inspect clutch release bearing assembly

a. Turn the release bearing by hand while applying force in the axial direction.

Hint
: the bearing is permanently lubricated and requires no cleaning or lubrication. If
necessary, replace the release bearing assembly.

13. Install clutch disc assembly

a. Insert special service tool in the clutch disc

assembly, then insert them in the flywheel sub–

assembly.

Notice
: take vehiclee not to insert clutch disc assembly in the wrong direction.

617 | P a g e
14. Install clutch cover assembly

a. Align the matchmarks on the clutch cover assembly and flywheel sub–
assembly.
b. following the procedures shown in the illustration, tighten the 6 bolts, in the
order starting the bolt locating near the knock pin on the top

Hint :

following the order in the illustration, tighten the bolts at a time evenly.
Move special service tool up and down, right and left lightly, after checking
that the disc is in the centre, tighten the bolts.

15. Inspect and adjust clutch cover assembly

a. Using a dial indicator with roller instrument, check the diaphragm spring tip
alignment.

If alignment is not as specified, using special service tool, adjust the diaphragm
spring tip alignment.

16. Install release fork support

a. install the release fork support to the transaxle assembly.

17. Install release bearing hub clip

618 | P a g e
18. Install clutch release fork sub–assembly

a. Apply release hub grease to the release fork and release bearing assembly
contact, release fork and push rod contact and release fork pivot points.

b. install the release fork to the release bearing assembly.

19. Install clutch release bearing assembly

a. apply the clutch spline grease to the input shaft spline.

b. install the bearing to the release fork, and then install them to the transaxle
assembly.

Notice
: after the installation, move the folk forward and backward to check that the
release bearing slides smoothly.

20. Install clutch release fork boot

21. Install manual gearbox assembly

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Clutch

OBJECTIVE: To Service Manual Clutch

TOOLS:

1. Suitable Combination Spanner

2. Combination square (Tri-Square)

PROCEDURE

619 | P a g e
 1. Place pressure plate on flat Surface
2. Loosen finger holding cap-screws (nuts)
3. Place combination square between adjacent fingers
4. Adjust finger to OEM recommended height
5. Repeat on remaining fingers

Figure 48 Multi coil pressure plate lever adjustment

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Clutches

OBJECTIVE: To Inspect Diaphragm Pressure Plate Wear

Inspect the fingers of the diaphragm spring (A) for wear at the release bearing
contact area.

620 | P a g e
Inspect the pressure plate (A) surface for wear, cracks, and burning.

Inspect for warpage using a precision straight edge (A) and a feeler gauge
(B). Measure across the pressure plate (C). If the measurement is greater
than the service limit, replace the pressure plate.

Standard (New): 0.03 mm max.

Service Limit: 0.15mm

621 | P a g e
 ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Clutches

OBJECTIVE: To Install Clutch Parts

If the vehicle has a manual transmission, install the clutch. Parts of a clutch
assembly are shown in FIGURE 16.67.

622 | P a g e
Check to see that the pilot bushing or bearing for the transmission input shaft is
installed at the rear of the crankshaft and is in good condition (FIGURE 16.68).

If the bushing must be removed, use a puller (FIGURE 16.69).

On vehicles with pilot bearings, a trick that sometimes works is to pack the cavity
behind the bearing with grease and then insert the largest bolt that will fit into the
inside diameter (I.D.) of the bearing. Pounding on the bolt forces the bearing from
the hole.

Use a clutch aligning tool to align the clutch disc to the pilot while you attach the
disc and clutch pressure plate to the flywheel. Injection-moulded plastic clutch pilots
are available for each make of vehicle. One is shown in use in FIGURE 16.70.

623 | P a g e
Be vehicleeful to install the disc in the right direction. There should be a marking on
it that says “flywheel side.”

NOTE

When installing the flywheel, be sure to torque to specifications.

Uneven or excessive tightening can distort the rear seal surface on the crankshaft,
resulting in an oil leak. Sometimes tightening procedures involve sever

ACTIVITY

624 | P a g e
TOPIC: Manual Clutch

OBJECTIVE: To Service Clutch Master Cylinder

DISASSEMBLY

1. Remove the straight pin and reservoir tank.

(A) Reservoir tank

(B) Straight pin

2. Remove the oil seal

(A) Oil seal

(B) Master cylinder

3. Move the cylinder boot backward

625 | P a g e
 (A) Cylinder boot
(B) Master cylinder

4. Remove the stop ring.

CAUTION:
Be vehicleeful when removing the snap ring to prevent the rod, washer, piston and return spring
from flying out

5. Move the cylinder boot backward

(A) Cylinder boot

(B) Master cylinder

6. Remove the stop ring.

CAUTION:
Be vehicleeful when removing the snap ring to prevent the rod, washer,
piston and return spring from flying out.
7. Remove the air bleeder.

INSPECTION
If any damage, deformation, wear, swelling, rust or other faults are found on the
cylinder, piston, push rod, fluid reservoir, return spring, gasket, cylinder boot and
hose replace the faulty part.

626 | P a g e
 (A) Master cylinder body
(B) Return spring
(C) Piston
(D) Stop ring
(E) Rod ASSY
(F) Clutch damper
(G) Cylinder boot

ASSEMBLY

1. Apply a coat of grease to the contacting surfaces of the push rod and piston before
installation.

2. Assemble in the reverse order of disassemble

3. Test for correct operation

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Gearbox

OBJECTIVE: To Carry out manual gearbox oil Change

627 | P a g e
 Note
Manufacturers produce specific oils and lubricants for each component
of the machine: the engine, the gearbox, the brakes, and the hydraulic
systems. Many companies produce equivalent lubricants; however,
technicians must ensure that the lubricant they use meets or exceeds
the manufacturer’s requirements. Synthetic-based lubricants and
semisynthetic-based lubricants are becoming more popular, and in
most cases, they should not be mixed with non-synthetic blends. Be
sure to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations and service
schedule when servicing a particular machine.

Procedure

1. Operate the machine for a few minutes to warm the gearbox oil, the
machine should be on level ground for the procedure.
2. Lower the machine bucket if equipped, engage the parking brake and
shut off the engine
3. Locate and remove the gearbox drain plug and allow the fluid to drain,
when complete clean and reinstall the drain plug.
4. Locate and remove the gearbox oil filter element, if equipped, with a
strap-type wrench.
5. Clean the mounting base for the filter element.
6. Ensure that the old seal or gasket is completely removed.
7. Apply a light coat of clean oil to the gasket or seal of the new filter
8. Install the new filter, and after the seal comes in contact with the base,
tighten by hand an additional 1/2 to 3/4 turn. Note: Check the service
manual for the particular machine to ensure that the filter is tightened
correct
9. If the gearbox’s magnetic strainer cover is equipped, remove it.
10. Carefully remove the magnets from the strainer housing. Do not drop
or damage the magnets, because sharp knocks can cause them to lose
their effectiveness.
11. Remove the screen from the housing.
12. Wash the screen in a clean, non-flammable solvent. Note: Never use
flammable solvent, such as gasoline, for cleaning.
13. Clean the magnets with a cloth rag or a stiff bristle brush.
14. Reinstall the screen and the magnets.
15. If necessary, replace the strainer cover seal and reinstall the cover.
Tighten the bolts to the manufacturer’s specification.

628 | P a g e
 16. Check and, if necessary, remove and clean the gearbox breather from
the top of the gearbox case. Clean the breather with solvent. Dry and
reinstall the breather.
17. Open the machine’s access door, remove the gearbox dipstick or fill
cap, and fill the gearbox with the correct type and quantity of lubricant
(check the manual from the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
for the correct fluid and amount).
18. Replace the dipstick or fill cap and operate the machine for a few
minutes, and then shut it off.
19. Carefully inspect the oil filter’s magnetic strainer cover and the drain
plug for leakage and repair as necessary.
20. Check and adjust the gearbox fluid level. Usually, the dipstick will have
markings for hot and cold fluid levels, but check the OEM
documentation to be sure.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Torque Convertor

OBJECTIVE: To disassemble and assemble a Torque Convertor

TORQUE DISASSEMBLY AND ASSEMBLY

Light-duty torque converters are not designed to be serviceable, since the two
halves of the converter shell are welded together. In contrast, heavy-duty torque
converters are designed to be rebuilt and are bolted together to facilitate this
process. The overhaul procedures described in this section are general in nature and
refer to most—but not all—heavy-duty torque converters. Always consult the
manufacturer’s manual for the correct procedure. The end play and leakage tests
performed on heavy-duty torque converters are the same as those performed on
light-duty torque convertor

Disassembling a Torque Converter

1. Place the torque converter on a bench with a drainage system. When the
converter is disassembled, there will be a significant amount of gearbox fluid
inside, so be prepared for that.
2. Before removing the bolts, mark the two halves of the shell so that it can be
reassembled in the exact same location. The converter elements are usually
individually balanced, but it always makes sense to reinstall the halves the
way that they came apart.

629 | P a g e
 3. Check the turbine end play dimension before disassembly. This will allow you
to correct any deficiencies when you have it apart. This is accomplished by
inserting a special tool that grabs the turbine and allows you to lift it. Measure
the total movement and calculate the shims required to bring it to
specification.
4. Remove the converter bolts (there may be as many as 50). Remove the rear
half from the rest of the converter. Although it is the lighter half, it is still
quite heavy, so be vehicleeful. You may need to tap the shell with a soft
hammer to separate the halves. When they are apart, disvehicled the sealing
O-ring. Remove the stator and the thrust washers/bearings that support it,
and then remove the turbine.
5. Next, remove the lockup clutch backing plate, if equipped. It may be
sandwiched between the front and the rear half of the shell, or it may be
bolted into the front half of the converter housing. Remove the lockup clutch
disc, and finally remove the lockup clutch piston. It should be marked in a
way that indicates its position in the converter shell. To remove the piston,
apply a small amount of air pressure to the piston apply side.

Inspecting Torque-Converter Components

1. Inspect both the impeller and the turbine for damaged or loose blades.
Inspect the two halves of the split guide ring to ensure that they are firmly
attached to the impeller and the turbine blades. Any looseness in the
blades fails the component. Further inspect the turbine, locating bearing
surfaces for any signs of wear or damage. If necessary, replace the
turbine.
2. Check the bushing in the front cover of the converter shell that supports
the turbine or the end of the input shaft (depending on converter).
Replace as necessary. Inspect the turbine thrust washers or bearings and
replace as necessary.
3. Inspect the rear half of the converter shell. Look for any impact damage
or leaks. Inspect the pump drive hub surface for wear where it is
supported in the front pump of the gearbox. If wear is present, it usually
means that the shell and the front pump bushing need to be replaced. Pay
particular attention to the surface of the hub where the front pump seal
runs. The seal can cut a groove into the hub, which may cause a leak.
Wear here will usually require replacement of the shell.
4. Inspect the bearing surface between the turbine and the front of the
converter shell. Damage here would require replacing the parts.
5. Inspect the roller bearing or washers behind the turbine that locate it
axially and replace as necessary.
6. Check the stator for movement. It should move freely in one direction and
not at all in the other (unless it is a fixed stator). If it moves even slightly
in the opposite direction, it must be repaired or replaced.

630 | P a g e
 7. Remove the one-way clutch cover from the stator and inspect the rollers,
the springs, and the ramp surfaces. Also, inspect the inner hub for scoring
and the bearing thrust faces. Replace components as necessary. Carefully
inspect the roller ramp area of the one-way clutch for cracks or surface
damage caused by high-speed direction changes.
8. Inspect the lockup clutch piston and backing plate for signs of
overheating, bluing, heat checks, etc. Inspect the clutch disc by measuring
the remaining friction material and comparing it to the manufacturer’s
specifications. If the disc has a dampened hub, check the dampening
springs for looseness.
Reassembling the Torque Converter
After all of the components have been checked and verified to be in
working order, clean all components and reassemble the torque converter
by reversing the order of disassembly. Replace the lockup clutch piston
seal and the converter shell O-ring seal. It is also a good idea to replace
the roller bearings that axially locate the turbine because it is far cheaper
than having to redo the job at a later date. Special vehiclee is needed
while reinstalling the lockup piston. Most pistons have locating pins or
splines that stop the piston from rotating when the clutch applies. Ensure
that the piston fits over the locating pins properly.

Note
Manufacturer’s recommend reassembly without the use of any grease,
because some greases could clog fluid passages or interfere with valve
action in gearbox control. Only a light coating of the fluid type being used
for the gearbox should be used.

References

Angelo, S. ‘et al’. (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment Systems. New
York.
Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems. 4th Ed. Routledge
Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed. Routledge
Heizler, H. (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann
Hillier, V. (2014). Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics. 2nd edn. Oxford

631 | P a g e
Joseph, A.B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Electricity & Electronics. 2nd edn.
Clifton Park, New York.
Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
Scott, A.H. (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems Approach
(Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty).Pearson Education

UNIT A7.9 DIAGNOSING GEARBOX SYSTEM COMPONENTS FAULTS

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

Apply testing and adjusting procedures on gearbox system

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Manual Gearbox

OBJECTIVE: To Troubleshooting Gearbox System Problems

The first step in any maintenance activity is to diagnose the problem. It does
little good to start dismantling components without an idea of what could be
causing the trouble! Diagnosing problems is a systematic activity that involves
looking for and interpreting basic signs. As a technician, you will have to
diagnose common gearbox complaints, such as oil leaks, noise, vibration,
hard shifting, and gear slip.

STEPS TO FOLLOW TO CHECK THE GEARBOX FLUID LEVEL AND INSPECT

FOR LEAKS.

Oil Leaks

Oil leaks are, of course, a cause for concern with any mechanical component
because they lead to a decrease in lubricant. Still, many unnecessary repairs
are performed when there is only a slight weeping. An oil leak is different

632 | P a g e
 from an oil weep. An oil weep is a very minor oil seepage, usually caused by a
wicking effect, and is not usually a reason for repair. Oil weep can be
recognized by a slight wetting of an area on the component. The area around
the weep appears damp, and oil has soaked in to any dirt accumulated there
—but there is no dripping of fluid. An oil weep is usually not a cause for
concern. If an oil weep is discovered at a gasket, however, re-torque the
attaching bolts and monitor the machine through its next few services.
Depending on the state of the weep, it may not require a repair. By contrast,
a leak will always be associated with oil dripping and/or an extremely wet
area. Oil leaks must always be repaired. It may be difficult to see the actual
path of the leak. Accumulated dirt and/or oil flow patterns may obstruct
visibility. Nonetheless, it is essential that the actual leak path is determined
before deciding on a repair. Remove the excess dirt and clean the affected
area with an approved degreaser. Refill the gearbox oil to the proper level
(even with the bottom of the fill hole). Operate the machine until it reaches
normal operating temperatures and re-inspect the suspect area. Ensure that
that area is not being contaminated by oil leaking elsewhere and splashing on
the area. Once the source of the leak has been identified and repaired, repeat
the process to verify the repair. Poor investigation into the actual source of a
leak can cause considerable wasted effort, so take the time to properly
diagnose any leak.

Gearbox Noise

A certain amount of noise is expected from a gearbox as it does its job.

Excessive or unusual noises, however, are indications of a problem. And
remember that noises that appear to be coming from the gearbox may
actually be originating elsewhere in the machine driveline systems. Before
undertaking gearbox repairs, eliminate all other possible sources of the noise
before condemning the gearbox.
Common noises in gearboxes include:
1. the gears rattling at idle
2. knocking sounds
3. whining
4. growling.
Gear Rattle at Idle

A rough idling engine can cause gear rattle at idle. The small torsional
vibrations set up by rough running can cause the gears in a gearbox to strike
each other, resulting in rattle. This can be lessened or eliminated by
smoothing out the engine operation. A certain amount of gear rattle is to be
expected and normal.

633 | P a g e
 Knocking Sound

Gears are sometimes damaged before or on installation. Gears can be

damaged from some other cause as well, such as something that has
impacted the gear teeth. Damaged gears can have bumps or swells on the
teeth. These can cause a knocking sound as the gears go through mesh.
Knocking is usually more pronounced when under load. Bearings that have
worn spots on the bearing races or damaged rollers or balls can cause a
similar noise. A gear that is cracked or broken from shock loading can have
the same type of noise at low speeds. The noise changes to a howling sound
as speed increases.

Whining

Spur-type gears have a natural tendency to whine, and a certain amount of

whining noise is normal with these gears. Regardless, when gear teeth wear
and pitting occurs, whining will start. As the gear teeth continue to
deteriorate, the whining will become a louder howling. Whining can also be
caused by lack of backlash between gears. In addition, bearings that are
improperly installed or “squeezed” (have insufficient clearance) can also cause
a whining noise.

Growling

A growling noise can be caused by bearings that are worn and badly
damaged. Bearings can wear due to oil contamination. When this is the case,
bearing damage has occurred throughout the gearbox, so growling can be an
indication that a complete overhaul will be necessary. Gears that are
extremely pitted can cause this type of noise as well.

Vibration

In addition to noise, another problem that technicians must commonly

diagnose is vibration. Vibration can be caused by many things in a machine,
but vibration originating in the gearbox is usually a sign of extreme wear in
the bearing and/or the gear teeth themselves. Gearbox vibration is usually
preceded by whining, growling, or knocking and indicates failure to have the
machine repaired in a timely fashion.

Hard Shifting

Hard shifting can be caused by several factors, so it is important to first find

out whether the issue is inside or outside of the gearbox. If the gearbox has
remote shift linkage, where the shift linkage is not directly on top of the shift
cover, the remote shift linkage could be the culprit. To confirm that is the

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 case, disconnect the remote shift linkage from the shift cover and try to move
the shift rails inside the gearbox. If the rails move freely, the problem is with
the remote shift linkage. Hard shifting can also have internal causes, such as
a sliding clutch, collar, or synchronizer that is binding. The shift yoke for a
particular gear can be bent and therefore restrict the sliding clutch or
synchronizer. Hard shifting can also be the result of the shift rails binding in
the shift housing because of a cracked housing or a sprung (bowed) shift rail.

Gear Slip Out

Gear slip out, or jump out, occurs when an engaged gear’s sliding clutch,
collar, or synchronizer moves out of engagement while the vehicle is pulling a
load, causing the gearbox to go into neutral. If the clutching teeth on the
sliding clutch, collar, or the gear are badly worn from excessive gear clashing,
slip out is very likely. Gear slip out can also occur because of worn shift forks,
worn shift fork wear pads or sliding clutch/collar grooves that will not allow
the sliding clutch or collar to fully engage with the main shaft gears. Other
causes of slip out include worn shift rail detents and weak or broken detent
ball spring

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Torque Convertor Service

OBJECTIVE: STALL TEST

Purpose for stall test

The torque-converter stall test helps to ascertain whether the:

1. engine is producing the correct power output

2. torque converter is functioning as designed.

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Refer to the factory test procedure to determine the proper specification for the
machine that is being tested. If the machine that is being serviced is not within the
range of listed engine stall speed, the powertrain components should be checked to
determine the proper corrective action.

Stall test specifications should not be used to reset engine power output of the
machine. If engine output power is deemed to be the problem, the engine should be
tested to determine the cause of low-power output. The torque-converter stall test
provides an engine speed that should be obtained with the torque converter at stall
and is set at the factory. The engine stall speed should be in the listed range shown
for the particular machine. The parking brake must be applied when the tests are
performed. Make sure that the parking brake is fully operational before starting the
stall test. The service brakes must be applied when the tests are performed. Ensure
that the service brakes are fully operational before starting the stall test. Ensure that
the gearbox oil is at the normal operating temperature of 75–105°C when the stall
test is performed. Sudden movement of the machine could lead to personal injury or
the death of the technician and/or other personnel near the machine. To prevent
such injury or death, ensure that the area around the machine is clear of personnel
and obstructions before operating the machine.

Use the following procedure to conduct a stall test:

1. Move the machine to a smooth horizontal location

2. Engage the parking brake and shift the gearbox to the NEUTRAL position
3. Start the machine’s engine and warm the gearbox oil to normal operating
temperature: approximately 75–105°C (167–220°F).
4. Check and, if necessary, adjust the fluid level.
5. Ensure that the work tool is positioned on the ground
6. Fully depress the right-side service brake pedal. (The left-side brake pedal is
used to neutralize the gearbox clutches and should not be used for this test.)
7. Shift the gearbox direction control and speed control to the FOURTH SPEED
FORWARD position. Hold the brake pedal in the depressed position for the
duration of the test
8. Fully depress the throttle control pedal. Allow the engine rpm to stabilize.
Then, observe the tachometer.
9. Shift the gearbox direction control and speed control to the NEUTRAL
position.
Note:

Allow the engine coolant and the gearbox oil to cool. Wait at least two minutes
between tests in order to allow the gearbox oil to cool. If the oil fails to cool,
other conditions could exist: the stator may be seized in the converter, or the
engine cooling system may be compromised.

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 If the torque-converter stall speed is too high, the engine power output could be
too high or a hydraulic clutch in the gearbox could be slipping.

10. If the torque-converter stall speed is too low, the engine may not be
developing full power. There may be a parasitic load on the engine.
If stall speed is lower than the specification—the stator could be freewheeling in the
converter. This condition can cause extreme turbulence in the converter, resulting in
very low engine speed. AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION — Troubleshooting (Mechanical
System Tests)

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Torque Convertors

OBJECTEIVE: To carry out stall test

The objective of this test is to check the overall performance of the transmission and
engine by measuring the stall speeds in the D and R ranges.

NOTICE:

The most common diagnostic test on torque converters and/ or torque dividers is
the stall test. The stall test procedure can be used to determine engine, torque
converter, and gearbox performance. It is very commonly the first test a technician
will perform when diagnosing gearbox or converter complaints. The stall test
procedure is very straightforward, but there are some preparatory steps that must
be undertaken. Also, prior to conducting a stall test, check the particular
manufacturer’s specifications for the specific gearbox model so that the test is
carried out properly. The following stall test procedure is from Caterpillar and used
on their 980K wheel loader, but most manufacturers will have similar guidelines to
stall test their machines.

Perform the test at normal operating fluid temperature (50 - 80 °C).

CAUTION

Do not continuously run this test longer than 5 seconds.

MEASURE STALL SPEED

Procedure

1. Warm up the transmission fluid.

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 2. Chock the front and rear wheels.
3. Connect a tachometer to the engine. (d) Fully apply the parking brake. (e)
Step down strongly on the brake pedal with your left foot.
4. Start the engine.
5. Shift into the D range.
6. Step all the way down on the accelerator pedal.
7. Quickly read the stall speed at this time.
8. Perform the same test in R range
EVALUATION

1. If the stall speed is the same for both ranges but lower than specified value:
i. Engine output may be insufficient
ii. Stator one-way clutch is not operating properly
2. If the stall speed in D range is higher than specified:
i. Line pressure too low
ii. Front clutch slipping
iii. No.2 one-way clutch not operating properly
iv. O/D one-way clutch not operating properly
3. If the stall speed in R range is higher than specified:
i. Line pressure too low
ii. Rear clutch slipping
iii. First and reverse brake slipping
iv. O/D one-way clutch not operating properly
4. If the stall speed in both R and D ranges are higher than specified:
i. Line pressure too low
ii. Improper fluid level
iii. O/D one-way clutch not operating properly

Apply trouble shooting techniques

Perform gearbox system component analysis for reusability

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Final Drive Service

OBJECTIVE: Checking/Adjusting Pinion Cage Shim Pack

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 NOTE

1. If the crown and pinion is being reused, start with the shim pack that was
removed when the unit was disassembled.
2. If a new gear set is used, then use this procedure to determine the shim pack
thickness.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the old shim pack with a micrometer and record that number along
with the number on the new drive pinion. Refer to Fig.9.
2. If the number on the old pinion was a plus number, subtract it from the shim
pack thickness. If the number was a minus, add it to the shim pack thickness.
3. Check the number on the new pinion and record it for reference later.
4. If the new pinion number is a plus, add the number to the shim pack
thickness that was calculated previously. If the number on the new pinion is a
minus, subtract it from the previously calculated shim pack.
5. The answer to the previous two steps now yields the new shim pack thickness
to be installed with the new gear set.

Fig.9.2

ACTIVITY

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TOPIC: Final Drive Service

OBJECTIVE: Differential Bearing Preload Adjustment

NOTE

Although there is more than one method for making this adjustment, only the most
common one will be shown in this example. As with all adjustments, this example is
to be used only as a general guide; always consult the manufacturer’s service
literature to get the exact procedures and specifications for each individual design
application. It is important to start with a small amount of endplay in the carrier
assembly.

PROCEDURE

Place a dial indicator onto a flat surface, such as the mounting flange of the carrier,
and place the plunger of the dial indicator so that it sits 90 degrees to the back of
the ring gear, as shown in Fig.9.3

Fig.9. 5 Location of the dial indicator used to measure carrier endplay

3. To begin this procedure, loosen the adjusting ring opposite the dial indicator
until a small amount of endplay is registered on the indicator. Use an
appropriate T-bar wrench for this adjustment.
4. To adjust the ring gear to the left or right, use a pry bar, as shown in Fig.9.4
as you read the dial indicator.

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 Fig.9.6 Adjustment procedure used to achieve preload to the
differential assembly bearings.

Use the differential case as a pinch point when performing this adjustment.
Tighten the same adjusting ring until no endplay shows on the dial indicator,
moving the ring gear to the right or left as required to achieve no endplay. Keep
repeating until zero endplay is reached.

To complete this adjustment procedure, tighten each adjusting ring one notch
farther in from zero-lash to preload the bearings.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Final Drive Service

OBJECTIVE: Ring Gear Run-out Check

To check the runout on the ring gear assembly, the following steps must be
followed carefully or an inaccurate reading will result. Follow the steps below in
sequence to measure the ring gear runout.

PROCEDURE

1. Place a magnetic dial indicator on the flange mount of the differential

housing and position the pointer 90 degrees to the back face of the ring
gear with a slight preload on the pointer.
2. Adjust the dial indicator to zero and slowly rotate the ring gear. Record
the total runout during one complete revolution of the ring gear. A

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 nominal value will typically be around 0.008". Always consult the
manufacturer’s service literature for the specific differential that is being
adjusted.
3. If excessive runout is recorded, then the differential must be disassembled
and checked carefully for any burrs that might have been missed during
assembly. The root cause of excessive runout must be corrected as this
will lead to a short crown and pinion life.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Final Drive Service

OBJECTIVE: Ring Gear Backlash Adjustment

If the old ring gear set is being reused, adjust the backlash to the values that
were measured before disassembly. If a new ring gear set is used, adjust the
backlash according to the manufacturer’s specifications. Note: Backlash
readings should be taken in at least three different places on the ring gear to
get an average reading.

PROCEDURE

1. Place a magnetic dial indicator on the flange mount of the differential

housing and position the pointer 90 degrees to the face of a ring gear
tooth with at least one revolution of preload on the pointer and set it
to zero, as shown in Fig.9.7

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 Fig.9 8 Measuring backlash of the ring gear.

2. Move the ring gear back and forth slightly and read the dial indicator
movement; repeat this in three places spread out evenly around the
ring gear. If the reading is not within specifications, adjust the backlash
as outlined in the following step.
3. Depending on which way the backlash must go, move the adjusting
ring one turn at a time by loosening one bearing and tightening the
opposite one. This will maintain bearing preload. Backlash will increase
when the ring gear is moved away from the pinion and decrease when
moved toward the pinion. Refer to Figure 9.8

Note: Check in at least three places to get an average reading.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE

TOPIC: Final Drive Service

OBJECTIVE: Ring Gear Tooth-Contact Adjustment

Adjustment. As with any adjustments on a differential, this one is

critical to the life of the gear set and, if not done correctly, can lead to
failure. The tooth-contact pattern consists of a contact patch that runs

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 lengthwise along the tooth of the ring gear as well as the profile of the
tooth.

PROCEDURE

Paint at least 8 to 12 teeth on the ring gear before rolling the gear
teeth together to check the pattern.

Fig.9.10 What happens when the ring gear is moved away

from the pinion. Note: Backlash increases.

1. A good pattern, as shown in Fig.9.19, will have the contact mark centred on
the ring gear teeth lengthwise.

2. This test is in an unloaded condition and does not represent what takes place
under load. The contact pattern in this case will be about one-half to two-
thirds of the tooth.
3. When checking the pattern on a used gear set, the contact will not usually
display square as is the case with a new gear set. The contact pattern will
have a pocket at the toe of the gear that forms a tail at the root of the tooth.
This pattern would look better if a load could be placed on the gear set. The
more wear there is on the gear set, the more pronounced the tail will be.

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 4. Before you disassemble the gear set, perform a tooth contact check and
sketch the pattern for future reference. A good pattern will not extend to the
toe, and it will be centred evenly along the tooth face between the top land
and the root. At no time should the pattern run off the tooth. If required,
adjust the contact pattern by moving the ring gear and pinion gear either
away from each other or toward each other. Pinion position in relation to ring
gear position is determined by the thickness of the shim pack between the
pinion cage and the differential housing.
5. This adjustment controls the tooth depth. These adjustments are interrelated
because one will affect the other; they must be considered together even
though they are two distinct adjustments. Whenever these adjustments must
be made.
Thrust Screw Adjustment

If the differential has a thrust screw, it must be adjusted properly. Follow the
steps listed below to complete this procedure correctly. Before beginning this
adjustment, the carrier must be rotated in the stand until the ring gear is
facing down toward the floor.

1. Place the thrust block on the back side of the ring gear and rotate the
ring gear until the thrust block and the thrust screw hole are lined up.
Install the thrust screw until it contacts the thrust block, and then back
out approximately one-half turn.
2. Install the lock nut onto the thrust screw and secure it, making sure
that the screw does not turn during this procedure. Torque the jam nut
to specifications.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS

Drive axles are subject to failure from a wide variety of conditions; some are caused
by inappropriate equipment operation and others are caused by poor maintenance
practice. A technician must understand the limitations of drive axle components and
their lubricants in order to assess failure conditions and come up with reasonable
conclusions. Component damage can lead to expensive repairs and downtime. If a
technician replaces the failed components without identifying and correcting the root
cause, more problems associated with the failure will occur. It is a adjust the pinion
first, and then adjust the backlash. Continue this process until a satisfactory pattern
is achieved. Here is where experience comes in: An experienced technician will set a
good pattern in a few minutes, whereas an inexperienced technician will often take
longer before figuring it out. Figure 14-62 shows an example of a contact pattern
that needs to be corrected. considerable challenge for the technician to achieve
maximum component service life. Equipment operators play an important role in this
effort, and must operate the equipment in a manner that will not stress the axle’s

646 | P a g e
components to the point of failure. When a failure occurs on a drive axle, two
questions must be answered: What occurred? How can a similar failure be avoided?
There are limitations to failure analysis in the field and, in some cases, a component
may need to be analysed in a lab. A qualified technician can identify most failures
that occur and recommend procedures that will prevent the same failure from
occurring again. This section will look at some common failures and show what to
look for to successfully identify corrective measures

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Propeller shaft service

OBJECTIVE: To Replacing Universal Joints

Tools and equipment:

Introduction

The propeller shaft is different in length and sleeve yoke between a manual gearbox
and an automatic gearbox. Otherwise, the propeller shafts of these models are
identical. On some vehicles needle bearings employed are maintenance-free, sealed-
for-life type. They do not require lubrication except when they have been
disassembled.

Procedure

Clean up Propeller shaft

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OR

(1) Remove the snap ring using snap ring pliers.

(2) Applying suitable sockets to the outside of the propeller shaft flange yoke, force
out one needle bearing using a vice as illustrated in Fig. 2. (8) In the same
manner as above, remove the other needle bearing.

NOTE:

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Note the pre-removal positions of the snap rings so that they are reinstalled in the
same positions after reassembly of the needle bearings

Inspection of Propeller Shaft Bend and Other defects

Inspect the propeller shaft

1. If the universal joint journals indicate impressions of needle rollers, dent

pitting or rust, replace both the universal joint journals and needle bearings
as an assembly.
2. Check the dust seals for the needle bearings for deformation, wear and
damage, and replace the dust seal if necessary as an assembly with a needle
bearing.

Reassembly

1. Pack sufficient amount of grease in each grease pit of the universal joint
journals. Further coat grease over needle rollers in the bearing cups and
trunnions evenly

Use vehiclee not to over-pack grease in journal pits to avoid incomplete mounting of
bearing cups on the journals and mis-judgment of snap ring selection.

2. Apply even, thin coats of grease on dust seal lips before their reassembly.
3. In the similar manner as provided for the removal of needle bearings, install
the needle bearings on the universal joint journals using suitable sockets and
a bench vice to reassemble each universal joint.
4. Upon installation of the needle bearings, install snap rings selected from four
thicknesses so that snap ring and bearing clearance meets the standard
value.
5. NOTE: Select snap rings of the same thickness or closer thicknesses on each
pair of yokes in order to secure them

Measure for out of roundness

Shaft runout is another possible cause of vibration. Driveshaft runout can be caused
by a bent driveshaft, damaged yokes, or worn U-joints. A dial indicator is normally
used to measure driveshaft runout. Before measuring runout, first sand and clean
around the front, centre, and rear of the driveshaft to remove any uneven build-up
of paint or rust. This will give the dial indicator a smooth surface for accurate
measurements. Mount the dial indicator perpendicular to the shaft. The indicator
base must be placed on a rigid surface; the machine frame is a good choice.
Compare your measurements to specs. Generally, driveshaft runout should not
exceed 0.010.25–0.38 mm, but always check the manufacturer’s specification. If
driveshaft runout is beyond specs, try removing and rotating the shaft 180 degrees

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in the rear yoke. If the shaft runout is greater than the maximum, replace the
propeller shaft.

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Propeller shaft service

OBJECTIVE: To Test for Out of roundness of propeller shaft

Procedure

1. Mount the 'propeller shaft on V blocks placed, from the shaft ends.
2. Place the dial indicator on the centre of the shaft, and perpendicular to the
shaft.
3. With the dial indicator pointing the centre of the propeller shaft check the
amount of bend.

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 Measuring Driveshaft Runout Shaft

Conclusion

If the bend exceeds the standard dimension or the propeller shaft indicates cracks
over the tubing or on yoke weld seams, replace the propeller shaft. (Fig. 3)

ACTIVITY

TOPIC: Propeller shaft service

OBJECTIVE: To Phasing the propeller shaft

Tools and equipment

 Relevant spanners and sockets.

 Punches and specialized tools.
 Lifting apparatus

When removing a two-piece driveshaft, look for the phasing marks, as shown in
Figure 13-19. If none are present, scribe a mark on the two connecting halves
before removing the driveshaft.

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When the time comes to install the driveshaft, this will ensure that it is done
correctly. When determining driveshaft installation parameters, one other factor that
must be considered is the driveshaft’s length and diameter (as well as the rpm).
Most manufacturers restrict driveshaft length to a maximum of 2m. The greater the
weight and length of the shaft, the greater the radial forces generated. As the speed
of the driveshaft goes up, balance becomes more important.

EXERCISE

References

Angelo, S. ‘et al’. (2018). Modern Diesel Technology: Heavy Equipment Systems. New
York.
Denton, T. (2012). Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems. 4th Ed. Routledge
Denton, T. (2017). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis. 4th Ed. Routledge

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Heizler, H. (2006). Vehicle and Engineering Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann
Hillier, V. (2014). Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics. 2nd edn. Oxford
Joseph, A.B. (2014). Modern Diesel Technology: Electricity & Electronics. 2nd edn.
Clifton Park, New York.
Manufacturers manuals and bulletins
Scott, A.H. (2015). Heavy Duty Equipment Technology: A Systems Approach
(Automotive Diesel and Heavy Duty).Pearson Education

Manual clutches

Common Clutch Complaints, Causes, and Corrections

Symptom Cause Remedy

Clutch slips on Insufficient release Readjust clutch to gain

engagement or during bearing clearance; no free correct clearance Instruct
operation play Riding the pedal driver on proper
Clutch worn out techniques Replace worn
out clutch Pedal hard to
depress Linkage binding
Release bearing wear
pads grooved Repair or
replace linkage Replace
release bearing or clutch
assembly

Pedal hard to depress Linkage binding Release Repair or replace linkage

bearing wear pads Replace release bearing
grooved or clutch assembly

Clutch does not release Insufficient release Readjust clutch Replace

completely bearing free travel Worn input shaft Replace clutch
or damaged input shaft as necessary Correct
splines; discs hanging up binding intermediate plate
Warped clutch disc or check drive pin on 36.6
pressure plate cm clutch and drive slots
Intermediate plate on 39.4 cm clutch repair
binding or replace as necessary

Clutch chatters on Starting in too high a gear Instruct the driver on

engagement for the load Oil-soaked proper operating

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 discs Warped or damaged techniques Repair source
pressure plate, flywheel, of oil contamination and
or clutch disc clean or replace discs
Replace warped or
damaged components

Clutch noisy on Worn or damaged release Replace release bearing

disengagement bearing Worn or damaged Release pilot bearing If
pilot bearing; noisy only adjustment was made
when fully disengaged with linkage instead of
Clutch adjustment internal adjustment, it can
incorrect on pull-type cause bearing retainer to
clutch contact clutch cover—
readjust correctly

Gear clash on shifting Too much free play at

pedal (push-type clutch)
Not enough release
bearing free travel (pull-
type clutch) Discs warped
or damaged Pilot bearing
binding

Power-Shift Transmission Problems

Problems related to power-shift transmissions can range from hydraulic fluid leaks to
worn or broken gears and other internal components. Both countershaft
transmissions and planetary transmissions have hydraulic clutches with multiple
plates and discs, as well as a large array of shafts, gears, bearings, and seals.
Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for troubleshooting and
identifying problems in the specific transmission being worked on. The following are
some of the more common problems that can affect nearly any type of power-shift
transmission:

a. Hydraulic oil-related problems. Oil problems such as low oil level,

contaminated oil, the wrong type of oil, and debris in the hydraulic oil filter
can damage or destroy early every component in a transmission. The gradual
wearing of gears, bearings, seals, and clutch discs further contributes to oil
contamination.

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 b. Overheating. A power-shift transmission can overheat if the wrong type of oil
is used or if the oil level is too low. Other causes of overheating can include
worn or dirty relief valves and control valves, worn or damaged oil seals, and
plugged oil cooling devices and oil flow paths in the transmission.
c. Clutch slippage. A clutch slippage problem often presents itself as a hesitation
when equipment movement is started and during power-shifting. Clutch
slippage can occur if the wrong type of oil is used or if the oil level is low.
Other causes include worn clutch discs and plates, mechanical linkages that
are bound or out of adjustment, and improper pressure settings.
d. Abnormal transmission noise. Unusual and/or excessive noise from a power-
shift transmission can be an indication of low oil level, worn gears and/or
bearings, and contamination inside the transmission. Improper pressures and
temperatures can lead to cavitation of the hydraulic oil, which can produce
unusual noise during operation.
e. Vibration. Bent shafts and damaged gears or bearings can affect the rotation
of parts inside the transmission and are, therefore, among the most likely
causes of vibration.
f. Oil leaks. Worn or damaged oil seals and gaskets are common causes of
leaks from a transmission.
g. Gear selection, shifting, and directional change issues. Problems or failures
related to gear shifting and/or directional changes can be caused by many
factors, including oil-related issues, dirty or damaged solenoids or regulator
valve assemblies, and problems in any of the electrohydraulic components of
the TCU. Many common power-shift transmissions’ failures can be avoided by
establishing and following a regular preventive maintenance program.
Equipment manufacturers provide information about routine checks and
adjustments, fluid and filter changes, and guidelines for proper operation.
Following these recommendations can reduce unnecessary downtime and
extend the life of these components. To perform recommended maintenance
on power-shift transmissions and power shuttles, follow the steps in SKILL

ACTIVITY

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TRANSMISSION OVERHAUL

TOPIC: Powershift Transmission

SUBJECT: Powershift transmission Overhaul

TOOLS and EQUIPMENT:

1. Necessary wrenches
2. Lifting Equipment
3. Rags
4. Cleaning solvent
5. Correct PPE

NOTE

The procedures for overhauling a countershaft power-shift transmission are

obviously different from those used to overhaul a planetary power-shift transmission.
Consequently, service technicians must always obtain and follow the equipment
manufacturer’s recommendations during any overhaul procedure. They must also
follow all company guidelines related to work area safety, personal protective
equipment (PPE), and cleanliness.

While there can be many variations in power-shift transmissions and the procedures
used for maintaining and overhauling these components, there are some general
guidelines that should apply in most cases. To perform any power-shift transmission
overhaul

Procedure

Disassembly

a. Remove the transmission from the equipment.

b. Disconnect all wiring, hoses, and other connections and then safely splitting
the equipment (if needed) to access the transmission o.
c. Before and during the removal and overhaul, technicians should take
photographs, use match marking, and label components as needed to ensure
that everything is reassembled in the proper manner.
d. Disassemble transmission

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 e. Clean all parts
f. Thoroughly inspect each part for wear or damage. Any part that shows signs
of wear, damage, or overheating should be replaced. Normal wear parts such
as seals, bearings, O-rings, and gaskets should always be replaced. The same
basic rule applies to parts like clutch plates and discs. Other components,
such as valves, can sometimes be rebuilt separately and reused. Always use
the manufacturer’s service information to ensure that all replacement parts
correctly match the originals. Also, keep track of all the parts used during the
overhaul.

Assembly

Manufacturer guidelines must also be followed during reassembly and

reinstallation of the components.
a. Be sure to properly lubricate all O-rings and install all match-marked
components to their original positions.
b. In addition, follow all manufacturer recommendations for torquing bolts. Once
the transmission has been reinstalled in the equipment
c. Double-check that all wiring, tubing, and hoses are properly reconnected.
d. Fill the transmission with the proper type and amount of hydraulic fluid based
on the manufacturer’s recommendations, and check for leaks. The equipment
e. Start the equipment and allow oil to reach normal operating conditions for
temperatures and pressures.
f. Verify these values using the manufacturer’s guidelines.
g. Test the equipment to ensure that the overhaul was successful.
h. Verify that all shifting and directional changes are taking place as designed.
Check again for leaks or any signs of unusual operating conditions

To complete the procedure, carefully log what was done and list the parts that were
used during the overhaul. Save this information in a database so that it can be
referenced for future maintenance, repairs, and overhauls.

SUMMARY

A power-shift transmission allows operators to shift gears up or down and change

directions on the go and under load without a loss in acceleration or torque and
without having to use a foot clutch.

i. The ability of a power-shift transmission to shift under power is accomplished

by hydraulic clutch packs that engage and disengage a series of gears and
are controlled by a hydraulic system.

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 ii. Today, most power-shift transmissions are controlled electronically, where the
operator is merely actuating electrical switches that control electric solenoids
for both speed ranges and direction.
iii. There are two main types of power-shift transmissions: countershaft and
planetary.
iv. In a countershaft power-shift transmission, hydraulic clutches control counter-
rotating shafts with meshed gears.
v. A countershaft power-shift transmission is typically found in small- to
medium-sized wheel loaders, graders, machine, and other machines.
vi. In a planetary power-shift transmission, hydraulic clutches control sets of
planetary gears to transfer power.
vii. The key component for enabling a power-shift transmission to shift speed
ranges and directions under full power is a hydraulically applied, spring-
released clutch.
viii. The basic purpose of a hydraulic clutch used in any type of power-shift
transmission is to either lock two rotating components together, such as one
gear to another gear, or stop a rotating component by locking it to a
stationary component
ix. The torque transfer components inside a hydraulic clutch are plates and discs
that are alternately stacked together in groups of 2 to 10.
x. The torque capacity of a clutch relates to the surface area of the discs. The
greater the surface area of the discs, the higher the torque load that the
clutch can handle.
xi. When a hydraulic clutch is engaged, pressurized fluid from the hydraulic
system is routed through a control valve or solenoid that is controlled by the
operator, fed through a bore on the clutch piston housing, and applied to the
face of the piston to clamp the plates and discs together.
xii. Once a hydraulic clutch is disengaged, springs in the clutch retract the clutch
piston and allow the plates and discs to rotate independently.
xiii. The way hydraulic clutches in a power-shift transmission are controlled
depends on factors such as the type of transmission, the equipment
manufacturer, and the type of transmission control system being used.
xiv. Specific procedures used during any power-shift transmission overhaul will
vary according to the equipment, the manufacturer, and, in some cases,
company guidelines.
xv. Some general guidelines that apply to most power-shift transmission
overhauls include removing the transmission from the equipment and
disassembling it; inspecting and replacing worn or damaged components;
reassembling and reinstalling the transmission; refilling the transmission with
the proper type and amount of hydraulic fluid; testing the equipment to
ensure that the overhaul was successful; and carefully logging what was done
and listing the parts that were used during the overhaul.
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 APPLY OIL SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Oil analysis is the best index of wear. Oil analysis can predict engine failure
with some Oil sample undergoes spectroscopic analysis to identify 16 or more
elements with an accuracy of within one part per million. Bearing wear shows
up as lead, silver, tin, and aluminum; liner and ring wear as iron and
chromium; valve wear as nickel; and bushings as copper. Silicon and
aluminum particles suggest air filter failure.

Benefits of Oil Analysis

3. Oil analysis has become a key component of good preventative maintenance

(PM) practice. This is because it can save operators money. Performing the
analyses at each PM and responding appropriately to the lab reports is key to
making them cost-effective.
4. When used engine oil is analysed, the objective is to produce a report on the
rate of engine wear and the suitability of the oil change interval to the
application, and perhaps to identify a potential engine failure before it
becomes an actual failure

An oil analysis is performed to determine:

5. viscosity
6. presence of coolant
7. dirt contamination
8. abnormal wear contamination
The engine oil temperature should be close to operating temperature when
drawing a sample. Although Oil Testing Laboratories have guidelines on how to
draw off oil samples, they are not always easy to observe. Some laboratories
recommend that an oil sample syringe be ported directly into the main lube
gallery being especially careful to avoid dead zones. The engine oil should be at
operating temperature with the engine running before drawing the sample.
However, in practice most oil samples are taken from diesel engines during
routine PM oil change operations while draining oil from the engine. Avoid taking
the sample from either the beginning or end of the drain-off: midway through
the runoff is preferred. Take precautions to avoid burns from the oil while
obtaining the sample by wearing insulated rubber chemical-handling gloves. Also
avoid contaminating the sample after it has been taken. Label the container and
complete the engine identification form that accompanies the sample to the
laboratory. If the objective of the sample is diagnosis of a condition, you have no

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 choice but to syringe the sample either from the oil pan or a lubrication gallery.
Again, the oil should be at running temperature when the sample is drawn.

Methods of Testing

Oil-testing laboratories use blotter and spectrographic testing to produce reports

that reference the engine OEM limit specifications. A blotter test kit is available
for non-laboratory testing of engine oil.

VISCOSITY CHANGE

A change in the oil’s viscosity can be determined using a flow comparator.

1. A significant increase in the engine oil’s viscosity can be caused by:

i. prolonged high temperature operation
ii. aerated lubricant
iii. extended service intervals
iv. coolant contamination.
2. A decrease in viscosity is normally attributable to fuel contamination.
All diesel engine oil is affected by a small amount of fuel contamination;
however, this should not be sufficient to cause any significant alteration in
viscosity.
3. Next, a measured drop of used oil is dropped on a test paper or blotter.
The darkness of the sample relative to that on a code chart is used to
indicate the amount of soot, dirt, and other suspended material in the
sample. On some blotter test kits, the acidity can also be read on the test
paper by a change of colour.

Laboratories perform more comprehensive testing usually involving the use of

spectrochemical analyses. Spectrographic testing produces more specific results and
is used to identify metallic and organic contaminants in oil. A quantity of the sample
is boiled off, and then subjected to ultraviolet radiation. Contaminants are identified
by the way they react to the radiation. Oil sample analyses must be interpreted
comparatively not only with the OEM maximum specifications but also with the
vehicle’s service application. They are most meaningful when interpreted by a fleet
equipped with identical engines in units engaged in similar operating modes.

The following list includes some of the elements found on a typical oil analysis
report:

1. Al—aluminum. A constituent of many friction bearings, pistons, turbo

impeller housings, Roots blowers.
2. Fe—iron. Most of the engine components are iron based alloys. High Fe
readings could be an indication of rapid wear on almost any engine

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 component exposed to the lube oil; engine cylinder and valvetrain
components should be suspected first.
3. Si—silicon. Silicon dioxide from airborne fine sands and dusts ingested by
the engine.

Check valves are the weak point of reciprocating (piston or diaphragm) pumps. Most
check valves can be removed for cleaning or replacement. When this is not possible,
a piece of wire inserted into the fuel entry port should unstick the ball, at least
temporarily. Diaphragms should be changed periodically and the housing cleaned
every 200 hours or so of operation (Fig. 5-39). When installing these pumps, it is

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good practice to bar the engine over so the pump lever rides on the lower part of
the cam.

Removing Liner

Tools

A -EXTRACTOR

B-PULLER_PLATE

C-SPACER

D-EXPANDER

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