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 CONTENTS

 Page
1. WHAT IS GEOLOGY ALL ABOUT? v
2. WHAT IS SOIL MECHANICS? vi
3. MODULE CONTENTS viii
Learning unit 1 Introduction to basic geology1
Learning unit 2: The South African stratigraphy11
Learning unit 3: Mineralogy24
Learning unit 4: Rock cycle and rock formations34
Learning unit 5: Physical geology and tectonics52
Learning unit 6: Geological mapping and topography61
Learning unit 7: Soils79
Learning unit 8: Index properties95
Learning unit 9: Soil testing117

4. PRESCRIBED BOOKS x
5. WHAT IS EXPECTED FROM YOU? x
6. CALCULATOR REQUIREMENTS xi
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING xi

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 PREFACE

1. WHAT IS GEOLOGY ALL ABOUT?

Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia, ("study of", or "discourse") is
defined as an earth science that is concerned with the solid earth, the rocks it is composed of and
the processes by which they change over time. The word “geology” can also be used to refer to
the studies that are conducted on the solid features of planet earth or any other terrestrial planet
in our universe (Harper 2018). Figure 1 below is an illustration of a typical geological feature.

FIGURE 1
Cross-section of a volcano. Engraved mountains, hand-drawn geology
vintage style (Shutterstock 2018; https://www.shutterstock.com/
image-vector/cross-section-volcano-engraved-mountains-hand-1045739260?src=pIgfiEc5Sn9ZbCHG
Xi99Hg-1-13).

Geology, according to Hess (1962), can be used to describe

• the structure of earth beneath the surface as well as the unique processes that have shaped
that structure over billions of years
• the absolute ages of rock formations and in any area on our planet
• the histories of these rock formations

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PR EFACE

By combining the above, it is possible for geologists to accurately chronicle the geology and
the geological history of planet earth as well as demonstrate the age of the earth. The field of
geology provides significant evidence of plate tectonics and the earth's past climates (Kious &
Tilling 1996).

This module is divided into two sections. Section A covers geology and Section B covers soil
mechanics.

As a student who is registered for GSM1501 and studying towards a qualification in civil engineer-
ing, you will acquire basic knowledge about the following in section A of this module (Geology):

• geology and earth sciences

• formation of the earth
• geological processes of our planet

2. WHAT IS SOIL MECHANICS?

Soil mechanics is a sub-field of soil physics and the applied mechanics that describe soil behav-
iour (Mitchell & Soga 2005). Soil mechanics is the branch of civil engineering that deals with
the engineering properties of soils and their behaviour under stresses. Soil mechanics differs
from solid and fluid mechanics in the following ways:

• Soil usually consists of a varied mixture of fluids and granular particles. It may also contain
some organic solids and other matter. Fluids consist of a homogeneous material, usually in
liquid form (Powrie 2004).
• Soil mechanics provides the theoretical framework for analysing soil-related problems in
geotechnical engineering. Geotechnical engineering is one of the seven sub-disciplines of
civil engineering. It is also a sub-discipline of engineering geology. Engineering geology is a
sub-discipline of geology. Fluid mechanics is a sub-discipline of hydraulics. Hydraulics is a
sub-discipline of water engineering. Water engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering.

Soil mechanics can also be said to be the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems that deal with sediments or unconsolidated accumulations of solid parti-
cles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, irrespective of whether
or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents (Terzaghi 1925).

Soil mechanics is used mainly to analyse the behaviour and deformations of soils within natural
and human-made structures that are supported by or made of soils. Example applications of
soil mechanics are

• buildings and bridge foundations

• retaining walls (earth and concrete)
• dams (earth and concrete)
• roads

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 Pr e f a ce

The principles of soil mechanics can also be used in related disciplines such as

• engineering geology
• geophysical engineering
• coastal engineering
• agricultural engineering
• soil sciences
• hydrology
• structural engineering

Figure 2 shows a typical road construction project where the road layers have been designed
in accordance with principles of soil mechanics.

FIGURE 2
Road construction in Thailand (Shutterstock 2018; https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/
road-construction-thailandphoto-blur-1038996757?src=
d12NGFHOoQCGckmk8bZLLg-1-2)

As a student who is registered for GSM1501 and studying towards a qualification in civil en-
gineering, you will acquire basic knowledge of the following in section B of this module (Soil
Mechanics):

• soil mechanics
• soil properties and compaction
• soil index properties
• the application of mathematical principles to calculate soil index properties

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PR EFACE

3. MODULE CONTENTS
The contents of this study guide are shown below:

• Introduction to basic geology

• The South African stratigraphy
• Mineralogy
• Rock cycle and rock formations
• Physical geology and tectonics
• Geological mapping and topography
• Soils
• Index properties
• Soil testing

A summary of the contents of each learning unit is given below.

Learning unit 1: Introduction to basic geology

In learning unit 1 we will cover the following:

• introduction to basic geology
• basic geological processes
• geological history
• the earth

Learning unit 2: The South African stratigraphy

In learning unit 2 we will cover the following:

• South African rock formations
• South African rock groups
• South African rock types
• South African supergroups, sub-groups and sequences

Learning unit 3: Mineralogy

In learning unit 3 we will cover the following:

• physical composition of minerals
• chemical composition of minerals
• classification of minerals

Learning unit 4: Rock cycle and rock formations

In learning unit 4 we will cover the following:

• rock cycle
• forces driving the rock cycle
• rock formation
• igneous rocks
• sedimentary rocks
• metamorphic rocks

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Learning unit 5: Physical geology and tectonics

In learning unit 5 we will cover the following:

• plate tectonics
• extensional tectonics
• thrust (contractional) tectonics
• strike-slip tectonics

Learning unit 6: Geological mapping and topography

In learning unit 6 we will cover the following:

• lithologies
• orientations
• remote sensing
• direct survey
• forms of topographic data

Learning unit 7: Soils

In learning unit 7 we will cover the following:

• origin of soils
• composition of soil
• types of soil
• weathering
• classification of soils

Learning unit 8: Index properties

In learning unit 8 we will cover the following:

• swelling and shrinkage
• plasticity
• dry density
• optimum moisture content
• saturation
• void ratio
• porosity
• maximum dry density

Learning unit 9: Soil testing

In learning unit 9 we will cover the following:

• grading analysis (mechanical)

• Atterberg limits
• hydrometer analysis

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4. PRESCRIBED BOOKS
You will need the following textbooks:

Johnson, MR, Anhaeusser, CR & Thomas, RJ. 2006. The geology of South Africa. Johannesburg:
Geological Society of South Africa and the Council for Geoscience.
Das, BM & Sivakugan, N. 2017. Fundamentals of geotechnical engineering. 5th ed, international
edition. Connecticut: Cengage Learning. ISBN 13: 978-1-305-63862-4.
Lurie, J. 1989. South African geology: for mining, metallurgical, hydrological, and civil engineer-
ing. 2nd Lexicon rev. ed. Johannesburg: Lexicon.
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering manual.
https://www.nra.co.za/live/content.php?Category_ID=148. [Accessed on 17 March 2020]

It is important to note that prescribed and recommended books are always in a continuous pro-
cess of refinement and redevelopment by the authors. As such, prescribed books may change
to the latest versions. For example, the prescribed book for this module is currently the 5th edi-
tion and in a few years that may change to the 6th or 7th edition. The examples and exercises
may soon refer to the latest versions of the prescribed book. As such changes occur, updates
will be made on the online version of this study guide on the myUnisa platform. You need to
continuously consult the online platforms (myUnisa, discussion forums and e-tutor blog) to keep
up with changes and any other new additional study material (videos, tutorials, memorandums,
exercises and study notes) for this module. You may use earlier versions of the prescribed book
if you are unable to obtain the version listed as the prescribed book. However, the references,
page numbers and exercises will differ.

5. WHAT IS EXPECTED FROM YOU?

As a university student who is registered for GSM1501, you are expected to

• be dedicated and work hard

• manage your own affairs effectively to ensure that you have adequate time for your studies
• be responsible for your own learning, scheduling your own time and making sure that
you complete and submit all assignments on time

In addition, there are other activities that you are expected to do in your own time. To achieve
this, self-discipline on your part is required. These activities are
• reading lecture notes and ensuring that you understand them
• reading the prescribed and recommended textbooks
• widening your knowledge by doing general reading on geology and soil mechanics
• regularly checking for updates and additional study material on the online platforms
• working on exercises, previous exam papers and coursework assignments
• contributing to discussion forums with other students on myUnisa

6. CALCULATOR REQUIREMENTS
You will need a non-programmable scientific calculator, which you can use during the examina-
tion. Programmable calculators are strictly not allowed.

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Harper, D. 2018. s.v. geology. Online etymology dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/word/
geology [Accessed on 21 May 2019].
Hess, HH. 1962. History of ocean basins. In: Engel, AEJ, James, HL & Leonard, BF. (eds). Petrologic
studies: a volume in honor of A. F. Buddington. New York: Geological Society of America.
Kious, J & Tilling, RI. 1996. Understanding plate motions. This dynamic earth: the story of plate
tectonics. Reston, Virginia: United States Geological Survey.
Mitchell, JK & Soga, K. 2005. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 3rd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley
and Sons.
Powrie, W. 2004. Soil mechanics. 2nd ed. London: Spon Press.
Terzaghi, K. 1925. Principles of soil mechanics - IV: Settlement and consolidation of clay. Engi-
neering News Record, 95(22):874-878.

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 Learning unit 1 1

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC GEOLOGY

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 1 is to help you understand the geological formation
of our planet earth. In addition, we will introduce you to the global view of the earth as
well as the internal structure and crust formation of our planet. By understanding the
history of how the earth was formed, geologists can make reasonable predictions of what
is to be found under the top level of the crust. In particular, you should be able to do the
following:
This learning unit will help you understand the following:
• basic geology
• basic geological processes
• geological history
• the formation of the earth

Read pages 1 to 5 in Lurie (1989), which is one of the prescribed books in this course.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC GEOLOGY

The term “geology” is defined as an earth science that is concerned with the solid earth,
the rocks it is composed of and the processes by which they change over a period (Harper
2018). Geology (geo: “Earth”, logos: “knowledge”) refers to the study and understanding
of our planet earth. Geology is in many ways one of the most complex of sciences. This
is because a complete understanding of the inner and outer workings of planet earth
requires some understanding of mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology and astronomy
(US Geological Survey 2009).
According to Patterson (1956), the science of geology is generally divided into three
subdisciplines:
• Physical geology refers to the study of earth materials and internal processes.
• Historical geology refers to the study of the origin and development of planet earth.
• Environmental geology refers to the interrelationship of human beings and the earth.

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1.2.1 Composition of the earth

Levin (2010) describes the earth’s composition. Earth comprises rocks, and rocks
comprise minerals. These two terms are often mixed, but they mean different things:
• Minerals: These are naturally occurring crystal compounds that can be defined by a
specific chemical composition. The most common minerals are identified by
examining the specific physical properties which are unique. These properties include
the lustre (shining or the way the mineral reflects light), the hardness, the presence or
absence of cleavage (the tendency to break into flat planes) and many other properties
(Levin 2010). Klein and Hurlbut (1937) define a mineral as a naturally occurring
homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic
arrangement.
• Rocks: There are various definitions of rock. A rock is a solid aggregate or mixtures of
one or more minerals. In summary, a mineral is a single compound, and an analysis
of any part of it will give the same chemical composition; a rock consists of numerous
minerals in a solid mass, and therefore will provide different compositions if each
different part is tested (Levin 2010). The International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM) (1981) defines a rock as a continuum or polycrystalline solid between
discontinuities consisting of an aggregate of minerals or grains. Other geologists define
a rock as a bound aggregate of minerals, mineraloids, or fragments of other rocks
(University of Auckland 2005). The South African Institute of Civil Engineering (SAICE)
(2002) defines a rock as “igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary material, other than
Pedogenic material, with an unconfined compressive strength of the intact or
unjointed material in excess of 1 MPa”. Cairncross (2004) defines rocks as a
combination of minerals.

Rocks, based on their origin, are identified as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.

The definition of a rock and soil by civil/geotechnical engineers and engineering
geologists is arbitrary. Soils and rocks have various meanings among different disciplines.
We will discuss rocks in detail in learning unit 4.

1.2.2 Internal structure of the earth

The internal structure of planet earth is layered in spherical shells and consists of the
• core (liquid outer core, solid inner core)
• mantle (mesosphere lower mantle, asthenosphere upper mantle)
• crust

The properties of the mantle change for the upper and lower mantle. The lower mantle
(closest to the core) is under extremely high pressure and temperature, but with
considerable strength from a depth of about 2 880 km to 350 km. The upper mantle is
termed the asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) with temperature/pressure balance such that

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the rock has little strength and is easily deformed. The properties of the upper (outer) and
lower (inner) mantle have distinct differences as far as viscosity (pressure/temperature
regimes) is concerned (Skinner & Porter 2000).
The scientific understanding of the internal structure of the earth is based on observations
of topography and bathymetry, rocks in outcrops, samples brought to the surface from
greater depths by volcanoes, analysis of seismic waves that pass through the earth,
measurements of the gravitational fields and experiments with crystal solids at pressures
and temperatures characteristic of the earth's deep interior (Burger et al 2006). The depth
of the geological component layers of earth are shown in table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1: Geological component layers of earth
Depth (km) Layer
0–35 Crust (locally varies between 5 and 65 km)
35–60 Uppermost mantle
35–2 890 Mantle
2 890–5 150 Outer core
Adapted from Burger et al (2006)

1.3 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES

To fully understand what is happening below the surface of the earth at any point on
earth, it is important to know what is happening across the whole planet. A brief look at
the globe suggests that the important features of the earth are oceans and continents. The
outer layer of the earth, the crust, as explained in detail in section 1.2, is in fact composed
of a thick felsic crust (light coloured, high silica reach rock) and a thin mafic ocean crust
(dark coloured, low silica content with gabbro and basalt, depending on mineral size).
The crust is normally less than 32 km thick. Beneath the crust is the mantle, a layer
composed of peridotite and related ultramafic rocks that extend halfway to the core of
the planet (US Geological Survey 2009).

1.3.1 Structure of the earth

The earth’s surface is covered with solid hard rock, and at first glance the continents and
ocean basins appear absolute and still. Geologists see the outer layer of the earth in a
different way. The crust and uppermost mantle are indeed seen as layers of solid hard
rock, which they collectively call the lithosphere. But beneath the solid lithosphere at a
depth of 100 and 200 km is a layer that is near to the point of melting. This layer, called
the asthenosphere, is yielding and capable of flow (US Geological Survey 2009).
The lithosphere is broken up into a series of what are called plates. A half dozen or so of
the plates are thousands of kilometres across, whereas others are considerably smaller.
The lithospheric plates slide laterally across the asthenosphere, and it is this motion that

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causes apparent continental drift, but the continents are best understood to be passively
riding attached on the lithosphere. It is at the boundaries between these plates that many
of the most important tectonic processes occur, including mountain-building, volcanism
and earthquake activity. In a few short decades, plate tectonics has become the dominant
theory in understanding the workings of planet earth (US Geological Survey 2009). The
typical layers of the internal structure of the earth are shown in figures 1.1 and 1.2 below.

Figure 1.1
Layers of the internal structure of the earth (US Geological Survey 2009)

1.3.2 Isostasy

For the ideal condition of gravitational equilibrium that controls the heights of continents
and ocean floors, in accordance with the densities of their underlying rocks, the term
“isostasy” was proposed by Dutton, an American geologist, in 1889. Isostasy is the
corresponding state of balance which exists between extensive blocks of the earth's crust,
which rise to different levels and appear at the surface as mountain widespread plateaus,
or plains (Dutton 1889a). Watts (2001) defines isostacy as the state of gravitational
equilibrium between the earth's crust and mantle such that the crust floats at an elevation
that depends on its thickness and density.
The idea implies that there is a certain minimum level below the surface, where the
pressure due to the weight of the material in each unit column of the crust is the same
everywhere. This isopiestic (uniform pressure) level may be regarded as the base of the
crust or lithosphere (Watts 2001).

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1.3.3 Orogeny

An orogeny or orogenesis is an event that leads to both structural deformation and

compositional differentiation of the earth's lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) at
convergent plate margins. An orogen belt usually develops when a continental plate
crumples and is pushed upwards to form mountain ranges; this involves a series of
geological processes collectively called orogenesis (Waltham 2009). Orogeny is the
primary mechanism by which mountains are built on continents. We discuss orogeny in
more detail in learning unit 5.

1.4 GEOLOGICAL TIMELINES

The geological timeline of the earth encompasses the history of the earth. It is linked to
the earliest time by the dates of the first solar system material at 4.567 billion years ago.
The earth is estimated to have formed 4.54 billion years ago, which is the beginning of
the informally recognised Hadean aeon, which is a division of geological time. At the
later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the Holocene epoch)
(International Commission on Stratigraphy 2005; Amelin 2002).
One of the hardest concepts for many to comprehend is geological time. Humans live for
decades, but geological processes are measured in thousands, millions and billions of
years. For example, a valley will change little in a human lifetime, a rockfall here and
there, but in 10 million years a valley can become a reality. It was the acceptance of the
overwhelming evidence for the great age of the earth that made geology a quantitative
science in the early 1800s. It often helps to perceive the immensity of geological time by
using symbols (US Geological Survey 2009; Patterson 1956).
In the United States, for example, the Grand Canyon National Park has constructed a Trail
of Time along the South Rim that does a wonderful job of placing human lives in context
with geological time. The trail begins with markers that allow walkers to see their own
age on a scale of 1 metre per year. The next section places a human lifetime in the context
of a million-year period. The remainder of the trail compresses one million years into 1
m and displays with rock samples set along the trail describe important geologic events
in the history of the canyon. The trail is 2.1 km long (US Geological Survey 2009;
Dalrymple1994).
The entire history of human civilisation (about 10 000 years) encompasses no more than
a centimetre of that 2.1 km trail. As geologists and palaeontologists worked at fully
understanding the rocks exposed in Europe and the Americas in the 1800s, they came to
realise that major discontinuities existed in the fossil records where major extinctions had
taken place. They began to identify aeons, eras, periods and epochs based on places
where the discontinuities were best exposed. Decades later, radiometric age dating made
it possible to pinpoint the age of the rocks in years, resulting in the geological timescale
that is used today. The geological timescale is continuously being refined as more

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information is gathered about the precise dating of geologic events (US Geological Survey
2009; Dalrymple1994). Table 1.2 shows the geological timescale of the earth.
Table 1.2: Geological timescale of the earth

Source: US Geological Survey (2009)

1.5 THE EARTH

Our planet earth is the third planet from the nearest star, the sun, and the only
astronomical object known to harbour life in our solar system. Earth's gravity interacts
with other objects in space, especially the sun and the moon, earth's only natural satellite.
Earth revolves around the sun in 365.26 days, a period known as an earth year. During
this time, earth rotates about its axis about 366.26 times (Dalrymple 2001; Manhesa et al
1980).
According to Milbert and Smith (2007), the shape of planet earth is roughly oblate
spheroidal. Due to its rotation, the earth is flattened at the poles and bulging around the
equator. Sandwell and Smith (2006) show that the diameter of the earth at the equator is
43 km larger than the pole-to-pole diameter. Therefore, the point on the surface farthest
from earth's centre of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano in
Ecuador. The average diameter of the reference spheroid is 12 742 km (Senne 2000).
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2014), planet
earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the
surface over millions of years. Almost 71% of the earth's surface is covered by oceans.

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The remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that have many lakes,
rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of
earth's polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice
of the Arctic ice pack. The earth's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a
liquid outer core that generates the earth's magnetic field and a convecting mantle that
drives plate tectonics.
We will discuss plate tectonics in detail in learning unit 6.
Morbidelli et al (2010) explain in detail the formation of planet earth. The earth's
atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activities and outgassing. Water vapour
from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from
asteroids, protoplanets and comets.

1.6 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should understand the following:
• basic geology
• the composition of the earth (minerals and rocks)
• the geological age of the earth
• the structure of the earth
• the formation of the earth
• the basic geological processes of the earth

By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. Define the following terms:
1.1 Geology
1.2 Mineral
1.3 Orogeny
1.4 Isostasy

2. Provide the definition of rock as per the following (with specific reference to hardness
limits):
• geological perspective

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• SAICE code of practice
• ISMR 1981

3. Briefly describe the structure of the earth and include a schematic illustration.
4. How old is the earth?
5. Briefly describe the orogenic process.
6. Briefly describe the isostatic process.
7. Briefly discuss the earth’s geological timescale.
8. Briefly describe what the earth is.

1.8 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on basic geology, you can watch some video clips. Web
addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under Additional
Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based resources”. Similar
links are also shown below:
• An introduction to Geology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAYiBSo3JKY
• Intro to Geology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KTvsWd4HpAk
• What is Geology?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-U9Pw153h0
• A Brief History of Geologic Time: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWp5ZpJAIAE

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Amelin, Y. 2002. Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich
inclusions. Science, 297(5587):1678–1683. doi:10.1126/science.1073950.
Burger, HR, Sheehan, AF & Jones, CH. 2006. Introduction to applied geophysics:
exploring the shallow subsurface. New York: WW Norton.
Cairncross, B. 2004. Field guide to rocks and minerals of Southern Africa. Struik New
Holland Publishing, Cape Town.
Dalrymple, GB. 1994. The age of the earth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Dalrymple, GB. 2001. The age of the earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly)
solved. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14.
Dutton, C.E. 1889. On some of the greater problems of physical geology: Philosophical
Society of Washington Bulletin 11:51–64.

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Harper, D. 2018. s.v. geology. Online etymology dictionary.
https://www.etymonline.com/word/geology [Accessed on 15 August 2019].
International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2005. International Commission on
Stratigraphy Archivers. http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-archives [Accessed on 17
March 2020].
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM). 1981. Rock characterization testing and
monitoring. In: Brown, ET. (ed.). ISRM suggested methods. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Klein, C & Hurlbut, CS. 1937. Manual of mineralogy. New York: Wiley.
Levin, HL. 2010. The earth through time. 9th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Manhesa, G, Allègre, CJ, Dupréa, B & Hamelin, B. 1980. Lead isotope study of basic-
ultrabasic layered complexes: speculations about the age of the earth and primitive
mantle characteristics. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 47(3):370–82.
doi:10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2.
Milbert, DG & Smith, DA. 2007. Converting GPS height into NAVD88 elevation with the
GEOID96 geoid height model. Proceedings of the GIS/LIS ’96 Annual Conference and
Exposition, Denver, 19-21 November.
Morbidelli, A, Chambers, J, Lunine, JI, Petit, JM, Robert, F, Valsecchi, G.B. & Cyr, K. E.
(2010). Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water to the Earth.
Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 35(6): 1309-1320. doi:10.1111/j.1945-
5100.2000.tb01518.x.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2014). Ocean.
https://www.noaa.gov/oceans-coasts [Accessed on 3 May 2014].
Patterson, C. 1956. Age of meteorites and the earth. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
10(4):230–237. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9.
Sandwell, DT & Smith, WHF. 2006. Exploring the ocean basins with satellite altimeter
data. https://topex.ucsd.edu/marine_grav/explore_grav.html [Accessed on 13 May
2019].
Senne, JH. 2000. Did Edmund Hillary climb the wrong mountain. Professional Surveyor,
20(5):16–21.
Skinner, BJ & Porter, SC. 2000. The dynamic earth: an introduction to physical geology.
4th ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
South African Institute of Civil Engineering (SAICE). 2002. Guidelines for soil and rock
logging in South Africa. In: Brink, ABA & Bruin, RMH. (eds). Proceedings of the
Geoterminology Workshop, AEG, SAICE.

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University of Aukland. (2005). Geology: Rocks and minerals. Flexibility learning. Online:
Available from: https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/glossary.html.
US Geological Survey. (2009). Geology. https://www.usgs.gov/science/science-
explorer/Geology.
Waltham, T. 2009. Foundations of engineering geology. 3rd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.
Watts, AB. 2001. Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.

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 Learning unit 1 2

THE SOUTH AFRICAN STRATIGRAPHY

2.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 2 is to help you understand the South African
stratigraphy. In addition, this learning unit will help you know and understand the general
location and occurrence of rock groups, formations and rock types within the various
erathems (the strata of rocks representing a specific geological era) in South Africa. By
understanding this learning unit, you will know typically which rocks to expect in any
area, especially when you are about to start a construction project.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain South African rock eras
• explain the South African geological strata
• explain South African supergroups, sequences and formations
• discuss the common minerals found in South Africa

Read pages 44 to 55 in Lurie (1989), which is one of the prescribed books in this course.

2.2 WHAT IS STRATIGRAPHY?

2.2.1 Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a scientific discipline concerned with the description of rock successions

and their interpretation in terms of a general timescale. It provides a basis for historical
geology, and its principles and methods have found application in fields such as
petroleum geology and archaeology. Stratigraphic studies deal primarily with
sedimentary rocks but may also encompass layered igneous rocks (e.g. those resulting
from successive lava flows) or metamorphic rocks formed either from such extrusive
igneous material or from sedimentary rocks (Earle 2018).

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A common goal of stratigraphic studies is the subdivision of a sequence of rock strata into
mappable units, determining the time relationships that are involved, and correlating
units of the sequence or the entire sequence with rock strata elsewhere. Following the
failed attempts during the last half of the 19th century of the International Geological
Congress (IGC) to standardise a stratigraphic scale, the International Union of Geological
Sciences (IUGS; founded in 1961) established a Commission on Stratigraphy to work
towards that end.
Traditional stratigraphic schemes rely on two scales:
• a timescale (using aeons, eras, periods, epochs, ages and chrons), for which each unit
is defined by its beginning and ending points
• a correlated scale of rock sequences (using systems, series, stages and chronozones)

These schemes, when used in conjunction with other dating methods such as radiometric
dating (the measurement of radioactive decay), palaeoclimatic dating and palaeomagnetic
determinations that, in general, were developed within the last half of the 20th century,
have led to somewhat less confusion of nomenclature and to increasingly reliable
information on which to base conclusions about earth history (Encyclopaedia Britannica
2018).

2.2.2 South African general geology

The geology of South Africa varies highly and it includes the following:
• cratons
• greenstone belts
• large impact craters
• orogenic belts

The geology of South Africa is the basis for a large mining sector that extracts the following
minerals (this list is not exhaustive):
• gold (16%)
• platinum group minerals (23%)
• iron ore (12%)
• coal (24%)
• other minerals combined (24%)

South Africa has an abundance of the above minerals and the deposits are world class.
The geology of South Africa consists of a high plateau rimmed to the west, the south and
southeast by the Great Slope and rugged mountains. Beyond this there is a strip of narrow
coastal plain (Lurie 1989).

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2.3 STRATIGRAPHIC TERMS
To understand the South African stratigraphy, you need to first understand the meaning
of the following terms:
• Sequence: A lithostratigraphic unit, a part of the geologic record or rock column that
consists of defined rock strata.
• Supergroup: A set of two or more associated groups and/or formations that share
certain lithological characteristics. A supergroup may be made up of different groups
in different geographical areas.
• Member: A named lithologically distinct part of a formation. Not all formations are
subdivided in this way and even where they are recognised, they may form only part
of the formation.
• Group: A set of two or more formations that share certain lithological characteristics.
A group may be made up of different formations in different geographical areas and
individual formations may appear in more than one group.
• Formation: A series of beds that is distinct from other beds above and below, and is
thick enough to be shown on the geological maps that are widely used within the area
in question.
• Bed: A lithologically distinct layer within a member or formation and is the smallest
recognisable stratigraphic unit. These are not normally named.
• Complex: A unit of rocks composed of rocks of two or three of the following rock
types: metamorphic, igneous or sedimentary. Complexes are lithodemic units,
meaning that they are rock units that are not layered or stratigraphically bound and
they are usually of regional extent.

2.4 GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

The geological timescale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates geological
stratigraphy to time. It is used by geologists and other earth scientists to describe the
timing and relationships of events that have occurred during earth's history (International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) 2014).

2.4.1 Swazian erathem

The Swazian erathem is a poorly defined geological stage in South Africa extending from
about 4 billion years ago to 3 billion years ago, encompassing some of the Hadean and
much of the Archean eras on the GTS. Other scales assign the Swazian to parts of the
Paleoarchean and Mesoarchean eras, 3.5 to 2.8 billion years ago. The Swazian erathem
is not recognised by the ICS nor by the Geological Society of America, the two most
widely accepted developers of international GTSs (ICS 2014). The Archean aeon is one
of the four geologic aeons of earth’s history, which occurred between 4 to 2.5 billion
years ago. During the Archean aeon, the earth's crust had cooled enough to allow the
formation of continents and life started to form (ICS 2014).

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The Hadean aeon is a geologic aeon of the earth pre-dating the Archean aeon. It began
with the formation of the earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended, as defined by the
ICS (2014), 4 billion years ago. As of 2016, the ICS (2014) describes its status as informal.

2.4.2 Randian erathem

The Randian erathem is a geological stage in South Africa extending from about 3 billion
years ago to 2.5 billion years ago, encompassing the Archean timescale (ICS 2014).

2.4.3 Vaalian erathem

The Vaalian erathem is a geological stage in South Africa extending from about 2.5 billion
years ago to 2.05 billion years ago, encompassing the Proterozoic timescale. The
Proterozoic aeon is a geological aeon spanning the time from the appearance of oxygen
in earth's atmosphere to just before the proliferation of complex life on the earth (ICS
2014).

2.4.4 Mokolian erathem

The Mokolian erathem is a geological stage in South Africa extending from about 2.05
billion years ago to 0.452 billion years ago, encompassing the Neoproterozoic timescale
(ICS 2014).

2.4.5 Namibian erathem

The Namibian erathem is a geological stage in South Africa extending from about 0.9
billion years ago to 0.9 billion years ago, encompassing the Neoproterozoic timescale.
The Neoproterozoic era is the unit of geological time from 1 to 0.541 billion years ago
(ICS 2014).

2.5 SOUTH AFRICAN SUPERGROUPS

An approximate south west-north east geological cross-section through South Africa is
shown in figure 2.1. In the image, the Cape Peninsula is on the far left, and north-eastern
KwaZulu-Natal on the right. The image is not to scale. The difference in both composition
and structure of the Cape Fold Mountains and the Central Plateau surrounded by the
Great Escarpment, the Drakensberg, can clearly be seen. In the South African stratigraphy,
the supergroups from oldest to youngest are
• Barberton Supergroup
• Witwatersrand and Pongola Supergroups
• Ventersdorp Supergroup
• Transvaal Supergroup
• Olifantshoek Supergroup
• Gariep Supergroup

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• Cape Supergroup
• Karoo Supergroup

Table 2.1 below is a summary of the eight supergroups in the South African stratigraphy
and their age.
Table 2.1: Various supergroups and age ranges
Supergroup Age (Millions of years)
Barberton 3 470
Witwatersrand 2 970
Pongola 2 837
Ventersdorp 2 700-2 500
Transvaal 2 500
Gariep 650
Cape 180
Karoo 120
Source: Johnson et al (2006)

An illustration of the South African surface geology is shown in figure 2.1 below. The
legend, or an explanation of the rock types, from an engineering perspective is shown in
figure 2.2.

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 Figure 2.1
South African surface geology (Schlüter 2008)

Figure 2.2
South African surface geology (Schlüter 2008)

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2.5.1 Cape Supergroup

The Cape Supergroup is divided into several distinct groups (figure 2.3). The western and
southern extents of the supergroup have been folded into a series of longitudinal
mountain ranges, by the collision of the Falkland Plateau into what would later become
South Africa. However, the entire suite in this region slopes downwards towards the north
and east, so that the oldest rocks are exposed in the south and west. The youngest
members of the supergroup are exposed in the north, where the entire Cape Supergroup
dives beneath the Karoo rocks. Drilling in the Karoo has established that Cape Supergroup
rocks are found below the surface up to approximately 150 km north of their
northernmost exposure on the surface. The Cape Supergroup extends eastwards beyond
the Fold into the northern Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, where no folding took place
(Truswell 1977).

2.5.2 Karoo Supergroup

The Karoo Supergroup is the most widespread stratigraphic unit in Africa south of the
Sahara Desert. The supergroup consists of a sequence of units, mostly of non-marine
origin, deposited between the Late Carboniferous and Early Jurassic eras, a period of
about 120 million years (Schlüter 2008).

2.5.3 Transvaal Supergroup

The Transvaal Supergroup is a stratigraphic unit in northern South Africa and southern
Botswana, situated on the Kaapvaal Craton. It is dated to the boundary between the
Archean and Proterozoic eras, roughly 2.5 billion years ago. It is delimited by the
Witwatersrand Basin (2.7 billion years ago) and the Bushveld Igneous Complex (Truswell
1977).

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 Figure 2.3
Approximate south west-north east geological cross-section through South Africa (ICS 2014)

2.6 DISTINCTIVE ROCKS FOUND IN SOUTH AFRICA

2.6.1 Dominion Group

The Dominion Group is a volcano-sedimentary sequence of Archean age underlying the

Witwatersrand Supergroup in northern South Africa. It is thought that the sediments of
the Dominion Group were deposited about 3.07 billion years ago, in a rift valley that was
formed when the crust under the craton began to stretch. This depression was then
flooded by an igneous intrusion from the mantle. Some layers of the Dominion Group
contain gold deposits, which have been mined with minor success. In the Vredefort area,
the Dominion Group is characterised by a thin layer of lava that is only exposed at one
or two locations. After the Dominion Group was laid down, parts of the Kaapvaal Craton
subsided and any low-lying basins were inundated with water. This formed a large,
shallow sea across much of the continent and large-scale deposition of sediments began.
At this point, it is useful to take a closer look at the role water plays in the sedimentation
process (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014). Geochemically, the Dominion volcanics are a
bimodal sequence with subalkaline mafic tholeiitic basalts to andesites and low-
silicarhyolite. The mafic volcanics are believed to have formed by partial melting of
enriched mantle sources followed by fractionation.

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2.6.2 Witwatersrand Supergroup

Basically, water transports eroded fragments away from the source rock. The speed of the
water usually determines the distance the fragments will travel. When rivers hit larger
bodies of water (such as a lake or the sea), the flow slows down considerably and many
of the heavier particles drop down and sink to the bottom. Finer particles, such as sand
and mud, remain suspended in the water for longer and tend to be deposited further away
from the shore. The reason why I’m telling you all this fascinating stuff will become
apparent later (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).
About 2.97 billion years ago, several layers of sedimentary rock were laid down in the
shallow sea that covered much of the present-day South African interior. This is called
the West Rand Group and it created several interesting topographical features, such as
the eponymous Witwatersrand ridge which runs between Germiston and Krugersdorp.
Later, the craton rose up a little and the land buckled into a series of ridges and basins.
The rivers now ran from the highlands in the north and west into a series of lakes and
depressions, where deposition was more rapid. The rocks formed during this period are
called the Central Rand Group. Together, the West Rand Group and Central Rand Group
are called the Witwatersrand Supergroup (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.3 Central Rand Group

The Central Rand Group was rather special, however, because heavy grains of gold were
periodically deposited on the river beds, along with the gravel. This created the richest
goldfield on earth, containing nearly half of the planet’s gold. Later, these gold-bearing
conglomerate rock layers would be mined with spectacular success. The original source
of these gold particles, however, remains something of a geological mystery (Fleminger
2018; ICS 2014).
Around 2.7 billion years ago, the Kaapvaal Craton collided with the Zimbabwe Craton to
the north. This created a mammoth mountain range that rose up along what is now called
the Limpopo Mobile Belt. It also resulted in a great flood of lava that came pouring out
of cracks in the cratons, which covered the rocks of the Witwatersrand Supergroup. These
lavas form the bottom layer of the Ventersdorp Supergroup (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.4 Transvaal Supergroup

Moving swiftly ahead, about 2.5 billion years ago, the Kaapvaal Craton subsided again
and became virtually submerged by an expansive inland sea. This triggered another round
of heavy sedimentation and marks the beginning of the Transvaal Supergroup. This also
coincides with the end of the Archean and the start of the Proterozoic era, which lasted
until 570 million years ago. The Transvaal Supergroup is an interesting bunch of rocks.
The lowest layer, called the Black Reef Formation, contains traces of gold. Above that is
the Chuniespoort Group. This layer contains evidence of some of the earliest life on earth
photosynthesising cyanobacteria. The oxygen from the cyanobacteria also reacted with

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the seawater to create vast quantities of iron oxides, which resulted in substantial iron
and manganese deposits that are mined today (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.5 Malmani Dolomites

The bacterial colonies grew in shallow water, sort of like coral reefs, and absorbed carbon
dioxide from the water. This caused calcium carbonate to precipitate, which then covered
the gooey layer of bacteria. The bacteria proceeded to regrow on top of the calcium layer
and the process was repeated over and over again. This formed dome-shaped bacterial
colonies, which subsequently become fossilised into what we call stromatolites.
Examples of these petrified stromatolites have been identified in the Vredefort area and
other areas such as Lyttelton in Centurion and have been specified as an outlying part of
the World Heritage Site (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.6 Bushveld Igneous Complex

After the deposition of the Transvaal Supergroup, there was a rumbling from down below.
Around 2.06 billion years ago, a series of explosive eruptions disturbed the peace of the
cyanobacteria and covered the Kaapvaal Craton with a layer of rocks and ash.
Subsequently, another plume from the mantle pushed up a vast amount of igneous
material which forced its way through lateral planes in the sedimentary Transvaal rocks,
but did not reach the surface. This subterranean magma chamber cooled slowly and
formed a remarkable series of layered rocks called the Bushveld Igneous Complex. It
extends across much of the Southern African interior and is the largest example of its kind
in the world. The complex also contains some of the planet’s largest deposits of platinum,
chromium, copper, vanadium, titanium and nickel (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.7 Vredefort Bolide

Two billion years ago, the Vredefort Bolide came hurtling down towards earth. It was
several kilometres wide and travelled at extremely high velocity towards the centre of the
Kaapvaal Craton. The impact was unimaginable. The surface rocks were vaporised and
the deeper crust was turned inside out, giving modern geologists a rare glimpse into the
ancient past. The Vredefort Bolide literally made a big impression. After the impact, new
rocks would continue to form in Southern Africa, and all the geological processes
described above are still continuing today (Fleminger 2018; ICS 2014).

2.6.8 Other minerals found in South Africa

Diamonds and gold are found in South Africa. In 2012, South Africa was the world's fifth-
largest producer of gold but it still possesses the world's second-largest reserves of gold.
South Africa is the world's largest producer of chromium, manganese, platinum,
vanadium and vermiculite and the second-largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile
and zirconium. South Africa is one of the ten largest coal-producing countries in the
world. It is also a huge producer of iron ore; in 2012, it overtook India to become the

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world’s third-biggest iron ore supplier to China, the world's largest consumers of iron ore
(Mining Weekly 2013; World Coal Institute 2010).

2.7 SURFACE GEOLOGY

South Africa has one of the oldest and most complex geologies of any country on earth,
with fine examples of classical geological features, many unique minerals and, of course,
significant riches in the form of exploitable industrial and precious minerals.

2.8 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should understand the following:
• South African rock erathems
• South African geological stratum
• South African supergroups, sequences and formations
• the common minerals found in South Africa

By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. Define and explain the following terms in the context of geology:
1.1 Stratigraphy
1.2 Sequence
1.3 Supergroup
1.4 Member
1.5 Bed
1.6 Formation
1.7 Group
1.8 Complex
2. Explain the following geological timescales (GTSs):
2.1 Swazian erathem
2.2 Randian erathem

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 2.3 Vaalian erathem
2.4 Mokolian erathem
2.5 Namibian erathem
3. Explain in the detail the following supergroups:
3.1 Cape Supergroup
3.2 Karoo Supergroup
3.3 Transvaal Supergroup
4 List the groups falling under the Karoo Supergroup.
5. What are some of the distinctive minerals found in South Africa?
6. List and explain the following formations:
6.1 Bushveld Complex
6.2 Malmani Dolomites

2.10 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on the South African stratigraphy, you can watch some video
clips. Web addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under
Additional Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based
resources”. Similar links are also shown below:
• The Karoo Basin: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Xg1AhoULk8
• Bushveld Complex: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIhKv_z9Alg
• A Geological Excursion to South Africa and Swaziland:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fBIc5Sjn108

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Earle, S. 2018. Physical geology. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-the-rock-
cycle/ [Accessed on 25 November 2018].
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2018. s.v. stratigraphy.
https://www.britannica.com/science/stratigraphy-geology [Accessed on 12 May
2019].

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Fleminger, D. 2018. Geological formations of South Africa.
http://southafrica.co.za/geological-formation-of-south-africa.html. [Accessed on 21
June 2019].
International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). 2014. International stratigraphic chart.
Paris.
Johnson, MR, Anhaeusser, CR & Thomas, RJ. 2006. The geology of South Africa.
Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa and the Council for Geoscience.
Lurie, J. 1989. South African geology: for mining, metallurgical, hydrological, and civil
engineering. 2nd Lexicon rev. ed. Johannesburg: Lexicon.
Mining Weekly. 2013. SA replaces India as China's No 3 iron-ore supplier. 21 January.
Partridge, TC & Maud, RR. 1987. Geomorphic evolution of southern Africa since the
Mesozoic. South African Journal of Geology, 90(2):179–208.
Schlüter, T. 2008. Geological atlas of Africa: with notes on stratigraphy, tectonics,
economic geology, geohazards and geosites of each country. 2nd ed. New York:
Springer.
Tinker, J, De Wit, M & Roderick, B. 2008. Mesozoic exhumation of the southern Cape,
South Africa, quantified using apatite fission track thermochronology.
Tectonophysics, 455(1–4):77–93. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2007.10.009.
Truswell, JF. 1977. The geological evolution of South Africa. Cape Town: Purnell.
World Coal Institute. 2010. Coal mining.

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 Learning unit 1 3

MINERALOGY

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

The main purpose of learning unit 3 is to help you understand the physical properties
and chemical composition of minerals. In addition, this learning unit will help you to
apply basic geological principles in mineral and rock identification. By understanding the
physical properties and chemical composition of minerals, you will be able to accurately
classify and identify minerals as well as their physical properties.
This learning unit will help you understand the following:
• basic mineralogy
• basic forms of crystals
• physical properties of minerals (colour, streak, lustre, density, cleavage and hardness)
• chemical composition of minerals
• Mohs’ hardness scale

Read pages 6 to 13 in Lurie (1989), which is one of the prescribed books in this course.

3.2 WHAT IS MINERALOGY?

3.2.1 Mineralogy vs minerals

Mineralogy, according to the American heritage dictionary (2017), is an area or field of

study in geology which specialises in the scientific study of the chemical and physical
properties of minerals. Some specific areas within mineralogy include
• processes of mineral origin and formation
• classification of minerals
• geographical distribution of minerals
• the utilisation of minerals

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As mentioned in learning unit 1, minerals are naturally occurring crystal compounds that
can be defined by a specific chemical composition. The most common minerals are
identified by examining the specific physical properties which are unique. These
properties include the lustre (shining or the way the mineral reflects light), the hardness,
the presence or absence of cleavage (the tendency to break into flat planes), and many
other properties. Minerals have internal structure, meaning that the atoms have a
repeating geometric pattern. In summary, atoms are the building blocks of minerals and
minerals are the building blocks of rocks (Levin 2010).

3.2.2 Basic element and oxide composition of minerals

The vast majority of rocks are aggregates of minerals. Of the remainder, some, like
pumice, are made of volcanic glass, whereas others, like coal, are composed of the
products of organic decay. All these ingredients in turn are made of atoms of the chemical
elements. Although 118 different elements are now known, nine of these are so abundant
that they make up more than 99% of all the many thousands of rocks that have been
analysed. Many of the others, such as gold (Au), tin (Sn) and copper (Cu), though
extremely rare in ordinary rocks, are locally concentrated in ore deposits that can be
profitably worked (Tutton 1924).
Some of the elements, for example gold, copper, sulphur (S) and carbon (C), which
includes diamond and graphite, make minerals by themselves, but most minerals are
compounds of two or more elements. Oxygen (O) is by far the most abundant element in
rocks. In combination with other elements it forms compounds called oxides, some of
which occur as minerals. As silicon (Si) is the most abundant element after oxygen, it is
not surprising that silica, the oxide of silicon, SiO2, should be the most abundant of all
oxides. Silica is familiar as quartz, a common mineral which is characteristic of granites,
sandstones and quartz veins. The formula SiO2 is a simple way of expressing the fact that
for every atom of silicon in quartz there are two atoms of oxygen. Quartz therefore has a
perfectly definite composition. The formulae for other oxides and compounds of other
types may be similarly interpreted (Tutton 1924). The average composition of crystal
rocks in terms of elements and oxides is shown in table 3.1 below:
Table 3.1: Average composition of crystal rocks in terms of elements
In terms of elements In terms of oxides
Name Symbol % composition Name Symbol % composition
Oxygen O 46.71 Silica SiO2 59.07
Silicon Si 27.69 Alumina Al2O3 15.22
Aluminium Al 8.07 Iron oxides FeO & Fe2O3 6.81
Iron Fe 5.05 Lime CaO 5.10
Calcium Ca 3.65 Soda Na2O 3.71

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 In terms of elements In terms of oxides
Name Symbol % composition Name Symbol % composition
Sodium Na 2.75 Potash K2 O 3.11
Potassium K 2.58 Magnesia MgO 3.45
Magnesium Mg 2.08 Titania TiO2 1.03
Titanium Ti 0.62
Water H2 O 1.30
Hydrogen H 0.14
Total 99.34 Total 98.80
Source: Ward (1938)

Although approximately between 3 800 and 4 507 minerals are known, most common
rocks can be adequately described in terms of a dozen or so, as table 3.2 shows. It is
therefore useful for you to familiarise yourself with these essential rock-forming minerals
(Anthony et al 2003).
Table 3.2: Average mineral compositions of some common rocks
Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks
Minerals
Granite Basalt Sandstone Shale Limestone
Quartz 31.3 — 69.8 31.9 3.7
Felspars 52.3 46.2 8.4 17.6 2.2
Micas 11.5 — 1.2 18.4 —
Clay minerals — — 6.9 10.0 1.0
Chlorite — — 1.1 6.4 —
Hornblende 2.4 — — — —
Augite rare 36.9 — — —
Olivine — 7.6 — — —
Calcite and — — 10.6 7.9 92.8
dolomite
Iron ores 2.0 6.5 1.7 5.4 0.1
Other minerals 0.5 2.8 0.3 2.4 0.3

Source: Ward (1938)

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3.2.3 Important minerals on earth

The most important minerals on planet earth and other terrestrial planets, according to
Read (1936), are as follows:
• Olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4): relatively dark and makes up mafic rocks, such as basalt.
• Pyroxene (Mg,Fe,Ca)2Si2O6): relatively dark and makes up mafic rocks, such as basalt.
• Feldspars
o Plagioclase albite (NaAlSi3O8): light and makes up felsic rocks, such as granite.
o Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8): light and makes up felsic rocks, such as granite.
o K-Feldspar (KAlSi3O8): light and makes up felsic rocks, such as granite.
• Quartz (SiO2)
• Amphiboles (contain OH).
• Carbonates (contain CO3): make up limestone.
• Clays (contain OH): comprise oxygen or hydroxyl (OH-) with various cations packed
to charge and geometry to form repeated sheets of tetrahedral or octahedral stacked
in ionic and covalent bonding to form layers. Main bonds are generally H, K+ or H20
as for kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, respectively.

3.3 BASIC FORMS OF CRYSTALS

A crystals structure is usually defined by the repeating arrangement of atoms throughout
the crystal. The exterior appearance of crystals is often related to its interior atomic
arrangement. In summary, the crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
Essentially, it is represented by a framework of points which repeats a basic outline, called
a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be categorised by its symmetries and by
the dimensions of the unit cell. These dimensions are represented by three Miller indices
(Ashcroft & Mermin, 1977).
The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any given point in
the lattice: reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion, a combination of rotation
and reflection. Together, they make up a mathematical object called a crystallographic
point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes. In addition, there are
operations that displace all the points: translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In
combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups (Ashcroft &
Mermin, 1977).
Most geological institutes have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyse the crystal
structures of minerals X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as
the distances between atoms. Diffraction, the constructive and destructive interference
between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low
intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal. In a sample that is ground to a
powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations. Powder

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diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample,
for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite (Dinnebier & Billinge,
2008).
Isomorphous minerals of different compositions have similar powder diffraction patterns,
the main difference being in spacing and intensity of lines. For example, the NaCl (Halite)
crystal structure is space group Fm3m. In crystallography, space groups are called
crystallographic (also Fedorov groups) and they represent a description of the symmetry
of the crystal. A conclusive source regarding 3-dimensional space groups is the
International Tables for Crystallography published by Hahn (2002). This structure is
shared by sylvite (KCl), periclase (MgO), bunsenite (NiO), galena (PbS), alabandite (MnS),
chlorargyrite (AgCl) and osbornite (TiN) (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

According to Nesse (2012), a preliminary step in accurately identifying a mineral is to
examine its physical properties. Many of these properties can be measured on a hand
sample. These properties can be classified into
• density (usually specific gravity)
• measures of mechanical cohesion (hardness, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting)
• macroscopic visual properties (lustre, colour, streak, luminescence)
• magnetic and electric properties
• radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride (HCl)

In this learning unit, we will not discuss radioactivity and solubility, magnetic and
electrical properties.

3.4.1 Density

The specific gravity of a mineral is the weight of that mineral divided by the weight of an
equal volume of water. The specific gravity of water equals 1, by definition. Most silicate,
or rock-forming, minerals have specific gravities of 2.6 to 3.4; the ore minerals are usually
heavier, with specific gravities of 5 to 8. If you compare similar-sized samples of two
different minerals, the one with the higher specific gravity will feel the heaviest; it has a
greater heft. For most minerals, specific gravity is not a particularly noteworthy feature,
but for some, high specific gravity is a distinctive feature (barite and galena) (Klein &
Hurlbut 1993).

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3.4.2 Measures of mechanical cohesion

3.4.2.1 Hardness

Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other materials. It is

determined by comparison with other minerals. Hardness is determined by scratching the
surface of the sample with another mineral or material of known hardness (Klein &
Hurlbut 1993).

3.4.2.2 Tenacity

Tenacity refers to the way a mineral behaves when it is broken, crushed, bent or torn. An
important influence on tenacity is the type of chemical bond. Chemical bonds can be
ionic or metallic (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.4.2.3 Cleavage

Cleavage is the tendency to break along certain crystallographic planes. It is described by

the quality (e.g. perfect or fair) and the orientation of the plane in crystallographic
nomenclature. A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along
parallel flat surfaces called cleavage planes (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.4.2.4 Fracture

This is the tendency of a mineral to break along flat planar surfaces as determined by the
structure of its crystal lattice. These two-dimensional surfaces are known as cleavage
planes and are caused by the alignment of weaker bonds between atoms in the crystal
lattice (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.4.2.5 Parting

Parting is the tendency to break along planes of weakness due to pressure, twinning or
exsolution. Where these two kinds of break do not occur, fracture is a less orderly form
that may be conchoidal (having smooth curves resembling the interior of a shell), fibrous,
splintery, hackly (jagged with sharp edges), or uneven (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.4.3 Macroscopic visual properties

3.4.3.1 Lustre

Lustre describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface. Is it
shiny or dull? Does it look like a metal or like glass? Generally the first thing you notice
when identifying an unknown sample is the mineral’s lustre. Minerals with a metallic
lustre look like a metal, such as steel or copper. They are both shiny and opaque, even

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when you are looking at a thin edge. Many metallic minerals become dull or earthy when
they are exposed to the elements for a long time (Ashcroft & Mermin 1977).

3.4.3.2 Colour

Colour is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral, but it is often of limited
diagnostic value, especially in minerals that are not opaque. While many metallic and
earthy minerals have distinctive colours, translucent or transparent minerals can vary
widely in colour. Quartz, for example, can vary from colourless to white to yellow to
grey to pink to purple to black. On the other hand, the colours of some minerals, such as
biotite (black) and olivine (olive green) can be distinctive (Ashcroft & Mermin 1977).
Never use colour as a final diagnostic property. Always check other properties before
making an identification (Ashcroft & Mermin 1977).

3.4.3.3 Streak

Streak refers to the colour of the mineral in its powdered form, which may or may not be
the same colour as the mineral. Streak is helpful for identifying minerals with metallic or
earthy lustre, because minerals with non-metallic lustre generally have a colourless or
white streak that is not diagnostic. Streak is obtained by scratching the mineral on an
unpolished piece of white porcelain called a streak plate. Because the streak plate is
harder than most minerals, rubbing the mineral across the plate produces a powder of
that mineral. When the excess powder is blown away, what remains is the colour of the
streak (Ashcroft & Mermin 1977).

3.4.3.4 Luminescence

Luminescence refers to the different ways in which minerals or rocks emit visible light
under the influence of certain rays (Ashcroft & Mermin 1977).

3.5 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

A few minerals are chemical elements, including sulphur, copper, silver (Ag) and gold,
but the vast majority are compounds. The traditional method for identifying chemical
composition is by wet chemical analysis (WCA), which involves dissolving a mineral in
an acid such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). The elements in solution are then identified using
colorimetry, volumetric analysis or gravimetric analysis (Klein & Hurlbut 1993).

3.6 MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale that characterises the
scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a
softer material. It was created in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich

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Mohs and is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science. The Mohs scale
does not show how well hard materials perform in an industrial setting (Ralph 2017).
Mohs hardness is useful in milling. It allows assessment of which kind of mill will best
reduce a given product whose hardness is known. The scale is also used at electronic
manufacturers for testing the resilience of flat panel display components such as cover
glass for LCDs (Non-destructive Testing Resource Centre 2018.

The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of
mineral to scratch another mineral visibly. The samples of matter used by Mohs are all
different minerals. Minerals are pure substances found in nature. Rocks are made up of
one or more minerals (Levin 2010).
The hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed was
diamonds, which are at the top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against
the scale by finding
• the material substance that the given material can scratch; and/or
• the softest material that can scratch the given material

Table 3.3 below shows the Mohs hardness scale. For example, if some material is
scratched by quartz but not by orthoclase, its hardness on the Mohs scale would fall
between 6 and 7 (Non-destructive Testing Resource Centre 2018).
Table 3.3: Mohs hardness scale
Mineral Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Orthoclase 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
Source: Non-destructive Testing Resource Centre (2018)

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3.7 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should understand the following:
• basic mineralogy
• basic forms of crystals
• physical properties of minerals (colour, streak, lustre, density, cleavage and hardness)
• chemical composition of minerals
• Mohs hardness scale

By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. Define the following terms in the context of geology:
1.1 Minerals
1.2 Mineralogy
1.3 Crystal structure
2. List and briefly describe the most important minerals on planet earth and other
terrestrial planets.
3. List and discuss in detail the physical properties of minerals.
4. Which methods can be used for identifying chemical composition in minerals?
5. Explain in detail what Mohs hardness scale is.

3.9 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on mineralogy, you can watch some video clips. Web
addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under Additional
Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based resources”. Similar
links are also shown below:
• A Brief Introduction to Minerals: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8a7p1NFn64s
• Identifying Minerals: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32NG9aeZ7_c
• EYEWITNESS, Rock & Mineral (S2E8):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQsKRWiy-uE

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• How minerals form: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRRhYDAMIAE

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

American heritage dictionary. 2017. s.v. mineralogy. Houghton Mifflin: Harcourt.
Anthony, JW, Bideaux, RA, Bladh, KW & Nichols, MC. 2003. Handbook of mineralogy.
Virginia: Mineralogical Society of America.
Ashcroft, NW & Mermin, ND. 1977. Solid state physics. 27th repr. ed. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Dinnebier, RE & Billinge, SJL. 2008. Principles of powder diffraction. In Dinnebier, RE &
Billinge, SJL. (eds). Powder diffraction: theory and practice. Repr. ed. Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 1–19.
Hahn, T. 2002. International Tables for Crystallography. The international union for
crystallogy. Springer. Denmark.
Klein, C & Hurlbut, CS. 1993. Manual of mineralogy: (after James D. Dana). 21st ed. New
York: Wiley.
Levin, HL. 2010. The earth through time. 9th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Nesse, WD. 2012. Introduction to mineralogy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Non-destructive Testing Resource Centre, 2018. Hardness. http://www.nde-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/Hardness.htm
[Accessed 13 March 2019].
Ralph, J. 2017. Welcome to Jolyon’s page. mindat.org [Accessed on 16 April 2017].
Read, HH. 1936. Rutley's mineralogy. London: Allen and Unwin (Murby).
Tutton, AEH. 1924. The natural history of crystals. London: Kegan Paul.
Ward, AG. 1938. The nature of crystals. London: Blackie & Son.

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 Learning unit 1
4

ROCK CYCLE AND ROCK FORMATIONS

4.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 4 is to help you understand the rock formations and
the rock cycle. In addition, this learning unit will help you to know and distinguish
between the three different types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic). By
knowing and understanding the rock cycle and the three common types of rocks, you
will be able to physically distinguish between and identify them in practice.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain the rock cycle
• identify the forces driving the rock cycle
• explain how the different types of rocks are formed
• describe igneous rocks
• describe sedimentary rocks
• describe metamorphic rocks

Read the following pages in Lurie (1989), one of the prescribed books:
• 14 to 28
• 25 to 27
• 35 to 36

4.2 WHAT ARE ROCKS?

Rocks or stones, as they are known, are natural substances which are solid aggregate of
one or more minerals. One of the most common rocks is granite, a combination of quartz,
feldspar and biotite. The earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. Rocks
have been used by humankind throughout time. The minerals and metals found in rocks
are essential to human civilisation (Cipriani 1996).

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The few references to rocks that we have already made are enough to show that rocks
may be divided into the following three major groups:
• igneous
• sedimentary
• metamorphic

4.3 MATERIALS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST: COMMON ROCKS

4.3.1 Civil engineering classification of rocks

The classification of rock depends on the field of study (mining, geology or civil
engineering). For example, the classification of rocks between geologists, civil engineers,
engineering geologists and rock engineers is different.
The South African rock classification in the context of civil engineering (road building)
comprises nine groups of rocks which can be combined into three classes:
• the class of rock which is liable to decompose
• the class of rock which only disintegrates
• the class whose mode of weathering and whose road-building properties depend
entirely on their incidental composition

Rocks can then be classified as

• basic crystalline rocks
• acid crystalline rocks
• high-silica rocks
• arenaceous rocks
• argillaceous rocks
• carbonate rocks
• special rocks - diamictites
• special rocks - metalliferous rocks
• special “rocks” - pedogenic materials

In pavement design (civil engineering sub-specialisation), rocks are crushed to produce

aggregate. Aggregate is a composition of minerals separable by mechanical processes
(crushing). Aggregate can also be obtained by crushing slags produced in the manufacture
of steel, ferrochrome and ferromanganese. Aggregates are used in road-building material
such as
• granular base and sub-base layers
• asphalt mixes
• surfacing seals
• concrete in rigid pavements and in all kinds of structures

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South Africa has an abundant supply of hard rock, which can be obtained either by
mining naturally occurring deposits of hard rock, or by using the rock from mine dumps.
The use of mine dump rock is more sustainable. Some of the rock types that are most
commonly crushed and used as aggregates in road construction in South Africa are
summarised in table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1: Common rock types to produce road-building materials
Rock group Most widely used types
Basic Dolerite: A basic igneous rock, found as intrusions in the form of dykes
crystalline and sills in many parts of the country. Extensively crushed for use in
road construction.
Gabbro: Found mostly in Limpopo and North West. Extensively
crushed for use in aggregates for road construction.
Norite: Found mostly in Limpopo and North West. Extensively
crushed for use in aggregates for road construction.
Basalt: Widespread over the central, northern and eastern parts of the
country. Caution should be exercised when using basic crystalline
materials, due to variable properties, possible rapid degradation and
high shrinkage in concrete.
Acid Granite/gneiss: Occurrence is widespread. Usually satisfactory for use
crystalline after crushing in granular base and sub-base, as well as in concrete.
High silica Hornfels: Extensively crushed and used in road construction in the
Western Cape.
Quartzite: Results from the recrystallisation of sandstone under great
pressure, improving its qualities as an aggregate for use in road
construction.
Diamictites Tillite: Used extensively as an aggregate in the construction of roads
in the KwaZulu-Natal and in the southern Cape.
Adapted from South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) (2014)

4.3.2 General classification

In general, rocks are composed of mineral grains, which are homogeneous solids formed
from a chemical compound arranged in an orderly manner (Cipriani 1996). The aggregate
minerals forming the rock are chemically bonded.
The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the way it was formed.
Many rocks contain silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms almost 75% of
the earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock. The

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proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and
properties (Wilson 1995).
Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as
• mineral and chemical composition
• permeability
• texture of the constituent particles
• particle size

These physical properties, according to Cipriani (1996), are the result of the processes
that formed the rocks. Over time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as
described by the rock cycle.

4.4 THE ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle, according to Holmes (1944), is a basic geological concept that describes
the time-consuming transitions through a geologic clock among the three main common
rock types, i.e. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
The rock components of the crust are slowly but constantly being changed from one form
to another and the processes involved are summarised in the rock cycle. The rock cycle
is driven by two forces:
• The earth’s internal heat engine moves material around in the core and the mantle
and leads to slow but significant changes within the crust.
• The hydrological cycle is the movement of water, ice and air at the surface, and is
powered by the sun.

The rock cycle is still active on earth because our core is hot enough to keep the mantle
moving, our atmosphere is relatively thick and we have liquid water. On some other
planets or their satellites, such as the moon, the rock cycle is virtually dead because the
core is no longer hot enough to drive mantle convection and there is no atmosphere or
liquid water (Earle 2018).
As figure 4.1 below illustrates, each of the types of rock is altered or destroyed when it is
forced out of its equilibrium conditions. For example, an igneous rock such as basalt
might break down and dissolve when exposed to the atmosphere or melt as it is
subducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle, plate tectonics
and the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they
encounter new environments.
Blatt and Robert (1996) describe the rock cycle as an illustration that explains how the
three rock types are connected to each other, and how processes change from one type
to another over time.

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In describing the rock cycle, magma can be taken as an example. Magma is rock that is
hot to the point of being entirely molten. This happens somewhere between 800 °C and
1 300 °C, depending on the pressure. Magma can either cool slowly within the crust
(over centuries to millions of years), forming intrusive igneous rock, or erupt onto the
surface and cool quickly, forming extrusive igneous rock. Intrusive igneous rock typically
crystallises at depths of hundreds of metres to tens of kilometres below the surface. To
change its position in the rock cycle, intrusive igneous rock must be uplifted and exposed
by the erosion of the overlying rocks (Earle 2018).

Figure 4.1
The rock cycle (BC Open Textbook 2018)

The major differences between intrusive and extrusive rocks, according to Earle (2018),
are as follows:
Intrusive rocks are rocks that are formed when magma cools slowly below the earth's
surface. Intrusive rocks have cooled down over a long period, so there is a longer time
for crystal growth, and thus larger crystal sizes, and they are coarse grained. They
crystallise when magma intrudes into unmelted rock masses deep in the earth's crust.
Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are diorite (used in road construction), gabbro,
granite, pegmatite and peridotite.

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Extrusive rocks are rocks that form when magma reaches the earth's surface through
volcanoes and rapidly cools down in a very short period to allow for crystal growth. They
have glassy crystals and are fine grained. Examples include basalt (used in road
construction), rhyolite, andesite and obsidian.
The forces that drive the rock cycle are
• plate tectonics
• spreading ridges
• subduction zones
• continental collision
• accelerated erosion
• an evolving process
• water

4.5 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rock, also referred to as magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types. It is
formed through the cooling and solidification of magma. The magma can be derived from
partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust (Prothero & Schwab
2004). Naturally, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes:
• an increase in temperature
• a decrease in pressure
• a change in composition

4.5.1 Classification of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are classified into four categories, based on either their chemistry or their
mineral composition:
• felsic
• intermediate
• mafic
• ultramafic

Figure 4.2 can be used to help classify igneous rocks by their mineral composition. An
important feature to note on this diagram is the red line separating the non-
ferromagnesian silicates in the lower left (K-feldspar, quartz and plagioclase feldspar) from
the ferromagnesian silicates in the upper right (biotite, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine)
(Earle 2018).
In classifying intrusive igneous rocks, the first thing to consider is the percentage of
ferromagnesian silicates. That is relatively easy in most igneous rocks because the
ferromagnesian minerals are clearly darker than the others. At the same time, it is quite
difficult to estimate the proportions of minerals in a rock (Earle 2018).

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Earle (2018) further explains that based on the position of the red line in figure 4.2, it is
obvious that felsic rocks can have between 1% and 20% ferromagnesian silicates (the red
line intersects the left side of the felsic zone 1% of the distance from the top of the
diagram, and it intersects the right side of the felsic zone 20% of the distance from the
top). Intermediate rocks have between 20% and 50% ferromagnesian silicates, and mafic
rocks have 50% to 100% ferromagnesian silicates. To be more exact:
• Felsic rocks typically have biotite and/or amphibole.
• Intermediate rocks have amphibole and, in some cases, pyroxene.
• Mafic rocks have pyroxene and, in some cases, olivine.

Figure 4.2
Simplified classification diagram for igneous rocks based on their mineral compositions
(BC Open Textbook 2018)

Igneous rocks are also classified according to their textures. Almost all intrusive igneous
rocks have crystals that are large enough to see with the naked eye, and the term
“phaneritic” is used to describe that. Typically, they are larger than about 0.5 mm the
thickness of a strong line made with a ballpoint pen. (If the crystals are too small to
distinguish, which is typical of most volcanic rocks, we use the term “aphanitic”.) In

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general, the size of crystals is proportional to the rate of cooling. The longer it takes for a
body of magma to cool, the larger the crystals will be. It is not uncommon to see an
intrusive igneous rock with crystals up to a centimetre long. In some situations, especially
towards the end of the cooling stage, the magma can become water rich. The presence
of liquid water promotes the relatively easy movement of ions, and this allows crystals to
grow large, sometimes to several centimetres (Prothero & Schwab 2004).

4.5.2 Examples of igneous rocks

Some examples of intrusive igneous rocks, as shown in figure 4.2, are

• diorite
• gabbro
• granite
• pegmatite
• peridotite

Some examples of extrusive igneous rocks, as shown in figure 4.2, are

• andesite
• basalt
• obsidian
• pumice
• rhyolite
• scoria
• tuff

Each type of the above listed rocks has its own uses according to its texture and mineral
content.
• Granite is used for expensive kitchen worktops, for construction of monuments,
bridges, office buildings, decorative aggregates, flooring and interior decoration.
Granite looks smooth and shiny when polished and is the most commonly used
igneous rock.
• Basalt is used as an ingredient of concrete as it is a fine-grained rock.
• Pumice is a light igneous rock which is commonly used to remove dead skin from the
bottom of the feet. Other uses include filter systems, pet products, chemical spill
containment, manufacturing of cement and agricultural use. Pumice is also often used
as a decorative landscape stone. When ground to powder, it is used as an abrasive in
polish compounds.

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4.6 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by chemical precipitation or by sedimentation and
cementation of mineral grains transported to a site of deposition by water, wind, ice or
gravity. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause these particles to
settle in place. The particles that form sedimentary rock are called sediment and may be
composed of geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic matter). Before
being deposited, the geological detritus was formed by weathering and erosion from the
source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass
movement or glaciers, which are called agents of denudation (Blatt et al 1980).
Lithification is the term used to describe a number of different processes that take place
within a deposit of sediment to turn it into solid rock. Cementation is the process of
crystallisation of minerals within the pores between the small clasts, and also at the points
of contact between the larger clasts (Earle 2018).

4.6.1 Classification of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be classified into two main types:

• Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed mainly of material that has been transported
as solid fragments (clasts).
• Chemical sedimentary rocks are composed mainly of material that has been
transported as ions in a solution.

It is important not to assume that mechanical weathering leads only to clastic sedimentary
rocks, and that chemical weathering leads only to chemical sedimentary rocks. In most
cases, millions of years separate the weathering and depositional processes, and both
types of sedimentary rocks tend to include at least some material derived from both types
of weathering (Earle 2018).

4.6.2 Clastic sedimentary rocks

A clast is a fragment of rock or mineral, ranging in size from less than a micron to as big
as a block of flats. There are various types of clasts. The smaller ones tend to be composed
of a single mineral crystal, and the larger ones are typically composed of pieces of rock.
Most sand-sized clasts are made of quartz because quartz is more resistant to weathering
than any other common mineral. Most clasts that are smaller than sand size (<1/16 mm)
are made of clay minerals. Most clasts larger than sand size (>2 mm) are actual fragments
of rock, and commonly these might be fine-grained rock like basalt or andesite, or if they
are bigger, coarse-grained rock like granite or gneiss (Boggs 1987).
In order to fully understand this, the main types of clastic sedimentary rocks and their
characteristics are shown in table 4.2 below.

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Table 4.2: Main types of clastic sedimentary rocks
Group Examples Characteristics
Mudrock mudstone >75% silt and clay, not bedded
shale >75% silt and clay, thinly bedded
Coal dominated by fragments of partially decayed plant matter,
often enclosed between beds of sandstone or mudrock
Sandstone quartz sandstone dominated by sand, >90% quartz
arkose dominated by sand, >10% feldspar
lithic wacke dominated by sand, >10% rock fragments, >15% silt and clay
Conglomerate dominated by rounded clasts, pebble size and larger
Breccia dominated by angular clasts, pebble size and larger
Source: Earle (2018)

As shown in table 4.2, mudrock is composed of at least 75% silt and clay-sized fragments.
If it is dominated by clay, it is called claystone. If it shows evidence of bedding or fine
laminations, it is shale; otherwise it is mudstone. Mudrocks form in very low energy
environments, such as lakes, river backwaters and the deep ocean.
Clastic sediments are deposited in a wide range of environments, including glaciers, slope
failures, rivers (both fast and slow), lakes, deltas and ocean environments (both shallow
and deep). Depending on the grain size in particular, they may eventually form into rocks
ranging from fine mudstone to coarse breccia and conglomerate (Boggs 1987).

4.6.3 Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are dominated by components that have been transported
as ions in solution (Na+, Ca2+, HCO3–, etc.). There is some overlap because almost all
clastic sedimentary rocks contain cement formed from dissolved ions, and many chemical
sedimentary rocks include some clasts. Since ions can stay in solution for many years
(tens of thousands), and can travel for tens of thousands of kilometres, it is virtually
impossible to relate chemical sediments back to their source rocks (Collinson et al 2006).
The most common chemical sedimentary rocks are limestone and dolomite. Others
include chert, banded iron formation and a variety of rocks that form when bodies of
water evaporate. Biological processes are important in the formation of some chemical
sedimentary rocks, especially limestone and chert. For example, limestone is made up
almost entirely of fragments of aquatic organisms that manufacture calcite for their shells
and other hard parts, and most chert includes at least some of the silica tests (shells) of
tiny marine organisms (Collinson et al 2006).

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4.6.4 Examples of sedimentary rocks

Some examples of sedimentary rocks are as follows:

Limestone: This rock forms in the oceans, mostly on the shallow continental shelves,
especially in tropical regions with coral reefs.
Dolomite: This is another carbonate mineral, but dolomite is also the name for a rock
composed of the mineral dolomite. All of the dolomite found in ancient rocks has been
formed through magnesium replacing some of the calcium in the calcite in carbonate
muds and sands.
Chert and banded iron formation: These rocks are deposited along with
limestone/dolomite in the moderately deep ocean, but the two tend to remain separate,
so chert beds within limestone/dolomite are quite common. In very deep water, chert
accumulates on its own, commonly in thin beds.
According to Collinson et al (2006), sedimentary rocks have their own uses in everyday
life:
• Coal, a sedimentary rock formed from decayed plants, is used mainly in power plants
to make electricity.
• Conglomerate, a sedimentary rock with variable hardness, consists of rounded or
angular rock or mineral fragments cemented by silica, lime and iron oxide. It is used
mainly in the construction industry.
• Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that is more or less rounded. Generally thick-bedded
and varicoloured, it has a rough feel due to an uneven surface produced by breaking
around the grains. It is used mainly for construction and is easy to work. The red-
brown sandstone of the Triassic age, better known as "brownstone", has been used in
many eastern cities.
• Limestone, a sedimentary rock, is used mainly in the manufacture of Portland cement,
lime, paper, petrochemicals, insecticides, linoleum, fibreglass, glass, carpet backing
and as the coating on many types of chewing gum.

4.7 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

A metamorphic rock is a rock that undergoes metamorphism. Metamorphism is the
change that takes place within a body of rock as a result of it being subjected to conditions
that are different from those in which it formed. In most cases, this involves the rock being
deeply buried beneath other rocks, where it is subjected to higher temperatures and
pressures than those under which it formed. Metamorphic rocks typically have different
mineral accumulations and different textures from their parent rocks but they may have
the same overall composition. Metamorphism can also take place if cold rock near the
surface is intruded and heated by a hot igneous body. Although most metamorphism
involves temperatures above 150 °C, some metamorphism takes place at temperatures

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lower than those at which the parent rock formed (Earle 2018). Figure 4.1 illustrates the
process of metamorphism.

4.7.1 Classification of metamorphic rocks

There are two main types of metamorphic rocks, according to Buchner and Grapes
(2011):
• those that are foliated because they have formed in an environment with either
directed pressure or shear stress
• those that are not foliated because they have formed in an environment without
directed pressure or relatively near the surface with very little pressure at all

Some types of metamorphic rocks, such as quartzite and marble, which also form in
directed-pressure situations, do not necessarily exhibit foliation because their minerals do
not tend to show alignment. When a rock is squeezed under directed pressure during
metamorphism it is likely to be deformed, and this can result in a textural change so that
the minerals are elongated in the direction perpendicular to the main stress. This
contributes to the formation of foliation (Buchner & Grapes 2011). The various types of
foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and
the type of foliation, are slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.
Table 4.3 can be used as a rough guide to the types of metamorphic rocks that form from
different parent rocks at different grades of regional metamorphism.
Table 4.3: Types of metamorphic rocks that form from different parent rocks at
different grades of regional metamorphism
Parent rock Very low Low grade Medium High grade
grade grade
Temperature 150-300 °C 300-450 °C 450-550 °C Above 550 °C
ranges
Mudrock slate phyllite schist gneiss
Granite no change no change no change granite gneiss
Basalt chlorite schist chlorite schist amphibolite amphibolite
Sandstone no change little change quartzite quartzite
Limestone little change marble marble marble
Adapted from Earle (2018)

Metamorphic rocks that form under either low-pressure conditions or just confining
pressure do not become foliated. In most cases, this is because they are not buried deeply,
and the heat for the metamorphism comes from a body of magma that has moved into
the upper part of the crust. This is contact metamorphism. Some examples of non-foliated

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metamorphic rocks are marble, quartzite and hornfels. Marble is metamorphosed
limestone and quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone. Hornfels is another non-foliated
metamorphic rock that normally forms during contact metamorphism of fine-grained
rocks like mudstone or volcanic rock (Buchner & Grapes 2011).

4.7.2 Examples of metamorphic rocks

Here are some examples of metamorphic rocks and their uses, according to Earle (2018):
• Schist is a metamorphic uneven-granular, medium- to coarse-grained crystalline with
prominent parallel mineral orientation. It goes from silvery white to all shades of grey
with yellow to brown tones, depending on the mineral concentration. Some schists
have graphite and some are used as building stones.
• Gneiss is a metamorphic uneven granular medium- to coarse-grained crystalline with
more or less parallel mineral orientation. Colours are too variable to be of diagnostic
value. It is commonly used as building stones and for other structural purposes.
• Quartzite is a metamorphic or sedimentary rock with crystalline texture, and consists
of rounded quartz grains cemented by crystalline quartz. It is generally white, light
grey or yellow to brown and is used principally for construction.
• Marble is a metamorphic even-granular grain to medium grain and may be uneven
granular and coarse grained in calc-silicate rock. The normal colour is white but
accessory minerals act as colouring agents and may produce a variety of colours.
Depending on its purity, texture, colour and marbled pattern, it is quarried for use as
dimension stone for statuary, architectural and ornamental purposes. Dolomite-rich
marble may be a source of magnesium and is used as an ingredient in the manufacture
of refracting materials.

4.8 BOWEN'S REACTION SERIES (CRYSTALLISATION PROCESS)

In the early 1900s, Norman L Bowen and other geologists in Washington DC began to
experiment with the order of crystallisation of the common silicate minerals from a
magma. The idealised development which they determined is still widely accepted as the
general model for the evolution of magmas during the cooling process (Tilley 1957).
Bowen’s reaction series is based on the observations and experiments of naturally
occurring rocks and the sequence of crystallisation of basalt magma as they cool. It is a
sorting tool according to the temperature at which the rocks crystallise common magmatic
silicate minerals. Bowen’s reaction series defines temperatures at which different silicate
minerals change phases (from liquid to solid or vice versa). In summary, Bowen found
that a basaltic meltdown cooled down slowly and minerals formed crystals in a certain
order (Tilley 1957).
Minerals at the top have a relatively high crystallisation temperature, which means that
they will be the first minerals to crystallise from a magma that is cooling. If they are
chemically compatible with the magma as it continues to cool, they will grow larger by

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addition of external layers of additional material. If they are chemically incompatible,
they will react with the melt. What ultimately determines this chemical compatibility is
largely the total silica content of the melt. Figure 4.3 below shows Bowen’s reaction series
(Colby College 2019).

Figure 4.3
Bowen’s reaction series (Geologyscience [n.d.])

Minerals on the left side of the "Y" of figure 4.3 are called ferromagnesian minerals as
they contain iron and magnesium. This part of the series is referred to as the discontinuous
series. These minerals, if chemically incompatible with the melt as it cools, will usually
completely react to form totally new minerals with different crystal structures. For
example, olivine completely re-reacting with the melt may recrystallise into pyroxene,
and a pyroxene may completely recrystallise into a hornblende or a biotite. Therefore, a
rock that contains both olivine and hornblende is not in a balanced state, because these
minerals form under different conditions and are stable under different conditions.
Olivine and pyroxene are stable pairs, as are pyroxene and hornblende, or hornblende
and biotite. Biotite is the lowest temperature iron-bearing silicate mineral that can form
from a melt and will be found only in rocks relatively rich in silica, such as granites and
rhyolites (Colby College 2019).
The minerals on the right side of the "Y" are the plagioclase feldspars, which form a
continuous series from 100% Ca-plagioclase with the highest melting point, to 100% Na-
plagioclase (albite) with the lowest melting point. The first crystals forming may entirely
or only partially re-react with the melt, but without destroying the basic feldspar crystal
structure (Tilley 1957).

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The lower portion of Bowen's reaction series is dictated more by chemistry than is the
upper part. Biotite, orthoclase feldspar and muscovite are the only minerals here that
contain large amounts of potassium. These also have much higher silica contents than the
minerals at the top of the series. Pure olivine is about 38% SiO2 whereas pure orthoclase
is 65% SiO2. The increase in silica lowers the melting point. Quartz, at the bottom of the
series, is purely SiO2, and it has the lowest melting point, at about 700 °C (Tilley 1957).
As a result, rocks that crystallise from mafic melts, about 45 - 55% silica, will tend to be
made up of minerals that are high in Bowen's reaction series (figure 4.3). Rocks from
felsic melts, which have a greater silica content (>65% silica), will be composed mostly
of minerals from the bottom of the series. Rocks from intermediate magmas will contain
minerals from the middle of the sequence (Colby College 2019).
The low melting points of minerals at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series mean that at
surface temperatures and pressures on earth, they are closer to their normal fields of
stability. Quartz is completely stable at 20 °C. Olivine is not as stable, and with the
presence of water it will weather quickly. As a result, it is rare to find olivine in sediments
or sedimentary rocks. Clays and iron oxides and hydroxides are the weathering products
of iron-rich silicate minerals and are the mineral forms that are stable at low temperatures
and pressures (Klein & Cornelius 1985).
The lower minerals are in Bowen's reaction series, the more resistant they are to chemical
weathering: this means that the rate at which they weather is slower than for minerals
higher in the series. Quartz is subject only to dissolution, and in rare instances muscovite
can form in soils as a weathering product from other minerals. All the other minerals in
Bowen's reaction series continually weather in the geologic environment to other forms
that are stable at the low temperatures and pressures of the earth's surface, such as clays
or iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides (Colby College 2019).

4.9 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should be able to
• explain the rock cycle
• explain the forces driving the rock cycle
• explain how the different types of rocks are formed
• describe igneous rocks
• describe sedimentary rocks
• describe metamorphic rocks

By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

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4.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. Define in detail the following terms in the context of geology:
1.1 Rock
1.2 Igneous rocks
1.3 Sedimentary rocks
1.4 Metamorphism
1.5 Intrusive rocks
1.6 Extrusive rocks
1.7 Lithification
1.8 Cementation
1.9 Clastic sedimentary rocks
1.10 Chemical sedimentary rocks
2. Describe in detail the rock cycle and also use a schematic diagram in your
description.
3. List the forces that drive the rock cycle.
4. Identify, by explaining in detail, the differences between the two main types of
sedimentary rocks.
5. There are two types of metamorphic rocks. Describe them in detail.
6. There are two main types of igneous rocks. Describe them in detail.
7. What are some examples and uses of metamorphic rocks?
8. What are some examples and uses of igneous rocks?
9. What are some examples and uses of sedimentary rocks?
10. With mudrock as a parent rock, which rocks will be formed at very low, low, medium
and high-grade metamorphism?
11. With basalt as a parent rock, which rocks will be formed at very low, low, medium
and high-grade metamorphism?
12. What are the characteristics of sandstone, a clastic sedimentary rock?

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13. Draw and briefly explain the Bowen’s reaction diagram and list the main rock types
along the reaction series.
14. Briefly explain the resistance to decomposition of the primary rock-forming minerals
along the reaction series.
15. List the secondary mineral (if the primary rock-forming mineral is chemically
decomposed) along each primary rock-forming mineral.

4.11 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on rock formation and the rock cycle, you can watch some
video clips. Web addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under
Additional Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based
resources”. Similar links are also shown below:
• The Rock Cycle: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uAAeFB7Tv5A
• 3 Types of Rocks and the Rock Cycle: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGK1KkLjdQY
• Earth Science - Rock Cycle And Types Of Rock:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IALC36xRjew
• Rock, Types of rocks, Stones and the Rock cycle:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZkFo1S1uZo

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

BC Open Textbook. 2018. Physical geology. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-
the-rock-cycle/ [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Blatt, H & Robert, JT. 1996. Petrology; igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. 2nd ed.
New York: WH Freeman.
Blatt, H, Middleton, G & Murray, R. 1980. Origin of sedimentary rocks. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Boggs, S, Jr. 1987. Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy. London: Merrill.
Buchner, K & Grapes, R. 2011. Metamorphic rocks. Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks.
New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74169-5_2.
Cipriani, N. 1996. The encyclopedia of rocks and minerals. New York: Barnes & Noble.

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Colby College. 2019. Bowen’s reaction series. Geology.
http://www.colby.edu/geology/ge141/Bowen's_Reaction_Series.pdf [Accessed on
17 March 2020].
Collinson, J, Mountney, N & Thompson, D. 2006. Sedimentary structures. 3rd ed.
Harpenden: Terra Publishing.
Earle, S. 2018. Physical geology. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-the-rock-
cycle/ [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Geologyscience. [n.d.] Bowen’s reaction series. http://geologyscience.com/general-
geology/bowens-reaction-series/ [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Holmes, A. 1944. Principles of physical geology. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons.
Klein, C & Cornelius SH, Jr. 1985. Manual of mineralogy. 20th ed. New Jersey: Wiley.
Prothero, DR & Schwab, F. 2004. Sedimentary geology: an introduction to sedimentary
rocks and stratigraphy. 2nd ed. New York: Freeman.
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering
manual: Chapter 7: Geotechnical investigations and design considerations. Pretoria.
Tilley, CE. 1957. Norman Levi Bowen 1887-1956. Biographical memoirs of Fellows of
the Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0002.
Wilson, JR. 1995. A collector's guide to rock, mineral & fossil localities of Utah. Salt Lake
City: Utah Geological Survey.

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 Learning unit 1 5

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS

5.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 5 is to help you understand the basic concepts of
physical geology and plate tectonics. In addition, this learning unit will help you know
and understand physical processes that shape the earth. By understanding this learning
unit, you will have theoretical knowledge of forces and processes that shape the surface
of the earth.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain basic physical geology
• explain the basic physical processes that shape the earth
• explain basic concepts of plate, extensional tectonics, thrust tectonics and strike-slip
tectonics

Read pages 19 to 24 as well as pages 28 to 34 in Lurie (1989), which is one of the

prescribed books.

5.2 WHAT IS PHYSICAL GEOLOGY?

Physical geology is the study of the earth's rocks, minerals and soils and how they have
formed through time. Complex internal processes such as plate tectonics and mountain‐
building have formed these rocks and brought them to the earth's surface. Earthquakes
are the result of the sudden movement of crystal plates, releasing internal energy that
becomes destructive at the surface. Internal heat and energy are released also through
volcanic eruptions. External processes such as glaciation, running water, weathering and
erosion have formed the landscapes we see today (Earle 2018).

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5.3 PHYSICAL PROCESSES THAT SHAPE THE EARTH

5.3.1 Weathering

Weathering is what takes place when a body of rock is exposed to the “weather”; in other
words, to the forces and conditions that exist at the earth’s surface. With the exception of
volcanic rocks and some sedimentary rocks, most rocks are formed at some depth within
the crust. There they experience relatively constant temperature, high pressure, no
contact with the atmosphere and little or no moving water. Once a rock is exposed at the
surface, which is what happens when the overlying rock is eroded away, conditions
change dramatically. Temperatures vary widely, there is much less pressure, oxygen and
other gases are plentiful and in most climates, water is abundant (Earle 2018).
Weathering, according to Earle (2018), includes two main processes that are quite
different:
• the mechanical breakdown of rock into smaller fragments
• the chemical change of the minerals within the rock to forms that are stable in the
surface environment

Mechanical weathering provides fresh surfaces for attack by chemical processes, and
chemical weathering weakens the rock so that it is more susceptible to mechanical
weathering. Together, these processes create two very important products, one being the
sedimentary clasts and ions in solution that can eventually become sedimentary rock, and
the other being the soil that is necessary for our existence on earth (Earle 2018).

5.3.2 Corrasion

Corrasion is a geological term for the process of mechanical erosion of the earth's surface
which happens when materials are transported across it by running water (waves and
glaciers), wind or gravitational movement downslope. An example is the wearing of a
rock on a river by the impact of particles moving with the water. The resultant effect on
the rock is called abrasion (Whittow 1984).

5.3.3 Slope movement

Slope movement is the geomorphic process by which soil, sand and rock move
downslope typically as a solid, continuous or discontinuous mass, largely under the force
of gravity, but frequently with characteristics of a flow as in debris flows and mudflows
(Whittow 1984). Slope movement may occur at a very slow rate, especially in areas that
are very dry or areas that receive enough rainfall such that vegetation has stabilised the
surface. It may also occur at very high speeds, such as in rockslides or landslides. Slope
movement usually has disastrous consequences, both immediate and delayed (Selby
1993).

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5.3.4 Erosion

Erosion is the process by which soil and rock particles are worn away and moved
elsewhere by gravity, or by a moving transport agent (wind, water or ice). According to
Apollo et al (2018), this natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of the following
erosive agents:
• water
• ice (glaciers)
• snow
• air (wind)
• plants
• animals
• humans
In accordance with these agents, erosion is sometimes divided into
• water erosion
• glacial erosion
• snow erosion
• wind erosion
• zoogenic erosion
• anthropogenic erosion

5.3.5 Denudation

Denudation involves the processes that cause the wearing away of the earth's surface by
moving water, ice, wind and waves, leading to a reduction in elevation and in relief of
landforms and of landscapes. Endogenous processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes and
plate tectonics uplift and expose continental crust to the exogenous processes of
weathering, erosion and mass wasting (Smithson 2008).

5.4 THE PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING AND EROSION

The products of weathering and erosion are the unconsolidated materials that we find
around us on slopes, beneath glaciers, in stream valleys, on beaches and in deserts. The
nature of these materials, their composition, size, degree of sorting and degree of
rounding is determined by the type of rock that is being weathered, the nature of the
weathering, the erosion and transportation processes and the climate (Earle 2018).
A summary of the weathering products of some of the common minerals present in rocks
is provided in table 5.1 below.

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Table 5.1: Summary of weathering products of some common minerals present in
rocks
Common mineral Typical weathering products
Quartz Quartz as sand grains
Feldspar Clay minerals plus potassium, sodium, and calcium in solution
Biotite and Chlorite plus iron and magnesium in solution
amphibole
Pyroxene and olivine Serpentine plus iron and magnesium in solution
Calcite Calcium and carbonate in solution
Pyrite Iron oxide minerals plus iron in solution and sulphuric acid
Source: Earle (2018)

5.5 TECTONICS

5.5.1 What is tectonics?

Tectonics is the process that controls the structure and properties of the earth's crust and
its development through time. The word “technomic” is also used to describe the
processes of mountain building, the growth and behaviour of the strong, old cores of
continents known as cratons and the ways in which the relatively rigid plates that
constitute the earth's outer shell interact with each other (Keller 2001).
Plate tectonics is the model or theory that we use to understand how our planet works.
More specifically, it is a model that explains the origins of continents and oceans, folded
rocks and mountain ranges, igneous and metamorphic rocks, earthquakes and volcanoes
and continental drift (Earle 2018).

5.5.2 Terminology

The following terminology is very important, and you should know and understand it:
• Dip: The angle, taken off the horizontal, of any inclined planar surface. Thus, a vertical
dyke would have a dip of 90o; a horizontal sedimentary bed would have a dip of 0o.
• Fault: The fracture or surface along which rock units break apart or rupture, and along
which there has clearly been movement of the rock on either side. A fault plane can
be paper-thin, or it can be a zone, metres wide.
• Footwall block: The block below the hanging wall block.
• Graben: A valley with a distinct escarpment on each side caused by the displacement
of a block of land downward.
• Hanging wall block: When rocks slip past each other in faulting, the upper or
overlying block along the fault plane is called the hanging wall.
• Horst: A group of normal faults.

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• Normal fault: A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall, and the fault surface dips steeply, commonly from 50o to 90o.
• Plunge: The vertical angle between the horizontal plane and the axis or line of
maximum elongation of a feature.
• Strike: The compass direction of the horizontal line marking the intersection between
a horizontal plane, i.e. the earth's surface, and the inclined plane such as a geological
structure, e.g. a fault, foliation, ore bed.
• Trend: The direction of the line formed by the intersection of the planar feature with
the ground surface.

5.5.3 Extensional tectonics

Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust. This type
of tectonics is found in continental rifts, during and after a period of continental collision
caused by the side spreading of the thickened crust formed at releasing bends in strike-
slip faults, in back-arc basins and on the continental end of passive margin sequences
where a detachment layer is present (Van der Pluijm & Marshak 2004). Figure 5.1 below
shows an illustration of extensional tectonics.

Figure 5.1
Extensional tectonics (Open EI 2019)

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5.5.4 Thrust tectonics

Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust. This type of
tectonics is found at zones of continental collision, at restraining bends in strike-slip faults
and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is
present (Van der Pluijm & Marshak 2004). Figure 5.2 below shows an illustration of thrust
tectonics.

Figure 5.2
Thrust tectonics (McClay 1992)

5.5.5 Strike-slip tectonics

Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust.
This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental transform faults which
connect offset segments of mid-ocean ridges. Strike-slip tectonics also occurs at lateral
offsets in extensional and thrust fault systems. In areas involved in plate collisions, strike-
slip deformation occurs in the overriding plate in zones of oblique collision and
accommodates deformation in the foreland to a collisional belt (Van der Pluijm &
Marshak 2004). Figure 5.3 below shows a typical example of strike-slip tectonics.

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 Figure 5.3
Strike-slip tectonics (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2015)

5.6 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should understand the following:
• basic principles of physical geology
• basic physical processes that shape the earth
• basic theoretical knowledge of plate, extensional tectonics, thrust tectonics and strike-
slip tectonics

By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

5.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. Define and explain the following terms in the context of geology:
1.1 Erosion
1.2 Weathering
1.3 Denudation
1.4 Slope movement

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2. What are extensional tectonics?
3. What are thrust tectonics?
4. What are strike-slip tectonics?
5. List the agents of erosion.
6. What are some of the products of weathering?

5.8 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on physical geology and tectonics, you can watch some video
clips. Web addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under
Additional Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based
resources”. Similar links are also shown below:
• Tectonics of the Planet Earth: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kg_UBLFUpYQ
• Plate Tectonics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTRu620bIsE
• Physical and Chemical Weathering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkAADlBnQWQ

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Apollo, M, Andreychouk, V & Bhattarai, SS. 2018. Short-term impacts of livestock
grazing on vegetation and track formation in a high mountain environment: a case
study from the Himalayan Miyar Valley (India). Sustainability, 10(4):951.
doi:10.3390/su10040951. ISSN 2071-1050.
Earle, S. 2018. Physical geology. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-the-rock-
cycle/ [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2015. s.v. strike slip fault.
https://www.britannica.com/science/strike-slip-fault [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Keller, EA. 2001. Active tectonics: earthquakes, uplift, and landscape. 2nd ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
McClay, KR. 1992. Thrust tectonics. London: Chapman & Hall.
Open EI. 2019. Extensional tectonics. https://openei.org/wiki/Extensional_Tectonics
[Accessed on 17 March 2020]
Selby, MJ. 1993. Hillslope materials and processes. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

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Smithson, P. 2008. Fundamentals of the physical environment. 4th ed. New York:
Routledge.
Van der Pluijm, BA & Marshak, S. 2004. Earth structure – an introduction to structural
geology and tectonics. 2nd ed. New York: WW Norton.
Whittow, J. 1984. Dictionary of physical geography. London: Penguin.

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 Learning unit 1 6

GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND TOPOGRAPHY

6.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 6 is to help you understand the basic concepts of
geological mapwork and analysing topographic maps with geological features. In
addition, this learning unit will help you know and understand the basic concepts of
interpreting geological maps as well as the symbols that are used. By understanding this
learning unit, you will have the knowledge and ability to draw sections showing
geological strata as they would occur below the surface.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain basic concepts in topography and geological maps
• describe and draw geological cross-sections using topographic maps
• distinguish between the different methods of mapping topography (remote sensing
and direct/topographic survey)
• report findings of interpretation and drawing of geological maps

Read pages 176 to 212 in Lurie (1989), which is one of the prescribed books.

6.2 WHAT ARE GEOLOGICAL MAPS?

A geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological features. It illustrates
surface geology and near-surface contacts. It also represents the distribution of different
types of rock and surficial deposits, as well as locations of geologic structures such as
faults and folds. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by colour or symbols to indicate
where they are exposed at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features such as
faults, folds, foliations and lineation are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge
symbols which give these features three-dimensional orientations. In some cases,
stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum and
the subsurface topographic trends of the strata (Harrell & Brown 1992).

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6.3 TOPOGRAPHY
Topography is an expression, by means of physical features, not only of the geology of a
country, but to a very large extent of its geological history. If on a map the geology and
topography do not fit comfortably together, either one or the other is wrongly mapped.
Streams owe their early existence to uplift and tilting of the stratified rocks (Wade 2012).
Topography is a broad term that can be used to describe the detailed study of the earth's
surface. This includes changes in the surface such as mountains and valleys as well as
features such as rivers and roads. It can also include the surface of other planets, the
moon, asteroids and meteors. Topography is closely linked to the practice of land
surveying, which is the practice of determining and recording the position of points in
relation to one another (Wade 2012).

6.4 CONSTRUCTING A GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTION

Roland and Duebendorfer (1994) provided a step-by-step guideline of how to construct
a geological cross-section. Figures 6.1 to 6.7 show a section of a topographic survey that
is used for this example as well as the constructed cross-section.

Figure 6.1
Plan section of a topographic survey (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

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The procedure is as follows:
• Step 1: Select a section line (A-A’ on figure 6.1).
• Step 2: Construct a topographic profile along the line of section.
• Step 3: Transfer contacts from the map to the topographic profile.
• Step 4: Project dip data into the cross-section line.
• Step 5: Calculate and plot apparent dips on the topographic profile.
• Step 6: Construct the subsurface interpretation.

Step 1
When selecting a section line, note the following:
• Identify regional structural trends.
• Draw the section line perpendicular to regional structural trends and through areas
that best depict the structure.
• You may need more than one section line.

Always draw sections through areas with the best structural control by checking
• the most reliable contacts
• the nearby structural data

Mark the intersection of each topographic contour line with the section line as shown in
figure 6.2 below.

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 Figure 6.2
Intersection of each topographic contour line with the section line
(Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Step 2
Graph the elevation of each point in its appropriate position, as shown in figure 6.3
below.

Figure 6.3
Graph of the elevation of each point in its appropriate position (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

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Connect the dots as shown in figure 6.4 below:

Figure 6.4
Graph of the elevation points connected (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Step 3
Transfer the contacts from the matching geological map to the topographic profile. This
means that you have to obtain a geological map of the same area as the topographic map.
Mark the intersection of each contact, fault or unconformity with the section line as shown
in figure 6.5 below.

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 Figure 6.5
Matching the geological map to the topographic profile (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Mark the intersection of each contact, fault or unconformity with the section line. Transfer
the location of each contact, fault or unconformity marked on the section line to the
topographic profile as shown in figure 6.6 below.

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 Figure 6.6
Location of each contact on the topographic profile (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Step 4
Identify which dip data you will use and always use the data that occurs in a narrow band
along either side of your section line. Remember that the projection distance is inversely
proportional to structural complexity. Then project the data into the cross-section line.
Project parallel to strike the point where the projection line intersects the section line and
do not project across formation boundaries, faults or unconformities.
In addition, intuitively use data close to the section, even if it does not project into the
section line. For example, contacts striking parallel to the section line will appear
horizontal in the section plane.
Transfer the location of each projected dip data point to the topographic profile. Figure
6.7 below shows the transferred projected dip onto the topographic profile.

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 Figure 6.7
Transferred projected dip onto the topographic profile (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Step 5
Use an apparent dip nomogram, or calculations, to determine the apparent dip of each
data point projected into the cross-section plane. Figure 6.8 below shows a template of
the nomograph, found on page 83 of Roland and Duebendorfer (1994).

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 Figure 6.8
Apparent dip nomogram (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Plot the apparent dips on the topographic profile. At each apparent dip data point, use a
protractor to measure down from horizontal the angle equal to the calculated apparent
dip. Then draw in the apparent dip symbol at the appropriate angle and in the appropriate
direction. These angles must be drawn precisely, not just eyeballed.
Step 6
Construct the subsurface interpretation. Always remember that a cross-section is an
interpretation, so you need to respect your data. Always have uniform layer thickness
unless you have good evidence to the contrary. Remember, soft units are more likely to
change thickness. Dip angles may only be valid for a short distance and they do not
continue constantly with increasing depth. Figure 6.9 below shows the plotted cross-
section.

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 Figure 6.9
Plotted cross-section (Roland & Duebendorfer 1994)

Remember the following:

• Always assume that areas and lengths of rock layers remain constant during
deformation.
• Each unit lies at a unique regional elevation when not uplifted by faulting or
intrusions.
• Faults must have realistic geometries and kinematics.
• Interpret in a manner that is consistent with established regional structural styles.
• Do not add complexity where it is not supported by the data.

Below are some common errors on cross-sections:

• contacts on map don’t match those on the section line
• ignoring dip data
• topography-induced folding
• blank spaces underground
• incorrect stratigraphic sequence
• mismatch between intersecting section lines

Avoid the above errors.

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6.5 LITHOLOGY
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop,
in hand or in core samples. Physical characteristics typically include
• colour
• texture
• grain size
• composition

Lithology may also refer to a detailed description of the above characteristics, or a

summary of the gross physical characteristics of rocks as discussed in learning unit 4.
Lithology is the basis of subdividing rock sequences into individual lithostratigraphic units
for the purposes of geological mapping and correlation between different areas (Bates &
Jackson 1984; Allaby & Allaby 1999).

6.6 REMOTE SENSING

Geological remote sensing (GRS) is remote sensing applied in the geological sciences as
a data attainment method harmonising with field observations. In simple terms, it is the
science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance. The US
Geological Survey (2016) defines remote sensing as the process of detecting and
monitoring the physical features of an area by measuring the reflected and emitted
radiation at a distance from the targeted area. This method allows mapping of geological
features of areas without physical contact with these areas. About 25% of the earth’s total
land surface area is ready to be extracted from detailed earth observations via remote
sensing techniques. Remote sensing is conducted via detection of electromagnetic
radiation by sensors (Rees 2013; Kuehn et al 2000).
According to Gupta (1991), the radiation can be naturally sourced, and this is called
passive remote sensing (PRS), or it can be produced by sensors and satellites and this is
called active remote sensing (ARS) and is reflected off the earth surface. The
electromagnetic radiation acts as an information carrier for two main variables:
The intensities of reflectance at different wavelengths are detected and plotted on a
spectral reflectance curve.
The two-way travel time of radiation from and back to the sensor can calculate the
distance in active remote sensing systems, for example interferometric synthetic-aperture
radar.

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Remote sensing techniques help geologists to study ground motion, and this can help to
irradiate deformations associated with landslides and earthquakes. In addition, remote
sensing data is very useful in geological mapping (Gupta 1991). It is also useful for civil
engineers in measuring slope movements (road cuts, open-cast mining and dam walls)
and land-use change.
Remote sensing of delegations for geology, such as soils and vegetation that preferentially
grows above different types of rocks, can also help infer the underlying geological forms.
Remote sensing data is often visualised using geographical information system (GIS) tools
such as Landsat and ArcGIS. These tools permit a range of quantitative analyses, such as
using different wavelengths of collected data sets in various red-green-blue configurations
to produce false colour imagery to reveal key features. Thus, image processing is an
important step to decipher parameters from the collected image and to extract information
(Gupta 1991).
Here are some examples of remote sensing:
Landsat: Satellites that carry sensors that record light, or portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, as it is reflected off the earth.
Radar: A system that uses radio waves to detect and determine the distance, angle, or
velocity of objects.
Laser: A device that detects objects by emitting light through a process of optical
amplification that is based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
LIDAR: Also known as Light Detection and Ranging, this is a surveying technique that
measures range or distance to an object by illuminating the object with laser light and
quantifying the reflected light with a sensor.
Hyperspectral imaging (HIS): A technique that analyses a widespread spectrum of light.
Instead of simply giving primary colours to each pixel, the light striking each pixel is
broken down to many spectral bands to provide more data on what is being mapped.
Aerial photography: Taking photographs from an aircraft, drone or any other flying
object.
Satellite images (Google Earth): Images of the planet earth or other terrestrial planets are
collected by satellites.
More recently, Google Earth has become a common GIS tool and it is usually used as a
starting point for planning any site investigations. From there, generally, other tools are
applied for more detail, depending on scale, complexity of the site and/or
structure/development/project.

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6.7 DIRECT/TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
A direct or topographic survey is a survey that gathers data about the elevation of points
on a piece of land and presents them as contour lines on an XYZ contour map plot. The
purpose of a topographic survey is to collect survey data about the natural (terrain, surface
rock outcrop) and human-made features of the land, as well as their elevations.
Topographic maps are used to show elevations and grading features for architects, civil
engineers and building contractors.
In geology topographic surveys are used for
• producing topographic and contour maps that are used for constructing geological
cross-sections
• establishing vertical and horizontal control accurately for rock outcrops and rock
formations

Some of the modern equipment that is used to conduct surveys or image reconstruction
are
• GPS (roving GPS)
• theodolites
• GNSS receivers
• 3D scanners
• drones (3D laser and digital terrain modelling (DTM))
• robotic total stations
• spirit and digital levels

6.8 STEREONETS
A stereonet or stereographic projection is a mapping technique that projects a sphere
(earth, or any other terrestrial planet) onto a plane. It is the plane of projection of the
lower half of a sphere. The projection is defined on the whole sphere, except at one point:
the projection point. Stereographic projection is not isometric or area-preserving. It is a
lower hemisphere graph on to which a variety of geological data can be plotted (Davis &
Reynolds 1996).
Stereonets are used in many different branches of geology, cartography (maps and aerial
imagery), photography, planetary sciences and crystallography. Stereographic projection
involves plotting 3D data (planar or linear) onto a 2D surface (stereonet) where it can be
manipulated and interpreted for scientific use. A stereonet is a powerful method for
displaying and manipulating the 3D geometry of lines and planes (Davis & Reynolds
1996).

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The orientations of lines and planes can be plotted relative to the centre of a sphere,
called the projection sphere, as shown at the top of figure 6.10. The intersection made
by the line or plane with the sphere's circumference defines the 3D orientation of the line
or plane. The projection sphere is divided in half by a horizontal plane called the
projection plane. Compass directions are indicated on the projection plane. All
measurements are made relative to horizontal, so only the lower hemisphere of the
projection sphere need be used (Davis & Reynolds 1996).
The lower stereonet hemisphere can be projected in various ways onto a flat graph.
Nevertheless, stereographic projections distort the distances and spatial relationships of
features. Stereonets are preferable to maps or cross-sections for solving many geometric
problems involving lines and planes that are common in structural geology. Two popular
stereographic projections are the equal-angular or Wulff stereonet, and the equal-area or
Schmidt stereonet (Davis & Reynolds 1996).

Figure 6.10:
Dipping plane plotted relative to the centre of a projection sphere (Aber 1988)

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The Wulff stereonet is perhaps the easier of the two projections to visualise. Imagine that
your eye is positioned at the peak of the projection sphere in figure 6.10. The dipping
plane intersects the lower hemisphere forming an arc that your eye visualises on the
horizontal projection plane. The resulting projection-plane arc is, in effect, a perspective
view of the dipping plane as seen from the top of the sphere. The Wulff stereonet consists
of a series of circular arcs that form meridians running N-S and parallels running E-W.
Although the meridians and parallels resemble longitude and latitude lines on a map,
they are not; the stereonet is not a map. Angles are preserved on the Wulff stereonet; note
that meridians and parallels always intersect at right angles. However, size and shape are
misleading (Aber 1988).
The Schmidt stereonet is a different projection on which size is preserved, but angles and
shape are distorted (figure 6.11). Each quadrangle on the stereonet is equal in size or area,
whereas the shape of quadrangles varies from almost square near the centre to narrow,
curved rectangles near the edge. Unlike the Wulff stereonet, on which meridians and
parallels are circular arcs, the meridians and parallels of the Schmidt stereonet are oval
curves. The Schmidt stereonet has one important advantage—it preserves area. Therefore,
the density of plotted data can be analysed. In many situations, dozens or even hundreds
of measurements of linear or planar features may be made, and all the data can be plotted
on a single Schmidt stereonet to display the overall structural pattern. Because it maintains
size, the Schmidt stereonet is visually more pleasing than the equal-angular stereonet and
has proven more popular for routine use (Aber 1988).

Figure 6.11
Schmidt stereographic projection (Aber 1988)

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Plotting of lines and planes on either stereonet projection is carried out following the
same procedures. Typically, linear elements, such as fold axes, are plotted as points on
the stereonet, and planar elements, such as faults and joints, are plotted as arcs. In the
case where many planes must be plotted on a single stereonet, visual confusion could
result. To simplify plotting planes on the stereonet, it is convenient to plot the pole to
each plane (Aber 1988).
Stereonets are a powerful way to present and analyse complex structural data. These days
computer software programs are normally used for plotting stereonets, calculating
geometric relationships and determining statistical distribution of features. Stereonets may
be added to stratigraphic profiles, cross-sections, or maps to provide a 3D basis for
interpretation of the structural patterns (Aber 1988).

6.9 SUMMARY
In this learning unit, you have learnt about the basic concepts of topographic and
geological maps. The plotting and construction of geological cross-sectional drawings
using topographic and geological maps will enable you to interpret and report findings
on a wide variety of maps throughout the world. The different methods of mapping
topography (remote sensing and direct/topographic survey) that you have learnt are
important in practice in both civil engineering construction works and design.
By reading Lurie (1989) as well as the cited references, you should be able to widen your
theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

6.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions.
1. What are geological maps?
2. What are topographic maps?
3. Describe in detail what remote sensing is.
4. Distinguish between active remote sensing (ARS) and passive remote sensing (PRS).
5. Explain what direct/topographic surveys are.
6. Explain, in summary, how geological cross-sections are constructed.
7. Provide a 1:50 000 scale of Pretoria’s geological sheet.
8. What are stereonets?
9. What are the uses of stereonets?
10. Differentiate between the Wulff and the Schmidt stereonets.

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6.11 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES
For additional explanations on the geological maps and topography, you can watch some
video clips. Web addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under
Additional Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based
resources”. Similar links are also shown below:
• The geological map "Drawing the Earth's skin":
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdz9DN74ukY
• Geology: Map Making: Sectional Rock Analysis:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-FIYVtKM9I
• Interpretation of geological map & cross section preparation part 1:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoiNK0rJWAI
• The Basics of Geology: Converting a Topographic Profile into a Surface Cross Section
Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PrlmfOmIcY

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Aber, JS. 1988. Structural geology exercises with glaciotectonic examples. Winston
Salem, North Carolina: Hunter Textbooks.
Allaby, A & Allaby, M. 1999. Oxford dictionary of earth sciences. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Bates, RJ & Jackson, JA. 1984. Dictionary of geological terms. 3rd ed. Virginia: American
Geosciences Institute.
Davis, GH & Reynolds, S. 1996. Structural geology of rocks and regions. New York:
Wiley.
Gupta, RP. 1991. Remote sensing geology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Harrell, JA & Brown, VM. 1992. The world's oldest surviving geological map — the 1150
BC Turin papyrus from Egypt. The Journal of Geology, 100(1):3–18.
Kuehn, F, King, TVV, Hoerig, B, Peters, DC, Newcomb, C & Toms, H. 2000. Remote
sensing for site characterization. New York: Springer.
Rees, WG. 2013. Physical principles of remote sensing. 3rd ed. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Roland, SM & Duebendorfer, EM. 1994. Structural analysis and synthesis. 2nd ed. Boston:
Blackwell Scientific Publications.

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US Geological Survey. (2016). Tracking change over time—understanding remote
sensing: student guide. General Information Product 133.
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/133/pdf/RemSens-Student_web.pdf [Accessed on 17 March
2020].
Wade, D. 2012. The relationship between topography and geology. The Australian
Surveyor Journal, 5(6):367–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050326.1935.10436440.

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 Learning unit 1 7

SOILS

7.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 7 is to help you understand soils and their origin. In
addition, this learning unit will help you know and understand the nature of the
fundamental characteristics of soil as a construction material. By carefully studying this
learning unit, you will have a basic understanding of the behaviour of soils as an
engineering and construction material.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain basic concepts of the origin of soils
• explain the chemical composition of soil
• name and explain the different types of soils in relation to engineering
• explain the process of weathering
• explain the different types of soil classification systems used in civil engineering

Read chapter 2 (pp. 17–55) in Das and Sivakugan (2017), which is one of the prescribed
books.

7.2 WHAT ARE SOILS?

In general, soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids and organisms that
together support life. Earth's body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four primary
functions (Brady 1974). Soil functions as a
• medium for plant growth
• means of water storage, supply and purification
• modifier of earth's atmosphere
• habitat for organisms

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However, in geotechnical engineering, soil is the surface of the earth that is not water,
air, or rock. Another engineering definition of soil by Spangler and Handy (1982) is as
follows: "all the fragmented mineral material at or near the surface of the earth, the moon,
or other planetary body, plus the air, water, organic matter, and other substances which
may be included therein”.
Soil is understood to be the weathered material in the upper layers of the earth’s crust
(Verruijt 2001).

7.3 ORIGIN OF SOILS

The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create
soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical, chemical and biological weathering. Human
activities such as excavation, blasting and waste disposal may also create soil. Over
geological time, deeply buried soils may be altered by pressure and temperature to
become metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified again, they would
complete the geological cycle by becoming igneous rock (Mitchell & Soga 2005).

7.3.1 Weathering

Das and Sivakugan (2017) discuss weathering in detail on pages 20–23 (chapter 2). The
natural weathering process of rock means that in the long run the influence of sun, rain
and wind degenerates it into stones. This process is stimulated by fracturing of rock bodies
by freezing and thawing of the water in small crevices in the rock. The coarse stones that
are created in mountainous areas are transported downstream by gravity, often together
with water in rivers. By internal friction the stones are gradually reduced in size, so that
the material becomes gradually finer gravel, sand and eventually silt. In flowing rivers,
the material may be deposited, the coarsest material at high velocities, but the finer
material only at very small velocities. This means that gravel will be found in the upper
reaches of a riverbed, and finer material such as sand and silt in the lower reaches (Verruijt
2001).
Weathering includes two main processes that are quite different. One is the mechanical
breakdown of rock into smaller fragments, and the other is the chemical change of the
minerals within the rock to forms that are stable in the surface environment. Mechanical
weathering provides fresh surfaces for attack by chemical processes, and chemical
weathering weakens the rock so that it is more susceptible to mechanical weathering.
Together, these processes create two very important products, one being the sedimentary
clasts and ions in solution that can eventually become sedimentary rock, and the other
being the soil that is necessary for our existence on earth (Earle 2018).

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7.3.2 Mechanical weathering

Mechanical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks,
rain, wind, impact and other mechanisms (Powrie 2004). Intrusive igneous rocks form at
depths of several hundreds of metres to several tens of kilometres. Sediments are turned
into sedimentary rocks only when they are buried by other sediments to depths in excess
of several hundreds of metres. Most metamorphic rocks are formed at depths of kilometres
to tens of kilometres. Weathering cannot even begin until these rocks are uplifted through
various processes of mountain building, most of which are related to plate tectonics, and
the overlying material has been eroded away and the rock is exposed as an outcrop (Earle
2018).
Mechanical weathering is greatly facilitated by erosion, which is the removal of
weathering products, allowing for the exposure of more rock for weathering. The effects
of plants and animals are significant in mechanical weathering. Roots can force their way
into even the tiniest cracks, and then they exert tremendous pressure on the rocks as they
grow, widening the cracks and breaking the rock (Verruijt 2001).
The important agents of mechanical weathering, according to Powrie (2004) and Earle
(2018), are
• the decrease in pressure that results from removal of overlying rock
• freezing and thawing of water in cracks in the rock
• formation of salt crystals within the rock
• cracking from plant roots and exposure by burrowing animals

When a mass of rock is exposed by weathering and removal of the overlying rock, there
is a decrease in the confining pressure on the rock and the rock expands. This unloading
promotes cracking of the rock, known as exfoliation (Earle 2015).
Frost wedging is the process by which water seeps into cracks in a rock, expands on
freezing and thus enlarges the cracks. The effectiveness of frost wedging is related to the
frequency of freezing and thawing (Verruijt 2001).
In coastal areas, when saltwater seeps into rocks and then evaporates on a hot sunny day,
salt crystals grow within cracks and pores in the rock. The growth of these crystals exerts
pressure on the rock and can push grains apart, causing the rock to weaken and break.
Salt weathering can also occur away from the coast, because most environments have
some salt in them (Earle 2018).

7.3.3 Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering results from chemical changes to minerals that become unstable
when they are exposed to surface conditions. Bowen’s reaction series, as shown in
learning unit 4, best explains the chemical changes to minerals (see section 4.8). The
kinds of changes that take place (oxidation, hydrolysis and carbonation) are highly

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specific to the mineral and the environmental conditions. Some minerals, like quartz, are
virtually unaffected by chemical weathering, whereas others, like feldspar, are easily
altered. In general, the degree of chemical weathering is greatest in warm and wet
climates, and least in cold and dry climates. The important characteristics of surface
conditions that lead to chemical weathering are the presence of water (in the air and on
the ground surface), the abundance of oxygen and the presence of carbon dioxide, which
produces weak carbonic acid when combined with water (Hall 1999).
The most fundamental process to chemical weathering, according to Earle (2018), can be
shown as follows:
• H2O + CO2 —>H2CO3 then H2CO3 —> H+ + HCO3 –
• water + carbon dioxide —> carbonic acid then carbonic acid —> hydrogen ion +
carbonate ion

There are two main types of chemical weathering. On the one hand, some minerals
become altered to other minerals. For example, feldspar is altered by hydrolysis to clay
minerals. On the other hand, some minerals dissolve completely, and their components
go into solution. For example, calcite (CaCO3) is soluble in acidic solutions. The
hydrolysis of feldspar, according to Earle (2018), is given by
• CaAl2Si2O8 + H2CO3 + 0.5O2 —-> Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + Ca2+ + CO32-
• plagioclase + carbonic acid —-> kaolinite + dissolved calcium + carbonate ions

This reaction shows calcium plagioclase feldspar, but similar reactions could also be
written for sodium or potassium feldspars. In this case, we end up with the mineral
kaolinite, along with calcium and carbonate ions in solution. Those ions can eventually
combine (probably in the ocean) to form the mineral calcite. Other silicate minerals can
also go through hydrolysis, although the end results will be a little different. For example,
pyroxene can be converted to the clay minerals chlorite or smectite, and olivine can be
converted to the clay mineral serpentine (Hall 1999; Earle 2018).
Oxidation is another very important chemical weathering process. The oxidation of the
iron in a ferromagnesian silicate starts with the dissolution of the iron. According to Earle
(2018), for olivine, the process looks like this, where olivine in the presence of carbonic
acid is converted to dissolved iron, carbonate and silicic acid:
• Fe2SiO4+ 4H2CO3 —> 2Fe2+ + 4HCO3– + H4SiO4
• olivine + (carbonic acid) —> dissolved iron + dissolved carbonate + dissolved
silicic acid

A special type of oxidation takes place in areas where the rocks have elevated levels of
sulphide minerals, especially pyrite (FeS2). The runoff from areas where this process is
taking place is known as acid rock drainage (ARD), and even a rock with 1% or 2% pyrite
can produce significant ARD. Some of the worst examples of ARD are at metal mine sites,
especially where pyrite-bearing rock and waste material have been mined from deep

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underground and then piled up and left exposed to water and oxygen (Hall 1999; Earle
2018).
The hydrolysis of feldspar and other silicate minerals and the oxidation of iron in
ferromagnesian silicates all serve to create rocks that are softer and weaker than they were
to begin with, and thus more susceptible to mechanical weathering (Hall 1999; Earle
2018).

7.4 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

7.4.1 Grain size distribution

Section 2.11 (pp. 30–32) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers grain and particle size
distribution. Soils are usually divided into various types. In many cases these various types
also have different mechanical properties. A simple subdivision of soils is based on the
grain size of the particles that constitute the soil. Coarse granular material is often denoted
as gravel and finer material as sand. To have uniformly applicable terminology, it has
been agreed internationally to consider particles larger than 2 mm but smaller than 63
mm as gravel. Larger particles are denoted as stones. Sand is the material consisting of
particles smaller than 2 mm but larger than 0.063 mm. Particles smaller than 0.063 mm
and larger than 0.002 mm are denoted as silt. Soil consisting of even smaller particles,
smaller than 0.002 mm, is denoted as clay. Table 7.1 below shows a summary of grain
sizes.
Table 7.1: Grain sizes
Soil type Minimum grain size Maximum grain size
Clay - 0.002 mm
Silt 0.002 mm 0.063 mm
Sand 0.063 mm 2 mm
Gravel 2 mm 63 mm
Source: Verruijt (2001)

Note that the minimum and maximum size limits slightly differ from one classification
system to another. Table 7.2 below shows particle size distributions for different soil
classification systems.

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Table 7.2: Particle size distributions for different soil classification (Source: Das &
Sivakugan, 2017).

Grain size (mm)

Name of organisation
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Massachusetts Institute of
>2 2 to 0.06 0.06 to 0.002 <0.002
Technology (MIT)
U.S. Department of Agriculture
>2 2 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.002 <0.002
(USDA)
American Association of State
Highway Transportation Officials 76.2 to 2 2 to 0.075 0.075 to 0.002 <0.002
(AASHTO)
Unified Soil Classification System
Fines
(U.S. Corps of Engineers, U.S. 76.2 to 4.75 to
Bureau of Reclamation, and (i.e., silts and clays)
4.75 0.075
American Society for Testing and <0.075
Materials)

The mechanical behaviour of the main types of soil, sand and clay and compost, is rather
different. Table 7.3 below shows typical descriptors for soil texture. Clay is usually much
less permeable for water than sand, but it is usually also much softer. Compost is usually
very light (sometimes hardly heavier than water) and strongly anisotropic because of the
presence of fibres of organic material. Compost is usually also very compressible. Sand
is usually rather permeable and rather stiff (stiffness in this context refers to the resistance
to deformation in response to an applied force). That they cannot transfer tensile stresses
is also very characteristic of granular soils such as sand and gravel. Only when the
particles are very small and the soil contains some water can a tensile stress be transmitted
by capillary forces in the contact points (Verruijt 2001).

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Table 7.3: Soil texture descriptors

1 2 3 4
Particle size
Descriptor Subdivision Field identification tests
(mm)
Boulders - >200

Cobbles - 60 to 200

Coarse 20 to 60 Observed with naked eye

Gravel Medium 6 to 20

Fine 2 to 6
• Particles are visible to naked eye
Coarse 0.6 to 2 • Sand is clearly distinguishable by the presence
of gritty particles which do not break down
Sand Medium 0.2 to 0.6 when rubbed with water on the palm of the
hand
Fine 0.06 to 0.2 • Gritty feel on teeth

• Silt particles are barely felt when rubbed on the

palm of the hand with water
• When a small quantity of wetted soil is placed
Silt - 0.002 to 0.06
on the tongue, the particles can be felt grating
against the enamel of the teeth
• Chalky feel on teeth
• In general the particles are flaky and, when
rubbed on the palm of the hand with water,
have a soapy or greasy feel
Clay - <0.002 • There is no sensation of grittiness when placed
between the tongue and the teeth
• Soils hands
• Shiny when wet
Note: Most natural soils are combination of one or more textures and, in describing a soil, the adjective
is used to denote the lesser type, e.g. a silty clay is a clay with some silt. A silt-clay, however, has
approximately equal proportions of silt and clay.
Source: SABS (2012)

7.4.2 Grain/particle size diagram

The size of the particles in a certain soil can be represented graphically in a grain size
diagram, similar to the one shown in figure 7.1 below or figure 2.17 in Das and Sivakugan
(2017:40). This diagram indicates the percentage of the number of particles smaller than
a certain diameter, measured as a percentage of the weight. A steep slope of the curve in
the diagram indicates a uniform soil. A shallow slope of the diagram indicates that the
soil contains particles of very different grain sizes (Verruijt 2001).

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For rather coarse particles, larger than 0.05 mm, the grain size distribution can be
determined by sieving. The usual procedure is to use a system of sieves with different
mesh sizes, stacked on top of each other, with the coarsest mesh on top and the finest
mesh at the bottom. After shaking the assembly of sieves, by hand or by a shaking
machine, each sieve will contain the particles larger than its mesh size and smaller than
the mesh size of all the sieves above it. In this way the grain size diagram can be
determined. Special standardised sets of sieves are available, as well as convenient
shaking machines. The example of figure 7.1 shows a normal well-graded sand and there
are no grains larger than 5 mm (Verruijt 2001). Figure 7.2 shows a comparison between
a well-graded, gap-graded and a poorly graded soil.

Figure 7.1
Grain size diagram (Verruijt 2001)

Figure 7.2
Grain size diagram (Das & Sivakugan 2017)

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7.4.3 Sieve sizes

In civil engineering, the testing of soils and gravels, aggregates, asphalt, bituminous
materials, concrete and cement was, until recently, carried out in accordance with the
test methods given in TMH 1. Currently, the conversion of these test methods into SANS
standards is in progress. The comparison between TMH 1 methods and the new SANS
standards in relation to sieve sizes for grading soils is shown in table 7.4 below.
Table 7.4: TMH1 vs SANS standards sieve sizes

Source: SANRAL (2014)

7.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Section 2.12 (pp. 32–36) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers chemical composition of
soils and clays. Besides the difference in grain size, the chemical composition of soil can
also be helpful in distinguishing between various types of soils. Sand and gravel usually
consist of the same minerals as the original rock from which they were created by the
erosion process. This can be quartz, feldspar or glimmer. In general, sand mostly consists
of quartz. The chemical formula of this mineral is SiO2 (Verruijt 2001).
Fine-grained soils may contain the same minerals, but they also contain the so-called clay
minerals, which have been created by chemical erosion. The main clay minerals are
kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite. These minerals consist of compounds of aluminium
with hydrogen, oxygen and silicates. They differ from each other in chemical
composition, but also in geometrical structure, at microscopic level. The microstructure
of clay usually resembles thin plates. On the microscale there are forces between these
very small elements, and ions of water may be bonded. Because of the small magnitude
of the elements and their distances, these forces include electrical forces and the Van der
Waals forces. Although the interaction of clay particles is different from the interaction
between the much larger grains of sand or gravel, there are many similarities in the global
behaviour of these soils (Verruijt 2001).

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When an uncompacted soil is loaded, it will generally deform immediately, and then
remain at rest if the load remains constant. Under similar conditions a wet or moist clay
soil will continue to deform, and this is due to the dissipation of water to a point of
equilibrium pore water pressure. This is called creep. It depends very much on the actual
chemical and mineralogical constitution of the clay. Also, some clays, especially clays
containing large amounts of montmorillonite, may show considerable volume change
with a change in moisture content. For you, as a civil engineer/technologist, the chemical
and mineralogical composition of a soil is a critical warning of its engineering
characteristics, and as an indication of its difference from other materials. A chemical
analysis generally gives information on the mechanical properties of a soil (Hall 1999).

7.6 TYPES OF SOILS

Sections 2.4 to 2.10 (pp. 25–30) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) cover soil types. Based on
the agencies responsible for their present state, soils may be classified in following types,
according to Netterberg (1975):
• Residual soils: These are products of chemical weathering and thus their
characteristics depend on environmental factors of climate, parent material,
topography and drainage, and age.
• Transported soils: They form from weathered material deposits, which are transported
by natural forces to a new site, away from the site of origin. The type of transport soil
is determined by the agent, such as wind, water, ice or snow, that assists in its
transportation. The following soils are different types of transported soils:
o Alluvial soils: A fine-grained fertile soil deposited by water flowing over flood
plains or in riverbeds. Alluvial deposit, alluvial sediment, alluvium and alluvion
are clay or silt or gravel carried by rushing streams and deposited where the
stream slows down.
o Aeolian soils: Wind-deposited materials that consist primarily of sand or silt-sized
particles. These materials tend to be extremely well sorted and free of coarse
fragments. Some rounding and frosting of mineral grains are detectable.
o Glacial soils: Unsorted glacial sediment. Till is derived from the erosion and
entrainment of material by the moving ice of a glacier. It is deposited some
distance down-ice to form terminal, lateral, medial and ground moraines.
• Pedogenic soils: This applies to laterites, ferricretes, calcretes as well as to materials
of similar origin, which may have smaller quantities of cementing materials.
Pedogenic soils are horizons of soils that harden irreversibly on contact with air.

As a geotechnical engineer/technologist, you should be very familiar with the

nomenclature and terminology of different types of soils. The following list, according to
Bolton (1979) and Venkatramaiah (2015), gives the names and striking features of
different types of soil, arranged in alphabetical order:

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• Bentonite: This is a type of clay with a very high percentage of the clay mineral
montmorillonite. It is a highly plastic clay, resulting from the decomposition of
volcanic ash. It is highly water absorbent and has high shrinkage and swelling
characteristics.
• Black cotton soil: This is a residual soil containing a high percentage of the clay
mineral montmorillonite. It has very low bearing capacity and high swelling and
shrinkage properties.
• Boulders: These are the rock fragments of large size, more than 300 mm in size.
• Calcareous soil: This type of soil contains a large quantity of calcium carbonate. These
soils effervesce when tested with weak hydrochloric acid.
• Caliche: This is a type of soil which contains gravel, sand and silt. The particles are
cemented by calcium carbonate.
• Clay: This consists of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived from the
chemical decomposition of rocks. It contains a large quantity of clay mineral. It can
be made plastic by adjusting the water content. It exhibits considerable strength when
dry. Clay is a fine-grained and cohesive soil. The particle size is less than 0.002 mm.
• Cobbles: Cobbles are large-size particles in the range of 80 to 300 mm.
• Diatomaceous earth: Diatoms are minute unicellular marine organisms.
Diatomaceous earth is a fine, light grey, soft sedimentary deposit of the siliceous
remains of skeletons of diatoms.
• Dispersive clays: These are special types of clays which deflocculate in still water.
These soils erode if exposed to low-velocity water. Susceptibility to dispersion
depends on the cations in the soil pore water.
• Dune sands: These are wind-transported soils composed of relatively uniform particles
of fine to medium sand.
• Expansive clays: These are prone to large volume changes as the water content is
changed. These soils contain the mineral montmorillonite.
• Fills: All human-made deposits of soil and waste materials are called fills. These are
the soil embankments raised above the ground surface. Engineering properties of fills
depend on the type of soil, its water content and the degree of compaction.
• Gravel: This is a type of coarse-grained soil. The particle size ranges from 2 to 75 mm.
It is a cohesionless material.
• Hardpans: Hardpans are the types of soil that offer great resistance to the penetration
of drilling tools during soil exploration. The soils are designated hardpans regardless
of their particle size. These are generally dense, well-graded, cohesive aggregates of
mineral particles. Hardpans do not disintegrate when submerged in water.
• Humus: This is a dark brown, organic amorphous earth of the topsoil. It consists of
partly decomposed vegetal matter. It is not suitable for engineering works.
• Kankar: This is an impure form of limestone. It contains calcium carbonate mixed
with some siliceous material.
• Laterites: Laterites are residual soils formed in tropical regions. They are very soft
when freshly cut but become hard after long exposure. Hardness is due to the

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 cementing action of iron oxide and aluminium oxide. These soils are also called
lateritic soils.
• Loam: This is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. The term is generally used in agronomy.
The soil is well suited to tilling operations.
• Loess: This is a windblown deposit of silt. It is generally of uniform gradation, with
the particle size between 0.01 and 0.05 mm. It consists of quartz and feldspar
particles, cemented with calcium carbonate or iron oxide. When wet, it becomes soft
and compressible because cementing action is lost. A loess deposit has a loose
structure with numerous root holes which produce vertical cleavage. The permeability
in the vertical direction is generally much greater than that in the horizontal direction.
• Marl: This is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of greenish colour.
• Moorum: The word “moorum” is derived from a Tamil word meaning powdered rock.
It consists of small pieces of disintegrated rock or shale, with or without boulders.
• Muck: This denotes a mixture of fine soil particles and highly decomposed organic
matter. It is black and has extremely soft consistency. It cannot be used for engineering
works. The organic matter is in an advanced stage of decomposition.
• Peat/compost: This is a type of organic soil with fibrous aggregates of macroscopic
and microscopic particles. It is formed from vegetal matter under conditions of excess
moisture, such as in swamps. It is highly compressible and not suitable for
foundations.
• Sand: This is a coarse-grained soil, with a particle size of 0.075 to 4.75 mm. The
particles are visible to the naked eye. The soil is cohesionless and pervious.
• Silt: Silt is a fine-grained soil, with a particle size of between 0.002 and 0.075 mm.
The particles are not visible to the naked eye. Inorganic silt consists of bulky,
equidimensional grains of quartz. It has little or no plasticity and is cohesionless.
Organic silt contains an admixture of organic matter. It is a plastic soil and is cohesive.
• Till: This is a type of soil formed by an unstratified deposit resulting from the melting
of a glacier. The deposit consists of particles of different sizes, ranging from boulders
to clay. The soil is generally well graded. It can be easily densified by compaction.
Till is known as boulder-clay.
• Topsoils: Topsoils are the surface soils that support plants. They contain a large
quantity of organic matter and are not suitable for foundations.
• Tuff: This is a fine-grained soil composed of very small particles ejected from
volcanoes during explosion and deposited by wind or water.
• Tundra: This is a mat of peat and shrubby vegetation that covers clayey subsoil in
arctic regions. The deeper layers are permanently frozen and are called permafrost.
The surface deposit is the active layer which alternately freezes and thaws.
• Varved clays: These are sedimentary deposits consisting of alternate thin layers of silt
and clay. The thickness of each layer seldom exceeds 10 mm. These clays are the
results of deposition in lakes during periods of alternately high and low waters.

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7.7 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
Chapter 4 (pp. 89–103) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers soil classification. Several
systems of classification have been developed for categorising various types of soil. Some
of these have been developed specifically for ascertaining the suitability of soil for use in
civil engineering projects. The two common or popular soil classification systems are
listed below:
• AASHTO Soil Classification System: This system was developed by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), and is used as
a guide for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway
construction purposes.
• Unified Soil Classification System: The USCS is a soil classification system used in
engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The system
can be applied to most unconsolidated materials and is represented by a two-letter
symbol.

7.7.1 AASHTO Soil Classification System

Section 4.2 (pp. 89-93) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers the AASHTO Soil
Classification System. Study that section in more detail. Table 7.5 below is a summary of
the AASHTO Soil Classification System.
Table 7.5: AASHTO Soil Classification System

Source: SANRAL (2014)

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7.7.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Section 4.3 (pp. 93-100) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers the USCS. Study that section
in more detail. Table 7.6 below is a summary of the USCS. The system was developed
after the AASHTO system and it was intended to be a more comprehensive system for
geotechnical engineering. It is the most detailed system, but it requires laboratory analysis
for application. While the system does have limitations for uses as a field classification
method, it is widely used for many geotechnical applications.
Table 7.6: Unified Soil Classification System

Source: SANRAL (2014)

7.8 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should have a basic knowledge and understanding
of the following:
• origin of soils
• chemical composition of soil
• types of soils
• weathering
• soil classification systems

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By reading Das and Sivakugan (2017) as well as the cited references, you should be able
to widen your theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

7.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. What are soils?
2. Describe the process of weathering.
3. Explain in detail the difference between chemical and mechanical weathering.
4. Draw a graph that illustrates the difference between well-graded, gap-graded and
poorly graded soils.
5. Draw a typical grain size graph for normal sand.
6. Describe the differences between the AASHTO and the USCS Soil Classification
Systems.

7.10 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on soils, you can watch some video clips. Web
addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under Additional
Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based resources”. Similar
links are also shown below:
• Soil and Soil Dynamics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mg7XSjcnZQM
• Geotechnical Engineering | Classification of Soils | Part 1:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5k_xT5Ebm7Q
• What is Weathering?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxmAJMjJ5Nk
• Physical and Chemical Weathering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkAADlBnQWQ

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING
Bolton, M. A guide to soil mechanics. 1979. New York: Macmillan Press.
Brady, NC. 1974. The nature and properties of soils. New York: MacMillan.
Das, BM & Sivakugan, N. 2017. Fundamentals of geotechnical engineering. 5th ed,
international edition. Connecticut: Cengage Learning.
Earle, S. 2018. Physical geology. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-the-rock-
cycle/ [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Hall, K. 1999. The role of thermal stress fatigue in the breakdown of rock in cold
regions. Geomorphology, 31(47). doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00072-0.
Mitchell, JK & Soga, K. 2005. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 3rd ed. New Jersey: John
Wiley and Sons.
Netterberg, F. 1975. Pedogenic materials. Proceedings of the 6th Regional Conference
for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, volume 1. Durban.
Powrie, W. 2004. Soil mechanics. 2nd ed. London: Spon Press.
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering
manual: Chapter 4. https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-Chapter-4-2nd-edition-
2014.pdf [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2012. SANS 633: Geotechnical
investigations for township development. Pretoria: SABS.
Spangler, MG & Handy, RL. 1982. Soil engineering. New York: Harper & Row.
Venkatramaiah, C. 2015. Types of soil. http://www.civileblog.com/types-of-soil/.
[Accessed on 25 January 2019].
Verruijt, A. 2001. Soil mechanics. Delft: Delft University Press.

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 Learning unit 1 8

INDEX PROPERTIES

8.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 8 is to help you understand the characteristics and
properties of soils in the context of civil engineering. In addition, this learning unit will
help you know and understand the nature of the fundamental characteristics of soil as a
construction material. By carefully studying this learning unit, you will have a basic
understanding of the behaviour of soils as an engineering and construction material.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain the basic composition of soils
• explain the effects of moisture on soils, especially clay soils
• list and explain the basic index properties of soil which include swelling and
shrinkage, plasticity, dry density, optimum moisture content, saturation, void ratio,
porosity and maximum dry density

Read chapter 3 (pp. 56- 88) in Das and Sivakugan (2017), which is one of the prescribed
books.

8.2 SOIL CONSTITUENTS

8.2.1 Composition (soil, air and water)

Section 3.1 (p. 56) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) covers this section. According to
Chesworth (2008), soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids and
organisms that together support life. You learnt in learning unit 7 that earth's body of soil,
called the pedosphere, has four important functions as
• a medium for plant growth
• a means of water storage, supply and purification

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• a modifier of earth's atmosphere
• a habitat for organisms

Soils usually consist of particles, water and air (three-phase systems). To describe a soil,
various parameters are used to describe the distribution of these three components and
their relative contribution to the volume of a soil. These are also useful to determine other
parameters, such as the weight of the soil (Das & Sivakugan 2017).
A typical soil is about 40-55% solids and about 40-60% voids (or pores), half of which is
occupied by water and half by gas. The percentage soil mineral and organic content can
be treated as a constant (about 5%). The percentage soil water and gas content is
considered highly variable and a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in
the other. The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both
of which are critical for life existing in soil. Compaction, a common problem with soils,
reduces this space, preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms
(Vannier 1987).
Figure 8.1 below shows a three-phase system of soil.

Figure 8.1
Three-phase system of soil (New Mexico State University (NMSU) 2019)

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In summary:
• Gas includes air and water vapour.
• Solids include rock fragments, minerals and organic matter.
• Liquid includes water and dissolved salts.

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or fully saturated (no air
content) or perfectly dry (no water content). In a saturated or dry soil, the three-phase
system reduces to two phases only, as shown in figure 8.2 below.

Figure 8.2
Three-phase system of soil in partially and fully saturated and dry soils (National Programme
for Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) 2009)

8.2.2 Three-phase system (solid, liquid and gas)

8.2.2.1 Solid phase: organic matter

Organic matter is a component of soil, consisting of plant and animal residues at various
stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms and substances synthesised
by soil organisms. In general, organic matter exerts numerous positive effects on the soil’s
physical and chemical properties, as well as the soil’s capacity to provide regulatory
ecosystem services. Particularly, the presence of organic matter is regarded as being
critical for soil functions and soil quality. The concentration of organic matter in soils
generally ranges from 1 to 6% of the total topsoil mass for most upland soils (Brady &
Weil 1999). However, from an engineering perspective, organic matter generally exerts
negative effects. As a geotechnical engineer/technologist, you need to remember that
organic matter in a soil intended for construction will negatively affect the quality of the
soil.

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Brady and Weil (1999) also indicate that organic matter can generally be divided into
three general pools:
• living biomass of microorganisms
• fresh and partially decomposed residues
• humus: well-decomposed organic material

The primary source of organic matter contained in soil is vegetal. In forests or prairies, as
well as agricultural fields, dead plants are transformed by different kinds of living
organisms. This process involves several steps, the first being mostly mechanical and
becoming more chemical as it progresses. The small living beings that work on that
decomposition chain are themselves part of the soil organic matter, and form a food web
of organisms that prey upon each other and are preyed upon (Brady & Weil 1999).

8.2.2.2 Solid phase: coarse soils

The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a
controlling dimension of over 200 mm down to clay particles less than 2 mm. Some fine
soils contain particles less than 1 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle
in water due solely to gravity. Table 8.1 below is a summary of the particle size of coarse
and fine soils.

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Table 8.1: Size range of grains

Very coarse Boulders > 200 mm

soils Cobbles 60 – 200 mm
coarse 20 – 60 mm
G
medium 6 – 20 mm
Gravel
fine 2- 6 mm
Coarse soils
coarse 0.6 – 2.0 mm
S
medium 0.2 – 0.6 mm
Sand
fine 0.06 – 0.2 mm
coarse 0.02 – 0.06 mm
M
medium 0.006 – 0.02 mm
Fine soils Silt
fine 0.002 – 0.006 mm
C Clay < 0.002 mm

Source: SABS (2012)

Fine soils behave differently from coarse-grained soils. Fine-grained soils can display the
following characteristics:
• They are identified based on their plasticity. Individual particles are not visible to the
naked eye.
• They are divided in two groups: silt and clay. Particles with a diameter of 75 to 2
microns are called silt-sized particles and particles with a diameter smaller than 2
microns are called clay-sized particles.
• Verbal description of fine-grained soil is done based on its dry strength, dilatancy,
dispersion and plasticity.
• Fine-grained soil is practically impermeable in nature because of the small particle
size.
• Volume change generally occurs with a change in moisture content.
• Strength changes with a change in moisture condition.
• Fine-grained soils are susceptible to frost action.
• Engineering properties are controlled by mineralogical factors.
• When touched by hand they feel smooth, greasy and sticky.

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8.2.2.4 Gas phase

Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components. The primary soil
gases include nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The oxygen is critical because it
allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms. Other natural soil gases are
atmospheric methane and radon. Some environmental contaminants below ground
produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes, mining activities
and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic
compounds (Brady & Weil 1999).
Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or are removed from a soil pore
by evaporation or root absorption. The network of pores within the soil aerates, or
ventilates, the soil. This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores.
Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often
inversely related (Brady & Weil 1999). The composition of air in soil is as follows:
• Nitrogen: soil air: 79.2%
• Oxygen: soil air: 20.6%
• Carbon dioxide: soil air: 0.25%

8.2.2.5 Liquid phase

Water plays an important role in determining the physical properties and behaviour of
soils. It also acts as a solvent for salts and minerals in soils. In soil mechanics, classical
studies such as consolidation, stability and compaction deal in some way with the liquid
phase of soils. Clays have primary bonds, making the synthesis pattern for the clay
minerals. Then there are secondary bonds holding the layers together, such as Van der
Waals forces, hydrogen bonding (opposite layers between OH-O, or OH-OH), hydrogen
bonds (polar water), K+ cations fitting into openings in the tetrahedral sheets, wedging
of OH between tetrahedral sheets and weak attraction between layer surfaces with
exchangeable cation and H2O molecules.

8.3 CLAY SOILS

8.3.1 What is clay?

Puppala et al (2006) define clay as a very fine-grained soil of colloidal size consisting
mainly of hydrated silicate of aluminium. It is a plastic cohesive soil which shrinks on
drying, expands on wetting and, when compressed, gives up water. Clays are described
for engineering properties by their consistency limits. Guggenheim and Martin (1995)
define clay as a finely grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more
clay minerals with possible traces of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3 and MgO) and
organic matter.

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Geologic clay deposits are composed mostly of phyllosilicate minerals containing
variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to
particle size and geometry as well as water content, and become hard, brittle and non–
plastic upon drying or firing. Depending on the soil's content in which it is found, clay
can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange red
(Guggenheim & Martin 1995).
Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are
distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy. Silts,
which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle
sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in particle size and other physical
properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline. Geologists and soil
scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm (clays being
finer than silts), geologists often use 4–5 μm and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical
engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil,
as measured by the soil’s Atterberg limits (Weems 1904).
Guggenheim and Martin (1995) show that there are typically four main groups of clays.
The classifications are based on the 1:1 or 2:1 tetrahedral silicate sheets and octahedral
hydroxide sheets. The 1:1 classification is for clay and the 2:1 classification is for silt.
These groups are
• kaolinite
• montmorillonite-smectite
• illite
• chlorite

Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay. They are sometimes classified as a
separate group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of
"pure" clays in these categories, but most "natural" clay deposits are mixtures of these
different types, along with other weathered minerals (Guggenheim & Martin 1995). Figure
8.3 below shows the clay mineral classification.

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 Figure 8.3
Clay mineral classification (Knappett & Craig 2012)

8.3.2 Characteristics of clay

Clayey soils are common in certain regions of South Africa, including Gauteng. The
following are some of the characteristics of clay as shown by Grim (1968):
• Clayey soils cause damage to the structure found in them because of their potential to
react to a change in the moisture regime.
• The uplift pressure due to a change in the volume of clay generally leads to foundation
failure, resulting in damage to the upper floors of a building.
• Some clays have high heave potential, but very low swell pressure.
• On the other hand, clay generally shrinks when it dries out, causing settlement of the
building. The shrinkage and swelling of clay put repeated stress on concrete
foundations.
• The volume change experienced by clay can cause serious damage to concrete
foundations and floor slabs as well as the rooms above them.

The behaviour of soil as a foundation material is affected both by the total amount of
water and by the energy with which it is retained. Consistency, strength and density
parameters are affected by water content and volume change characteristics and moisture
content movements are due to engineering considerations. To overcome problems
caused by moisture content and its movements, footings and foundations may be placed
below the level affected by seasonal fluctuations of water content. This is called the active
zone. The depth of the active zone for swelling is the least soil depth above which
changes in water content and soil heave may occur because of change in environmental
conditions following construction. Furthermore, the soil affected may be replaced by a
fill, soil stabilisation procedures may be adopted, or stiffened slabs or raft foundation may

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be used. Other precautionary measures include pre-wetting or keeping moisture
conditions constant. Aprons around foundations reduce the doming effect of the clays
caused by moisture accumulation, and vertical barriers along roads reduce moisture
fluctuations and reduce the edge-flapping (parallel cracks running along the road edge
caused by shrinking-swelling due to moisture changes along the road pavement). Clayey
soils are therefore called expansive soils. Economics is a major concern in determining
which option can be adopted. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the characteristics of
clayey soil before any construction activities are carried out. Many criteria are available
to identify and characterise expansive soils (Chen 1975).

8.3.3 Effects of moisture on clays

Water influences clay minerals. For example, the water content changes consistency
limits and this affects the ground plasticity. Ultimately the change in clay plasticity directly
affects the mechanical behaviour of the soil. Studies generally accept clays as fully
saturated in geotechnical engineering. Therefore, the behaviour of clays is affected by the
individual clay particle arrangements and pore water content. The surfaces of clays are
negatively charged, and so they tend to adsorb the positively charged cations in pore
water. In this way, the cations on the surface of a clay particle that are entering the water
spread into the liquid. This spreading is called the double layer. Briefly, the cations are
distributed around the negatively charged surface of the clay particles, with the greatest
density near the surface and decreased density with increasing distance from the surface.
The cations form a positively charged layer and the double layer is created with a
negatively charged surface of the clay particles. The double layer affects the arrangements
of the clay particles and therefore the physical and mechanical properties of the soil are
also affected (Dunn et al 1980).
The interaction of these forces controls the engineering behaviour of soils to a great
extent. At the same time, this interaction leads to the formation of different compositions
and settlements in the soil planes, which are defined as structures in clay soils.
Environmental temperature, precipitation, groundwater level, pH and salinity all play
roles in clay properties, as well as in the conversion of rock into clay. Clay derived from
the same rock can be different under different environmental conditions (Holtz & Kovacs
1981).
In summary, the factors that determine the thickness of the double layer are
• the amount of isomorphous substitution
• the electrolyte concentration
• valence (charge of exchangeable cation)
• hydrated size of exchangeable cation (R)
• dielectric constant (electric permittivity)
• temperature
• pH
• anion adsorption on particle surfaces and edges

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8.3.4 Physical and mechanical behaviour of clay

In geotechnical engineering, it is important to identify a clay type, as the type directly

affects the important properties of clay, such as Atterberg limits, hydraulic conductivity,
swelling-shrinkage, settlement (compression) and shear resistance. Atterberg limits,
known as consistency limits, define the relationship between ground particles and water
and the state of the soil relative to varying water content. With increasing moisture
content, clay changes from a solid state, to a semisolid state, to a plastic state and to a
liquid state, as shown in figure 8.4.
In figure 8.4, the clay-water mixture shows a total volume reduction, which is equivalent
to the volume of water lost around the liquid and plastic limits, as the clay transitions
from liquid to dry. If the decrease in water content continues, no reduction in volume is
observed. This limit value is called the shrinkage limit. Therefore, the shrinkage limit is
the moisture content at which the soil volume will not reduce further if the moisture
content is reduced. The plastic limit is the moisture content at which the soil changes
from a semisolid to a plastic (flexible) state. The liquid limit is the moisture content at
which the soil changes from a plastic to a viscous fluid state. In geotechnical engineering,
the liquid and plastic limits are commonly used. These limits are used to classify a fine-
grained soil, according to the USCS and the AASHTO system (Ural 2018).

Figure 8.4
Water content-volume relationship of soils (Ural 2018)

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8.4 INDEX PROPERTIES

8.4.1 Weight-volume relationship

Section 3.2 (pp. 56-64) in Das and Sivakugan (2017) deals with this topic. In a soil sample,
the amounts of both water and air vary, and the volume of solids is taken as the reference
quantity. Thus, several relational volumetric quantities may be defined. To develop the
weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three phases (that is solid, water and
air) as shown in figure 8.5 below or in figure 3.1 (p. 57) in Das and Sivakugan (2017).

Figure 8.5
Three-phase model of soil (NPTEL 2009)

The interrelationships of the different phases are important since they help to define the
condition or the physical makeup of a soil.

8.4.1.1 Void ratio (e)

Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (Vs), and
is expressed as a decimal. Void ratio is given by
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
(8.1)
Where:
Vv = Volume of voids
Vs = Volume of soil solids

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Thus:
𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑒𝑒 =
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
Where:
V = Total volume of sample
Associated with the void ratio is the specific volume. Specific volume is the total volume
of sample containing a unit volume of solid particles, and
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = 1 and 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 1 + 𝑒𝑒
∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 1 + 𝑒𝑒 (8.2)

8.4.1.2 Porosity (n)

Porosity (n) fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a material and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0%
and 100%. Porosity is given by
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑛𝑛 =
𝑉𝑉
For a unit volume of a soil sample:
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = 1
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 1 + 𝑒𝑒
𝑒𝑒
∴ 𝑛𝑛 = 1+𝑒𝑒 (8.3)

8.4.1.3 Degree of saturation (S)

The ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of void space is known as the degree
of saturation or saturation ratio. The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero
(i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids. This can be expressed as the degree of saturation
(S) as a percentage. For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.
Degree of saturation is given by
𝑉𝑉𝑊𝑊
𝑆𝑆 = (8.4)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

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8.4.1.4 Air content (a c)

This is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids (Vv). Air content is given
by
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = (8.5)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

8.4.1.5 Percentage air voids (n a)

This is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume. The percentage air voids is given
by
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = × 100; but
𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉𝑊𝑊 and 𝑉𝑉𝑊𝑊 = 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒
∴ 𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 = 𝑒𝑒[1 − 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 ]
[1−𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 ]
∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = [1+𝑒𝑒]
× 100 (8.6)

8.4.1.6 Specific gravity (G s)

This is the ratio of mass density of the mass of a solid to the density of a reference
substance (water). Specific gravity is given by

Where:
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 = Mass density of solids
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 = Mass density of water
If:
𝑊𝑊𝑆𝑆 = 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 × 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 and Vs = 1
Then:
𝑊𝑊𝑆𝑆 = 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 (8.7)

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8.4.1.7 Moisture content (w)

Moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil. A soil can
be completely saturated or contain little water. The moisture content and the void ratio
is an indication of the voids filled with water and those filled with air. The moisture
content is the ratio of mass of water in the same sample to the mass of the solids. Water
content is given by
𝑊𝑊
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 (8.8)
𝑆𝑆

8.4.1.8 Bulk density

Bulk density, also known as wet density, is the density of the complete soil sample as you
would find it on site (air + solids + water). The bulk density is given by
𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊𝑆𝑆 +𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺×𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 + 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 ×𝑒𝑒×𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺×𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 + 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 ×𝑒𝑒
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑉𝑉
= = = × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 (8.9)
𝑉𝑉 1+𝑒𝑒 1+𝑒𝑒

8.4.1.9 Dry density (𝝆𝝆𝒅𝒅 )

The dry density of a soil sample is the density of the soil with all the water removed. This
does not result in a change of volume in the sample. Dry density is given by
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 = but 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 = = 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
1
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑉 = 1 + 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 can be written as:
1 + 𝑒𝑒
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 [1 + 𝑒𝑒]
= ×
𝜌𝜌 [1 + 𝑒𝑒] [𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 + 𝑚𝑚𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 ]𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌
∴ 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 1+𝑚𝑚 (8.10)

8.4.1.10 Saturated density (𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )

The saturated mass density (ρsat) is the bulk density of the soil when it is fully saturated.
The saturated density is given by
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 +𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 +𝑉𝑉𝑣𝑣 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤+𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 +𝑒𝑒
𝜌𝜌 = = = = 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 (8.11)
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 1+𝑒𝑒 1+𝑒𝑒

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8.4.1.10 Relative density (RD)

The actual void ratio of a soil sample lies somewhere between the possible maximum
and minimum values and this all depends on the state of compaction (emin and emax). Sands
and gravels have a wide variation between (emin and emax). The relative density is given by
𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −𝑒𝑒
𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟 = (8.12)
𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Dr = 1 when the soil is 100% compacted

A standardised summary of the weight-volume relationships in soil mechanics is shown
in table 8.2 below.
Table 8.2: Various forms of relationships for weight-volume relationship

Source: Das and Sivakugan (2017)

8.4.2 Worked examples

8.4.2.1 Example 1

The results of a standard compaction test for a soil with a value of (𝐆𝐆𝐬𝐬= 𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓) are shown
in the table below.
Water Content (%) 6.2 8.1 9.8 11.5 12.3 13.2
Unit Weight (kN/m3) 16.9 18.7 19.5 20.5 20.4 20.1

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• Determine the following:
• Optimum water content
• Maximum dry unit weight
• Void ratio (e)
• Degree of saturation (S)
• Moisture unit weight
• Weight of water needed to be added to 1 m3 to reach 100% degree of saturation

Solution
Plot the dry unit weight vs moisture content graph from the given table and then
determine the maximum dry density.

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8.4.2.2 Example 2

A sample of 19.3 x 10-3 m3 of moist soil has a mass of 32.6 kg. After oven drying the soil
mass reduced to 29.2 kg. Density of solids is 2 750 kg/m3. Calculate the following:
• Bulk density
• Moisture content
• Dry density
• Void ratio
• Porosity
• Degree of saturation
• Saturated density

Solution
m 32.6
• Bulk density: ρ = = −3
= 1689.12kg / m 3
v 19.3 × 10
m 32.6 − 29.2
• Moisture content: m = w = = 0.1164 = 11.64%
ms 29.2
ms 29.2
• Dry density: ρ d = = −3
= 1512.95kg / m 3
vt 19.3 × 10

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• Void ratio:
m 1512.95
vs = s = = 0.550m 3
ρs 2750
Vv = Vt − Vs = 1 − 0.550 = 0.4498m 3
Vv 0.4498
e= = = 0.818
Vs 0.550
Vv 0.4498
• Porosity: n = =
1
= 0.4498
Vt

 mw 
1000  0.1762
• =  = = 0.392
Degree of saturation: T
S
Vv 0.4498

m w + m s 449.8 + 1512.95
• Saturated density: ρ s = = = 1962.75kg / m 3
vt 1

8.4.2.3 Example 3

A sample of soil from one of the sections in the mines was tested at your request. The
mass of the moist sample that you took out was 9.5 kg and the volume was 0.0052 m3.
The moisture content was 6.8% and the specific gravity was 2.85. Determine the
following:
• Moist density (ρ)
• Dry density (ρd)
• Void ratio (e)
• Porosity (n)
• Degree of saturation (Sr)

Solution
M 9.5kg
• Moist density (ρ): ρ = = = 1826.92kg / m 3
V 0.0052

ρ 1826.92
• Dry density (ρd): ρ d = = = 1710.599kg / m 3
1+ ω 6.8
1+
100

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 Gs ρ w 2.85 × 1000
• Void ratio (e): e = −1 = − 1 = 0.67
ρd 1710.599

e 0.67
• Porosity (n): n = = = 0.3998
1 + e 1 + 0.67

ωG s 0.0668 × 2.85
• Degree of saturation (Sr): S % = = = 29%
e 0.67

8.5 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should have a basic knowledge and an
understanding of the following:
• composition of soils
• effects of moisture on soils, especially clay soils
• basic index properties of soil which include swelling and shrinkage, plasticity, dry
density, optimum moisture content, saturation, void ratio, porosity and maximum dry
density

By reading Das and Sivakugan (2017) as well as the cited references, you should be able
to widen your theoretical knowledge and understanding of this learning unit.

8.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have learnt in this unit. Answer the
following questions:
1. A density bottle test on a dry soil sample taken from a construction site in Lephalale
(Limpopo) gave the following results:
Mass of 50ml density bottle empty (g) 25.07
Mass of 50ml density bottle + 20g of dry soil particles (g) 45.07
Mass of 50ml density bottle + 20g of dry soil particles, with remainder of space
87.55
in bottle filled with water (g)
Mass of 50ml density bottle filled with water only (g) 75.10

a) Calculate the relative density (specific gravity) of the soil particles.

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b) If a 1 kg sample of the same soil taken from the ground has a natural water content of
27% and occupies a total volume of 0.52ℓ, what will the unit weight, the specific
volume and the saturation ratio of the soil in this state be? Also calculate the water
content and the unit weight that the soil would have if saturated at the same specific
volume, and the unit weight at the same specific volume but zero water content.
2. A soil sample taken from a construction site in Umhlanga Sands (Ethekwini Metro)
has a dry unit weight of 19.5 KN/m3, moisture content of 8% and a specific gravity of
solids particles is 2.67. Calculate the following:
a) Void ratio
b) Moisture and saturated unit weight
c) Mass of water to be added to cubic metres of soil to reach 80% saturation
d) Volume of solids particles when the mass of water is 25 g for saturation
3. A soil sample taken from a construction site in Phalaborwa (Limpopo) has a void ratio
of 0.72, moisture content of 12% and Gs of 2.72. Determine the following:
a) Dry unit weight, moist unit weight (KN/m3)
b) Weight of water in KN/m3 to be added for 80% degree of saturation
c) Whether it is possible to reach a water content of 30% without changing the
present void ratio
d) Whether it is possible to compact the soil sample to a dry unit weight of 23.5
KN/m3
4. An undisturbed sample of clayey soil taken from a construction site in Toppieshoek
(North West) is found to have a wet weight of 285 N, a dry weight of 250 N and a
total volume of 14 x 103 cm3. If the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.70, determine
the water content, void ratio and the degree of saturation.

8.7 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on index properties, you can watch some video clips. Web
addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under Additional
Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based resources”.
Similar links are also shown below:
• Index Properties of Soil - Civil Engineering. Class 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8hYn8YtAbc
• Index Properties & Grain Size Distribution | Soil Mechanics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzaOj1y9sTU
• Module 4- Index Properties of Soil:\
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M_z1HE4AZBA

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Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Brady, NC & Weil, RR. 1999. The nature and properties of soils. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Chen, FH. 1975. Foundations on expansive soils. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Chesworth, W. (ed). 2008. Encyclopedia of soil science. Dordrecht, The Netherlands:
Springer.
Das, BM & Sivakugan, N. 2017. Fundamentals of geotechnical engineering. 5th ed,
international edition. Connecticut: Cengage Learning.
Dunn, IS, Anderson, LR & Kiefer, FW. 1980. Fundamentals of geotechnical analysis.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Grim, RE. 1968. Clay mineralogy, geological science series. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Guggenheim, S & Martin, RT. 1995. Definition of clay and clay mineral: journal report
of the AIPEA nomenclature and CMS nomenclature committees. Clays and Clay
Minerals, 43(2):255–256. doi:10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430213.
Holtz, RD & Kovacs, WD. 1981. An introduction to geotechnical engineering. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Knappett, JA & Craig, RF. 2012. Craig’s soil mechanics. 8th ed. Boca Raton, Florida:
CRC Press.
National Programme for Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL). 2009. Soil mechanics
web: three-phase system. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/103/105103097/ [Accessed
on 17 March 2020].
New Mexico State University (NMSU). 2019. Understanding and managing soil
compaction in agricultural fields. Circular 672.
https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/CR672/welcome.html [Accessed on 17 March
2020].
Puppala, AJ, Punthutaecha, K & Vanapalli, SK. 2006. Soil-water characteristic curves of
stabilized expansive soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 132(6):736-751.
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2012. SANS 633: Geotechnical
investigations for township development. Pretoria: SABS.

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South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering
manual: Chapter 4. https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-Chapter-4-2nd-edition-
2014.pdf [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
Ural, N. 2018. The importance of clay in geotechnical engineering.
doi:10.5772/intechopen.75817.
Vannier, G. 1987. The porosphere as an ecological medium emphasized in Professor
Ghilarov's work on soil animal adaptations. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 3(1):39–
44. doi:10.1007/BF00260577.
Weems, JB. 1904. Chemistry of clays. Iowa Geological Survey Annual Report,
14(1):319–346. doi:10.17077/2160-5270.1076.

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 Learning unit 1 9

SOIL TESTING

9.1 PURPOSE OF THE LEARNING UNIT

The main purpose of learning unit 9 is to introduce to you to and help you to understand
the basic procedures and the purpose of testing soils in a civil engineering materials
laboratory. In addition, this learning unit will help you understand the characteristics that
are useful in identifying and classifying soils as a construction material. By carefully
studying this learning unit, you will have a basic understanding of why and how certain
laboratory tests are performed as well as the characteristics that classify soils in civil
engineering.
This learning unit will help you to
• explain the basic civil engineering laboratory testing procedures
• explain the characteristics and properties that are used to identify and classify soils
• compile and present reports

Read the following additional resources, which are available online for download:
• South African Bureau of Standards. 2016. SANS 3001: Civil engineering test methods.
Pretoria: SABS.
• Materials Testing Sub-committee. 1986. Technical methods for highways. TMH 1:
Standard methods of testing road construction materials. Pretoria: CSIR.
• SANRAL. 2014. South African pavement engineering manual (chapter 3: Materials
testing).

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9.2 TMH 1 VS SANS 3001
The TMH 1 (Technical methods for highways) is a document complementing the
Technical recommendations for highways (TRH) series published by the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The TRHs are intended as guides for civil
engineering practitioners (technicians and engineers) and leave room for engineering
judgement to be used when interpreting test results. The TMH manuals prescribe methods
to be used in various civil engineering materials testing and construction procedures
(SANRAL 2014).
SANS 3001 is a series of standardised civil engineering materials test methods published
by the South African Bureau of Standards. Over a number of years the South African
construction industry has called for the revision of the TMH 1 test methods, which were
published in written format, making it difficult to update or amend individual test methods
as and when needed. The SANS 3001 test methods were issued as South African National
Standards (SANS) and are managed by the SABS. The SANS supersede the TMH 1 test
methods although there are many similarities between them, and as such, the SANS 3001
series is now used in practice (SABS 2013).
The standard methods that are used in this module are as follows:
• SANS 3001-GR1: Wet preparation and particle size analysis
• SANS 3001-GR2: Dry preparation and dry particle size analysis of gravels and sands
• SANS 3001-GR3: Particle size analysis of material smaller than 2 mm (hydrometer
method)
• SANS 3001-GR10: Determination of the one-point liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity
index and linear shrinkage
• SANS 3001-GR30: The determination of the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of gravel, soil and sand

Please take the time to read the above test methods. A summarised comparison of the
TMH 1 and SANS 3001 is shown in table 9.1 below.

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Table 9.1: Summarised comparison of TMH and SANS 3001

Source: National Laboratory Association (2011)

9.3 TEST METHODS

9.3.1 SANS 3001-GR1: Wet preparation and particle size analysis

9.3.1.1 Introduction

Read sections 5 to 8 in SANS 3001-GR1 (pp. 5-15). SANS 3001-GR1 is aimed at obtaining
results that are intended to be used for primary material classification and to determine
compliance of the particle size distribution with applicable specifications. The data
obtained may also be useful in developing relationships between packing (compaction),
interlocking ability (densification) and the blending of materials. According to the SABS
(2013), although this standard follows the principles of the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) and the British Standards (BS) test methods, this part of SANS 3001
differs from them in the following ways:
• It prescribes the use of a 75 µm sieve instead of a 63 µm sieve. It does not include the
determination of the silt and clay fractions.
• It makes provision for separating the fines for use in the Atterberg limits test.

The apparatus dimensions that are critical to the outcome of the method or procedure are
given with tolerances. All other dimensions are nominal and should be considered fit for
purpose. Existing apparatus that complies with the requirements of TMH 1 may be used
in this part of SANS 3001 until the apparatus is no longer fit for purpose (SABS 2013).

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9.3.1.2 Summary of standard

In this standard, water is used to wash the sample through a set of sieves. The particles
retained are washed clean on each of the sieves with successively smaller openings,
ensuring accurate grading results down to the fraction passing the 0.075 mm sieve. The
material passing the 0.425 mm sieve, also known as the soil fines, is used in the
determination of Atterberg limits. For granular materials with potential plasticity
problems, the fines passing the 0.075 mm sieve are also tested for Atterberg limits and
the results can give a clear indication of the potential moisture sensitivity of the material
(SABS 2013).
The grading of a material gives an indication of important attributes of a material such as
• maximum particle size
• relative distribution of particle sizes
• amount of fine material present, which can affect compatibility and permeability

Grading envelopes are typically based on the fuller maximum density gradings. For
maximum density, a perfect grading would usually be calculated using Equation 9.1
below:
(9.1)
Where:
P = % passing a sieve with aperture
D = Maximum particle size
To obtain a grading envelope for a specific maximum size, this model is usually
calculated using different exponents, typically 0.25 or 0.3 and 0.45. This gives a lower
and an upper bound of achievable densities. Allowance needs to be made for variability
in gradings and material should not be rejected on grading alone, but in conjunction with
not satisfying other critical properties such as density and strength. Grading is one of the
most important properties of road-building materials as coarse-grained materials can
normally carry much heavier loads without deformation than finer materials (SANRAL
2014).
Note that the grading specifications for most civil engineering projects, especially
pavement designs, are not constant. The grading is affected by the compaction and the
grading specifications and it should be based on the material after compaction. Also note
that the grading before and after compaction are significantly different and laboratory
compaction tests may not simulate the field conditions. SANRAL (2014) gives more
information on this topic. Please read chapters 3 and 4 of SANRAL (2014).
When assessing construction materials, use engineering discretion and judgement to
employ a general view of all properties and not just grading alone. Remember that the
grading analysis is based on the mass of particles on each sieve, which assumes that the

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density of the particles is relatively constant. If there are differences in the densities, the
grading curve may not be smooth and apparent gaps may occur. This is common, for
instance, in beach sands with significant quantities of high density minerals, e.g. zircon,
ilmenite and rutile, which tend to be single-sized, accumulate on one sieve and boost the
mass of material on that sieve, although the volume is relatively low (SANRAL 2014).
Gradings are characteristically shown as a particle-size distribution curve, and are
regularly specified as an envelope to accommodate the typical natural variation that
occurs, even in crushed gravels. A typical grading curve for a natural gravel, with the TRH
14 grading envelope for G4 materials, is shown in figure 9.1 below, with the TMH 1 and
SANS sieve sizes (SANRAL 2014).

Figure 9.1
Typical grading of a natural gravel (SANRAL 2014)

Section 8 of SANS 3001-GR1 (p. 15) covers the reporting of the test results. Study section
8 and note how the reporting of test results is done.

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9.3.2 SANS 3001-GR2: Dry preparation and dry particle size analysis of gravels and
sands

9.3.2.1 Introduction

Read sections 4 to 8 in SANS 3001-GR2 (pp. 4-8). This test method is used to determine
the particle size distribution of materials proposed for use as gravels and sands. The results
are used for rapid determinations during construction control processes, particularly
crushing. The method is also applicable for sand with little or no cohesion or aggregates
without fines. SANS 3001-GR1 (9.3.1) should be used as the reference method. Apparatus
dimensions that are critical to the outcome of the method or procedure are given with
tolerances. All other dimensions are nominal and should be considered fit for purpose.
Existing apparatus that complies with the requirements of TMH 1 may be used in this
standard until the apparatus is no longer fit for purpose (SABS 2011). Figure 9.2 shows
the typical sieves for grading.

Figure 9.2
Typical sieves for grading determination (SANRAL 2014)

9.3.2.2 Summary of standard

SANS 3001-GR2 is a much quicker method as the grading is carried out by sieving the
dry material through the nest of sieves down to 0.425 mm, without washing. This makes
it less accurate than the wet preparation method, but it is still effective and suitable for
use as a process control test especially for crushing road-building materials and
aggregates. This method is also ideal for use as a quality control method on site during
construction works. When using the dry preparation method the fines passing the 0.425
mm sieve should not be used for the determination of Atterberg limits, as they may not

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contain all of the clayey constituents compared with the fines produced using the wet
preparation method. The method is best suited to low plasticity materials with few fines
(SABS 2011).
Section 8 of SANS 3001-GR2 (p. 8) covers the reporting of the test results. Study section
8 and note how the reporting of test results is done.

9.3.3 SANS 3001-GR3: Particle size analysis of material smaller than 2 mm

(hydrometer method)

9.3.3.1 Introduction

Read sections 4 to 8 in SANS 3001-GR3 (pp. 4-13). This method is used to determine the
particle size distribution of graded materials where details of the silt and clay fractions are
required. The results are used for primary material classification and to determine
compliance of the particle size distribution with applicable specifications. The test
method is similar to the ASTM D 422-63 and BS 13772-2 test methods (SABS 2014).
Apparatus dimensions that are critical to the outcome of the method or procedure are
given with tolerances. All other dimensions are nominal and should be considered fit for
purpose (SABS 2014).

Figure 9.3
Hydrometer testing (SANRAL 2014)

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9.3.3.2 Summary of standard

This method utilises a hydrometer to determine the distribution of the grain sizes in the
material. It is useful in determining grain sizes of less than 0.075 mm so that the
proportion of silts and clays can be assessed. This information can be used, together with
the material’s Atterberg limits, to evaluate any material’s potential expansiveness. During
tests, dispersants are added to the water during hydrometer testing to deflocculate the
fines. Recently, research and investigations have been conducted to determine the impact
of the dispersants and the results of these studies have shown that there can be significant
differences in the hydrometer test results, depending on the dispersant used. Care should
be exercised when interpreting results from different laboratories, where the added
flocculants may vary (SANRAL 2014).
Section 8 of SANS 3001-GR3 (p. 11) covers the reporting of the test results. Study section
8 and note how the reporting of test results is done.

9.3.4 SANS 3001-GR10: Determination of the one-point liquid limit, plastic limit,
plasticity index and linear shrinkage

9.3.4.1 Introduction

Read sections 4 to 8 in SANS 3001-GR10 (pp. 6-17). The liquid limit, plastic limit and
linear shrinkage are often collectively referred to as the Atterberg limits. This test method
is normally carried out on material passing the 425 μm sieve, and when required, also on
material passing the 75 μm sieve. To avoid confusion the results from the test on material
passing the 75 μm sieve should be clearly identified. The linear shrinkage test is carried
out on either the material passing the 425 μm sieve or the material passing the 75 μm
sieve, depending on the requirement (SABS 2013).
For materials where a plasticity index (PI) greater than 20 is expected, the flow curve
liquid limit test method given in SANS 3001-GR12 is recommended instead of the one-
point method given in this method (SANS 3001-GR10) or the two-point test method given
in SANS 3001-GR11. The test methods for liquid limit and plastic limit are similar to the
ASTM and BS test methods, except that the amounts of material tested vary and the ASTM
and BS test methods incorporate the extraction of the material from the field sample to
form the test sample.
The BS plasticity index gives a value approximately four units higher than the ASTM and
this test method. The ASTM shrinkage test method measures volume change only,
whereas the BS test method measures both volume change and linear shrinkage (SABS
2013).

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The results of this test are used for
• primary material classification
• determining compliance of the PI and linear shrinkage with applicable specifications
• indicating the presence of clays of high swell potential
• developing relationships concerning the performance of wearing coarse gravels

Apparatus dimensions that are critical to the outcome of the method or procedure are
given with a tolerance. All other dimensions are nominal and should be considered fit for
purpose. Existing apparatus that complies with the requirements of TMH 1 may be used
in this method until the apparatus is no longer fit for purpose (SABS 2013).

9.3.4.2 Summary of standard

In this test method, Atterberg limit tests measure the plasticity of a soil. The limits are
described in terms of the moisture content measured at the boundaries between the solid,
plastic and liquid states of the soil fines, which are less than 0.425 mm. The PI is a
measure of the moisture content range of the plastic state and is calculated with Equation
9.2 below:
PI = LL – PL (9.2)
Where:
PI = Plasticity index
LL = Liquid limit
PL = Plastic limit
In the linear shrinkage test, a trough filled with material at its liquid limit is oven dried.
The linear shrinkage is the percentage reduction in length of the bar of material in the
trough after drying. In the liquid limit test (Casagrande method), material is mixed with
water in the bowl, and then a groove is carved through the mixed material. The handle
is turned and the bowl dropped from a specific height. The number of blows until the
material portions flow together across about 10 mm is measured and is associated with
the moisture content. The test methods specify the number of blows and the detailed
calculation to determine the liquid limit (SANRAL 2014).
The plastic limit is determined by taking mixed material and rolling about 3 g into a
continuous thread. The moisture content at which the thread crumbles at about a 3 mm
diameter is the plastic limit (SANRAL 2014).
The PI, and to a lesser extent linear shrinkage (LS), gives a strong indication of the
sensitivity of the material to water. The linear shrinkage should be about half of the PI
and this may sometimes depend on the clay mineralogy. Materials with low PI values are
expected to perform better than materials with high PI values. Figure 9.4 below shows
the apparatus used for Atterberg limits (SANRAL 2014).

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 Figure 9.4
Apparatus used for Atterberg limits (SANRAL 2014)

Section 8 of SANS 3001-GR3 (p. 17) covers the reporting of the test results. Study section
8 and note how the reporting of test results is done.

9.3.5 SANS 3001-GR30: The determination of the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content of gravel, soil and sand

9.3.5.1 Introduction

The main purpose of compaction, especially in civil engineering road construction, is to

arrange soil particles so as to achieve the highest density possible of the soil layer while
minimising voids and using the least compaction energy. By attaining higher densities,
the shear strength and elastic modulus are increased, and this leads to a lower tendency
for additional compaction associated with traffic loads and consequent rutting under
traffic, while the deflection of the pavement under wheel loads is reduced (SANRAL
2014).
In the past years, the reference density tests that are used to determine the level of
compaction of soils and gravels have changed. Ralph Proctor developed the Proctor test
in 1933, where road-building material is compacted in three 100 mm layers in a standard
steel mould using a standardised hammer. The highest density attained after varying the
material’s moisture is calculated as the maximum dry density of that material. The
moisture content required to attain the maximum dry density at the specified Proctor
compaction effort is known as the optimum moisture content (SANRAL 2014).

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Maximum dry density tests are conducted on the following types of works:
• road construction works
• dam and water-retaining structures
• bridge foundations and footings
• stormwater and pipe-laying works
• building works foundations

The modified AASHTO method is another method that is used to determine the moisture-
density relationship of a soil material that is prepared and compacted using the modified
AASHTO compaction effort at different moisture contents (SANRAL 2014). Figure 9.5
below shows the equipment used to determine the maximum dry density of a soil.

Figure 9.5
Apparatus used for maximum dry density tests (SANRAL 2014)

9.3.5.2 Summary of standard

The test method was originally developed by RR Proctor in 1933 for the control of earth
dam construction in the USA. This method was part of the South African TMH 1 series
used for many years. SANS 3001-GR30 is used to determine the maximum dry density
and the optimum moisture content for the control of field compaction of road

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construction layers. A percentage of the maximum dry density is used to check the degree
of compaction of a layer material in terms of the construction specification (SABS 2015).
Section 8 of SANS 3001-GR30 (p. 23) covers the reporting of the test results. Study section
8 and note how the reporting of test results is done.

9.4 SUMMARY
Having studied this learning unit, you should have a basic knowledge and an
understanding of the following:
• basic civil engineering laboratory testing procedures (SANS 3001 test methods GR1,
GR2, GR3 and GR10)
• characteristics and properties (grading modulus, grading curves, plasticity index,
liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage) that are used to identify and classify
soils
• compiling and presenting test results (reporting)

After reading and studying the cited SANS test methods as well as the other cited
references, you should be able to widen your theoretical knowledge and understanding
of this learning unit.

9.5 VIDEOS, SLIDES AND OTHER WEB-BASED RESOURCES

For additional explanations on civil engineering materials testing, you can watch some
video clips. Web addresses/links to the video clips are available on the module site under
Additional Resources in a folder named “Video clips, slides and other web-based
resources”. Similar links are also shown below:
• Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Xqq1cxhD-s
• Sieve Analysis Lab Test:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oa6USreGp3I
• Atterberg Limit Tests (LL and PL):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EcXJ961qjGA
• Liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit (soil mechanics):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsqmmBIm_9c

Please take the time to watch these short videos as they will broaden your understanding
of this learning unit. Video links may change from time to time and the links will be
updated on the online version of the study guide.

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING
National Laboratory Association. 2011. Converting from TMH 1 to SANS 3001. NLA Test
& Measurement 2011 Workshop, Roodevallei, 19 to 20 September.
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2013. SANS 3001-GR1: Wet preparation and
particle size analysis. Pretoria: SABS.
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2011. SANS 3001-GR2: Dry preparation and
dry particle size analysis of gravels and sands. Pretoria: SABS.
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2014. SANS 3001-GR3: Particle size analysis
of material smaller than 2 mm (hydrometer method). Pretoria: SABS.
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 2013. SANS 3001-GR10: Determination of the
one-point liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and linear shrinkage. Pretoria:
SABS.
South African Bureau of Standards. 2015. SANS 3001-GR30: Determination of the
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content. Pretoria: SABS.
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering
manual: Chapter 3: Materials testing. https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-Chapter-
3-+-Appendices-2nd-edition-2014.pdf [Accessed on 17 March 2020].
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL). 2014. Pavement engineering
manual: Chapter 4. https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-Chapter-4-2nd-edition-
2014.pdf [Accessed on 17 March 2020].

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