Inquiry Question:

Bonding
SECTION

elements and compounds?

1.4
What binds atoms together in

Syllabus reference

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 Electronegativity and bonding

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• The difference in
electronegativity (Δχ) of
two bonded atoms provides
an indication of the polarity
expected in the bond, and
thus the bond type.

Electronegativity and bonding

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• If the electronegativities of the atoms in a compound
are about the same and the elements are from the
right-hand side of the periodic table, the substance
is considered to be covalent (non-polar).
• Electrons are equally shared in pure covalent bonds.
Pure covalent bonds are only found in elements.

Note

Covalent bonds form when two or more non-metal

atoms bond together.
 Electronegativity and bonding

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• Covalent bonds with unequal electron sharing
are called polar covalent bonds.
• The atom with the higher electronegativity will
have a greater share of the electrons. This will
result in the atom having a slight negative charge
compared to the other atom which will have a
slight positive charge.

Electronegativity and bonding

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• If the difference in electronegativities between
elements in a compound is relatively large, the
compound is considered ionic.

• Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of

attraction between positively and negatively
charged ions.

Note

Ionic bonds are formed between a metal atom and a

non-metal atom.
 Electronegativity and bonding

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• Covalent, polar covalent and ionic
bonding can be considered as
forming a spectrum.

• As the difference in electronegativity

increases, the bonds become more
polar, then ionic.

Electronegativity and bonding

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Quick Question

Consider the following

substances:

Cl2 CsCl SCl2

(a) Using the Pauling scale,
calculate the difference
in electronegativity in
each of the given
substances.
(b) Hence, identify which of
the substances is the
most ionic, has non-
polar bonds and has
polar covalent bonds.
 Electronegativity and bonding

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• The spectrum from covalent to ionic however,
does not take into account metallic bonds.
• Metallic bonds are between metal atoms. The
electronegativities of the metal atoms would
therefore be about the same.

Metallic bonding

Electronegativity and bonding

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Van Arkel-Ketelaar Triangle

• Most bonds would therefore exist on a two-

dimensional continuum described by the van
Arkel-Ketelaar triangle.
• This bond triangle shows the three examples of
extreme materials with ionic, metallic and
covalent bonds on the corners of the triangle.
 Electronegativity and bonding

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Van Arkel-Ketelaar Triangle

• The bond triangle can be used to determine the

type of bonding that occurs between atoms in
a solid, using the average electronegativity and
electronegativity difference.

Electronegativity and bonding

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Example

Using the Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle and

the electronegativity values, estimate the:

• difference in electronegativity
• average electronegativity in a bond
• likely bond type
for each of the following substances.

(a) BeBr
(b) SrMg
(c) CBr4
 Polar and non-polar covalent bonds

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• Non-polar covalent bonds are present In molecules where two atoms
are identical. The bonding electrons are attracted equally to each
nucleus and shared equally between them.

• When the atoms joining together are not identical, then their
electrons are not shared equally. This is called a polar covalent bond.

Example:
HCl is an example of a compound with polar covalent bonds. The
chlorine end is slightly more negative than the hydrogen end, forming
a dipole (a bond or molecule with two oppositely charged ends).

Polarity

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• The degree of polarity depends on the difference in electronegativity.
Quick Question
• The bigger the difference in electronegativity, the stronger the dipole
will be. For the following, determine which atom
contains the partial positive and partial
• The polarity of a bond can also be shown by an arrow indicating the negative charge, and hence show the polarity
dipole (the tip of the arrow points towards the more electronegative of the bond with an arrow.
atom).
(a) CO (b) HF

(a)

(b)
 Polarity

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Example

Consider the following bonds:

C–F, Cl–O, S–Br, P–F, C–O
(a) List the following bonds in order, from most polar
to least polar.
(b) For each of the bonds listed in part (a), state the
partial charges and use an arrow to indicate the
direction of the dipole force.

Polarity

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• To determine the polarity of polyatomic molecules, the following are considered:

- the polarity of each bond

- whether or not the dipole moments cancel each other out
• The shape of the molecule is also important to determine whether a molecule is polar or non-polar.

Generally:
- symmetrical molecules are non-polar
- asymmetrical molecules are polar
 Polarity

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Example

State whether each of the following molecules

are polar or non-polar by determining if the
molecule contains a net dipole moment.
(a) carbon dioxide (CO 2)
(b) water (H 2O)

(c) methane (CH 4)

(d) chloromethane (CH 3Cl)

Representing molecular substances

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• Structural formulas use sticks to join atoms of elements. These sticks are used
to represent a covalent bond. Structural formulas:
o provide information about how atoms are bonded.

o gives no information about the shape of a molecule.

o only show molecules as two-dimensional structures.
• Perspective drawings can be used to show their three-dimensional shape.
 Representing molecular substances

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• Space-filling models can give a more accurate • Ball and stick models can give an idea of the
idea of the three-dimensional structure of relative sizes of atoms and also provide some
molecules, including the relative sizes of atoms. information about bond length and angle.

Lewis dot diagrams

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• Chemists often use Lewis dot diagrams and valence structures to simplify the drawing of molecules. Lewis dot diagrams:

o show the valence shell electrons of an atom as only the electrons involved in bonding.
o allows the bonding electrons and non-bonding electrons to be distinguished.
• Pairs of non-bonding electrons are known as lone pairs.

Note

When atoms share two electrons, one from each

atom, the covalent bond formed is called a single
covalent bond. There may also be double and
triple covalent bonds.
 Lewis dot diagrams

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Example 1

Construct a Lewis dot diagram for each

of the following ionic substances.

(a) sodium ion (Na+)

(b) chloride ion (Cl–)
(c) sodium chloride (NaCl)
(d) magnesium fluoride (MgF2)

(e) barium oxide (BaO)

(f) calcium iodide (CaI2)
(g) potassium oxide (K2O)
(h) beryllium nitride (Be3N 2)

Lewis dot diagrams

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Example 2

Construct a Lewis dot diagram for each

of the following covalent substances.

(a) hydrogen (H)

(b) fluorine (F)
(c) hydrogen fluoride (HF)
(d) chlorine (Cl2)

(e) oxygen (O 2)
(f) nitrogen (N 2)
(g) water (H 2O)
(h) methane (CH 4)
 Lewis dot diagrams

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Example 3

Construct a Lewis dot diagram for an

ammonium ion.

Lewis dot diagrams

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Example 4

An atom of a certain non-transition element Q has the

electron configuration:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

(a) In which group of the periodic table would you
place Q? Justify your choice.

(b) The formula of a hydride of Q is H 2Q.

Construct a Lewis electron dot formula of this
compound.
 Shapes of molecules

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• The shapes of molecules determine many
physical properties of covalent molecular
substances.

• The shape of small molecules can be predicted

using a model known as the valence shell
electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. This
theory:

o uses the valence electrons to predict

the shape of the molecule.

o is based on the principle that negatively

charged valence electron pairs repel
each other and are therefore arranged
as far away from each other as possible.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/molecule-
shapes/latest/molecule-shapes_en.html

Shapes of molecules

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• In general, atoms in covalent molecules are
most stable when they have eight electrons in
their valence shell, i.e. four pairs of electrons.

Note

In the VSEPR theory, lone pairs of electrons are

treated the same way as electron pairs in
covalent bonds, in determining the shape of
molecules.
 Shapes of molecules

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Example

Determine the shape of the following molecules, by:

• constructing Lewis dot diagrams.
• counting the number of bonding and non-bonding electron
pairs on the central atom.
• predicting the shape of the molecules, using the VSEPR chart.
(a) methane (CH 4)

(b) ammonia (NH 3)

(c) sulfur dioxide (SO 2)
(d) carbon dioxide (CO 2)
(e) formaldehyde (CH 2O)

Syllabus reference

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 Intramolecular forces

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• Intramolecular forces are forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule. The different types of
intramolecular forces include:

o ionic bonding, the bond between metals and

non-metals.

o covalent bonding, the bond between non-metals.

o metallic bonding, the bond between metals,
where the valence electrons are free to move
through the lattice.

Intermolecular forces

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• Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between
molecules.
• They are the attractive electrostatic forces holding
covalent molecules together. The physical properties
of covalent molecular substances depend on the
strength of these forces.
• There are three main types of intermolecular forces:
o dispersion forces

o dipole-dipole forces
o hydrogen bonding
 Dispersion forces

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• Dispersion forces are weak attractive electrostatic forces that occur
between all covalent molecules. It is the only intermolecular force that
exists in non-polar substances.

o Dispersion forces are caused by changes in the electron

distribution of atoms in nearby molecules.

o As the electron clouds are distorted, they form a temporary dipole

which can interact with other neighbouring molecules leading to
fluctuating forces of attraction.

Dispersion forces

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• Dispersion forces vary in strength depending on the
size and shape of the molecule.

Note

Dispersion forces are often quite weak and do not

require much energy to break.
Even distribution of electrons.
As a result, substances with only dispersion forces
holding their molecules together, have very low
melting and boiling points.

Temporary uneven distribution of electrons.

 Dipole-dipole forces

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• Dipole-dipole forces are stronger, permanent, electrostatic
forces of attraction between polar molecules.
o Polar molecules are dipoles. They have permanently
charged positive and negative ends.
o The slightly positive end of one molecule attracts the
slightly negative end of another molecule.
• As they are stronger attractive forces, more energy is needed
to break dipole-dipole forces than to break dispersion forces.

Hydrogen bonding

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• Hydrogen bonds are strong electrostatic attractions between
the slightly positive hydrogen atoms of one molecule, and a
highly electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine) in
another, nearby molecule. Hydrogen bonding is sometimes
regarded as a type of dipole-dipole force.
• The presence of hydrogen bonds results in higher melting and
boiling points.
 Intermolecular forces

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Intermolecular forces

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Example 1

The following molecules have similar molecular weights.

Account for the differences in their boiling points (b.p.) in
terms of structure and bonding.
• methanol (CH 3OH): b.p. = 65 °C
• hydrogen sulfide (H 2S): b.p. = –62 °C
• ethane (C2H 6): b.p. = –89 °C
 Syllabus reference

Allotropes

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 Allotropes

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• Allotropes are different structural forms that
consist of identical atoms, arranged differently.
o Identical atoms give the same chemical
properties.
o Different arrangement of atoms give
different physical properties.

Element Allotropes

carbon diamond, graphite, fullerene

oxygen oxygen gas (O 2), ozone (O 3)

white phosphorus, red

phosphorus
phosphorus, black phosphorus

Allotropes

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 Covalent substances

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• Covalent substances can exist as two different types:

o covalent molecular
o covalent network

Covalent molecular

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• Covalent molecules exist as discrete units made up of two or more
non-metals bonded together via covalent bonds.
• When in solid state, covalent molecular substances exist as lattices.
For example, ice and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) contain discrete
molecules arranged in various geometric patterns. These molecules
are held in place within the lattice by intermolecular forces.
• The physical properties of covalent molecules are due to its
structure and bonding.

Physical properties Cause

Low melting and

boiling points

Does not conduct

electricity
 Covalent molecular

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• Covalent molecules exist as discrete units made up of two or more
non-metals bonded together via covalent bonds.
• When in solid state, covalent molecular substances exist as lattices.
For example, ice and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) contain discrete
molecules arranged in various geometric patterns. These molecules
are held in place within the lattice by intermolecular forces.
• The physical properties of covalent molecules are due to its
structure and bonding.

Physical properties Cause

Weak forces of attraction between

Low melting and
molecules (intermolecular force) so less
boiling points
energy is needed to break it.
Does not conduct Valence electrons are used in bonding
electricity and none are free to move.

Covalent network

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• Covalent network compounds are
composed of a three-dimensional
array of atoms (lattice) linked by
strong covalent bonds.
• Examples include diamond, silicon
dioxide, silicon carbide and graphite.

Note

The continuous three-dimensional

structure is also known as a lattice.
 Covalent network

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• In general, covalent networks have the following properties:

Physical properties Explanation

Very high melting and

boiling points
Does not conduct
electricity

Hard

Covalent network

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• In general, covalent networks have the following properties:

Physical properties Explanation

Very high melting and A lot of energy is needed to break

boiling points strong covalent bonds.
Does not conduct Valence electrons are used in
electricity bonding and none are free to move.

Atoms are held firmly in fixed

Hard
positions in the lattice.
 Covalent network

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Quick Question
Diamond and silicon dioxide
are examples of covalent
networks.
Predict the physical properties
of diamond and silicon dioxide.

Metallic structure

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• A metallic lattice:

- consists of positive metal ions (rather than neutral atoms)

are arranged in a regular three-dimensional lattice.

- has a sea of delocalised electrons that move throughout

the lattice. The delocalised electrons have been lost from
the valence shell of each metal atom and belong to the
lattice as a whole.
• The attraction between the positive metal ions and the
delocalised electron cloud stabilises the lattice. This is called
the metallic bond. Metallic bonds are strong chemical bonds.

Note
The electrons are described as delocalised because they are not
held in their own atomic orbitals, but instead move freely
within the structure.
 Metallic structure

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Physical properties Cause

High melting and

boiling points

Good conductors of
electricity and heat

Hard and dense

Malleable and
ductile

Insoluble in most
solvents

Lustrous

Metallic structure

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Physical properties Cause

A large amount of energy is needed to break the strong metallic bonds between metal cations
High melting and boiling points
and the delocalised electrons.
Valence electrons are free to move and can carry electric charge or heat.
• In response to an applied potential difference, the valence electrons move in one direction
Good conductors of electricity
to produce an electric current.
and heat
• The valence electrons have greater kinetic energy when the metal is heated; they transfer
energy faster.

Hard and dense Strong bonds and ions are closely packed.

When shearing forces are applied to the lattice, the layers of ions slide over each other and
Malleable and ductile
the delocalised electrons stabilise the new lattice structure.

Insoluble in most solvents Strong metallic bonds that cannot break the metal ions apart.

The surface structure of metals allows light to reflect readily. Light photons are rapidly
Lustrous
absorbed and released by the sea of delocalised electrons.
 Metallic structure
Metallic structure

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 Ionic network

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• Ionic networks, are three-dimensional lattices containing cations and anions
that are held by ionic bonding (electrostatic attraction between ions).

Physical properties Explanation

High melting and boiling points

Does not conduct electricity

when solid, but conducts
electricity when molten or
dissolved in water

Hard and brittle

Ionic network

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• Ionic networks, are three-dimensional lattices containing cations and anions
that are held by ionic bonding (electrostatic attraction between ions).

Physical properties Explanation

A lot of energy is needed to break the strong

High melting and boiling points
ionic bonds.
Does not conduct electricity
When solid, ions are not free to move,
when solid, but conducts
however, when molten or dissolved in water,
electricity when molten or
ionic bonds are separated and move freely.
dissolved in water
Strong ionic bonds hold the atoms together,
however they can shatter with enough
Hard and brittle
force, which causes layers of ions to move
and repel similarly charged ions.
 Ionic network

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Ionic network

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Note

Ion-dipole forces are an electrostatic interaction

involving a permanent dipole in one molecule and an ion.

• Ion-dipole forces are stronger than dipole interactions

because the charge of an ion is greater than the charge
of a dipole.
• Ion-dipole bonding is also stronger than hydrogen
bonding.
 Structure and properties of substances

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Example 1

Classify the following substances into one of the four

crystalline groups: ionic, metallic, covalent network or
covalent molecular.
(a) Cobalt
(b) Carbon dioxide gas

(c) Barium iodide

(d) Nickel(II) oxide
(e) Phosphorus

(f) Diamond

Structure and properties of substances

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Example 2

Explain, in terms of structure and bonding, the

following differences in physical properties.

(a) Manganese has a high melting point (1244°C) and

oxygen has a low melting point (–219°C).
(b) Zinc conducts electricity but zinc oxide does not.

(c) Nickel is lustrous but nickel oxide is dull.

 Structure and properties of substances

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Example 3

Shah placed some iodine crystals in a beaker and gently heated the
beaker. The iodine crystals sublimed to produce purple vapours.

(a) Classify iodine into its correct lattice group.

(b) Explain why iodine vapour forms so readily on heating the
solid.

(c) Shah observed that, when the iodine vapour came into contact
with a cold surface, fine crystals of iodine reformed.
Write an equation for this process.
(d) Classify the process in (c) as physical or chemical.

Structure and properties of substances

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Example 4 Note

Some white crystals were found in an unlabelled bottle. Kerosene is a non-polar solvent.
The crystals did not dissolve in water or kerosene. They
Non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents, while
did not conduct electricity in the solid state.
polar substances dissolve in polar solvents.
(a) Explain whether or not the information above is
sufficient to classify this white substance into a
crystalline group.
(b) The crystals were heated until they melted and found
to be a good conductor.
Classify the crystals into their correct group.
 Structure and properties of substances

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Example 5

Halide salts of sodium have the following melting

points as shown in the graph.

(a) Describe the trend shown in the graph.

(b) Account for the trend shown in the graph.

Structure and properties of substances

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Example 6

Carbon and silicon both have four valence

electrons and form compounds with
formulas CO 2 and SiO 2, respectively. CO 2
sublimes at –78°C whereas SiO 2 melts at
1713°C and boils at 2230°C.
Explain the difference in these properties in
relation to their structure. (4 marks)
 Strength of bonds

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• The strength of attraction between particles are dependent on certain
factors. These are shown in the table below. • Covalent bond between atoms

• Ionic bond between ions

Type of bond Factors that increase the strength of bonds • Metallic bond between ions
Strength • Forces between molecules
decreasing (intermolecular forces)
Covalent bonds
o Hydrogen bonds
o Dipole-dipole forces
Ionic bonds o Dispersion forces

Metallic bonds

Strength of bonds

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• The strength of attraction between particles are dependent on certain
factors. These are shown in the table below. • Covalent bond between atoms

• Ionic bond between ions

Type of bond Factors that increase the strength of bonds • Metallic bond between ions

• a greater number of bonds Strength • Forces between molecules

decreasing (intermolecular forces)
Covalent bonds triple bond > double bond > single bond
o Hydrogen bonds
• greater difference in electronegativity between atoms
o Dipole-dipole forces
• a larger charge
Ionic bonds o Dispersion forces
• shorter distance between charges (smaller sized ions)

Metallic bonds • shorter bond length due to smaller atoms