Behavior Modification/applied behavior analysis:

Field of psychology related to analysis and modification of human behavior.

 Identification of functional relationship
 Environment and behavior are important
 Developing and implementing procedures to change behavior
 Measurement of behavior change
 De emphasis on past events as causes of behavior
 Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior
 Freudian psychoanalytic
 Skinner’s “explanatory fiction’’
Historical Roots of Behavior Modification:
Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936)
◦ Basic processes of respondent
◦ conditioning
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949)
◦ Description of the law of effect.
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” published in 1913, stimulus–response psychology
in which environmental events (stimuli) elicited responses.
 Watson started the movement in psychology called behaviorism (Watson, 1913,
1924).
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Skinner expanded the field of behaviorism originally described by
Watson.
Skinner explained the distinction between respondent conditioning
(The conditioned reflexes described by Pavlov and Watson) and operant conditioning, in
which the consequence of behavior controls the future occurrence of the behavior (as in
Thorndike’s law of effect).
Reinforcement:
Reinforcement is the process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate
consequence that reliably follows its occurrence. When a behavior is strengthened, it is more
likely to occur again in the future.
Reinforcement is something: That is defined with
◦ The occurrence of a particular behavior
 ◦ is followed by an immediate consequence
◦ That results in the strengthening of the behavior.
Stimulus Control:
Having stimulus control means that the probability of the behavior varies depending upon the
stimuli present.
• If a behavior is under stimulus control then
– The behavior happens when the stimulus is present
– The behavior doesn’t happen when the stimulus is absent
Stimulus Generalization:
When a response is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus there is a general tendency to
respond in the presence of new stimuli that have similar physical properties ore have been
associated with the stimulus.
 loose degree of stimulus control
 E.g., All men with beards are Daddy
Stimulus discrimination is taught by using generalization training procedures, reinforcing
responses to many similar stimuli.
If you teach “green” using this color circle …
Student’s less likely to say “green” (discrimination)
Student’s most likely to say “green”
Student’s less likely to say “green” (discrimination)
Stimulus Discrimination:
Definition: Degree to which antecedent stimuli set the occasion for particular responses
Precise degree of stimulus control
E.g., Man has beard and is Daddy; Man has beard and is Uncle Eddie
Stimulus discrimination is taught by using discrimination training procedures such as
differential reinforcement
Why Teach Discriminations?
◦ Many essential tasks require discrimination skills
◦ Reading.
◦ Labeling Objects.
◦ Following directions.
◦ Following activity schedules.
 ◦ Greeting people.
◦ Self-care skills.
Discrimination vs. Generalization:
 Essentially opposite processes
 As discrimination increases, generalization decreases
 As discrimination decreases, generalization increases
 Discrimination
 Responding differently to 2 or more stimuli
 Tight degree of stimulus control
 Generalization
 Responding similarly to 2 or more stimuli
 Loose degree of stimulus control
Through experience, we learn to refrain from performing certain behaviors in the presence
of certain stimuli because we have learnt that those behaviors will go unreinforced.
Decreasing a behavior with extinction:
If a response has been increased in frequency through positive reinforcement, then
completely ceasing to reinforce the response will cause it to decrease in frequency.
◦ It is extremely important to remember that both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement are processes that strengthen a behavior
◦ Positive and negative reinforcement are distinguished only by the nature of the
consequence that follows the behavior.
Schedules of reinforcement:
Schedules of reinforcement are the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced
for a particular behavior. The particular pattern of reinforcement has an impact on the pattern
of responding by the animal. A schedule of reinforcement is either continuous or partial.
◦ Continuous Reinforcement: A type of learning which reinforces a desired behavior
every time it occurs.
◦ Partial Reinforcement: A type of learning which occasionally reinforces a desired
behavior after it happens, such as praising a student every other time a question is
answered correctly.
Types of Differential Reinforcement:
◦ DRA (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior)
◦ DRO (differential reinforcement of other behavior)
◦ DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates of responding)
◦ DRI (differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior)
DRA - Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior:
◦ Reinforcer is delivered for desirable behavior
◦ Extinction for the problem behavior
Variations of DRA:
◦ DRI = Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior
◦ DRC = Differential reinforcement of communication (functional communication
training)
Examples of DRA:
◦ A child’s good table manners are reinforced with praise and by passing the requested
food. The child’s bad table manners are extinguished by ignoring and not passing
food.
◦ Punching the correct code numbers in the ATM is reinforced with cash. Punching the
wrong numbers in the ATM is extinguished by getting no cash.
◦ Reinforce playing or sharing to replace fighting in children.
◦ Reinforce lying quietly in the dentist’s chair to replace disruptive behavior.
◦ Reinforce an assertive response to replace aggressive behavior.
When to Use DRA:
1. You want to increase a desirable behavior and/or decrease undesirable behaviors.
2. The desirable behavior already occurs at least occasionally.
3. You have a reinforce you can use.
Using DRA:
1. Define the target behavior to increase and the undesirable competing behavior(s) to
decrease
2. Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior
3. Choose a reinforcer for the desirable behavior
4. Reinforce desirable behavior immediately and consistently
- prompt the desirable behavior if necessary
- The desirable behavior should require less response effort than the problem behavior
5. Eliminate (or minimize) the reinforcer for the undesirable behavior(s)
6. Use intermittent reinforcement for maintenance
Considerations in the Use of DRA:
 Consider establishing operations to make the reinforcer more potent
 Consider the use of rules or instructions
 Fade artificial reinforcers to natural reinforcers to help maintain the behavior
 Consider using the Premack principle
How to choose rein forcers: Ask, Observe, and Test
Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior:
◦ Desirable behavior produces escape or avoidance of aversive stimulus
◦ Undesirable behavior does not produce escape/avoidance
DRO - Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior:
 Also called differential reinforcement of zero rate of behavior
 Reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the problem behavior in intervals of time
 Intervals are chosen based on the baseline level of the problem behavior
 Extinction for the occurrence of the problem behavior
 If the problem behavior occurs, the interval is reset
Examples of DRO:
 Breaks from academic tasks delivered every 20 minutes for the absence of problem
behaviors
 Access to a favorite toy given each ½ hour for the absence of fighting with siblings
Whole Interval vs Momentary DRO:
◦ Whole interval DRO - the problem must be absent for the whole interval for
reinforcement (referred to simply as DRO)
◦ Momentary DRO - the problem must be absent at the end of the interval for
reinforcement
Implementing DRO:
1. Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior
2. Identify the reinforcer to use in DRO
3. Choose the DRO interval
4. Use extinction for the problem behavior (Or minimize the reinforcement for the problem)
5. Deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior in each interval
6. The occurrence of the problem behavior resets the interval for delivery of the reinforcer
7. Gradually increase the DRO interval
8. Use instructions when applicable
DRL - Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding:
◦ Used to get a behavior to occur less (not necessarily to eliminate the behavior)
◦ Two types of DRL
 - Full session DRL
- Spaced responding DRL
Full Session DRL:
◦ The reinforcer is delivered when fewer than a specified number of responses occurs
per time period (session)
◦ The reinforcer is delivered at the end of the session
◦ The timing of responses in the session is not important
Spaced Responding DRL:
◦ The reinforcer is delivered for a response when it is separated from the previous
response by a specified interval of time
◦ If a response occurs before the end of the interval, the interval is reset
◦ The timing of responses is important
Examples of DRL:
Full session DRL
◦ Reward given for smoking fewer than 5 cigarettes per day
◦ Dessert given if the child gets up from the table fewer than 3 times during supper
Spaced responding DRL
◦ Child called on to answer in class only if it has been 10 minutes since he last raised
his hand
◦ Person with ID allowed to take a bite of food only if 15 sec since last bite of food
Implementing DRL:
1. Is DRL the appropriate procedure?
- Do you want to decrease but not eliminate the behavior?
2. Determine the acceptable level of the behavior
3. Decide on full session DRL or spaced responding DRL
4. Inform the client of the criterion for reinforcement
5. Use a procedure to give the client feedback on number of responses or timing of responses
6. Use intermediate goals if necessary
Comparing DRO and Spaced Responding DRL:
◦ DRO - at the end of the interval, the reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the
behavior
◦ DRL - at the end of the interval, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response
 ◦ In DRO and DRL, a response before the end of the interval resets the interval
Behavioral Skills Training (BST) Procedures:
 Used to teach new behaviors
 Used for behaviors that can be simulated in a role play
 Used with learners who can follow instructions and imitate models
 May be used individually or in groups
Examples of the use of BST:
 Teaching parenting skills
 Teaching assertiveness
 Teaching abduction prevention skills
 Teaching social skills
 Teaching skills to prevent gun play
 Teaching Crisis Management Systems
 Teaching Behavior Plans
 Teaching Therapy Orders
 Teaching Transfers
 Teaching language programs
BST Components
1. Instructions
2. Model
3. Rehearsal
4. Feedback
5. Repeat steps 3-4 until the learner performs the behavior successfully without
assistance
1. Instructions – preferably written
§ Identify and define the skills to teach
§ Identify all relevant contexts (antecedents) and needed materials
2. Model – Describe the behavior and model it in a realistic role-play context
3. Rehearsal – Allow the learner to rehearse the behavior in the role-play context
4. Feedback – Keep it positive
5. Repeat steps 3-5 until the learner performs the behavior successfully without assistance
Instructions
• Must be understood by the learner
– keep educational level in mind
• Given by a person with credibility
• Use instructions with modeling when necessary
• Give instructions when the learner is paying attention
Modeling
• Model has high status or similarity
• Model’s behavior is reinforced
• Complexity of the model is appropriate for the learner
• The learner must pay attention to the model
• The model’s behavior occurs in the proper context (in a role play or real life)
• Repeat as necessary
• Use a variety of exemplars
• Describe important aspects of the model’s behavior
• Have the learner describe important aspects of the model’s behavior
Rehearsal
• Conducted immediately after instructions and modeling
• Rehearsal in the proper context, similar to real life
• Is typically uncomfortable for learners, but essential to learning new skills
• “It is not enough to be told what skills are important and see them demonstrated
 The best way to learn skills is to also have the opportunity for rehearsal and feedback
so that the skills can be reinforced.
 Work from easy to hard behaviors or situations (program for success)
Feedback and Praise
 • Praise correct behavior immediately
 • Always praise some aspect of the performance
 – this eases the discomfort of rehearsal
 • Use descriptive praise
  • Give feedback (instructions for improvement) on one aspect of performance at a
time
 • Do not make corrective feedback negative (do not criticize)
 • Mix praise and feedback
 • More on this later
Promoting generalization
 • Use realistic role plays that simulate the full range of situations
 • Incorporate real life stimuli into training
 • Practice skills outside of sessions in real life situations
 • Arrange to reinforce skills outside of training sessions
 • Practice in all the different areas and situations that you can!
BST in Groups Involves:
 •There’s a lot of observational learning that goes on
 •Opportunity for multiple models in multiple situations (multiple exemplars)
 •Opportunity to observe others’ rehearsals
 •Opportunity to observe feedback received by others
 •Opportunity to evaluate others’ performance and provide feedback
 •Less individual rehearsal and feedback