THERMAL ENGINEERING

Instructor’s Profile

Name: YURI G. MELLIZA

Profession: MECHANICAL ENGINEER
Age: 58
Email Address:
1. [email protected]
2. [email protected]
Contact Number: +63 - 997 837 9970

METE – 40
THERMAL ENGINEERING

Course Objectives:
Upon successful completion of the course, the student will demonstrate competency by
being able to:
1. Describe sources of energy and types of power plants.
2. Analyze different types of steam cycles and estimate efficiencies in a steam power plant.
3. Describe basic working principles of gas turbine and diesel engine power plants. Define the performance characteristics and
components of such power plants.
4. List the principal components and types of nuclear reactors.
5. Evaluate cycle efficiency and performance of a gas cooled reactor power plant.
6. Classify different types of coupled vapor cycles and list the advantages of combined cycles power plant.
7. List different types of fuels used in power plants and estimate their heating values.
8. List types, principles of operations, components and applications of steam turbines, steam generators, condensers, feed water
and circulating water systems. Estimate different efficiencies associated with such systems.
9. Define terms and factors associated with power plant economics. Calculate present worth depreciation and cost of different types
of power plants. Estimate the cost of producing power per kW.

Overview
Thermal systems engineering is concerned with how energy is utilized to accomplish beneficial functions in industry, transportation,
and the home, and also the role energy plays in the study of human, animal, and plant life. In industry, thermal systems are found in
electric power generating plants, chemical processing plants, and in manufacturing facilities. Our transportation needs are met by
various types of engines, power converters, and cooling equipment. In the home, appliances such as ovens, refrigerators, and
furnaces represent thermal systems. Ice rinks, snow-making machines, and other recreational uses involve thermal systems. In living
things, the respiratory and circulatory systems are thermal systems, as are equipment for life support and surgical procedures.
Thermal systems involve the storage, transfer, and conversion of energy. Energy can be stored within a system in different forms,
such as kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. Energy also can be stored within the matter making up the system. Energy
can be transferred between a system and its surroundings by work, heat transfer, and the flow of hot or cold streams of matter.
Energy also can be converted from one form to another. For example, energy stored in the chemical bonds of fuels can be converted
to electrical or me chanical power in fuel cells and internal combustion engines.

Introduction
The objective of this subject is to introduce XU ME students to thermal systems engineering using several contemporary
applications. The discussions use certain terms that are familiar from students background in physics, chemistry and
thermodynamics. The roles of fluid mechanics, heat transfer, refrigeration and air conditioning in thermal systems engineering and
their relationship to one another are given importance.

COURSE OUTLINE
 1. The Steam Power Plant Cycle
 Rankine Cycle
 Reheat Cycle
 Regenerative Cycle
 Reheat – Regenerative Cycle
2. Fuels and Combustion
 The Combustion process
 Types of Hydrocarbon Fuels
 Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels
 Theoretical and Actual Air/Fuel Ratio
 Product analysis
 Solid Fuel Ultimate Analysis
 Combustion of Solid Fuels
 Air/Fuel Ratio Calculation in solid Fuels
 Heating Value or Enthalpy of Combustion
3. Boilers or Steam Generators
 Types of Boilers
 Boiler Performance
 Boiler Heat Balance
4. Pumps and Piping
 Types of Pumps
 Head Calculation
 Principles of Fluid Flow
 Head Loss calculation in piping system
 Power Calculations
5. Heat Transfer
 Modes of Heat Transfer
 Application of Heat Transfer
6. Heat Transfer Equipment
 Types of Heat Exchangers
 Log Mean Temperature Difference
 Economizers
 Evaporators
 Superheaters
 Heaters
 Condensers
7. Psychrometry and Air Conditioning
 Calculation of Moist Air Properties
 Psychrometric Processes
 Methods of Handling air
 Cooling Tower
8. Refrigeration System
 Carnot Refrigerator
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System
 Multipressure System
 Air Cycle Refrigeration
 Absorption Refrigeration

THE STEAM POWER PLANT

  A Steam Power Station is a power plant in which the primemover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and
spins
 a steam turbine which drives an electric generator.
 After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known
asa Rankine cycle.
 Some thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water
as well as delivering electrical power.
 A large part of human CO2 emissions comes from fossil fuelled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are
various and widespread.

VAPOR POWER CYCLE

Rankine Cycle

Processes:
1 to 2 - Constant entropy (Isentropic) expansion (Turbine)
2 to 3 - Constant pressure (Isobaric) heat rejection (Condenser)
3 to 4 - Constant entropy (Isentropic) compression (Pump)
4 to 1 - Constant pressure (Isobaric) heat addition (Boiler)

Q A  Q E  Q Ev  Qs
Q E - heat required by the Economizer
Q Ev - heat required by the Evaporator
Qs - heat required by the Superheate r
Q R - heat rejected by steam in the condenser

Ideal Cycle
 Actual Cycle

A. System: Turbine
Ideal Cycle
Wt = (h1 - h2)KJ/kg
Wt = ms(h1 - h2) KW
Actual Cycle
Wt' = (h1 - h2')KJ/kg
Wt' = ms(h1 - h2') KW
where:
ms is the steam flow rate in kg/sec
Wt - ideal turbine work
Wt' - actual turbine work
Turbine Efficiency
W
eT urbine  t ' x 100%
Wt

B. System: Condenser

mw - cooling water flow rate that enters and leaves the condenser in kg/sec

Ideal Cycle
QR = (h2 - h3) KJ/kg
QR = ms(h2 - h3) KW
QR = mw Cpw (twB-twA)KW
Actual Cycle
QR = (h2'-h3) KJ/kg
QR = ms(h2'-h3) KW
 QR = mw Cpw (twB-twA)KW
where:QR - heat rejected in the condenser
mw - cooling water flow rate in kg/sec
Cpw - specific heat of cooling water KJ/kg-C or KJ/kg-K
Cpw = 4.187 KJ/kg-C or KJ/kg-K (average value)
twA - inlet cooling water temperature,C
twB - outlet cooling water temperature,C
C. System: Pump
Ideal Cycle
WP = (h4-h3) KJ/kg
WP = ms(h4-h3) KW
Actual Cycle
WP' = (h4'-h3) KJ/kg
WP' = ms(h4'-h3) KW
Pump Efficiency
Wp
epump  x 100%
Wp'

D. System: Boiler or Steam Generator

Ideal Cycle
QA =(h1-h4) KJ/kg
QA =ms(h1-h4) KW

Actual Cycle
QA =(h1-h4') KJ/kg
QA = ms(h1-h4') KW

Boiler or Steam Generator Efficiency

Q
eBoiler  A x 100%
Qs

QA = Heat absorbed by boiler or steam generator, KW

QS = Heat supplied to boiler or steam generator, KW
QA = ms(h1-h4) KW (for the ideal cycle)
QA = ms(h1-h4') KW (for the actual cycle)

If the heat supplied to boiler came from the burning of fuel or products of combustion, the heat supplied QS is:
QS = mf (HV) KW
where: mf - is the fuel consumption in kg/sec
HV - heating value of fuel in KJ/kg
Heating Value (HV) - is the energy released by fuel when it is completely burned and the products of combustion are cooled to the
original fuel temperature.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Net Cycle Work
e x100%
Heat Supplied

NET WORK

W  WTurbine  WPump

BACK WORK RATIO

WPump
BWR 
WTurbibe

Thermal Efficiency For the Actual Cycle

Actual Net Power

e x100%
Actual Heat Supplied
STEAM RATE
 Steam Flow Rate kg
SR 
Power (KW) Produced KW - hr

HEAT RATE
Heat Supplied KJ
HR 
Power (KW) Produced KW - hr

Reheat Cycle
For a steam power plant operating on a reheat cycle, after partial expansion of the steam in the turbine, the steam flows back to a
heat exchanger called the "re-heater" to heat the steam almost the same to its initial temperature.

Regenerative Cycle
For a regenerative cycle steam power plant some of the steam were taken from the turbine before it reached the condenser and used
to heat the feed-water with no extra energy input and the latent heat of vaporization would not be lost from the system in the
condenser. Ideally the water leaving the feed-water heater is saturated liquid at the heater pressure and the heater is a direct-contact
type. If the system uses a shell-and-tube heat exchanger the extracted steam doesn't mixed with the feed-water and the drains is send
back to the previous heat exchanger, also a separate drain pump may be employed.

m - fraction of steam bleed for feed-water heating, kg of bled steam/kg of throttled steam
ms - steam flow rate, kg/sec

Reheat-regenerative Cycle
For a reheat-regenerative cycle, further increase in thermal efficiency will occur because this cycle uses the combined
effect of reheating the steam after partial expansion and extracting some part of the circulating steam for feed-water heating, which
result to an increase in turbine work and reduces heat required by the boiler.

2
  Steam Generator (boiler) – an integrated assembly of several components which converts water into steam at a pre-
determined pressure and temperature.
 Steam turbine – is a device used to convert the kinetic energy of the substance into mechanical energy/work.
 A.C. Generator – an electrical device used to convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Condenser – a heat exchanger used to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine for recycling.
 Pump – a mechanical device used to raise the condensate pressure to that of steam generator pressure.
 Heat exchangers – are auxiliary equipment used to assist in steam plant operation.
 Super heater (closed) – use to superheat the saturated steam from steam drum.
 De-superheater (closed or open) –to de-superheat the superheated steam.to final state.
 Reheater (closed) - used to reheat the steam from turbine after expansion.
 Condenser (closed or open) – used to condemns the exhaust stream.
 Feedwater heater (closed or open) – used to preheat the condensate/feedwater.
 Economizer (closed) – used to convert the sub-cooled liquid to saturated liquid.
 Air pre-heater (closed) - used to preheat the air for combustion.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example no. 1
A 15,000 KW turbine has a guaranteed steam rate of 5.4 kg/KW-hr at rated load. Steam enters the turbine at 4.15 MPa and 400C,
with exhaust at 25.4 mm Hg absolute. Condensate is sub-cooled 3C, radiation and frictional losses in the turbine is estimated to be
3% of the turbine output. Calculate:
a) the enthalpy of exhaust steam
b) the total heat removed by the condenser in KJ/hr
c) the thermal efficiency
d) m3/min of condenser cooling water based on 6C temperature rise

P1 = 4150 KPa
P2 = P3 = 25.4 mm Hg absolute
P2 = P3 = 3.39 KPa (tsat at 3.39 KPa = 26.16C)
T
At P1 = 4150 KPa and t1 = 400C 1
h1= 3211.5 KJ/kg ; S1 = 6.7526 Kj/kg-K
h3 = h at 3.39 KPa and t3 = (26.16 – 3) = 23.16C
h3 = 97.016C ; S3 = 0.3408 KJ/kg-K P1 = P4 = 4150
4 KPa
h4 = h at 4150 KPa and S4 = 0.3408 KJ/kg-K
h4 = 101.18 KJ/kg
26.16 P2 = P3 = 3.39
C
23.16
KPa 2 2’
C 3

S
Steam flow rate
SR 
KW produced
m s  5.4(15,000)  81,000 kg/hr
m s  22.5 kg/sec
Wt'  15,000(1- .03)  14,550 KW
Wt'  m s h1 - h 2' 
WT '
h 2'  h1   2564.83 KJ/kg
ms
Q R  m s (h 2' - h 3 )  22.5(2564.83 - 97.016)  55,525.82 KW
Q R  m w (C pw )(t wB - t wA )
55,525.82  m w (4.187)(6)
m w  2,210.3 kg/sec
Q w - volume flow rate of water in m 3 /min
 m3  m3
Q w  2210.3 kg/sec  (60)  132.6
 1000 kg  min
WP  m s (h 4  h 3 )  93.7 KW
Q A  m s (h1  h 4 )  69,982.2 KW
WT ' - Wp
e x 100%
QA
e  20.7%

ExampleNo. 2
A 2500 KW steam turbo generator set has a combined steam rate of 7 kg/KW-hr with a throttle steam at 3.4 MPa (tsat = 240.87C)
and 400C and a condenser pressure 8.5 KPa absolute(tsat = 42.69C). Feedwater enters the boiler at 138C. The steam generator
supplying the steam is coal fired, with a coal heating value of 24,000 KJ/kg. Overall steam generator efficiency is 74%. Assuming
no losses, Determine:
a) the Rankine cycle efficiency
b) the brake thermal efficiency if generator efficiency is 94%
c) the combined thermal efficiency
d) the fuel consumption in kg/hr
e) the enthalpy of exhaust steam if brake power is equal to actual turbine work

T
1
400C

240.87C
138C 4’ P1 = P4 = 3400 KPa
4

P2 = P3 = 8.5 KPa
42.69C 3
2 2’

At 3400 KPa and 400C 2,659.6

h1 = 3224.6 KJ/kg eB   x100%
17,496.84
S1 = 6.8620 KJ/kg-K
At 8.5 KPa and S2 = S1 = 6.8620 KJ/kg-K e B  15.2%
h2 = 2153.4 KJ/kg ; x2 = 82.302% 2,500
e combined  x100%  14.3%
At 8.5 KPa; saturated liquid, 17,496.84
h3 = 178.63 KJ/kg ; S3 = 0.6078 KJ/kg-K
Q 17,496.84 kg
At S3 = S4 to 3400 KPa mF  S  (3600)  2624.526
h4 = 182.04 KJ/kg HV 24,000 hr
At 3400 KPa and 138C Wt '  WB  ms (h1  h 2' )
h4’ = 582.22 KJ/kg 2,659.6 KJ
h 2'  3224.6   2681.824
4.9 kg

kg kg
m s  7(2500)  17,500  4.9
hr sec
(h1  h 2)  (h 4  h3)
e x100%
(h1  h 4)
Example No. 3
An ideal steam power plant operating on single stage reheat cycle has steam conditions at throttle of 7.6 MPa and 500C and
expands to the turbine to 2 MPa after which the steam is withdrawn and is reheated in the reheater to 450C and re-expands again
in the turbine to the condenser at a pressure of 7 KPa. For a steam flow rate of 10 kg/sec. determine
a. The ideal turbine work in KW
b. The ideal pump work in KW
c. The net cycle work in KW
d. The ideal thermal efficiency
e. The ideal steam rate in kg/KW-hr
f. The heat rate in KJ/KW-hr

a. Wt  m s (h1 - h 2 )  (h 3 - h 4 ) KW
Steam Properties
At P1 = 7600 KPa and t1 = 500C
h1 = 3402.7 KJ/kg ; S1 = 6.7482 KJ/kg-K b. Wp  m s (h 6 - h 5 ) KW
At S1 = S2 to P2 = 2000 KPa c. W  Wt - Wp KW
h2 = 3012.7 KJ/kg
W
At P3 = 2000 KPa and t3 = 450C d. e  x 100%
h3 = 3357.9 KJ/kg ; S3 = 7.2900 KJ/kg-K QA
At S3 = S4 to P4 = 7 KPa Q A  m s (h1 - h 6 ) KW
h4 = 2264.0 KJ/kg ; x4 = 87.2311% 3600ms kg
At P5 = P4 saturated liquid e. SR 
h5 = 163.33 KJ/kg; S5 = 0.5590 KJ/kg-K W KW - HR
3600QA KJ
At S5 = S6 to P6 = P1 f . HR 
h6 = 170.97 KJ/kg W KW - hr
mS = 10 kg/sec
Example No. 4
A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat– regenerative Rankine cycle and has a net power output of 80 MW. Steam enters
the high-pressure turbine at 10 MPa and 550°C and leaves at 0.8 MPa. Some steam is extracted at this pressure to heat the feedwater
in an open feed-water heater. The rest of the steam is reheated to 500°C and is expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the condenser
pressure of 10 KPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam
through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Example No. 5
A steam power plant is operating on a reheat – regenerative cycle with 2 – stages of regenerative heating and 1 – extraction for
reheating. The turbine receives steam at 7000 KPa and 550C, the steam expands to 2000 KPa isentropically where a fraction is
extracted for feedwater heating and the remainder is reheated at constant pressure until the temperature is 540C. The steam expands
isentropically to 400 KPa where a fraction is withdrawn for LP feedwater heating on a closed type heater as shown on figure; the
remainder expands isentropically in the turbine to 7.5 KPa, at which point it enters the condenser. For a mass flow rate of 10
kg/secDetermine
a) The mass fractions of extracted steam
b) The turbine work in KW
c) The pump work in KW
d) The net cycle work in KWThe heat added in KJ/hr
f) The heat rejected from the condenser in KJ/hr
 Wt  ms (h1  h 2 )  (1  m1 )( h 3  h 4 )  (1  m1  m 2 )( h 4  h 5  KW
Wp1  ms (h12  h11)
Wp 2  ms (1  m1 )( h 8  h 6 )
Wp  Wp1  Wp 2
W  Wt  Wp

Q A  ms (h1  h10 )  (1  m1 )(h 3  h 2 ) kw

W W
e x 100%e  x 100%
QA QA
Q R  ms (1 - m1 - m 2 )(h 5 - h 6 ) KW

PRACTICE EXERCISES
Problem 1
Consider a steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle and has a net power output of 45MW. Steam enters the
turbine at 7 MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa by running cooling water from a lake through the
tubes of the condenser at a rate of 2000 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the mass flow rate of the steam, and (c) the temperature rise of the cooling water.

x
State P (KPa) T(°C) S h (Quality)
1 7000 500 6.7940 3409.90
2 10 45.83 6.7940 2151.30 81.924
3 10 0.6492 191.76
4 7000 45.999 0.6492 198.81
Problem 2
In a regenerative steam cycle as shown below employing two closed feedwater heaters, the steam is supplied to the turbine at 4000
KPa and 500C and is exhausted to the condenser at 3.5 KPa. The intermediate bleed pressures are obtained such that the saturation
pressure intervals are approximately equal, giving pressures of 1000 KPa and 110 KPa, respectively. If the plant to produces a net
power output of 10 MW, Calculate the following
A. The hourly amount of bleed steam at each stage (ms1 and ms2)
B. The cycle thermal efficiency
Note: Draw the matching TS Diagram & assume all liquids leaving bleed steam heaters is saturated liquid at the heater pressure.

Schematic Diagram

Answer
ms1 4,653.06 Kg/hr
ms2 4,041.48 Kg/hr
e 42.5 %

Problem 3
A steam power plant operates using the reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters the high pressure turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550ºC at a
rate of 7.7 kg/s and leaves at 2 MPa. Steam is then reheated at a constant pressure to 450ºC before it expands in the low pressure
turbine. The isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85% and 90%, respectively. Steam leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid. If the moisture content of the steam at the exit of the turbine is not to exceed 5% determine (a) the condenser
pressure, (b) the net power output, and (c) the thermal efficiency.

Problem 4
A steam power plant operates on an ideal Rankine cycle. Superheated steam flows into the turbine at 2 MPa and 500 oC with a flow
rate of 100 kg/s and exits the condenser at 50oC as saturated water. Determine
a) the net power output,
b) the thermal efficiency, and
c) the quality of steam at the turbine exit.
d) What would the efficiency be if the condenser temperature can be lowered to 30 oC?
Problem 5
A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat-regenerative Rankine cycle with two feedwater heaters, one open and one closed.
Steam enters the first turbine at 15 MPa and 500oC, expands to 1 MPa, and is reheated to 450oC before it enters the second turbine
where it expands to 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the first turbine at 3 MPa and sent to the closed FWH, where the feedwater
leaves at 5oC below the temperature at which the saturated condensate leaves. The condensate is fed through the trap to the open
FWH, which operates at 0.5 MPa. Steam is extracted at 0.5 MPa from the second turbine and is fed to the open FWH. The flow out
of the open FWH is saturated liquid at 0.3 MPa. If the power output of the cycle is 150 MW, determine
a) the thermal efficiency,
b) the mass flow rate through the boiler,
c) the bleeding rate from the first turbine, and
d) the bleeding rate from the second turbine.

Problem 6
Consider a regenerative vapor power cycle with one open feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480?C and
expands to 0.7 MPa, where some of the steam is extracted and diverted to the open feedwater heater operating at 0.7 MPa.
The remaining steam expands through the second-stage turbine to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. Saturated liquid exits
the open feedwater heater at 0.7 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage is 85% and each pump operates isen-
tropically. If the net power output of the cycle is 100 MW, determine
a) the thermal efficiency and
b) the mass flow rate of steam entering the first turbine stage, in kg/h.

Problem no. 7
A coal fired steam power plant produces 150 MW of electric power with a thermal efficiency of 35%. If the energetic efficiency of
the boiler is 75%, heating value of coal is 30 MJ/kg, and the temperature rise of the cooling water in the condenser is 10oC, determine
(a) the fuel consumption rate in kg/h, and (b) mass flow rate of cooling water.
(a) 68.57 kg/h , (b) 23,969 kg/h

Multiple Choice Problems

1. In a Rankine cycle, saturated liquid water at 1 bar is compressed isentropically to 150 bar. First by reheating in a boiler
and then by superheating at constant pressure of 150 bar, the water substance is brought to 750K. After adiabatic reversible
expansion in a turbine to 1 bar, it is then cooled in a condenser to a saturated liquid. How much work is generated in the
turbine? (Steam properties h, kJ/kg, s, kJ/kg-K: @ 150 bar&750 K, h = 3240.5, s1 = 6.2549; @ 1 bar, hf=417.46, hfg=2258,
sf=1.3026, sfg=6.0568)
a. 769.9 b. 796.9 c .967.9 d.976.9

2. A reheat steam has 13850 kPa throttle pressure at the turbine inlet and 2800 kPa reheat pressure. The throttle and reheat
temperature of the steam is 540oC, condenser pressure is 3.4 kPa, engine efficiency of high pressure and low pressure is
75%. Find the cycle thermal efficiency.
a. 34.46% b. 35.56 c. 36.66 d. 37.76

3. In a Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at 2.5 MPa and condenser of 50 kPa. What is the thermal efficiency of the
cycle in percent?
a. 25.55 b. 28.87 c. 30.12 d. 31.79

4. A supercritical steam Rankine cycle has turbine inlet conditions of 17.5 MPa and 530 oC expands in a turbine to 7 kPa. The
turbine and pump polytropic efficiencies are 0.9 and 0.7, respectively. Pressure losses between pump and turbine inlet are
1.5 MPa. What should be the pump work in kJ/kg.
a. 27.13 b. 29.87 c. 32.47 d. 33.25

5. Steam enters the superheater of a boiler at a pressure of 2.5 MPa and dryness of 0.98 and leaves at the same pressure at a
temperature of 370oC. Calculate the heat energy supplied per kg of steam supplied in the superheater.
a. 405.51 b. 504.15 c. 154.15 d. 245.25.

6. A back pressure steam turbine of 100 MW capacity serves as a prime mover in a cogeneration system. The boiler admits
the return water at a temperature of 66oC and produces the steam at 6.5 MPa and 455oC. Steam then enters a back pressure
turbine and expands to the pressure of the process, which is 0.52 MPa. Assuming a boiler efficiency of 80% and neglecting
the effect of pumping and the pressure drops at various location, what is the incremental heat rate for electric? The following
enthalpies have been found: at turbine entrance = 3306.8 kJ/kg, exit = 2700.8 kJ/kg; boiler entrance = 276.23 kJ/kg, exit =
3306.8 kJ/kg)
a. 22,504.23 kJ/kW-hr b. 52,244.32 kJ/kW-hr
c. 12,435.72kJ/kW-hr d. 32,234.82 kJ/kW-hr
7. In an open feedwater for a steam power plant, saturated steam at 7 bar is mixed with sub-cooled liquid at 7 bar and 25oC.
Just enough steam is supplied to ensure that the mixed steam leaving the heater will be saturated liquid at 7 bar when heater
efficiency is 90%. Calculate the mass flow rate of sub cooled liquid if steam flow rate is 0.865 kg/s. (Steam properties h,
kJ/kg, @ 7 bar, hg = 2763.5, hf = 697.22; @ 7 bar & 25oC, hf= 105.5)
a. 2.725 b. 2.286 c. 3.356 d. 3.948

8. A steam plant operates with an initial pressure of 1.7 MPa and 370 oC temperature and exhaust to a heating system at 0.17
MPa. The condensate from the heating system is returned to the boiler at 65.5 oC and the heating system utilizes from its
intended purpose 90% of the energy transferred from the steam it receives. The turbine efficiency is 70%. If the boiler
efficiency is 80%, what is the cogeneration efficiency of the system in percent? Neglect pump work. (Steam properties h,
kJ/kg, s, kJ/kg-K: @ 1.7 MPa & 370oC; h = 3787.1, s = 7.1081; @ 1.7 MPa, hf= 483.20, hfg= 2216.0, sf= 1.4752, sfg=
5.7062; @ 65oC, hf=274.14)
a. 69 b. 78 c. 91.24 d. 102.10

9. In a cogeneration plant, steam enters the turbine at 4 MPa and 400oC. One fourth of the steam is extracted from the turbine
at 600kPa pressure for process heating. The remaining steam continues to expand to 10 kPa. The extracted steam is then
condensed and mixed with feedwater at constant pressure and the mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure of 4 MPa. The
mass flow rate of the steam through the boiler is 30 kg/s. Disregarding any pressure drops and heat losses in the piping,
and assuming the turbine and pump to be isentropic, how much process heat is required in kW? (Steam properties h, kJ/kg,
s, kJ/kg-K: @ 4 MPa & 400oC, h = 3213.6 s = 6.7690; @ 600 kPa, hf= 670.56, hfg= 2086.3, sf= 1.9312, sfg= 4.8288)
a. 1,026.90 b. 2,468.2 c. 3,578.5 d. 15,646.8

10. A 23.5 kg/s at 5 MPa and 400oC is produced by a steam generator. The feedwater enters economizer at 145oC and leaves
at 205oC. The steam leaves the boiler drum with a quality of 98%. The unit consumes 2.75 kg of coal per second as received
having an heating value of 25,102 kJ/kg. What would be the overall efficiency of the unit in percent? (Steam properties h,
kJ/kg, s, kJ/kg-K: @ 5 MPa & 400oC, h=3195.7; @ 0 MPa, hf= 1154.23, hfg= 1640.1; @ 205oC , hf= 610.63)
a. 65 b. 78 c. 88 d. 95

11. A coal-fired power plant has a turbine-generator rated at 1000 MW gross. The plant required about 9% of this power for
its internal operations. It uses 9800 tons of coal per day. The coal has a heating value of 6,388.9 kCal/kg, and the steam
generator efficiency is 86%. What is the net station efficiency of the plant in percent?
a. 30.12 b. 33.07 c. 36.74 d. 40.01

12. Steam enters the turbine of a cogeneration plant at 7 MPa and 500 C. Steam at a flow rate of 7.6 kg/s is extracted from the
turbine at 600 kPa pressure for process heating. The remaining steam continues to expand to 10 kPa. The recovered
condensates are pumped back to the boiler. The mass flow rate of steam that enters the turbine is 30 kg/s. Calculate the
cogeneration efficiency in percent. (Steam properties h, kJ/kg, s, kJ/kg-K: @ 7 MPa & 500C, h = 3410.3 s = 6.7975; @
600 kPa, hf= 670.56, hfg= 2086.3, sf= 1.9312, sfg= 4.8228; @ 10 kPa, hf= 191.83, hfg= 2392.8, sf= 0.6493, sfg= 7.5009)
a. 50 b. 55 c. 60 d. 65

13. A 60 MW turbine generator running at 3600 rpm receives steam at 4.0 MPa and 450 oC with back pressure of 10 kPa.
Engine efficiency is 78% and the combined mechanical and electrical efficiency is 95%. What would be the exhaust
enthalpy of the steam in kJ/kg.
a. 2,400.12 kJ/kg b. 20,432.10 kJ/kg
c. 28,124.20 kJ/kg d. 30,101.15 kJ/kg

14. Steam enters a throttling calorimeter at a pressure of 1.03 MPa. The calorimeter downstream pressure and temperature are
respectively 0.100 MPa and 125oC. What is the percentage moisture of the supply steam? (Steam properties h, kJ/kg, s,
kJ/kg-K: @1.03 MPa, hfg = 2010.7, hg = 2779.25; @ 0.1 MPa & 125oC, h=2726.6)
a. 1.98 b. 2.62 c.3.15 d. 5.21

15. Steam expands adiabatically in a turbine from 2 MPa, 400 oC to 400 kPa, 250oC. What is the effectiveness of the process
in percent assuming an atmospheric temperature of 15oC. Neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy. (Steam
properties h, kJ/kg, s, kJ/kg-K: @ 2.0 MPa and 400oC; h = 3247.6 s = 7.1271; @ 400 kPa & 250oC, h= 2964.2, s= 7.3789)
a. 79.62 b. 84.52 c. 82.45 d. 74.57

16. A drum containing steam with 2.5 m in diameter is 7.5 m long. Of the total volume, 1/3 contains saturated steam at 800
kPa and the other 2/3 contains saturated water. If this tank should explode, how much water would evaporate? Consider
the process to be of constant enthalpy. (Steam properties h, kJ/kg, v, m3/kg @0.8 MPa, hf = 721.11, hg = 2769.1, vf=
0.0011148, vg=0.2404; @ 0.101325 MPa & 100oC, hf=419.04, hg=2676.1, vf=0.0010435, vg=2769.1)
a. 2,123.76 kg b. 2,424.62 kg
c. 2,651.24 kg d. 2,948.11 kg

17. A Batangas base industrial company operates a steam power plant with reheat and regeneration. The steam enters a turbine
at 300 bar and 900 K and expands to 1 bar. Steam leaves the first stage at 30 bar and part of it entering a closed heater
 while the rest reheated to 800K. Both section of the turbine have adiabatic efficiency of 93%. A condensate pump exists
between the main condenser and the heater. Another pump lies between the heater and condensate outlet line from the
heater (condensed extracted steam). Compute for the extracted fraction of the total mass flow to the heater.
a. 0.234 b. 0.543 c. 0.765 d. 0.485

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fuel - a substance composed of chemical elements, which in rapid chemical union with oxygen produced combustion.
Combustion - is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element, whose exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently great and
whose rate of reaction is sufficiently fast, whereby useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated temperatures. It is the burning
or oxidation of the combustible elements.

TYPES OF FUEL
1) Solid Fuels
Example
a. coal
b. charcoal
c. coke
d. woods
2) Liquid Fuels (obtained by the distillation of petroleum)
Example:
a. Gasoline
b. kerosene
c. diesoline
d. Fuel oil
e. alcohol (these are not true hydrocarbons, since it contains oxygen in the molecule)
3) Gaseous Fuels (a mixture of various constituents hydrocarbons, its combustion products do not have sulfur components)
Example:
a. Natural Gas (example: methane, ethane, propane)
b. Coke oven gas -obtained as a byproduct of making coke
c. Blast furnace gas - a byproduct of melting iron ore
d. LPG
e. Producer Gas - fuel used for gas engines
4) Nuclear Fuels
Example:
a. Uranium
b. Plutonium

COMBUSTIBLE ELEMENTS

1. Carbon (C)
2. Hydrogen (H2)
3. Sulfur (S)

TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

1) Paraffin - all ends in "ane"

Formula: CnH2n+2
Structure: Chain (saturated)
Example:
GAS
a. Methane(CH4)
b. Ethane (C2H6)
LPG
a. Propane (C3H8)
b. Butane (C4H10)
c. Pentane ( C5H12)
GASOLINE
a. n-Heptane (C7H16)
b. Triptane (C7H16)
c. Iso- octane (C8H18)
 FUEL OIL
a. Decane (C10H22)
b. Dodecane (C12H26)
c. Hexadecane (C16H34)
d. Octadecane (C18H38)

2) Olefins - ends in "ylene" or "ene"

Formula: CnH2n
Structure: Chain (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Propene (C3H6)
b. Butene (C4H8)
c. Hexene ( C6H12)
d. Octene ( C8H16)

3) DIOLEFIN - ends in "diene"

Formula: CnH2n-2
Structure: Chain (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Butadiene (C4H6)
b. Hexadiene (C6H10)

4) NAPHTHENE - named by adding the prefix "cyclo"

Formula: CnH2n
Structure: Ring (saturated)
Example:
a. Cyclopentane (C5H10)
b. Cyclohexane (C6H12)

5) AROMATICS - this hydrocarbon includes the;

A. Benzene Series (CnH2n-6)
B. Naphthalene Series (CnH2n-12)
Structure: Ring (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Benzene (C6H6)
b. Toluene (C7H8)
c. Xylene (C8H10)

6) ALCOHOLS - These are not true hydrocarbon, but sometimes

used as fuel in an internal combustion engine. The characteristic
feature is that one of the hydrogen atom is replaced by an OH radical.
Example:
a. Methanol (CH4O or CH3OH)
b. Ethanol (C2H6O or C2H5OH)

Saturated Hydrocarbon - all the carbon atoms are joined by a single bond.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon - it has two or more carbon atoms joined by a double or triple bond.
Isomers - two hydrocarbons with the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms, but at different structure.

STRUCTURE OF CnHm

a. Chain Structure (saturated)

 b. Chain Structure (unsaturated)

c. Ring Structure (saturated)

THE COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

A. Oxidation of Carbon
C + O2  CO2
Mole Basis:
1 + 11
Mass Basis:
1(12) + 1(32)  1(12 + 32)
12 + 32  44
3 + 8  11
B. Oxidation of Hydrogen
H2 + ½O2  H2O
Mole Basis:
1 + ½ 1
Mass Basis:
1(2) + ½(32)  1(2 + 16)
2 + 16  18
1 + 8 9
C. Oxidation of Sulfur
S + O2  SO2
Mole Basis:
1 + 11
Mass Basis:
1(32) + 1(32)  1(32+32)
32 + 32  64
1 + 12

Complete Combustion: Occurs when all the combustible elements has been fully oxidized.
Example: C + O2  CO2
Incomplete Combustion: Occurs when some of the combustible elements have not been fully oxidized and it may result from;
a. Insufficient oxygen
b. Poor mixing of fuel and oxygen
c. the temperature is too low to support combustion.
Result: Soot or black smoke that sometimes pours out from chimney or smokestack.
Example: C + ½O2  CO

Composition of Air
a) Volumetric or Molal analysis
O2 = 21%
N2 = 79%
b) Gravimetric Analysis
O2 = 23.3%
N2 = 76.7%

moles of N2 79
  3.76
mole of O2 21

COMBUSTION WITH AIR

A) Combustion of Carbon with air

C + O2 + (3.76)N2  CO2 + (3.76)N2
Mole Basis
1 + 1 + 3.76  1 + 3.76
Mass Basis
1(12) + 1(32) + (3.76)(28)  1(44) + (3.76)(28)
12 + 32 + 3.76(28)  44 + 3.76(28)
3 + 8 + 3.76(7)  11 + 3.76(7)
kg of air 8  3.76(7)

kg of C 3
kg of air
 11.44
kg of C

B) Combustion of Hydrogen with Air

H2 + ½O2 +½3.76)N2  H2O + ½(3.76)N2
Mole Basis:
1 + ½ + ½(3.76)  1 + ½(3.76)

Mass Basis:
1(2) + ½(32) + ½(3.76)(28)  1(18) + ½(3.76)(28)
2 + 16 + 3.76(14)  18 + 3.76(14)
kg of air 16  3.76(14)

kg of H 2
kg of air
 34.32
kg of H
C) Combustion of Sulfur with air
S + O2 + 3.76N2  SO2 + 3.76N2
Mole Basis:
1 + 1 + 3.76  1 + 3.76
Mass Basis:
1(32) + 1(32) + (3.76)(28)  1(64) + (3.76)(28)
8 + 8 + (3.76)(7)  16 + 3.76(7)
kg of air 8  3.76(7)

kg of S 8
kg of air
 4.29
kg of S

THEORETICAL AIR
It is the minimum amount of air required to oxidized the reactants. With theoretical air no O 2 is found in the products.

EXCESS AIR
It is an amount of air in excess of the theoretical air required to influence complete combustion. With excess air, O 2 is present in the
products. Excess air is usually expressed as a percentage of the theoretical air. But in actual combustion, although there is an
amount of excess air, the presence of CO and other hydrocarbon in the products cannot be avoided.
Example: 25% excess air is the same as 125% theoretical air.

COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARBON FUEL (CnHm)

A) Combustion of CnHm with 100% theoretical air

CnHm + aO2+ a(3.76)N2  bCO2 + cH2O + a(3.76)N2

 A  a (32)  a (3.76)(28) kg of air
  
 F t 12n  m kg of CnHm

B) With excess air

CnHm + (1+e)aO2 + (1+e)a(3.76)N2  bCO2 + cH2O +dO2 +(1+e)a(3.76)N2

A A
   (1  e) 
 F a  F t
A a (32)  a (3.76)( 28) kg of air
   (1  e)
 F a 12n  m kg of CnHm

where:
e - excess air in decimal
(A/F)t - theoretical air-fuel ratio
(A/F)a - actual air-fuel ratio

C) Combustion with CO in the products due to incomplete combustion (100% theoretical air)

CnHm  aO 2  a (3.76 ) N 2  bCO 2  cH 2O  dCO  a (3.76 ) N 2

D) Combustion with CO in the products due to incomplete combustion (with excess air)

CnHm  (1  e)aO2  (1  e)a (3.76 ) N 2  bCO 2  cH 2O  dCO  fO 2  (1  e)a (3.76 ) N 2

Typical Real-World Engine Combustion Process:

Fuel (CnHm)  Air (O 2 and N 2 )  CO2  H 2O  O 2  N 2  CH(VOC's)  CO  NOx

CH(VOC's) - Volatile Organic Compounds
CO - Carbon Monoxide
NOx - Nitrogen Oxides
 Common Combustion Gases
Gases Molecular Weight
C 12
H 1
H2 2
O 16
O2 32
N 14
N2 28
S 32

COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

Components of Solid Fuels: C, H2, O2, N2, S, and Moisture

A) Combustion with 100% theoretical air

aC + bH2 + cO2 + dN2 + eS + fH2O + gO2 + g(3.76)N2  hCO2 + iH2O + jSO2 + kN2

B) Combustion with excess air x

Where:x - excess air in decimal

aC + bH2 + cO2 + dN2 + eS +fH2O + (1+x)gO2 + (1+x)g(3.76)N2 

hCO2 + iH2O + jSO2 + lO2 + mN2

The theoretical and actual air-fuel ratio of solid fuels can be computed based on their balance combustion equation above.

A 32g  3.76(28)g

  
 F  t 12a  2b  32c  28d  32e  18f
A A
   (1  x ) 
 a
F  F t

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE

The Dew Point Temperature (t dp) is the saturation temperature corresponding the partial pressure of the water vapor in the mixture
(products of combustion).

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Ultimate Analysis gives the amount of C, H2, O2, N2, S and moisture in percentages by mass, sometimes the percentage amount of
Ash is given.

100% = %C + %H2 + %O2 + %N2 + %S + %H2O + %Ash

A  O  kg of air
   11.44C  34.32 H  2   4.29S
 F t  8  kg of Fuel

where: C, H, O and S are in decimals obtained from the Ultimate Analysis

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Proximate Analysis gives the percentage amount of Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash and Moisture.

100% = % Fixed Carbon + % Volatiles + % Ash + % Moisture

ORSAT ANALYSIS
Orsat Analysis gives the volumetric or molal analysis of the products of combustion or exhaust gases on a Dry Basis.

100% = % CO2 + % CO + % O2 + % SO2 + % N2 + % CH + % NO + NOx

  H
100  4.76  11.28  CO2
e  C
 H
4.76  14.28 C  CO2
 

 H
11.44(1  e) 1  3 
A  C  kg o air
  
 F a  H kg of Fuel
1  C 
 

where:
H and C are in % (by mass)
CO2 is in % by volume from the exhaust gas analysis

MASS FLOW RATE OF FLUE GAS

a) Without considering Ash loss:
A 
mg  mF   1
F 
b) Considering Ash loss

A 
mg  mF   1- Ash loss 
 F 

where ash loss in decimal

PROPERTIES OF COMMON GASES

GAS
R k Cp Cv k M

0.260 1.395 0.918 0.658 1.395 32 O2

0.189 1.288 0.845 0.656 1.288 44 CO2

0.297 1.399 1.041 0.744 1.399 28 N2

0.320 1.232 1.698 1.378 1.232 26 C2H2

0.287 1.4 1.004 0.717 1.4 28.97 AIR
0.208 1.666 0.521 0.312 1.666 39.95 ARGON
0.297 1.399 1.041 0.744 1.399 28 CO

0.117 1.324 0.479 0.362 1.324 70.914 Cl2

0.277 1.187 1.759 1.482 1.187 30 C2H6

0.297 1.24 1.534 1.237 1.24 28 C2H4

2.079 1.666 5.200 3.121 1.666 4 He

4.157 1.4 14.550 10.393 1.4 2 H2

0.260 1.195 1.592 1.332 1.195 32 N2H4

0.520 1.321 2.138 1.619 1.321 16 CH4

0.412 1.666 1.030 0.619 1.666 20.183 Ne

0.189 1.127 1.677 1.488 1.127 44 C3H8

0.130 1.263 0.624 0.494 1.263 64 SO2

0.462 1.329 1.866 1.404 1.329 18 H2O

0.063 1.666 0.158 0.095 1.666 131.3 Xe
Sample Problem (Combustion of CnHm)

A hydrocarbon fuel represented by C12H26 is used as fuel in an IC engine and requires 25 % excess air for complete combustion.
Determine
a. The combustion equation
b. The theoretical air – fuel ratio
c. The actual air – fuel ratio
d. The volumetric and gravimetric analysis of the products
e. The molecular weight M and gas constant R of the products
f. The kg of CO2 formed per kg of fuel
g. % C and %H in the fuel
Solution
Fuel: C12H26
Combustion with 100% theoretical air
C12H 26  aO2  a (3.76) N 2  bCO2  cH 2O  a(3.76)N2
Carbon balance
12  b
Hydrogen balance
26  2c
c  13
Oxygen balance
2a  2b  c
c
a  b   18.5
2

Combustion with excess air e = 0.25

C12H 26  (1.25)aO2  (1.25)a (3.76) N 2  bCO2  cH 2O  dO2  (1.25)a(3.76)N2
By oxygen balance
1.25(2)a  2b  c  2d
1.25(2)a - 2b - c
d  4.625
2
C12H 26  23.125O 2  86.95N 2  12CO2  13H 2O  4.625O2  86.95N 2

Gases Mi ni yi mi xi yiMi yi(%) xi(%)

CO2 44 12 0.103 528 0.158 4.529 10.3 15.8
H2O 18 13 0.112 234 0.070 2.007 11.2 7.0
O2 32 4.625 0.040 148 0.044 1.270 4.0 4.4
N2 28 86.95 0.746 2434.6 0.728 20.884 74.6 72.8
total 116.575 1.00 3344.6 1.00 28.691 100.0 100.0

a. The combustion equation

C12H 26  23 .125 O 2  86 .95 N 2  12CO 2  13H 2O  4.625O 2  86 .95 N 2

b. The theoretical A/F ratio

 A  a (32)  a (3.76)(28) kg of air
    14.94
 F t 12(12)  26 kg of C12H26
c. The actual A/F ratio
A A kg of air
   (1  e)   14.94 (1.25)  18.674
 F a  F t kg of C12H26
 d. The Volumetric and gravimetric Analysis
Gases yi(%) xi(%)
CO2 10.3 15.8
H2O 11.2 7.0
O2 4.0 4.4
N2 74.6 72.8
total 100.0 100.0

e. Molecular weight and Gas constant

kg
M  yiMi  28.691
kg m
R
R  xiRi
M
8.3143 KJ
R  0.2898
28.691 kg - K

f. Kg of CO2 per kg of fuel

kg of CO2 528
  3.106
kg of C12H26 12(12)  26
g. % C and % H in the fuel

12n
%C  x 100%
12n  m
12(12)
%C  x 100  84.7%
12(12)  26
m
%H  x 100%
12n  m
26
%H  x 100  15.3%
12(12)  26

Problem
A natural gas fuel showed the following percentages by volume: C2H6 = 9%; CH4 = 90%; CO2 = 0.2 % and N2 = 0.8 %. If this gas
is used as fuel and is burned with 20% excess air for complete combustion, Determine
a. The Combustion Equation
b. The theoretical and actual air fuel ratio
c. The molecular weight and gas constant of the products
d. The volume of air required per m3 of natural gas if the gas and air are at temperature of 16C and a pressure of 101.6 KPa.
Combustion with 100% theoretical air
9C2H6  90CH4  0.2CO2  0.8N2  aO 2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  dN2
Carbon Balance
2(9)  90  0.2  b
b  108.2
Hydrogen Balance
9(6)  90( 4)  2c
c  207
Oxygen Balance
2(0.2)  2a  2b  c
2(108.2)  207 - 2(0.2)
a
2
a  211.5
Nitrogen Balance
Combustion with excess air
2(0.8)  2(a)(3.76)  2d
9C2H6  90CH4  0.2CO2  0.8N2  (1.20)aO 2  (1.20)a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  eO2  fN2
2(0.8)  2(211.5)(3.76)
d oxygen balance
By
2
2(0.2)  2(1.20)( 211.5)  2(108.2)  207  2e
d  2796.04
(0.2)  2(1.20)( 211.5)  2(108.2)  207
e
2
e  42.3
By Nitrogen balance
2(0.8)  2(1.20)(211.5)(3.76)  2f
2(0.8)  2(1.20)(211.5)(3.76)
f
2
f  955.088
Combustion Equation
9C2H6  90CH4  0.2CO2  0.8N2  253.8O2  954.288N2  108.2CO2  207H2O  42.3O2  955.088N2
Mass of Fuel
9(30)  90(16)  0.2( 44)  0.8(28)  1741.2 kg
Mass of air
253.8(32)  954.288(28)  34841.664kg
A 34841.664 kg of air
    20.01
 F actual 1741.2 kg of fuel
A A
   (1  e) 
 F actual  F  theoretical
A 20.01 kg of air
    16.68
 F  theoretical 1.20 kg of fuel
 PVa  na RT
(253.8  954.288)(8.3143)(16  273)
Va   28571.2 m3
101.6
PVF  nF RT
(9  90  .2  0.8)(8.143)(16  273)
VF   2365 m3
101.6
Va 28571.2
  12.08
VF 2365

Moles of Products
108.2  207  42.3  955.088  1312.588
108.2(44) 207(18)  42.3(32)  955.088(28)
 yiMi  M  1312.588
kg
M  27.9
kgmol
8.3143 KJ
R  0.298
27.9 kg - K

Sample Problem (Known Orsat analysis and Fuel type)

A fuel oil C12H26 is used in an internal combustion engine and the Orsat analysis are as follows: CO 2 = 12.8% ; O2 = 3.5%; CO =
0.2% and N2 = 83.5%. Determine the actual air-fuel ratio and the percent excess air.
Solution: (Basis 100 moles of dry flue gas)
aC12H26 + bO2 + b(3.76)N2  12.8CO2 + cH2O + 0.2CO + 3.5O2 + 83.5N2

By C balance
12a = 12.8 + 0.2
a = 1.0833
By N2 Balance
b(3.76) = 83.5
b = 22.207
By H balance
26a = 2c
c = 26(1.0833)/2
c = 14.083
Dividing the equation by a
C12H26 + 20.5O2 + 77.08N2  11.816CO2 + 13H2O + 0.185CO + 3.23O2 +
77.08N2

 A 20.5(32)  77.08(28) kg of air

    16.56
 F a 12(12)  26 kg of fuel

Combustion of C12H26 with 100% theoretical air

C12H26  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2 O  a(3.76)N2

12  b
26  2c
c  13
2a  2b  c
a  18.5
 A 18.5(32)  (18.5)(3.76)(28 kg of air
    14.94
 F t 12(12)  26 kg of C12H26
  A  A
   (1  e) 
 F a  F t
 A
 
 F a
1 e 
 A
 
 F t
 A
 
 F a
e  1  0.108  10.8%
 A
 
 F t

Sample Problem (Unknown Fuel – Known Orsat analysis)

An unknown hydrocarbon is used as fuel in a diesel engine, and after an emission test the orsat analysis shows,
CO2 = 12.5% ; CO = 0.3% ; O2 = 3.1% ; N2 = 84.1%.Determine
a. the actual air-fuel ratio
b. the percent excess air
c. the fuel analysis by mass

CnHm + aO2 + a(3.76)N2  12.5CO2 + bH2O + 0.3CO + 3.1O2 + 84.1N2

By Carbon balance
n = 12.5 + 0.3
n = 12.8
By Hydrogen balance
m = 2b  eq. 1
By Oxygen balance
2a = 2(12.5) + b + 0.3 + 2(3.1)  eq. 2
By Nitrogen balance
a(3.76) = 84.1
a = 22.367

substituting a to eq. 2
b = 13.234
substituting b to eq. 1
m = 26.47

C12.8H26.47  22.367O 2  84.1N2  12.5CO2  13.234H2 O  0.3CO  3.1O2  84.1N2

 A 22.367(32)  84.1(28) kg of air
    17.05
 F a 12(12.8)  26.47 kg of fuel
Combustion with 100% theoretical air
n = 12.8 ; m = 26.47
C12.8H26.47  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2 O  a(3.76)N2
12.8  b
26.47  2c
c  13.235
2a  2b  c
a  19.4175
 A 19.4175(32)  19.4175(3.76)(28 kg of air
    14.8
 F t 12(12.8)  26.47 kg of C12H26
  A  A
   (1  e) 
 F a  F t
e  0.152  15.2 %

12n 12(12.8)
%C    85.3%
12n  m 12(12.8)  26.47
m 26.47
%H    14.7%
12n  m 12(12.8)  26.47

ENTHALPY OF FORMATION
The “Enthalpy of Formation of a compound is the enthalpy at the Arbitrary Reference State (t = 25C and P = 1 Atm).

1 mole C
25C, 1 atm
Combustion 1 mole CO2
Chamber
25C, 1 atm
1 mole O2
25C, 1 atm

Let;
HR – total enthalpy of Reactants
HP – total enthalpy of products

From 1st Law

 Q  HR  HP
or
Q  Σ ni hi  Σ ni hi
R P
but the enthalpy of all the reactants (at the reference state) is Zero (for they are all elements)
Q  HP  -393,757 KJ
therefore
KJ
(hf )CO 2  393,757  Enthalpy of formation of CO2
kgmol
kg
MCarbon  12
kgm
KJ
(hf )CO 2  32,813
kgC
Note : Negative sign is due to the reaction' s being " Exothermic"
For Hydrogen (Vapor)
KJ
(hf )H2O  241,971
kgmol
KJ
(hf )H2O  120,985.5
kgH2
For Hydrogen (Liquid)
KJ
(hf )H2O  286,010
kgmol
KJ
(hf )H2O  143,005
kgH2
For Sulfur
KJ
(hf )S  296,840
kgmol
KJ
(hf )S  9,276.25
kgSulfur

ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION OR HEATING VALUE

It is the difference between the enthalpies of the products and the reactants at the same temperature T and Pressure P.

KJ
hRP  HP  HR
kgm ol

  
hRP   n j h  f  (h  h 298 )  ni h  f  (h  h 298 )
R P
 i
KJ
kgm ol
(HP  HR ) KJ
hRP 
M kg
where
M - molecular weight
Example:
Determine the heating value of C12H26 (liquid) when burned with 25% excess air. Air and fuel enters at 25C and products leaves at
900 K. Assume P =101 KPa.
Combustion Equation

C12H26  23.13O2  86.95N2  12CO2  13H2O  4.63O2  86.95N2

LOWER HEATING VALUE(H2O in the products is VAPOR
KJ
HR  1(394,199)
kgmol
HP  12( 393,757  28,041)  13( 241,971 21,924)  4.63(0  19,246)  86.95(0  18,221)
KJ
HP  -5,575,874.30
kgmol
KJ
LHV  -5,181,675.30
kgmol
- 5,181,675.30 KJ
LHV   30,480.44 )
170 kgC12H26
HIGHER HEATING VALUE(H2O in the products is LIQUID)
KJ
HR  1(394,199)
kgmol
HP  12( 393,757  28,041)  13(-286,010.0  21,924)  4.63(0  19,246)  86.95(0  18,221)
KJ
HP  -6,148,381.30
kgmol
KJ
HHV  -5,754,182.30
kgmol
- 5,754,182.30 KJ
LHV   33,848.13
170 kgC12H26

FROM BUREAU OF STANDARD

HEATING VALUE

Heating Value - is the energy released by fuel when it is completely burned and the products of combustion are cooled to the original
fuel temperature.
Higher Heating Value (HHV) - is the heating value obtained when the water in the products is liquid.
Lower Heating Value (LHV) - is the heating value obtained when the water in the products is vapor.

For Solid Fuels

  O  KJ
HHV  33,820C  144,212 H2  2   9,304S
 8  kg
where: C, H2, O2, and S are in decimals from the ultimate analysis

For Coal and Oils with the absence of Ultimate Analysis

 A HHV
   kg of air/kg of fuel
 F  t 3,041
HHV = 31,405C + 141 647H KJ/kg

For Liquid Fuels

HHV = 43,385 + 93(Be - 10) KJ/kg

Be - degrees Baume

For Gasoline

HHV = 41,160 + 93 (API) KJ/kg

LHV = 38,639 + 93 (API) KJ/kg

For Kerosene

HHV = 41,943 + 93 (API) KJ/kg

LHV = 39,035 + 93 (API) KJKkg

For Fuel Oils

HHV = 41,130 + 139.6(API) KJ/kg

LHV = 38,105 + 139.6(API) KJ/kg

API - American Petroleum Institute

For Fuel Oils (From Bureau of Standard Formula)

HHV = 51,716 - 8793.8 (S)2 KJ/kg

LHV = HHV - QL KJ/kg
QL = 2,442.7(9H2) KJ/kg
H2 = 0.26 - 0.15(S) kg of H2/ kg of fuel
141.5
S
131.5   API
140
S
130  Be
Where:

S @ t = S - 0.0007(t-15.56)
S - specific gravity of fuel oil at 15.56 C
H2 - hydrogen content of fuel oil, Kg H/Kg fuel
QL - heat required to evaporate and superheat the water vapor formed by the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel,KJ/kg
S @ t - specific gravity of fuel oil at any temperature t
Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter - instrument used in measuring heating value of solid and liquid fuels.
Gas Calorimeter - instrument used for measuring heating value of gaseous fuels.