CHAPTER

14
Transport

Animation 14.1:T ransport in Plant

Source & Credit: mrgscience
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter our main focus would be to study diferent processes involved in the transport of
nutrients into the cells and removal of the wastes out of the cells. We would also study, essentially
in plants and animals, the elaborate mechanism involved not only for the movement of individual
molecules but also their mass transport within bodies. The processes involved for getting materials
into and out of the cells are difusion, facilitated difusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis,
exocytosis etc.

In animals, the materials move into, within and out of the body, in respiratory circulatory, digestive
and excretory systems. In plants the processes of respiration, transportation, photosynthesis,
absorption by roots, conduction of water, and the nutrients are involved in movement of the
materials into, within and out of the body.

NEED FOR TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS

The living organism is a complex of interactions of physical and chemical reactions involving
diferent elements and molecules. All living cells or living organisms, must obtain and transport
certain materials within the body and also transport and remove the wastes out of their bodies or
cells.

If there were no transport systems, most of the cells of the body of a complex multicellular organism,
would not be able to get the required materials and dispose of their wastes. There are no mass
low systems in unicellular organisms and lower multicellular organisms.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Uptake and Transport of Minerals and Water A rye plant less than one meter tall
The roots of a plant not only anchor the plant body in the soil, has some 14 million branch roots
but also absorb minerals and water from the soil. There are of a combined length of over 600
three types of nutrients needed by the plants, carbon dioxide, kilometers.
water and

2
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

minerals besides light to carry out photosynthesis. To get these materials, roots must provide large
surface area for absorption, which is achieved by extensive branching. The roots bear a dense
cluster of tiny hair like structures which are extensions of epidermal cells of roots.

These are the root hairs, which are in fact the sites where most It has been estimated that out
of the uptake of water and minerals takes place. of total surface area provided by
roots, 67% is provided by the root
Plants are able to sythesize all their required compounds, hairs.
with the help of the minerals and H20 from soil, C02 from air,
and light energy. Most of the minerals enter the root hairs Prosopis trees of leguminoseae
or epidermal cells of roots along with water in bulk low, but family have maximum depth of
some are taken in by difusion, facilitated difusion, or active their roots, which is 50 metres.
transport.

Mineral absorption by roots When inorganic or organic fertilizer

The minerals available to plants for absorption are dissolved is applied to soil, the minerals are
in the soil water. Their concentration vary according to the absorbed primarily as inorganic
fertility and the acidity of the soil, besides other factors. When ions. The rate of absorption of
the soil minerals are not in solution but are bound by ionic
each mineral by roots is essentially
bonds to soil particles, they are not available to plants.
independent of the rates of
absorption of water and of the
Processes involved in absorption by roots
other minerals. Each mineral
The uptake of minerals by root cells is a combination of
moves into roots at a rate
passive uptake and active uptake, involving the use of energy
determined by such factors as
in the form of ATP. The passive uptake involves difusion. The
its concentration both inside and
minerals they also move down their concentration gradient
outside the root, the ease with
through plasmodesmata (symplast pathway) to cells of cortex,
which it can passively penetrate
endodermis, pericycle and then to sap in xylem cells. From
cell membrane, and extent to
here they are pulled up by transpiration pull to diferent parts
which carrier molecules and active
of plant.
absorption are involved.

The difusion of ions along with water also takes place by

mass low along the apoplast pathway. Ions moving in the apoplast can only reach the endodermis,
where casparian strips prevent further progress (Fig. 14.1). To cross the endodermis, ions must
pass by difusion or active transport into endodermis cells, entering their cytoplasm, and possibly
their vacuoles. The ions then reach the xylem cells. Difusion of ions can also take the vacuolar
pathway where the ions move along their concentration gradient through the cell membranes,
cytoplasm, and tonoplast (the membrane of vacuoles), and reach the dead xylem cells.

3
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Most of ions are taken up by the roots by the process of active transport. By this method plants
can take a mineral that is in higher concentration inside the root cells than in the soil solution. In
this process molecules and ions move from their low concentration to their higher concentration
(i.e. against the concentration gradient), through cell membrane, by the use of energy in the form
of ATP. Active transport is selective and is dependent on respiration. Some ions move by passive as
well as by active transport.

Fig.14.1 Mineral and water uptake by roots. The Casparian strip separates the extracellular space in the root into two compartments:
an outer compartment that is continuous with the soil water, and an inner compartment that is continuous with the inside of the
conducting cells of the xylem. The black lines show a pathway for both water and mineral; the blue line is an alternative pathway for
water alone.

Animation 14.2: transpul

Source and Credit: msseconisseniorbiology

4
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab
Symbiotic Relationship Mycorrhizae help in uptake of minerals
helps plants acquire
nutrients. The fungal associations with roots of higher plants, help
mineral uptake by the plant.
One of the important
nutrient N2 is almost always The fungi facilitate the uptake of phosphorus and trace
in short supply both in rock metals such as zinc and copper.
particles and in the soil water.
Most plants have evolved A root infected with mycorrhizal fungi can transport
beneicial relationship with phosphate at a higher rate than that of an uninfected root.
other organisms that help
the plants acquire these Mycorrhizal fungi get sugar, and shelter from the plant and
scarce nutrients. Examples in exchange increase the plant’s mineral nutrient uptake
include: Mycorrhize and eiciency. Mycorrhizae are present in 90% families of
nitrogen ixing bacteria in lowering plants.
root nodules of legumes.

Some nutrients are carried from the soil to the epidermal cells of roots through their cell membrane
by facilitated difusion. In this type of difusion, carrier molecules within the cell membrane
transport nutrients across the membrane. These carrier molecules are proteins - which are present
within cell membrane of epidermal and other root cells.

Uptake of Water by Roots

Normally, the movement of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region
of their low concentration through a partially permeable membrane is called osmosis. If water
moves by osmosis into a cell the process is called endosmosis, and if the water moves out of the
cell it is called exosmosis.

The cell wall of epidermal cells of roots is freely permeable to water and other minerals. The cell
membrane, however, is diferentially or partially permeable to some substances in the solution.
The water which enters the epidermal cells moves along the concentration gradient and passes
through cortex, endodermis, pericycle and ultimately to xylem cells. (Fig. 14.2)

5
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig. 14.2 Diagrammatic representation of water and ion movement across a root showing transverse section. The apoplast pathway
is of greatest importance for both water and solutes. The symplast pathway is less important, except for salts in the region of the
endodermis. Movement along the vacuolar pathway is negligible.

Following are the paths taken by water to reach the xylem tissue:
(i) The apoplast pathway
It is the pathway involving system of adjacent cell walls which is continuous throughout the plant
roots. In the roots apoplast pathway becomes discontinuous in the endodermis due to the presence
of casparian strips.

(ii) The Symplast pathway

It is the system of interconnected protoplasts in the root cells. The cytoplasm of neighbouring cells
(Protoplasts) is connected with one another by Plasmodesmata which are cytoplasmic strands that
extend through pores in adjacent cell walls. In the cells of root the cell membrane and cytoplasm
(and plasmodesmata) can be regarded as acting together as one partially permeable membrane.

(iii) The vacuolar pathway

In this pathway water moves from vacuole to vacuole through neighbouring cells crossing the
symplast and apoplast in the process and moving through cell membranes by osmosis. Water
moves passively down a concentration gradient.

6
V: 1.1
 14. Transport

Water Potential (Symbolized By Greek Letter Psi = yw )

eLearn.Punjab

Water molecules possess kinetic energy which means that in liquid or gaseous form, they move
about rapidly and randomly from one place to another. So, greater the concentration of the water

y
molecules in a system the greater is the total kinetic energy of water molecules. This is called water
potential ( w).

y
In plant cells two factors determine water potential.

yp).
i) Solute concentration (Osmotic or solute potential = s)
ii) Pressure generated when water enters and inlates plant cells (Pressure potential =

Pure water has maximum water potential which by deinition is zero.

Water moves from a region of higher yw to lower yw .

All solutions have lower yw than pure water and so have negative value of yw (at atmospheric
pressure and at a deined temperature). So osmosis can be deined as:

“The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower
water potential through a partially permeable membrane”.

Osmotic (Solute) Potential = ys

The osmotic (solute) potential ys is a measure of the change in water potential(ys) of a system
due to the presence of solute molecules. ys is always negative. More solute molecules present,
lower (more negative) is the ys.

Pressure Potential (yp)

If pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is applied to pure water or a solution, its water
potential increases. It is equivalent to pumping water from one place to another. Such a situation
may arise in living systems.

turgid and increasing the pressure potential. Thus the total water potential is sum of ys and yp.
When water enters plant cells by osmosis pressure may be built up inside the cell making the cell

yw = ys + yp
water potential solute potential pressure potential

7
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

If we use the term water potential, the tendency for water to move between any two systems can
be measured; not just from cell to cell in a plant but also from soil to root from leaf to air or from
soil to air. The steeper the potential gradient the faster is the low of water along it.

vacuolated cells are shown with yw, yp and ys.

The following example would help understand the concept of water potential. Two adjacent

Fig. 14.3 Two adjacent vacuolated cells.

kPa= 1000 Pascals -

Q. a) Which cell has the higher water potential? which is the pressure
b) In which direction will water move by osmosis? exerted by a vertical
force of one Newton
c) What will be the water potential of the cells at equilibrium? on an area of 1 metre
d) What will be the solute potential and pressure potential of the cells at square.
equilibrium?

Plasmolysis and Pressure Potential

Plasmolysis can be deined as the shrinkage of protoplast due to exosmosis of water. When a living
cell is placed in a solution having lower water potential than that of the cell, plasmolysis takes place
and the cell is called plasmolysed. If this plasmolysed cell is placed in distilled water (which has
highest water potential) the water molecules would move from distilled water through diferentially
permeable cell membrane into the cell, and the cell would become deplasmolysed.

8
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

The point at which plasmolysis is just about to happen is called incipient plasmolysis. At incipient
plasmolysis the protoplast has just ceased to exert any pressure against the cell wall, so the cell is
laccid.

If a plasmolysed cell is placed in distilled water, the one having higher water potential than the
contents of the cell, water enters the cell by endosmosis, volume of protoplast increases, and it
begins to exert pressure against the cell wall of plant cell. The cell wall is rigid - so the pressure exerted
by the protoplast against the cell wall is called pressure potential. As the pressure potential of the
cell increases due to endosmosis, the cell becomes turgid. Full turgidity i.e. maximum pressure
potential is achieved when a cell is placed in pure water or distilled water.

The animal cells cannot withstand higher pressure potential as there is no cell wall around protoplast.
Thus the turgid cells burst in a solution of higher water potential. So the animals employ the
mechanism of osmoregulation to maintain the amount of water and salts in their cells to constant
or nearly constant levels.

ASCENT OF SAP

In the previous pages you have learned that water and dissolved minerals traverse the cortex
and endodermis and reach the xylem tissue of roots. (Fig. 14.1,14.2) Actually, water and dissolved
minerals are carried or pulled upwards towards the leaves through xylem tissue. This is called
ascent of sap. This may involve the following :

(A) Cohesion Tension Theory (B) Root Pressure (C) Imbibition

(A) Cohesion tension theory is one of the most important theories proposed by Dixon. This
theory provides a reasonable explanation of low of water and minerals upwards from the roots
to leaves of plants, in bulk low or mass low (Fig. 14.5). This depends on the following:

(i) Cohesion: It is the attraction among water molecules which hold water together, forming a solid
chain-like column within the xylem tubes. The water molecules form hydrogen bonds between
them.

(ii) Tension: It is provided when this water chain is pulled up in the xylem (Fig. 14.4). Transpiration

9
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

provides the necessary energy or force. Tension is between the molecules of water by hydrogen
bonds.

This xylem water tension is strong enough to pull water up to 200 metres (more than 600 feet) in
plants.

(iii) Adhesion: It may be added that the water molecules also adhere to the cell walls of xylem cells,
so that the column of water in xylem tissue does not break. The composition of cell wall provides
necessary adhesion to water molecules that helps water creep up. The cellulose component of cell
wall especially has great ainity for water. It can imbibe water.

Fig.14.4 (a) Xylem Tissue elements involved in transportation of water and dissolved minerals, (b) Scanning electron micrograph of
two large vessel elements of a cucumber root.

(iv) Strong xylem walls: It is essential that the xylem walls should have high tensile strength if they
are not to buckle inwards. The lignin and cellulose provides strength to cell wall of xylem vessels
(Fig. 14.4).

10
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

By cohesion-tension of water molecules, and the transpiration pull providing the necessary energy,
the sap (water and minerals) in xylem tissue is pulled upwards to the leaves. Large quantities of
water are carried at relatively high speed, upto 8mh-1 being recorded in tall trees, and commonly
in other plants at 1mh-1.

The total water pulled up in the leaves is transpired, except about 1% which is used by plant in
various activities including photosynthesis.

Mechanism of transpiration pull in cohesion tension theory

The evaporation of water from the aerial parts of the plant especially through stomata of leaves
is a process called transpiration. As a leaf transpires the water potential of its mesophyll cells
drops. This drop, causes water to move by osmosis from the xylem cells of leaf into dehydrating
mesophyll cells. The water molecules leaving the xylem are attached to other water molecules
in the same xylem tube by hydrogen bonds (cohesion of water molecules). Therefore, when one
water molecule moves up the xylem, the process continues all the way to the root - where water
is pulled from the xylem cells (tracheids and vessels). This pull also causes water to move down its
concentration gradient transversely from the root epidermis (root hairs) to cortex by endosmosis
and to pericycle. This pulling force or transpiration pull is so strong that it also reduces the water
potential of root epidermal cells. Then water in the soil moves from its higher water potential to
lower water potential of epidermis of root by osmosis.

Animation 14.3: Transpiration pull

Source and Credit: gifsoup

11
V: 1.1
14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.5 The cohesion-tension theory of water low from root to leaf.

12
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

(B) Root pressure : Second force involved in the movement of water and dissolved minerals up
in the xylem tissue is the root pressure. Root pressure is created by the active secretion of salts and
other solutes from the other cells into the xylem sap. This lowers the water potential of xylem sap.
Water enters the xylem cells by osmosis, thus increasing the level of sap in the xylem cells. Water
entering the xylem cells, may take apoplast, symplast or vacuolar pathway increasing the hydrostatic
pressure in cells, this pushes the water upwards. As a result of root pressure the sap in the xylem
does not rise to enough height in most plants. The root pressure is also least efective during the
day, when transpiration pull is the active force involved in pulling the sap in xylem cells upwards.
It has been estimated that a positive hydrostatic pressure of around 100 to 200 KPa (exceptionally
800 KPa) is generated by root pressure. The pressure mentioned above is not enough to push
water upwards to required height in most plants. But it is no doubt a contributing factor in plants
which transpire slowly, and are smaller in size.

Closely associated with root pressure

is a phenomenon called guttation or
exudation. Guttation is loss of liquid
water through water secreting glands
or hydathodes. The dew drops that can
be seen on the tips of grass leaves or
strawberry leaves are actually guttation
droplets exuded from hydathodes. (Fig.
14.6).

Guttation or exudation is more notable

when transpiration is suppressed, and
the relative humidity is high as at night.
The guttation is in fact due to positive
pressure - the root pressure, developed
in xylem tissue of roots.

Fig. 14.6 Guttation by stawberry leaves

(C) Imbibition : Another important force in the ascent of sap is imbibition. Sacks in 1874 sugested
that the water molecules move along the cell walls of xylem vessels due to imbibition.

The cell wall components especially cellulose, pectin and lignin can take up water and as a result

13
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

increase in volume, but the components do not dissolve in water, this is called imbibition. The
amount of attraction and increase of dry cell walls of plant cells, and of protoplasm for water is
often very great and considerable imbibition forces may be developed in plant body. The root cell
walls imbibe water from the soil, and this water moves by apoplast pathway already discussed.

Imbibition is a reversible process and when water is lost the original volume of cell wall and of
protoplasm is restored. The uptake of water by imbibition is especially important in germinating
seeds. The volume of dry seed may increase up to 200 times by imbibition, as a result, the seed
coat ruptures and makes the germination of seed efective.

Bleeding : Sometimes it so happens that certain plants, when cut, pruned, tapped or otherwise
wounded, show a low of sap from the cut ends or surfaces quite often with a considerable force.
This phenomenon is commonly called bleeding.

It is often seen in many land plants in the spring, particularly grape wine, some palms, sugar maple
etc.

Although the low of sap is ordinarily slow, a considerable quantity of the sap within a period of 24
hours comes out of the plant. In some palms when tapped, there may be a low of sap to the extent
of 10-15 litres per day. The sap in such plants contains sugars and water in addition to organic and
inorganic substances (e.g. salts).

There are two main factors responsible for bleeding, the hydrostatic pressure in xylem and phloem
elements, and the root pressure, which is exerted by the xylem tissues of roots.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION

You have already studied the role of transpiration, in ascent of sap.

There are three types of transpiration depending upon the route of escape of water vapours from
the aerial parts of the plant.

(i) Cuticular transpiration (ii) Lenticular transpiration (iii) Stomatal transpiration

14
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Animation 14.4: Transpiration

Source and Credit: atmos.uiuc

(i) Cuticular transpiration : The loss of water in the form of water vapours through the cuticle
of leaves is called cuticular transpiration. About 5-7% of total transpiration takes place through this
route.

The cuticle present on the upper and lower epidermis of leaves is not completely impermeable
to water and some water is lost in the form of vapours through cuticle. The thinner the cuticle
the greater is the rate of transpiration; although the composition of cuticle is also important. At
night, when the stomata are almost closed, cuticular transpiration takes place. Most of the factors
which afect rate of transpiration, in general, are also important in controlling the rate of cuticular
transpiration.

(ii) Lenticular transpiration : Lenticular transpiration is the loss of water vapours through
lenticels present in the stem of some plants. (Fig. 14.7) All plants do not possess lenticels.

15
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

The lenticular transpiration is 1-2% of the total transpiration by a plant. These openings, like
stomata,are also involved in the exchange of gases between environment. When there is strong
light and high temperature,the loss of vapours is rapid because it is governed by difusion.

Lenticels are aerating pores formed in the bark through which exchange of gases takes place, and
water is lost in the form of water vapours (transpiration). Externally, they appear as scars or small
protrusions on the surface of stem. Lenticel consists of a loose mass of small, thin-walled cells.
At each lenticel the cork cambium forms oval, spherical, or irregular cells, which are very loosely
arranged, having lots of intercellular spaces.

Fig. 14.7 Left : The waterproof outer bark (layer of dark cells on the surface) on this section of stem is interrupted at the center of
the lenticel. Thus the more loosely arranged cell layer beneath, with their numerous intercellular air spaces, are exposed to the
atmosphere, Right: The individual lenticels can be seen as white areas on the surface of a young stem.

(iii) Stomatal transpiration : It is a type of transpiration in which the water vapours escape
through stomata. In isobilateral leaves the stomata are present, in both, upper and lower epidermis
e.g. lily and maize leaf. In dorsiventral leaves the stomata are conined to only the lower epidermis.

The guard cells are normally dumble or bean-seed-shaped. The inner concave sides of two guard
cells enclose the stoma. This inner side of guard cell has very thick cell wall, but the outer convex

16
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

side has thin cell wall. The guard cells are the only cells, of leaf epidermis, which are not connected
by plasmodesmata to other epidermal cells, and which have chloroplasts - and thus are involved
in the process of photosynthesis (Fig. 14.8). When these guard cells are turgid, the stoma between
them opens and when the guard cells are laccid the stoma between them closes. The degree of
opening of stomatal pores also afects the rate of transpiration. 90% of total transpiration in a plant
is stomatal.

The cells of mesophyll of leaf provide enormous surface ‘area for the loss of water in the form of
vapours. The pathway of water vapours loss to the atmosphere, through stomata is shown. (Fig.
14.8)

Fig.14.8 The water pathway through the leaf. Water is drawn from the xylem into the cell walls of the mesophyll, where it evaporates
into the air spaces within the leaf. By difusion, water vapour then moves through the leaf air space, through the stomatal pore, and
across the boundary layer of still air that adheres to the outer leaf surface. C02 also difuses into the leaf through stomata along a
concentration gradient.

OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA

The guard cells function as multisensory hydraulic valves (Fig. 14.9). Environmental factors, such as
light intensity and quality, temperature, relative humidity, and intracellular CO2 concentration are

17
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

sensed by guard cells and these signals are integrated into well-deined stomatal responses.

There are two hypotheses which may explain the opening and closing of stomata.

i) Starch Sugar Hypothesis : The German botanist H. Van Mohl proposed that the guard cells
are the only photosynthesising cells of epidermis of leaf and sugars are produced in them during
day time when light is available. When sugar level rises i.e. solute concentration increases or water
potential decreases - and the guard cells become turgid due to entry of water and they separate
from one another, and stoma or pore opnes. During night there is no photosynthesis the sugars
are either converted into insoluble starch or are used in respiration, this decreases free sugars
in cell. So the osmotic pressure of guard cells is lowered, and water leaves the guard cells, which
become laccid and stoma or pore between them closes. But these processes are not fast enough
to account for the rapid rise in turgor, of guard cells.

ii) Inlux of K+ ions : Potassium concentration in guard cells increases several fold, depending
upon plant species.

Stomata open due to active transport of potassium ions (K+) into the guard cells from the surrounding
epidermis. The accumulation of K+ decreases the osmotic potential of guard cells. Water enters
the guard cells by osmosis, which become more turgid and stretched and stomata are opened.
The stoma closes by reverse process; involving passive difusion of K+ from guard cells followed
by water moving out by osmosis. What controls the movement of K+ into and out of guard cells?
Level of carbon dioxide in the spaces inside the leaf and light, control this movement. A low level
of carbon dioxide favours opening of the stomata, thus allowing an increased carbon dioxide level
and increased rate of photosynthesis.

Exposure to blue light, which is also efective in photosynthesis has been shown to acidify the
environment of the guard cells (i.e. pumps out protons) which enable the guard cells to take up K+
followed by water uptake resulting in increased turgidity of guard cells. So in general stoma are
open during day and closed at night. This prevents needless loss of water by the plant when it is
too dark for photosynthesis.

The plants open their stomata by actively pumping Potassium in guard cells causing water to follow
by osmosis. Guard cells become turgid and stoma or pore opens. When Potassium leaves the
guard cells (during night) water leaves the guard cells by exosmosis and guard cells become laccid
and stoma or pore between guard cells closes.

18
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig 14.9 Stomata . Stomata seen through (a) the light microscope and (b) scanning electron microscope. In the light micrograph, note
that the guard cells contain chloroplasts (the green ovals within the cells) but that the other epidermal cells do not.

Animation 14.5: Stomata

Source and Credit: gifsoup

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

Rate of transpiration for a plant is very important as the transpiration stream is necessary to

19
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

distribute dissolved mineral salts throughout the plant. Water is transported to photosynthesizing
cells of leaves. Transpiration is also very important as it cools the plant. This is especially important
in higher temperatures. If the rate of transpiration is very high, there would be much loss of water
from the plant, so at high temperatures the stomata almost close and reduction in the rate of
transpiration is efected. This stops wilting of the leaves and of plants (herbaceous plants).

There are some important factors which afect the rate of transpiration in a plant.

(i) Light (ii) Temperature

(iii) CO2 concentration (iv) Humidity and vapour pressure
(v) Wind and (vi) Availability of soil water.

i) Light : The opening and closing of stomata is directly controlled by the light. In strong light the
rate of transpiration is much more as compared with that in dim light or no light. As Potassium
actively enters the guard cells, when light is available, water follows - and guard cells become turgid,
and stoma opens.

ii) Temperature: When the sun-light is strong on a bright and sunny day the environmental
temperature is increased. The higher temperature reduces the humidity of the surrounding air.
The evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells also increases, thus increasing the
rate of transpiration.

The rate of transpiration doubles by every rise of 10°C in temperature. Very high environmental
temperature, i.e. 40-45°C cause closure of stomata, so that plant does not loose much needed water.
If higher temperatures are maintained in the environment Hormones are involved in stomatal movement in
for a longer duration and soil water is limited, the plants plants. At high temperature when leaf cells start
would wilt and may die. wilting a hormone is released by mesophyll cells.
This hormone is called abscisic acid. This hormone
stops the active transport of K+ into guard cells,
iii) Carbon dioxide concentration : Low carbon overriding the efect of light and C02 concentration.
So K+ pumping stops. Stomata close.
dioxide concentration (such as those that occurs during the
day when photosynthesis exceeds respiration), stimulates
the active transport of Potassium ions into the guard cells. This transport (as discussed earlier)
causes stomata to open and allow C02 to difuse in the mesophyll cells of leaves. At night cellular
respiration in the absence of photosynthesis raises C02 levels. This halts the inward transport of K+,
and thus of water, allowing the guard cells to become laccid and stomata close. Thus transpiration
almost stops.

20
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

iv) Humidity and vapour pressure : When air is dry, the rate of difusion of water molecules,
from the surfaces of mesophyll cells, air spaces, and through stomata to outside the leaf, increases
(Fig. 14.8). So more water is lost, increasing the rate of transpiration. In humid air the difusion rate
is reduced. This decreases the rate of transpiration appreciably.

v) Wind : The air in motion is called wind, which causes increase in rate of difusion of water
molecules. The rate of evaporation from the surfaces of mesophyll cells increases. When air is still,
the rate of movement of water molecules (difusion) is slowed down, thus reducing the rate of
transpiration.

vi) Availability of soil water : If there is little water in the soil, less is brought or transported
to the leaf cells and less is lost to the environment by transpiration. So when the rate of absorption
of water in root cells is reduced, the rate of transpiration is reduced.

Transpiration as a necessary evil

Transpiration has been described as necessary evil because it is an inevitable, but potentially
harmful consequence of the existence of wet cell surfaces from which evaporation occurs. Loss of
water from the plant can lead to wilting, serious desiccation and often death of a plant if conditions
of drought are experienced. There is good evidence that even mild water stress results in reduced
growth rate and in crops to economic losses through reduction of yield.

Despite its apparent inevitability it is also of very great importance for the plant.

i) Water is conducted or transported in most tall plants with the courtesy of transportation pull.
ii) Minerals dissolved in water are distributed throughout plant body by transpiration stream.
iii) Evaporation of water from the exposed surface of cells of leaves has cooling efect on plant.
iv) Wet surface of leaf cells allow gaseous exchange.

TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC SOLUTES

Organic solutes are transported by phloem tissue.

Phloem Transport
The phloem is generally found on the outer side of both primary and secondary vascular tissue in
plants with secondary growth. The phloem constitute the inner bark. The cells of phloem thatconduct

21
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

or transport sugars and other organic material throughout the plant are called sieve elements.

In addition to sieve elements, phloem tissue also contains companion cells, parenchyma cells, and
in some cases ibres, sclereids and latex containing cells. However, only sieve tube cells are directly
involved in transport of organic solutes.

Sieve elements are characterised by ‘sieve areas’ portions of the cell wall where pores interconnect
the conducting cells. Some of the sieve areas of sieve tube members are generally formed in end
walls of sieve tube members where the individual cells are joined together to form a longitudinal
series called a sieve tube. Sieve plate pores of sieve tubes are essentially open channels, that allow
transport between cells (Fig. 14.10).

Fig. 14.10 (a) This diagram shows part of the root phloem consisting of sieve tube members stacked end to end. Adjoining end walls
have common pores. Each sieve tube member is associated with a companion cell (b) Sieve tube member showing the pores in its end
walls. Note the scarcity of cytoplasmic components in these sugar conducting cells.

Each sieve tube member is associated with one or more companion cells. Sieve tubes and companion
cells are in communication with each other by plasmodesmata. Companion cells supply ATP and
proteins to sieve tubes. The photosynthetic products from photosynthesizing cells, the mesophyll
and palisade layer of leaf, pass into sieve tubes, through the companion cell via plasmodesmata.

Patterns of Transport
Phloem transport does not occur exclusively in an upward or a downward direction and is not
deined with respect of gravity. Transport or translocation occurs from the areas of supply (sources)
to areas of metabolism or storage (sinks).
22
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

The areas of sources include any exporting organ typically a mature leaf, or storage organ, that is
capable of
i) Storing photosynthate in excess of its own needs.
ii) Storage organ during the exporting phase of its development. In biennials e.g root of beet is a
sink in irst growing season, but becomes source in the
The composition of materials lowing in phloem has
next growing season, when sugars are utilized in growth been studied by using aphids - the insects which are
of new shoots. phloem feeders (Fig 14.11). These insects insert their
stylets into stem or leaf and extend them to puncture
iii) Sinks are the areas of active metabolism or storage a sieve tube. The pressure in the sieve tube cell forces
for example roots, tubers, developing fruits, immature sap through aphid’s digestive tract and out its posterior
end as droplets called “honey dew”. The composition of
leaves, and even the growing tips of stem and root. honey dew have revealed that it contains 10-25% dry
matter 90% or more of which is sucrose. Nitrogenous
The movement in phloem is from source to sinks in most compounds are about 1%.

of the plants during active photosynthesis.

Animation 14.6 Absorptive Root

Source & Credit: cas.miamioh

23
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.11 Collection of phloem sap using aphids

The Mechanism of phloem translocation/transport

The theory called, Pressure - Flow Theory, is the most acceptable theory for the transport in the
phloem of angiosperms. We have considerable evidence to support this theory. There were two
main categories of theories to account for movement of sap in phloem. The active theories involving
the use of energy for the movement of materials in phloem, and the passive theories in which no
use of energy was involved. The active theories have all been abandoned as there is not much
evidence to support these theories.

Now we are left with passive theories of transport / translocation. These include:
24
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

(i) Difusion (ii) Pressure low theory

(i) Difusion: is far too slow, to account for the velocities of sugar movement in phloem, which
on the average is 1 metre per hour, while the rate of difusion is 1 metre per eight years. So we are
left with pressure low theory.

Fig.14.12 Movement of sugars from mesophyll cells to sieve elements.

(ii) Pressure low theaory: A hypothesis was irst proposed by Ernst Munch in 1930. It states
that the low of solution in the sieve elements is driven by anosmotically generated pressure
gradient between””source and sink. Now this hypothesis has been given status of a theory. See Fig.
14.13, the following steps,explain pressure low theory.

(1) The glucose formed in the photosynthesizing cells, is used within the cells (for respiration
etc.) and the rest is converted into non-reducing sugar i.e. sucrose. (2) This sucrose is actively
transported through the bundle sheath cells to the companion cell of the smallest vein in leaf, a

25
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

short distance transport (involving 2 - 3 cells). Thus sucrose difuses through plasmodesmata to
sieve tube cell or sieve element, raising the concentration of sucrose in it. (Fig. 14.12) The pathway
taken by sucrose is symplast in most cases; but is some, apoplastic movement does take place.
The sucrose is actively transported to the sieve elements. (3) The water moves by osmosis from the
nearby xylem in the leaf vein. This increases the hydrostatic pressure of the sieve tube element.

(4) Hydrostatic pressure moves the sucrose and other substances in the sieve tube cells, and moves
to sinks e.g. fruits and roots. In the storage sinks, such as sugar beet root and sugarcane stem,
sucrose is removed into apoplast prior to entering symplast of the sink.

(5) Water moves out of sieve tube cell by osmosis, lowering the hydrostatic pressure.

In symplastic pathway, sucrose (or sugars) move through plasmodesmata to the receiver cell. Thus
according to pressure low theory, the pressure gradient is established as a consequence of entry
of sugars in the sieve elements at the source; and removal of sugars (sucrose) at the sink (Fig.
14.13). The energy driven entry of sugars in sieve tube elements, generate high osmotic pressure
in the sieve tube elements of the source causing a steep drop in the water potential.

(6) The presence of sieve plates greatly increases the resistance along the pathway and results in
the generation and maintenance of a substantial pressure gradient in the sieve elements between
source and sink.

The sieve element’s contents are physically pushed along the transportation pathway by bulk low,
much like water lowing through a garden hose.

The pressure low theory accounts for the mass low of molecules within phloem. It may be noted
that the transpertation of photosynthate or carbohydrates from the mesophyll cells to phloem
tissue involves difusion and active transport (carrier mediated transport). Then in phloem tissue
(sieve tubes) the movement of materials is according to pressure low theory.

Again in the sink cells when the sugar and the carbohydrates are passed from the phloem tissue,
difusion and carrier mediated transport, either passive or active, takes place, (see table 14.1).

26
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig. 14.13 The Pressure-low theory (1) A photosynthesizing leaf manufactures sucrose (red dots), which (2) is actively transported (red
arrow) into a nearby companion cell. The sucrose difuses to sieve-tube element through plasmodesmata, raising the concentration
of sucrose. (3) Water (blue dots leaves nearby xylem and moves into the “leaf end” of the sieve tube by osmosis (blue arrow), raising
the hydrostatic pressure. (4) The same sieve tube connects to a developing fruit (sink); sucrose enters the companion cells by difusion
through plasmodesmata. It is then actively transported out of the companion cells and into the fruit cells. (5) Water moves out of
the sieve tube by osmosis, lowering the hydrostatic pressure within the tube. (6) High pressure in the leaf end of the phloem and low
pressure in the fruit end cause water, together with any dissolved solutes, to low in bulk from leaf (source) to fruit. (Black arrow).

27
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

Unicellular animals have maximum surface area to volume ratio; and most of the substances move
into or out of their bodies by simple difusion, osmosis, active transport, and facilitated difusion.
So there are no special transport systems involved. Same is true of simple multicellular animals
which are aquatic. But complex multicellular animals possess highly organized, and well developed
transport system, in the form of blood vascular system.

Transportation in Hydra
It is fresh water in habitat. The body is two layered;
the outer ectoderm and inner endoderm; in between
them is mesogloea which is non-cellular. The outer
surfaces of the ectoderm cells are exposed to the
water in which the animal lives. Water, dissolved 02,
and food is taken into the coelenteron(enteron) of
Hydra by the movement of tentacles, and lagella
which are present in most cells of endoderm.

The materials and food may be absorbed or taken

up by endocytosis into endodermal cells. The
indigestible and partly digested food is removed
by exocytosis from these cells, into digestive cavity
(coelenteron). Ectodermal cells get food from
endodermal cells by difusion.

The ectodermal cells directly exchange materials

with the surrounding water (Fig 14.14). They also
get nutrients from endodermal cells.

Fig.14.14 Hydra

28
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Transportation in Planaria
The body of Planaria is lat, so the most of its cells are exposed to the outer water. Difusion is the
process involved in the movement of materials into and out of the cells.

There is no special transport system in Planaria. The reasons are:

(i) The body of Planaria is lat, and provides greater surface area for the exchange of materials,
between the body and the environment.

(ii) Planaria is acoelomate i.e. there is no body cavity and the mesodermal layer or mesenchyme is
composed of loosely packed cells between ectoderm and endoderm. Whatever materials, such
as 02, difuse in the ectoderm, pass to mesoderm cells and then difuse into endoderm cells.
For the removal of wastes the same route is reversed. Intestinal caecae reach near almost every
cell of the body and digested food is provided to the cells by difusion. The endoderm cells, can
also acquire food, water, dissolved minerals, and to some extent 02. and remove wastes into the
gut.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

In the body of larger and complex animals, there is very little exposed surface area to volume ratio.
Most of the cells are not exposed to the external environment directly and it becomes very diicult
to transport materials by simpl difusion. Complex animals have evolved transport systems in the
form of blood vascular system or circulatory system.

Characteristics of Circulatory System

A circulatory system accounts for rapid mass low of materials from one part of the body to the
other, where difusion would be too slow.

There are three characteristics of a circulatory system.

(A) A circulatory luid - the blood.
(B) A contractile pumping device - which may be the modiied blood vessel or a heart.
(C) Tubes, which can transport the circulatory luid (blood) to and from cells of the body These
tubes are the blood vessels. Materials must be exchanged between the circulatory luid and
other body cells.
29
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Open and Closed Circulatory System

The circulatory systems of animals are divided into two main types:
a) Open circulatory system: It is observed in animals belonging to Phylum Arthropoda (crustaceans,
spiders, insects) and Phylum Mollusca (snails and clams) and group of protochordates, the tunicates.

b) closed circulatory system: It is observed in animals belonging to annelids,cephalopod molluscs

(squids and octopus), echinoderms and vertebrates.

The diferences between open circulatory system and closed circulatory system would be clear by
studying the comparison between circulartary systems of earth worm and cockroach, (see table
14.1).

Animation 14.7: Circulatory System

Source and Credit: technostrikers

30
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Table 14.1 Comparison between closed and open circulatory systems.

Closed circulatory system e.g. Open circulatory system e.g.
Earthworm (Pheretima) cockroach (Periplaneta)
1. Blood always remain in the blood vessels, and 1. Blood does not remain enclosed in the blood
does not come in direct contact with other cells vessels and comes in direct contact with other
of the body. body cells, and bathes them.
2. Inter connected system of arteries , veins, and 2. There are no typical arteries, veins, and
capillaries present. capillaries and for much of the time the blood
called haemolymph lows in the cavities or
sinuses of body cavity (hoemocoel) around the
viscera (perivisceral sinus) and around the nerve
cord (perineural sinus).
3. Exchange of nutrients and waste products 3. Exchange of nutrients and waste products
between the blood and tissues via tissue luid between the blood and tissues occurs when
occurs through capillaries. blood directly bathes the tissues.
4. The system also transports gases i.e. oxygen 4. This sytem does not transport gases i.e.
and carbon dioxide. oxygen and carbon dioxide (these gases are
transported by tracheal system).
5. Respiratory pigment haemoglobin is dissolved 5. No respiratory pigment and blood is colourless
in blood. Nucleated white blood cells are present. in which nucleated white blood cells loat.
6. This is regarded as the most advanced type, 6. This is regarded as primitive having lesser
having greater eiciency, maintaining the blood eiciency and does not maintain blood pressure.
pressure and economy of blood volume.
7. In earthworm there are 4 or 5 pairs of lateral 7. In cockroach the heart is 13-chambered,
hearts present on the lateral side of oesophagus tubular vessel present in the pericardial sinus
in 7th to 13th segments. Hearts pump the blood and placed in mid-dorsal region below terga in
from the dorsal to the ventral blood vessel. abdominal region. On the side of the pericardial
sinus there are alary muscles helping in the
low of blood. Each heart chamber has a pair of
lateral openings, the ostia.
8. There are three main longitudinally running 8. The portion of the tubular dorsal vessel
blood vessels, dorsal, ventral and sub-neural, which extends in the thoracic and head
which are interconnected through capillaries region is called the “aorta”. It opens
and commissural vessels. anteriorly in the haemocoel of the head by
funnel shaped opening.

31
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab
9. The dorsal vessel collects blood from the 14th 9. The low of blood from heart to, aorta to,
segment backwards. In the irst 13 segments haemocoel in head, to perivisceral sinus,
it becomes distributing channel and sends its to perineural sinus, to pervisceral sinus, to
blood to hearts and anterior end of the body. pericardial sinus, and to heart through ostia.
Ventral vessel is the chief distributing vessel with
backward low.The subneural vessel is collecting
vessel and the low of blood is backwards. It
communicates with dorsal blood vessel through
commissural vessels.

Fig. 14.15 Closed circulatory system of earthworm

Animation 14.8: Closed circulatory system of earthworm

Source and Credit: waterwereld

32
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.16 Open circulatory system of cockroach, (a) The heart with alary muscle and dorsal diaphragm,
(b) T.S of cockroach through thorax showing various sinuses.

Vertebrate blood circulatory system

The components of vertebrate blood vascular system are typical of a circulatory system-blood,
heart, blood vessels (arteries, capillaries and veins). All vertebrates have closed circulatory system
In addition there is lymphatic system which also aids in transportation.

Heart pumps the blood to diferent parts of the body via aorta and arteries Arteries break into ine
blood vessels, the capillaries. These join to form veins which bring blood back to the heart. The
capillaries are sites where exchange of materials between blood and body tissues takes place.

Evolution of vertebrate heart

The heart of ishes have sinus venosus, an atrium, a ventricle, and bulbus arteriosus or conus
arteriosus. Sinus venosus receives deoxygenated blood from the body,and then blood is passed
to atrium, which on contraction passes it to ventricle. ventricle has thick muscular wall. When
the muscles of ventricle contract, they push the blood via conus arteriosus or bulbous arteriosus
(proximal swollen portion of ventral aorta).

33
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Thus the heart of fishes works as a single circuit heart. The blood flows in one direction only,
from sinus venosus to atrium then to ventricle The heart of the ishes never receives oxygenated blood.
and to ventral aorta via bulbus arteriosus or conus It is only the deoxygenated blood which passes through
diferent chambers of the heart. (Fig. 14.18 a). The valves
arteriosus to the gills and then to the body. The present in the heart control the low of blood in single
blood returns to the heart in the sinus venosus The direction i.e. sinus venosus —> atrium —> ventricle conus
arteriosus —> ventral aorta —> gills —> dorsal aorta —»
oxygenated blood is supplied from dorsal aorta body —» sinus venosus. So the heart of ishes functions as
through coronary arteries,to the heart and is carried a single circuit heart.
back by coronary veins from the heart).

In amphibians the heart is three chambered with regard to auricles and ventricles.There are two
auricles and one ventricle. In addition, sinus venosus and truncus arteriosus are also present.
Sinus venosus receives de-oxygenated blood from two superior venacavae (precavals) and one
inferior vena cava (postcaval) from diferent parts
of the body. This blood passes to the right auricle.
The oxygenated blood from lungs is poured via
pulmonary veins into left auricle. Both auricles
contract simultaneously and blood is passed
into the ventricle. There is a complete mixing
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the
ventricle. When ventricle contracts, it pushes
blood via truncus arteriosus, to two carotids, two
systemics, and two pulmocutaneous arches.
(Fig. 14.19b).

Fig. 14.17 Structure of heart of frog

Animation 14.9: Structure of heart of frog

Source and Credit: multelearn

34
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.18 A schematic comparison of vertebrate heart and circulation of blood. (A) In modern ish
the blood is pumped to the gills, where it picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood (red) then passes
without further pumping to the systemic circulation, where it gives up its oxygen before returning
to the heart. (B) In amphibians the blood that has picked up oxygen in the gills and/or lungs returns
to the heart, from which it is pumped into the systemic circulation. Extensive mixing (purple) of
the pulmonary and systemic lows occurs in the heart. (C) In reptiles the pattern is much the same,
except that the ventricles are partially divided, so less mixing takes place. (D) In mammals and birds
the two halves of the heart are efectively separated.

The heart of reptiles and all other amniotes practically functions as four chambered heart. There
are two auricles in the heart of reptiles. The reptiles have incompletely partitioned ventricle; but in
crocodiles, the interventricular septum is complete and heart is four chambered. In all reptiles the
left and right systemic arches carry oxygenated blood and arise from a region of ventricle called

35
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

cavum venosum - into which left ventricle directs its blood. The deoxygenated blood from the right
atrium is directed towards the entrance of the pulmonary trunk which is also located or starts from
a pocket the cavum pulmonale, on right side of ventricle- in the animals (reptiles) which do not have
completely divided ventricle. Although the two systemic arches start from the ventricle separately,
they are also interconnected at their base by an opening. The heart of reptiles birds and mammals
functions as double circuit heart. (Fig. 14.19c).
In the birds and mammals, the heart is four -
chambered, and oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood does not mix at all. The pulmonary trunk
arises from right ventricle and leads to the lungs.

The aortic trunk emerges from the left ventricle

and leads to carotid and systemic arches. The left
systemic disappears in birds and right systemic,
most of it, disappears in mammals. (Fig. 14.19
D).

In reptile, birds and mammals, as a result of

these modiications, all blood returning to the
right side of the heart passes to the lungs. After
oxygenation, blood returns to left atrium from
the lungs via pulmonary veins. Left atrium passes
this blood to left ventricle - which on contraction
pumps it to diferent parts of the body, and
again blood returns to right atrium (Fig.14.18D).
Pulmonary circulation is by pulmonary arch
carrying deoxygenated blood from right ventricle
of heart to lungs, and the blood returns to left
atrium after oxygenation via pulmonary veins.

Likewise the systemic arch distributes blood

to diferent parts of the body, and then the
blood from the body returns to the heart, in
the right atrium via precaval and postcaval.
This is systemic circulation. So the hearts of
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals have
Fig. 14.19 The human circulatory system
both pulmonary and systemic circulation.
36
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

TRANSPORT IN MAN :

In humans, in addition to blood circulatory system, there is also another transport system, the
lymphatic system, described latter in this chapter.

Blood circulatory system

The circulatory system of humans have the same 3 basic components.
(A) Circulating luid - the blood.
(B) The pumping organ - the heart.
(C) The blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins.

(A) The circulatory luid-the blood

The blood is the medium in which dissolved nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes are transported
through the body. It is made up of two main components, (i) plasma and (ii) cells or cell - like bodies
(white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets). The weight of the blood in our body is about 1/12th of
our body.

(i) PLASMA : It has been estimated that in a normal person plasma constitutes about 55% by
volume of the blood, and cells or cell-like bodies about 45% by volume of the blood.

Plasma is primarily water in which proteins, salts, nutrients and wastes are dissolved. Water
constitutes about 90% of plasma, 10% are dissolved substances. Most of the dissolved substances
are maintained at a constant or nearly constant level, but others occur in varying concentrations.

The substances dissolved or present in plasma vary in their concentrations, with the condition of
the organism and with the portion of the system under examination. The solutes can be divided
into six categories:

Inorganic salts (ions) - Plasma proteins - Organic nutrients - Nitrogenous waste products - Special
products being transported and gases which are dissolved.

1. Inorganic ions or mineral ions. Together the inorganic ions and salts make up 0.9 per cent
of the plasma, of humans, by weight; more than two thirds of this amount is sodium chloride the
ordinary table salt. Even if the total concentration of dissolved substances remains the same, shifts

37
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

in the concentration of particular ion can create serious disturbances. The normal pH of human
blood is 7.4; and it is maintained between narrow limits, because the change in pH would afect the
chemical reactions of the body.

2. The plasma proteins constitute 7-9 percent by weight of the plasma. Most of these proteins
are synthesized in the liver. Some of the globulins, called immunoglobulins or antibodies, are
produced in response to antigens, by lymphocytes; and then are passed to plasma, and lymph.

The proteins like prothrombin acts as a catalyst in blood clotting process. Fibrinogen takes part in
the blood clotting process. Immunoglobulins play important role in body’s defenses against disease.

3. Organic nutrients in the blood include, glucose, fats, phospholipids, amino acids and
lactic acids. Some of them enter the blood from the intestine (absorption). Lactic acid is produced
in muscles as a result of glycolysis, and is transported by blood to liver. Cholesterol is an important
constituent, it is metabolized to some extent, but also serves as precursor of steroid hormones.

4. Plasma also contains nitrogenous waste products formed as a result of cellular

metabolism. These products are carried from the liver where they are produced, to the organs from
where they are removed i.e. kidneys. Urea and small amounts of uric acid are present in plasma.

5. All the hormones in the body are carried by blood - so they are present in the plasma.

6. The gases such as CO2, O2 are present in the plasma of the blood.

Animation 14.10: Blood Circulatory system

Source & Credit: my-ecoach

38
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.20 Red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leucocytes) develop from stem cells in bone marrow.

(ii) BLOOD CELLS AND CELL LIKE BODIES : These include red blood cells, (Erythrocytes),
white blood cells (leucocytes) and platelets.

(a) Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) : These are most numerous of the cells in the blood. A
cubic millimeter contains 5-1/2 million of them in males, and 4-1/2 million in females. These cells,
when formed, have nucleus, but it is lost before they enter the circulatory luid or blood. 95% of the
cytoplasm of red blood cells is the red pigment, called haemoglobin the remaining 5% consists of
enzymes, salts and other proteins. The red cells once mature, do not divide.

Red blood cells are formed principally in the red bone marrow of short bones, such as the sternum,
ribs and vertebrae (Fig. 14.20). In the embryonic life, they are formed in the liver and spleen. The
average life span of red blood cell is about four months after which it breaks down and disintegrates
in the liver and spleen - partly by phagocytes by phagocytosis (Table -14.2)

(b) White blood cells (Leucocytes): These blood cells are colourless, as they do not contain

39
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

pigments. One cubic millimetre of blood contains 7000 to 8000 of them. They are much larger than
the red blood cells. There are at least ive diferent types which can be distinguished on the basis
of the shape of the nucleus and density of granules in the cytoplasm (Table 14.2). They can be
grouped into two main types, granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes, include neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils. They are formed in the red bone marrow (Fig. 14.20). Agranulocytes are
formed in lymphoid tissue, such as those of the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids and the
thymus. Agranulocytes include monocytes and lymphocytes (B and T). Monocytes stay from 10- 20
hours in the blood, then enter tissues and become tissue macrophages, performing phagocytic
function (Fig. 14.24) Lymphocytes have life spans of months or even years; but this depends on the
body’s need for these cells.

Fig. 14.21 A macrophage in Action Fig. 14.22 The production of platelets

Animation 14.11: white blood cells

Source and Credit: gifsoup

40
V: 1.1
14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig. 14.23 Blood clotting

Animation 14.12: Blood Cells

Source & Credit: imgur

41
V: 1.1
14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

42
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Leucocytes protect the body against foreign invaders, and use circulatory system to travel to the
site of invasion. Monocytes and neutrophils travel through capillaries and reach the site of wound
where bacteria have gained entry. Macrophages and neutrophils feed on bacterial invaders or
other foreign cells, including cancer cells (Fig. 14.21). They typically die in the process, and their
dead bodies accumulate and contribute to the white substance called pus, seen at infection sites.

Basophils produce heparin - a substance that inhibits blood clotting. These also produce chemicals,
such as histamine, that participate in allergic reactions and in responses to tissue damage and
microbial invasion. Lymphocytes help to provide immunity against the disease.

(c) Platelets : These are not cells, but are fragments of large cells called megakaryoctyes (Fig.
14.22). There is no nucleus in them. There is no pigment in them. Platelets help in conversion of
ibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein, into insoluble form, ibrin. The ibrin threads enmash red
blood cells and other platelets in the area of damaged tissue, ultimately forming a blood clot. The
clot serves as a temporary seal to prevent bleeding until the damaged tissue can be repaired (Fig.
14.23).

Functions of blood
The overall functions of blood in humans can be listed as follows:

i) The plasma proteins maintain colloid osmotic pressure of the blood (75% by albumins, 25% by
globulins and almost none by ibrinogen).

ii) Blood helps to transport materials, in the body including nutrients, water, salts and waste
products. All hormones are transported by blood from the endocrine tissues to the target cells.

iii) Gases O2 and CO2 are transported by blood.

iv) Blood helps in body defenses against disease, neutrophils and monocytes engulf and destroy
invading microorganisms e.g. bacteria.

v) Blood provides immunity by the lymphocytes (pages 325-327).

vi) Blood produces interferon, and antitoxins which are proteins, and protects our body from
nucleic acids and toxins of invading organism.

43
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

vii) Blood acts as a bufer to maintain the acid - base balance i.e. concentration of H+ and OH ions
of the body.

viii) Helps in maintaining the body temperature, concentration of water and salts, thus helps in
homeostosis.

ix) Wall of Blood helps in the exchange of materials between blood and body tissue through blood
capillaries via interstitial luid.

x) Blood helps the body in maintaining the internal environment, by producing heparin, histamines,
and also maintaining the amounts of chemicals including water and salts, in the body and
maintains body temperature to a constant or nearly constant levels.

xi) Helps in blood clotting process and seals the wounds, that stop entry of pathogens into body.

DISORDERS

There are certain disorders, related to the blood. Some of them are discussed below:

i) Leucaemia (Blood Cancer)

It is the result of uncontrolled production of white blood cells (leucocytes). This is caused by a
cancerous mutation of a myelogenous or lymphogenous cell. The Leucaemia is usually characteriszed
by greatly increased numbers of abnormal white blood cells in the circulating blood. Myelogenous
cells (bone marrow cells) are in the bone marrow - and may spread throughout the body, so that
white blood cells are produced in many other organs. These white blood cells are not completely
diferentiated, and so are defective. Leucaemia may be of diferent types depending on the type
of white blood cells, which are undiferentiated and being produced at a faster, than normal rate.
There may be neutrophilic leucaemia, eosinophilic leucaemia, basophilic leucaemia, monocytic or
lymphocytic leucaemia. It is a very serious disorder and the patient needs to change the blood
regularly with the normal blood, got from donors. It can be cured by bone marrow transplant -
which is in most cases efective, but very expensive treatment.

ii) Thalassaemia (G. Thalassa = The sea; haema = blood)

It is also called Cooley’s anaemia on the name of Thomas B. Cooley, American pediatrician. It is a

44
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

genetically transmitted haemoglobin abnormality. It is characterized by the presence of microcytes,

by spleenomegaly (enlargement of spleen) and by changes in the bones and skin. The blood of
these patients is to be replaced regularly, with normal blood. It can be cured by bone marrow
transplant - which is very expensive - and does not give 100% cure rate. Haemoglobin molecule in
most cases, does not have (b- chains in it, instead F.chain is present (F is foetal haemoglobin).

iii) Oedema
It means the presence of excess luid in the tissues of the body. The excess luid may be in the
cells, or outside the cells. The intracellular oedema is caused by osmosis of water into the cells, and
cause, depression of metabolic systems (due to lack of nutrition and O2 in the tissues) especially
and the Na-pump.

The extracellular oedema may be the result of :

i) Abnormal leakage of luid from the blood capillaries or failure of the lymphatic system to return
luid from the interstitial luid.

ii) Oedma is caused by renal retention of salts and water. Oedema disturbs the exchange and
concentration of minerals and ions in the blood and body cells, afects blood pressure, increases
heart load etc.

(B) Pumping Organ - The Heart

Structure and action : The heart of humans is located in the chest cavity. The heart is enclosed in
a double membranous sac - the pericardial cavity, which contains the pericardial luid. Pericardium
protects the heart, prevents it from over extension.

The wall of the heart is composed of three layers.

(i) Epicardium (ii) Myocardium (iii) Endocardium

Myocardium of the heart is made up of special type of muscles, the cardiac muscles.

These muscles contain myoibrils, and myoilaments of myosin and actin. Their arrangement is
similar to those in skeletal muscle ibres, and their mechanism of contraction is essentially the
same, except that they are branched cells, in which the successive cells are separated by junctions
called intercalated discs. The heart contracts automatically with rhythmicity, under the control of
the autonomic nervous system of the body.
45
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig 14.24 The human heart and its valves and vessels.

There are four chambers of the heart: two upper thin-walled atria, and two lower thick walled
ventricles. Human heart functions as a double pump, and is responsible for pulmonary and systemic
circulation. Complete separation of deoxygenated blood (Right side) and oxygenated blood (left
side), in the heart, is maintained. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood via venae cavae
from the body.

The blood is passed on to right ventricle through tricuspid valve (called so because it has 3 laps).
These laps are attached with ibrous cords called chordeae tendinae, to the papillary muscles
which are extensions of the wall of the right ventricle. When right ventricle contracts, the blood is

46
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

passed to pulmonary trunk, which carries blood via left and right pulmonary arteries, to the lungs.
At the base of the pulmonary trunk, semilunar valves are present. After oxygenation in lungs the
blood is brought by pulmonary veins to the left atrium, which passes this blood via bicuspid valve
(called so because it has two laps) to the left ventricle. The laps of bicuspid valve are similarly
attached through chordae tendinae, to papillary muscles of the wall of left ventricle. When the left
ventricle contracts, it pushes the blood through aorta to all parts of the body (except lungs). At the
base of aorta semilunar valves are also present. The valves of the heart control the direction of low
of blood. The wall of left ventricle is thicker (about 3 times) than that of the right ventricle. At the base
of aorta, irst pair of arteries,
the coronary arteries, arise,
and supply blood to the heart.
The aorta forms an arch, and
before descending down gives
three branches supplying
blood to head, arms and
shoulders. The aorta descends
down in the chest cavity. It
gives many small branches to
the chest wall and then passes
down to the abdominal region.
Here it gives branches, which
supply blood to diferent parts
of alimentary canal, kidneys
and the lower abdomen. Fig.14.25 The structure of cardiac muscle

The aorta Bifurcates into iliac arteries, each of which leads to supply blood to each legs. The blood from
the upper part of the body is collected by diferent veins, which join to form superior vena cava; which
pass its blood to the right atrium. Two Iliac veins are formed by veins which collect blood from legs, and
unite to from inferior vena cava. It receives renal vein from each kidney; and hepatic vein from the
liver, before it enters the right atrium. The liver receives hepatic portal vein which is formed by many
veins collecting deoxygenated blood with absorbed food from diferent parts of alimentary canal.

The Cardiac Cycle

It is the sequence of events which take place during the completion of one heart beat. Heart beat
involves three distinct stages (Fig. 14.26).

47
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab
1. Relaxation phase - diastole.
The deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through vena cava, and oxygenated blood enters left
atrium through pulmonary veins. The walls of the atria and that of ventricles are relaxed. As the
atria are illed with blood, they become distended and have more pressure than the ventricles. This
relaxed period of heart chambers is called diastole.

2. Atria Contract - atrial systole

The muscles of atria simultaneously contract, when the atria are illed and distended with blood,
this is called atrial systole. The blood passes through tricuspid and bicuspid valves, into the two
ventricles which are relaxed.

3. Ventricles contract - ventricular systole

When the ventricles receive blood from atria, both ventricles contract simultaneously and the blood
is pumped to pulmonary arteries and aorta. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, and ‘lubb’
sound is made. Ventricular systole ends, and ventricles relax at the same time semilunar valves
at the base of pulmonary artery and aorta close simultaneously, and ‘dubb’ sound is made. (Lubb,
dubb can be heard with the help of a stethoscope).

One complete heart beat consists of one systole and one diastole, and lasts for about 0.8 seconds.
In one’s life, heart contracts about 2.5 billion times, without stopping.

Fig.14.26 The cardiac cycle

48
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Mechanism of heart Excitation and Contraction

The heart beat cycle described above starts when the sino-atrial node (Pace maker) at the upper end
of right atrium sends out electrical impulses to the atrial muscles, and causing both atria to contract.
The sino-atrial node consists of a small number of difusely oriented cardiac ibres, possessing few
myoibrils; and few nerve endings from
the autonomic nervous system.

Impulses from the node travel to the

musculature of the atrium and to
an atrioventricular node. From it an
atrioventricular bundle of muscle ibres
propagates the regulatory impulses
via excitable ibres in interventricular
septum, to themyocardium of
the ventricles. There is a delay
of approximately 0.15 second in
conductance from the S-A node to A-V
node, permitting atrial systole to be
completed before ventricular systole
begins (Fig. 14.28). Fig.14.27 The heart’s pacemaker and its connections

Animation 14.13: Heart pacemaker

Source & Credit: thevisualmd

49
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Electrocardiogram
As the cardiac impulse passes through the heart, electrical currents spread into the tissues
surrounding the heart, and a small proportion of these spread all the way on the surface of the

A normal electrocardiogram (ECG) indicates that the heart is functioning properly. The P wave
occurs just prior to atrial contraction; the QRS wave occurs just prior to ventricular contraction
and the T wave occurs when the ventricles are recovering from contraction.

body. If electrodes are placed on the skin on opposite sides of the heart, electrical potentials
generated by these currents can be recorded. This recording is known as electro cardiogram which
is taken by electrocardiograph (E.C.G.) machine. It helps to diagonose the abnormalities in the
rhythmicity and conduction system of the heart which may be corrected by the use of artiicial
pacemaker.
Artiicial pace maker
Pacemaker is responsible for initiating the impulses which trigger the heart beat rate. If there
is some block in the low of the electrical impulses, or if the impulses initiated by S.A. node are
weak; it may lead to death of the individual. So an artiicial pacemaker, which is battery operated
producing electrical stimulus is used. For example if A-V pathway is blocked, the electrodes of
artiicial pacemaker are attached to the ventricle. Then this pacemaker provides continued rhythmic
impulses that take over the control of the ventricles.

50
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Blue babies
Failure of interatrial foramen (an opening in the inter-atrial septum) to close or of ductus arteriosus
to fully constrict results in cyanosis (blueness of skin) of new bom. This is due to mixing of blood
between two atria and the mixed blood is supplied to the body of newborn babies resulting in
blueness of skin, thus the name blue babies.

(C) Blood vessels

The third component of the blood circulatory system of humans comprises of the blood vessels;
arteries, capillaries and veins.

(i) Arteries : These are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart to diferent parts
of the body. The wall of the arteries is made up of three layers, outer, (made of connective tissue
and elastic ibres), middle (made of thick muscular tissue and elastic ibres) and inner, endothelium
(Table 14-3, and Fig 14.30).

The contraction of the circular (smooth muscles) of arteries and arterioles is under the control of
nervous and endocrine systems. When stimulated the muscle contracts, constricting the arterioles
(vasoconstriction) and thus reducing the low of blood in them.

When the muscles are relaxed the arterioles are dilated (vasodilation) more blood lows in them,
The arterioles themselves divide repeatedly until they form a dense network of microscopic vessels,
called capillaries.

Atherosclerosis (G. athere = porridge; skeleoris = hardening): It is coexisting atheroma and

arteriosclerosis; atheroma is deposition of hard yellow plaque of lipoid material in the inner most
layer of the arteries, which may be due to high level of cholesterol in the blood.Arteriosclerosis
is a degenerative arterial change associated with advancing age. Primarily a thickening of middle
layer of arteries, and usually associated with some degree of atheroma. So Atherosclerosis causes
narrowing and hardening of arteries. This increases the risk of formation of thrombus (see thrombus
formation), and if thrombus is formed in the brain or heart it is fatal. (Atherosclerosis is a major
condition leading to heart attack.

(ii) Capillaries : These are blood vessels with walls that are only one cell thick (Table 4.3, Fig. 14.29,
14.30). Although the blood appears conined within the capillary walls, the latter are permeable with
the result, that water and dissolved substances pass in and out exchanging oxygen, carbon dioxide
dissolved food and excretory products with the tissues around capillary. The capillary network is
51
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

so dense that no living cell is far from a supply of oxygen and food. In the liver, every cell is in
direct contact with a capillary. The diameter of a capillary can be altered by nervous stimulation,
which tends to close them, and by chemicals, such as histamine, which dilate them. The change in
diameter is brought about by a change in the shape of the cells, constituting their walls. The pre
capillary sphincters also regulate the amount of blood lowing in capillaries. Thus the amount of
blood lowing in a certain tissue is controlled.

The capillaries are the sites where the materials are exchanged between the blood and body tissues.
This exchange occurs in three ways.

(i) Active transport and difusion through the cells lining the capillary wall into the interstitial or
extracellular luid, and then to the body cells, and vice versa.

(ii) Through the intercellular spaces of endothelial lining of wall of capillary to and from the
extracellular luid.

(iii) Materials from the cavity of capillaries are also taken up by endocytosis, and then passed to
the other side by exocytosis. Same is true for some materials entering from the interceullar
spaces (extracellular luid) into the blood.

Thus the exchange of materials takes place between blood and tissues via extracellular or interstitial
luid. Capillaries join to form venules, which join to form veins.

(iii) Veins : These blood vessels transport blood from body cells towards heart. The wall of veins
has same three layers as are present in arteries. But middle layer is relatively thin and only slightly
muscular, with few elastic ibres, (table 14.3 and Fig. 14.30). The semilunar valves are present in the
veins. These valves prevent the back low of blood, as it is moving towards the heart. The pressure
of surrounding muscles, when they contract, tends to squash the veins and assist the return of
blood towards heart.

Veins join to form larger veins, and ultimately form venae cavae (Inferior vena cava and superior
vena cava) which pour the blood into the right atrium of the heart. The oxygenated blood from the
lungs is brought to the left atrium by pulmonary veins.

52
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.29 The exchange of gases and nutrients in a capillary.

The pressure within capillaries causes a continuous leakage of luid from the blood plasma into
the spaces that surround the capillaries and tissues. This luid, known as interstitial luid consists
primarily of water, in which the dissolved nutrients, hormones gases, wastes, and small proteins
from the blood are present. Large proteins red blood cells and platelets cannot cross the intercellular
spaces of capillary wall, so they remain within capillaries. But some white blood cells can squeeze
out through the intercellular spaces of capillary wall. Interstitial luid is the medium through which
the exchange of materials between the blood and nearby cell occurs. (Fig. 14.29)

53
V: 1.1
14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.30 Showing the comparison in structure of artery, capillary and vein.

Animation 14.14: Structure of artery

Source & Credit: my-ecoach

54
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Table 14.3 Comparison in structure and function of an artery, capillary and vein

Arteries Veins Capillaries

1. These transport blood away 1. These collect blood from 1. These link arteries with veins.
from the heart to the various body through capillaries and
parts of the body through transp ort it towards heart.
capillaries.
2. All arteries carry oxygenated 2. All veins carry deoxygenated 2. These have mixed oxygenated
blood except pulmonary blood except pulmonary and deoxygenated blood.
arteries. veins.
3. There are no valves in them 3. Valves are present. These 3. There are no valves.
except at the base of prevent the back low of
pulmonary trunk and aorta. blood.
4. Have high blood pressure. 4. Have low blood pressure. 4. Falling pressure in these.
5. Wave of blood pressure or 5. No pulse. 5. No pulse.
pulse due toheartbeat can
be detected.
6. Blood low rapid. 400-500mm 6 . Rate of blood low increases 6. Blood low slowest less than
per second in aorta and from smaller to larger veins. 1 mm per second.
decreasing in arteries and
arterioles.
7. Have smaller bore and thick 7. Have larger bore and thin 7. Larger bore; wall one cell in
wall. walls. thickness.
8. Thick muscle layer and elastic 8. Thin muscle layer and less 8. No muscles or elastic ibres.
ibres present. The elasticity elastic ibres. So they are less
helps changing the pulsating elastic.
low of blood.
9. No exchange of materials. 9. No exchange of materials. 9. Responsible for exchange of
materials.

Blood Pressure and Rate of low of Blood

It is the measure of force with which blood pushes up against the walls of blood vessels. It is
the force that keeps blood lowing from the heart to all the capillary networks in the body. This
pressure is generated by the contraction of ventricles (ventricle systole) and is the highest in aorta,
then gradually reduces in arteries. The walls of arteries are elastic and the low of blood stretches
them, and it is felt as pulse. During diastole, the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, the heart is
not exerting pressure on the blood in the arteries and pressure in them falls. The pressure reaches

55
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

its high point during systole (systolic pressure which in normal individuals is 120 mm Hg) and its
low point during diastole (diastolic pressure which in normal individuals ranges between 75-85
mm Hg). The blood pressure gradually declines (Fig. 14.31). The decline of the blood pressure in
successive parts of systemic circuit, is the result of friction between the lowing blood and the walls
of the blood vessels - thus blood moves from a region of higher pressure towards a region of lower
pressure.

Several other changes occur along the route of blood low.

i) The diference between systolic and diastolic pressure continues to diminish until it disappears
in the capillaries and veins.

ii) The rate of blood low tends to fall as the blood moves through the branching arteries and
arterioles, the rate is lowest in the capillaries; and increases again in the venules and veins. These
changes in rate of blood low result from changes in the total cross sectional area of the vessel
system. The low of blood in veins is maintained by the contraction of surrounding muscles and the
action of semilunar valves which prevent back low of blood. Muscular activity including breathing
movements help normal low of blood in the body.

Fig.14.31(a) graph of blood pressure in diferent parts of the human circulatory system.

56
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig.14.31 (b)Change in the velocity of blood low in the various parts of a systemic circulatory pathway.

Hypertension
It is a condition of high blood pressure. Prolonged high blood pressure damages the lining of the
blood vessels and also leads to weakening of heart muscles (which have become thickened due
to the continuous strain imposed on them), with declining eiciency of the pumping action of the
heart. Blood may then be retained in the heart and lungs, often leading to fatal condition called
congestive heart failure.

Thrombus Formation and Hypertension

Thrombus is a solid mass or plug of blood constituents
(clot) in a blood vessel. This mass may block (wholly
or only in part) the vessels in which it forms, or it may
be dislodged and carried to some other location in
the circulatory system, in which case it is called an
embolus. Thrombosis is the formation of thrombus
(Fig. 14.32). Thromboembolism is leading cause of
deaths in western civilization.

14.32 A thrombus in a small blood vessel. The thrombus (tangled red

mass) has blocked blood low near a point where the vessel branches.
The blood has pulled away from the left end of the thrombus and is
beginning to pull away from the right end also.

57
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Thrombus formation may be due the following:

i) Irritation or infection of lining of blood vessels.
ii) Reduced rate of blood low, due to long periods
of inactivity.
iii) Pneumonia and tuberculosis, emphysema

Heart attack (Myocardial infarction)

Blockage of blood vessel in the heart by an embolus (or by locally formed thrombus) causes necrosis
or damage to portion of heart muscles, a condition known as a heart attack or technically myocardial
infarction, Heart attack is due to disruptions of control system of the heart with accompanying
arrhythmias, especially ventricular ibrillation.

We can avoid the above mentioned situations if we :

i) Avoid too much fatty food (especially rich in cholesterol). Maintain normal body weight.
ii) Control blood pressure by regular walk and exercise.
iii) Do not smoke.

Stroke
If the normal low of blood is blocked by an embolus (or a locally formed thrombus), in a blood
vessel in the brain, and causes necrosis, or death, of the surrounding neural tissue (owing to lack
of O2), the condition is called a stroke or cerebral infarction. The symptoms of the stroke vary
depending on the part of the brain that has been damaged.

Haemorrhage
It is the discharge of blood from blood vessels. Especially important is the brain haemorrhage which
results from bursting of any of the arteries supplying the brain. When the wall of the arteries becomes
hard and loses its elasticity - and higher blood pressures would result in brain haemorrhage. To
avoid brain haemorrhage, the blood pressure must be controlled between normal limits.

In almost all the above mentioned problems, it is important to take following preventive measures :

• Taking in of less cholesterol in our food. Maintenance of normal blood pressure.

• Do not become over weight.
• Do not smoke.
• Do regular exercise.
• Avoid stress and tension.

58
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This system is responsible for the transport and returning of materials from the tissues of the body
to the blood.

The system comprises lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphoid masses, lymph nodes, and lymph-
the luid which lows in the system.

Lymph capillaries end blindly in the body tissues, where pressure from the accumulation of
interstitial luid or extracellular luid forces the luid into the lymph capillaries. When this luid
enters the lymph capillaries, it is called lymph. The lymph vessels empty in veins; so lymph is a luid
in transit between interstitial luid and the blood.

The intercellular spaces in the walls of lymph vessels are larger than those of the capillaries of blood
vascular system. So larger molecules, from the interstitial luid can also enter the lymph capillaries.

Lymph capillaries join to form larger and larger lymph vessels; and ultimately form thoracic lymph
duct, which opens into subclavian vein. The low of lymph is always towards the thoracic duct.

In the intestine, the branches of lymph capillaries, within villi, are called lacteals.

The low of lymph is maintained by :

Activity of skeletal muscles, movement of viscera, breathing movements and the valves, which
prevent back low of lymph.

Along the pathway, the lymph vessels have, at certain points, masses of connective tissue where
lymphocytes are present; these are lymph nodes. Several aferent lymph vessels enter a lymph
node, which is drained by a single, eferent lymph vessels.

Lymph nodes are present in the neck region, axilla and groin of humans.

In addition, several lymphoid masses are present in the walls of digestive tract, in the mucosa and
submucosa. The larger masses spleen and thymus, tonsils and adenoids are all lymphoid masses.
These produce lymphocytes.
59
V: 1.1
14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Fig. 14.33 Human lymphatic system.

60
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

There are the several functions performed by lymphatic system.

i) In an average person, about three litres more luid leaves the blood capillaries than is
reabsorbed by them each day. It returns this excess luid and its dissolved proteins and other
substances to the blood.

ii) The lacteals of villi absorb large fat globules, which are released by interstitial cells after the
products of digestion of fats are absorbed. After a fatty meal these fat globules may make
up 1% of the lymph.

iii) The lymphatic system helps defend the body against foreign invaders. Lymph nodes have
lymphocytes and macrophages that destroy bacteria and viruses. The painful swelling of
lymph nodes in certain diseases (mumps is an extreme example) is largely a result of the
accumulation of dead lymphocytes and macrophages.

iv ) Just as the lymph nodes ilter lymph, the spleen ilters blood, exposing it to macrophages and
lymphoctyes that destroy foreign particles and aged red blood cells.

IMMUNITY - AND ITS TYPES

Immunity
The capacity to recognize the intrusion of any material foreign to the body and to mobilize cells
and cell products to help remove the particular sort of foreign material with greater speed and
efectiveness” is called immunity.

In animals in addition to physical barriers (skin + mucous membranes) and phagocytes, there is a
third mechanism, to defend their bodies against the foreign
invaders; this is the immune system. Lymphocyte T and B have been named due
to their relationship with Thymus gland, and
Bursa of Fabricius respectively. The inluence
The components of immune system include the lymphocytes of the thymus gland essential in making
T-cells immunologically competent.Bursa of
(B and T) and the antibodies - which are special type of proteins.
Fabricius is lymphoid structure present in
These antibodies are immunoglobulins which are synthesized the wall ofcloaca of young birds from where
by vertebrates, in response to antigens; and immobilise it, or B-lymphoctyes were discovered to have role
in immune system.
sets in motion events that ultimately cause its destruction.

61
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Antigen or immunogen is a foreign substance, often a protein which stimulates the formation
of antibodies (Fig. 14.34) Antibodies are speciic i.e. cause the destruction of the antigen, which
stimulated their production. Antibodies are manufactured in B-lymphocytes , then
secreted in to the lymph and blood where they circulate freely.

Fig. 14.34 (a) An antibody molecule consists of four polypeptide chains - two identical light chain and two identical heavychains - linked
by disulide (- S - S -) bridges. Variable amino acid sequences (V) in the light chains and upper regions of the heavy chains determine
which antigen will bind to that particular antibody. Constant amino acid sequences (C) are the same for all the antibodies in one class
(b) Large antigen-antibody complexes will form if there are multiple copies of the antigenic molecule on the foreign cell’s surface.

T-cells recognize antigen, then combat micro-organisms and / or efect the rejection of foreign
tissues (in case of tissue transplant). This is called cell-mediated response.

B-cells recognize antigen and form plasma cell clone. These plasma cells synthesise and liberate
antibodies into the blood plasma and tissue luid. Here antibodies attach to the surfaces of bacteria
and speed up their phagocytosis, or combine with and neutralise toxins produced by micro-
organisms, by producing antitoxins. This is called humoral Immune response.

When we get vaccination, against a speciic disease (antigen), we become immune to that infection
or disease. If we get vaccination against, polio, smallpox, measles, mumps etc., once in our life time,
we are protected or become immune to that infection in our future life.

62
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Types of immunity
Active Immunity : The use of vaccines, which stimulate the production of antibodies in the body,
and making a person immune against the disease or infection, is called active immunity. But this
active immunity has been achieved by artiicially introducing, antigens in the body, so it is called
artiicially induced active immunity.

But, when a person is exposed to an infection (antigen) - becomes ill, and in Antiserum is a
serum containing
most cases survives then this immunity, developed against that disease is called antibodies.
naturally induced immunity or auto immune response.

Passive immunity : In contrast to active immunity, in which case antigens are introduced to
stimulate the production of antibodies, by artiicial or natural method; antibodies are injected in
the form of antisera, to make a person immune against a disease,This is called passive immunity.

In body, antigen - antibody complexes are formed which are taken up by phagocytes and destroyed.
The patient is spared the complications (or possibly death) caused by the infection or venom.

Passive immunity response is immediate, but not long lasting. Because no time is taken for the
production of suicient level of antibodies, (as antibodies are being injected) and after the level of
antibodies is reduced or they are used up - No more antibodies production is there.

The method of passive immunization

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deiciency Syndrome;
is used to combat active infections of, is a disease caused by a virus. The afected persons sufer from
tetanus, infectious hepatitis, rabies, snake deiciency in their immun system of the body, and the immune system
collapses. Thus the AIDS victim often succumb to a bacterial disease
bite venom etc. In the case of snake bite or cancer, that under normal circumstances, the immune system can
venom passive immunity is produced by the over come. There is no known cure of the disease. It can spread by
blood transfusion and by sexual contact with the infected persons.
antitoxins so the serum is called antivenom
serum.

63
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

EXERCISE

Q .1 Fill in the blanks :

(i) In the process of facilitated difusion, the carrier molecules are......................................

(ii) Pure water has a water potential which is equal to .....................................

(iii) The insects which feed on the phloem of plants are the ................................

(iv) The substance produced by basophils which inhibits blood-clotting is ............................

(v) The most abundant compound of blood plasma of man i s .........................

(vi) ........................ in 1874 suggested that water molecules move along the cells walls of
xylem vessels due to imbibition.

Q.2. Write whether the statement is ‘true’ or ‘false’ and write the correct statement if it is
false.

(i) The intercellular openings in the blood capillaries are larger than the openings in the
lymph capillaries.

(ii) Between the left auricle and the left ventricle in human heart, the valve present is
called tricuspid valve.

(iii) The pacemaker of the heart of man is the AV node.

(iv) Each sieve tube member is associated with one or more tracheid cells.

(v) The method of active immunization is used to combat active infections of tetanus and
rabies.

64
V: 1.1
 14. Transport eLearn.Punjab

Q.3. Extensive Questions

(i) How are minerals and water taken up by roots? Draw the structures involved and the
pathways for water and minerals from soil water to xylem, and the transport processes at
each step.

(ii) Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata.

(iii) How does the pressure-low theory explain the movement of sugars through a plant?

(iv) Describe cohesion-tension theory of water movement in xylem. What supplies the cohesion,
and what is the source of tension? How do these two forces interact to move water through
plant,

(v) Explain, apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathways, and describe the movement of water
and dissolved minerals, through them.

(vi) Explain water potential. What is the relationship of water potential with solute potential and
pressure potential?

(vii) Name and describe the general functions of the three major type of cells or cell like bodies
found in blood of humans. Which of these cell types is found predominantly in lymph?

(ix) Write a note on immunity and its types.

65
V: 1.1