IS MATTER AROUND US PURE

Pure substance: When a scientist says that something is pure, it means that all the constituent particles
of that substance are the same in their chemical nature.
 A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
 Pure substances can be elements or compounds.
 Most of the matter around us exists as mixtures of two or more pure components.
For example, Ice, Iron, Calcium oxide, Mercury
According to scientist milk, ghee, butter, salt, spices, mineral water Brick, Wood, Air sea water,
minerals, soil or juice that we buy from the market are actually mixtures of different substances and
hence not pure.
 Milk is actually a mixture of water, fat, proteins etc.

Substance: Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter, known as a
substance.
 A substance cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process.
 Whatever the source of a substance may be, it will always have the same characteristic properties.
Therefore, we can say that a mixture contains more than one substance.
For example, Dissolved sodium chloride can be separated from water by the physical process of
evaporation. However, sodium chloride is itself a substance and cannot be separated by physical process
into its chemical constituents.

Mixtures: A mixture contains more than one substance (element and/or compound) mixed in any
proportion.
Mixtures can be separated into pure substances using appropriate separation techniques.
Types of Mixtures: Depending upon the nature of the components that form a mixture, we can have
different types of mixtures.
1. Homogeneous mixtures: Mixtures which have a uniform composition throughout are called
homogeneous mixtures or solutions.
For eg: salt in water, sugar in water, copper sulphate powder in water, soda water, air, vinegar, filtered
tea, ,Soap, coal, etc.
2. Heterogeneous mixtures: Mixtures, which contain physically distinct parts and have non-
uniform compositions, are called heterogeneous mixtures.
For eg: Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron filings, salt and sulphur, and oil and water, wood, soil,
etc.

Activity: A homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition.

Experiment: Take
Beaker A containing 50 mL of water and one spatula full of copper sulphate powder.
Beaker B containing 50 mL of water and two spatula full of copper sulphate powder.
Beaker C & Beaker D containing different amounts of copper sulphate and potassium permanganate or
common salt (sodium chloride) and mix the given components to form a mixture
Observation & Explanation:
Beaker A & B obtained homogenous mixture because components have uniform composition but
intensity of colour of the solutions is different.
Beaker C & D obtained hoterogenous mixture because components have physically distinct bounderies
& non uniform composition.
Conclusion: This shows that soluble substances form homogenous mixture a homogeneous mixture can
have a variable composition which depends upon the amount of substance dissolved.

Activity: To show the difference between true solution suspension and colloidal solutions.
Experiment: Take
Beaker A containing few crystals of copper & water

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 Beaker B containing one spatula full of copper sulphate & water
Beaker C containing Chalk powder or wheat flour & water
Beaker D containing milk or ink & water
Stir them properly using a glass rod & direct a beam of light from torch through the beaker containing
the mixture. Leave the mixtures undisturbed for a few minutes and set up the filtration apparatus in the
meantime.
Observation:
Beaker A and B have got a true solution.
Beaker C has got a suspension.
Beaker D has got a colloidal solution.
Conclusion:
True solution do not scatter light, do not settle down on standing & pass through filter paper.
Suspension scatters light, settle down on standing & do not pass through filter paper.
Colloidal solution scatters light, do not settle down on standing & pass through filter paper.

Solution or True Solution: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

 In a solution there is homogeneity at the particle level.
For example, lemonade tastes the same throughout. This shows that particles of sugar or salt are evenly
distributed in the solution.
Components of A solution:
1. Solvent: The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually the component
present in larger amount) is called the solvent.
2. Solute: The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent (usually present in lesser quantity)
is called the solute.
For example,
(i) A solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution. In this solution, sugar is the solute and
water is the solvent.
(ii) A solution of iodine in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’ has iodine (solid) as the solute and
alcohol (liquid) as the solvent. (Non aqueous solution)
(iii) Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid solutions. These contain carbon
dioxide (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as solvent.
(iv)Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a homogeneous mixture of a number of gases. Its two main
constituents are: oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%). The other gases are present in very small
quantities.

Concentration of A Solution: The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present per unit
volume or per unit mass of the solution/solvent.
 Depending upon the amount of solute present in a solution, it can be called a dilute,
concentrated or a saturated solution.
 Dilute and concentrated are comparative terms.

Saturated solution: At any particular temperature, a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is
capable of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution.
OR
When no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a saturated
solution.
Unsaturated solution: If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it
is called an unsaturated solution.

Solubility: The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at particular temperature is called
its solubility.
 Solubility increases with increase in temperature and decrease with decrease in temperature.
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  If we take a saturated solution at a certain temperature and cool it slowly, solute will separate
out.
Activity: Take approximately 50 mL of water each in two separate beakers.
Experiment: Add salt in one beaker and sugar or barium chloride in the second beaker with continuous
stirring.
When no more solute can be dissolved, heat the contents of the beaker by about 5°C.
Start adding the solute again and then cool it slowly.
Conclusion:
1. Different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at the same temperature.
2. Solubility increases with increase in temperature
3. On cooling extra amount of solute crystallizes out.

Concentration of a solution: is the amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of
solution, or the amount of solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent.
Concentration of solution = Amount of solute/ Amount of solution
Or
= Amount of solute/Amount of solvent
There are various ways of expressing the concentration of a solution –
(i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution
Mass of solute ×100
Mass of solution
(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution
Mass of solute ×100
Volume of solution

Comparison of Properties of different types of solution

True Solution Colloidal solution Suspension
A solution is a homogeneous The solution which appears to Non-homogeneous systems, in
mixture of two or more be homogeneous but actually a which solids are dispersed in
substances. heterogeneous mixture. liquids, are called suspensions.
The particles of a solution are The particles of a colloidal The particles of a suspension are
smaller than 1 nm (10-9 metre) solution are between 10-9 grater than 10-7 metre in
in diameter. So, they cannot be metre to 10-7 metre in diameter. So, they can be seen
seen by naked eyes. diameter. So, they cannot be by the naked eye.
seen by naked eyes.
Because of very small particle Colloids are big enough to They scatter a beam of light
size, they do not scatter a beam scatter a beam of light passing passing through the solution.
of light passing through the through it and make its path When the particles settle down,
solution. So, the path of light is visible. the suspension breaks and it
not visible in a solution. does not scatter light any more.
The solute particles cannot be They can be separated from the They can be separated from the
separated from the mixture by mixture by centrifugation. mixture by the process of
the process of filtration. filtration.
It is stable as solute particles do It is stable as solute particles do It is unstable as solute particles
not settle down when left not settle down when left settle down when suspension is
undisturbed. undisturbed. left undisturbed.
For example, Salt solution, For example, milk, ink, blood, For example, sand in water,
Lemonade, soda water, Copper Starch solution, etc. Sea water, etc.
sulphate solution, solid
solutions (alloys) and gaseous
solutions (air) etc.

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Alloys: Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal and cannot be separated
into their components by physical methods.
 But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents
and can have variable composition.
For example, brass is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper.

Tyndall effect: This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the
scientist who discovered this effect.
 Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small
hole. This happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
 Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. In the
forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.

Components of a colloidal solution:

1. The dispersed phase: The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the
dispersed phase.
2. The dispersion medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known
as the dispersing medium.
 Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the dispersing medium and
the dispersed phase.
 A few common examples are given in Table 2.1.

SEPARATING THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE

Significance: Separation makes it possible to study and use the individual components of a mixture.
 Most of the natural substances are not chemically pure; therefore different methods of separation
are used to get individual components from a mixture.
 Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical
methods like handpicking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF A

MIXTURE

OBTAINING COLOURED COMPONENT (DYE) FROM BLUE/ BLACK INK

Method Used: Evaporation
Principle: volatile component (solvent) can be separated from its non-volatile solute by the method of
evaporation.
Procedure: Fill half a beaker with water.
Put a watch glass on the mouth of the beaker (Fig. 2.5).
Put few drops of ink on the watch glass.
Now start heating the beaker, evaporation takes place. We do not want to heat the ink directly.
Continue heating as the evaporation goes on and stop heating when you do not see any further change
on the watch glass.
Observation & Explanation: Ink is a mixture of a dye in water. The water (volatile component
solvent) gets evaporated from china dish. The residue left in the china dish is blue dye (non-volatile
solute).
Conclusion: The volatile component (solvent) can be separated from its non-volatile solute by the
method of evaporation.
Precaution: On direct heating, ink may undergo decomposition, therefore it is heated by steam on a
watch glass.

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 SEPARATING CREAM FROM MILK
 Now-a-days, we get full-cream, toned and double-toned varieties of milk packed in poly- packs
or tetra packs in the market. These varieties of milk contain different amounts of fat.
Method Used: Centrifugation.
Principle: Denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun
rapidly.
Procedure: Take some full-cream milk in a test tube.
Centrifuge it by using a centrifuging machine or a milk churner for two minutes.
Observation & Explanation: When the milk is churned, the lighter fat particles collide with each other
to form cream. Cream floats at top which can be skimmed off and milk without fat will be obtained.
Conclusion: Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and pass through a filter paper. For
such particles the filtration technique cannot be used for separation. Such mixtures are separated by
centrifugation.
Applications:
(i) Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
(ii) Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
(iii) Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS

Activity: To separate kerosene oil from water.
Method Used: By using a separating funnel.
Principle: The principle is that immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities.
Procedure: Pour the mixture of kerosene oil and water in a separating funnel (Fig. 2.6).
Let it stand undisturbed for sometime so that separate layers of oil and water are formed.
Open the stopcock of the separating funnel and pour out the lower layer of water carefully.
Close the stopcock of the separating funnel as the oil reaches the stop-cock.
Observation: Water is obtained in the beaker whereas oil remains in the separating funnel.
Conclusion: immiscible liquids can be separated by using a separating funnel.
Applications:
(i) To separate mixture of oil and water.
(ii) In the extraction of iron from its ore, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to
leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF SALT AND AMMONIUM CHLORIDE

Method Used: sublimation
Principle: Some solids changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating.
Conclusion: To separate such mixtures that contain a sublimable volatile component from a non-
sublimable impurity (salt in this case), the sublimation process is used (Fig. 2.7).
Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and
anthracene.

SEPARATION OF DYES IN BLACK INK

Method Used: chromatography
Principle: Chromatography is the technique used for separation of those solutes that dissolve in the
same solvent having different solubility.
Procedure: Take a thin strip of filter paper.
Draw a line on it using a pencil, approximately 3 cm above the lower edge [Fig. 2.8 (a)].
Put a small drop of ink (water soluble, that is, from a sketch pen or fountain pen) at the centre of the
line. Let it dry.
Lower the filter paper into a jar/glass/ beaker/test tube containing water so that the drop of ink on the
paper is just above the water level, as shown in Fig. 2.8(b) and leave it undisturbed.

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Observation & Explanation: As the water rises on the filter paper it takes along with it the dye
particles.
Since a dye consist of two or more coloured substances therefore different colours are obtained on the
filter paper strip.
Due to different solubility of coloured component present in ink they rise to different heights.
Conclusion: a dye is a mixture of two or more colours. The coloured component that is more soluble in
water rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.
 This process of separation of components of a mixture is known as chromatography. Kroma in
Greek means colour. This technique was first used for separation of colours, so this name was
given.
Applications: To separate
(i) Colours in a dye pigments from natural colours
(ii) Drugs from blood

SEPARATE A MIXTURE OF TWO MISCIBLE LIQUIDS

Activity: to separate acetone and water from their mixture.
Method Used: distillation
Principle: miscible liquids have sufficient difference in their boiling points & boil without
decomposition.
Procedure: Take the mixture in a distillation flask. Fit it with a thermometer.
Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 2.9.
Heat the mixture slowly keeping a close watch at the thermometer.
Observation & Explanation: The acetone (low boiing liquid) vaporises, condenses in the condenser
and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
The boiing point of acetone is 56oC, therefore the thermometer reading becomes constant at 56 oC when
acetone is distilling.
Water is left behind in the distillation flask.
Conclusion: It is used for the separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids
that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.

Activity: To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling
points is less than 25 K.
Method Used: fractional distillation
Procedure: the apparatus is similar to that for simple distillation, except that a fractionating column is
fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.
 A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for
the vapours to cool and condense repeatedly.
Applications: for the separation of
1. different gases from air
2. different factions from petroleum products etc

SEPARATING DIFFERENT GASES FROM AIR

Method Used: Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional
distillation.
The flow diagram (Fig. 2.11) shows the steps of the process.
Procedure:
If we want oxygen gas from air, we have to separate out all the other gases present in the air.
The air is compressed by increasing the pressure and is then cooled by decreasing the temperature to get
liquid air.
This liquid air is allowed to warm-up slowly in a fractional distillation column, where gases get
separated at different heights depending upon their boiling points.

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Gas which has low boiling point forms the liquid first as the air is cooled i.e. Nitrogen gets distilled first
followed by Argon & oxygen.

SEPARATING PURE COPPER SULPHATE FROM AN IMPURE SAMPLE

Activity
Method Used: Crystallisation
Procedure: Take some (approximately 5 g) impure sample of copper sulphate in a china dish.
Dissolve it in minimum amount of water.
Filter the impurities out.
Evaporate water from the copper sulphate solution so as to get a saturated solution.
Cover the solution with a filter paper and leave it undisturbed at room temperature to cool slowly for a
day.
Observation: Pure crystals of copper sulphate are obtained which are all alike.
Crystals of copper sulphate are obtained that can be seprated from the liquid by decantation.
Conclusion: solid can be purified by crystallisation.

Crystallisation: The process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution.
 Crystallisation technique is better than simple evaporation technique as –
1. Some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
2. Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On evaporation these
contaminate the solid.
Applications:
1. Purification of salt that we get from sea water.
2. Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.

Fig. 2.13 A flow diagram of a typical water works to get the supply of drinking water to your home
from the water works

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical change Chemical change
The physical change brings change in the physical The Chemical change brings change in the
properties of matter like colour, hardness, rigidity, chemical properties of matter.
fluidity, density, melting point, boiling point etc.
These changes occur without a change in A chemical change is also called a chemical
composition and no change in the chemical nature reaction.
of the substance.
No new substance is formed. New substance is formed.
Temporary & reversible change. Permanent & irreversible change.
Small amount of heat & light energy is usually Large amount of heat & light energy is usually
absorbed or given out. absorbed or given out.
For Example, Freezing of water, boiling of water For Example, cutting of trees, melting of butter in
to form steam, dissolving common salt in water, a pan, rusting of almirah, passing of electric
making a fruit salad with raw fruits, Mixing of iron current through water and the water breaking
filings and sand etc. down into hydrogen and oxygen gases, Growth of
a plant, Rusting of iron, Cooking of food,
Digestion of food etc.
For Example,
 The inter conversion of states is a physical change because these changes occur without a
change in composition and no change in the chemical nature of the substance.
 Water and cooking oil are liquid but their chemical characteristics are different. They differ in
odour and inflammability. Oil burns in air whereas water extinguishes fire. It is this chemical
property of oil that makes it different from water.
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  Burning is a chemical change. During this process one substance reacts with another to
undergo a change in chemical composition.
 Burning of a candle is both physical and chemical changes.

TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

On the basis of their chemical composition, substances can be classified either as elements or
compounds.
Elements Compounds
An element is a form of matter that cannot be Have fixed composition, Can be broken down into
broken down by chemical reactions into simpler elements by chemicals or electrochemical
substances. reactions.
For example, Sodium, Silver, Tin, Silicon For example, Water, Methane, Sugar, Salt,
Copper, Oxygen, Iron, Hydrogen, Mercury etc. Calcium carbonate Coal, Carbon dioxide etc.

ELEMENTS
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661.
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist, was the first to establish an experimentally
useful definition of an element.
Definition:
Classification of Elements: Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Properties of Metals:
(i) They have luster (shine).
(ii) They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
(iii) They conduct heat and electricity.
(iv)They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
(v) They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
(vi)They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).
Examples of metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc.
 Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.

Properties of Non-metals:
They display a variety of colours.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
Examples of non-metals: hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine, chlorine etc.
Metalloids: Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals and non-metals, they
are called metalloids.
Examples of metalloids: are boron, silicon, germanium etc.

 The numbers of elements known at present are more than 100.

 92 elements are naturally occurring and the rest are man-made.
 Majority of the elements are solid.
 11 elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
 2 elements are liquid at room temperature. E.g. mercury and bromine.
 Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature
(303 K).

Activity: Distinguish b/w a mixture & a compound.

Procedure: Take 50 g of iron filings and 3 g of sulphur powder in two china dish I & II.
In china dish I, Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur powder.

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In china dish II, Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur powder. Heat this mixture strongly till red hot.
Remove from flame and let the mixture cool.
Observation: In china dish I and II Check for magnetism in the material obtained. Bring a magnet near
the material and check if the material is attracted towards the magnet. Compare the texture and colour of
the material obtained by the groups. Add carbon disulphide to one part of the material obtained. Stir
well and observed that the products obtained by both the groups show different properties, though the
starting materials were the same.
Conclusion:
China dish I China dish II
Activity involving a physical change Activity involving a chemical change
The material obtained is a heterogenous mixture The material obtained is a compound.
of the two substances. Fe + S FeS
The properties of the mixture are the same as that On heating the two elements strongly we get a
of its constituents, so obtained a material with compound, which has totally different properties
magnetic properties as it contain Iron. compared to the combining elements.
we separate the components of the material we cannot separate the components of the
obtained by simple physical method. material obtained.
The composition, texture and the colour of the The composition texture and the colour of the
compound is not same throughout. compound is the same throughout.
The gas obtained is hydrogen. The gas obtained is hydrogen sulphide.
It is colourless, odourless and combustible. It is a colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs.
Fe (s) + S (s) + 2 HCl (aq)  FeCl2 + H2 gas FeS + 2 HCl (aq)  FeCl2 + H2 S

Compound Mixture
A compound is a substance composed of two or Elements or compounds just mix together to form
more elements, chemically combined with one a mixture and no new compound is formed.
another in a fixed proportion.
It is formed as a result of chemical change. It is formed as a result of physical change.
The composition of each new substance is always A mixture has a variable composition.
fixed.
It is a homogenous substance. It is a homogenous or heterogenous substance.
The new substance has totally different properties.
A mixture shows the properties of the constituent
substances.
The constituents can be separated only by The constituents can be separated fairly easily by
chemical or electrochemical reactions. physical methods.
Energy is either absorbed or evolved during Energy is neither absorbed nor evolved during
formation. formation.
It has a fixed melting & boiling point. It does not have a fixed melting & boiling point.

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