Overview of Comparative Religion

Comparative Religion is the study of different religions and how they relate to each other. It examines
similarities, differences and the way in which different religions interact and complement each other.
Comparative religion plays an important role in modern discourse because various religious groups have
found themselves coming into closer contact with one another on both personal and social levels.
Comparative religion is centered on the application of comparative or scientific method to the
data provided by the religions of the world, past and present. This involved the assignment to
each of a place within a scheme of progress development, or evolution, and the assessment of
their value (Sharpe, 1987).

To Kasiera (1990). Comparative religion is the study of the various religious traditions and of the
inter-relation to the way in which religious themes and ideas are fused in these traditions. Tiwari
(1983) also sees comparative religion as a comparative study of the important features of the
different religions of the world in a perfectly scientific sprit. The purpose is not to assert the truth
or falsity or relegate any religion or to incorporate value judgment about other religions, but to
show that the religions of the humankind are similar in many ways and also different in
significant ways (Dopamu 2000).

Dopamu further stated that comparative religion is not restricted to comparison between religions
but it involves comparison between concepts, themes, elements, topics or phenomena of different
religions. The implication of this explanation is that, religions are placed side by side for the
purpose of underscoring their claims and values.

Through comparative study of religion, scholars endeavor to evaluate religion in order to show
how they stood relative to another in term of their various levels of development. In this wise,
religions are studied in an appreciative and non-judgmental manners. The aim of comparative
religion therefore, is to identify the point of similarities and differences between two religions or
more. This course examines the various notable religions of the world.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF RELIGION

Phenomenological approach

In the study of religions, one is to adopt the phenomenological approach. Phenomenology of

religion concerns the experiential aspect of religion, describing religious phenomena in terms
consistent with the orientation of the worshippers. It views religion as being made up of different
components, and studies these components across religious traditions so that an understanding of
them can be gained. The phenomenological approach to the study of religion owes its
conceptualization and development to Pierre Daniël Chantepie de la Saussaye, William Brede
Kristensen and Gerardus van der Leeuw.

Idowu (1973) accounted for the following approaches in the comparative study of religions.
These include:-
 1. Caution: - To study a religion other than one’s own effectively, a scholar or religious
investigator must exercises great caution. The scholar must not prove that he has known
everything already about that religion even if he belongs to it. This is because religion is
a divinely invented phenomenon that application of self mind cannot be easily

2. Openness: - The approach of openness in the study of religion implies that when we are
studying other people’s religion we must enter into their feelings and aspirations.
Religion cannot be properly studied unless it is studied from inside and only those who
are prepared to allow truth to reveal itself to them and those who prepared to enter into
the feelings of worshipers as soon as possible can make any profitable and objective
study of religion. That one must not enter the field of studying religion with self
imprisoned mind or misconception about any religion to be investigated.

3. Sympathy: - In studying religion we must have appreciation for understanding and

sympathy. It is not what people say about religion that is of importance rather it should be
what the religion says about itself. Religion is a sacred phenomenon therefore, the scholar
must show sympathy and enter into the feeling of the people and see with their own eyes
in order to grasp and possess the knowledge of what they actually know and believe
about the spiritual world.

4. Reverence: - Religion is a sacred phenomenon and this should be studied with reference.
Thus Psalms 5-7 inter-alia says:

5. Interest: Absolute interest and honest is another key to obtain a meaningful result while
studying religion. The sacred and the mysterious fundamentally endowed religious
phenomenon calls for total interest of the religious scholars so as to obtain an objective
result.

6. Adaptability: - To attain acceptable information about a religion being studied calls for
adaptability of all purposes. The researcher should comply with the norms and traditions
surrounding the subject of his or her investigation. This in returns will open ways for
sense of belongings and remove fear on the path of the leaders and the individuals who
suppose to assist and releases the needed information to the researcher. Association and
interaction of all purposes are ingredients that can streamline the easy ways to the hidden
information about the religion that the researcher sought to know.

Significance of comparative Religion

 Comparative religion reveals scheme of progress, development, evolution and the

assessment of the values of various religions
 Through comparative religion, the various religious traditions and their interrelations are
established
 Comparative religion reveals the existence of similarities and differences between the
various religious of the world.
 Comparative religion underscores the claims and values of various religion
 Comparative religion gives ways for evaluation for various religions for the purpose of
determining the levels of their development
HINDUISM

Introduction to Hinduism as a Religion

Hinduism is one of the world’s great religions. It is very difficult to define Hinduism. It grew
gradually over a period of nearly 5000 years absorbing and assimilating all the religions and
cultural movements of India. Hindus call their religions SANATANA-DHARNA Eternal
Religion, the Universal Truth. Hinduism is not revealed by any act of a personal God, but it is
seen by those whose pure minds catch its reflection. The ancient seers or ‘rishis’ transmitted this
truth to humanity.

Hinduism originated in the area now called India and is still practiced by 80% of its inhabitants.
Hinduism is considered a major world religion because of its approximately 700 million believers and it
has influence on many other religions during its long history. Some authorities date it back to about 1500
BC and consider it the oldest religion in the world. This religion cannot be traced to a specific founder
and does not have only one "holy book" as a spiritual guide. Unlike most other religions, Hinduism does
not promote the worship of one particular deity. A Hindu may worship one or many different
manifestations of the divine. They consider themselves successful Hindus when the reach the "Ultimate
Reality" or nirvana in their lives.

When one considers the religion from the point of inner growth, Hinduism may be described as
the way of life lived and brought to conscious self-reflection by the Indo-Aryans, who then
taught the truth they discovered from the early settlers. The difference of Hinduism from
revealed religions such as Judaism, Islam and Christianity lies in the fact that in the case of the
latter religions, it is accepted that the truths were revealed by God to a particular person at a
particular time and place.

But in the case of Hinduism the realization of the truths and their expressions was the result of a
gradual process of reflection by many individuals through centuries. Hinduism is more of
orthopraxy rather than Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy is the holding of commonly accepted religious
opinions but in Hinduism, there is no commonly acceptable religious opinion. The religion is
more of practice than an accepted dogma. One is Hindu because he is born a Hindu that is of
Hindu parentage and ancestry and as such need no specific religious doctrines. The fact that
Hinduism is orthopraxy is evidenced in the following areas:

a) No Dogma: Hinduism has no set of beliefs put forward to be accepted without question.
This is why many writers describe it as the traditional religions of the Indians. It was a
religion moulded out by the merging of the Draviana and the Aryan cultures with the
Aryana succeeding conquering the Draviana religiously and traditionally.
b) No Doctrinal Orthodoxy: There is no doctrinal orthodoxy in Hinduism. So long as a
person accepts the authority of the Vedas and the basic elements of Hindu social order in
his conduct, he may believe anything and still remain within the fold of Hinduism. He
must however follow with the greatest strictness, the rules that govern the life and
activities of the sub-group to which he belongs.
c) No Credit: Both Christianity and Islam are creedal religions. It is their creeds that
attracted many adherents to them the entire world over. But Hinduism is not a credit
 religion. Hindus are born Hindus and are therefore predominantly found in the land of
India where Hindus originated and in other parts of the world to which Indians have
migrated in large numbers.
d) No Revelation: Unlike Christianity and Islam Hinduism does not claim any great
revelation of God to an individual at a particular place or time. Rather religious truths are
results of reflections by many individuals through the centuries. In Hinduism, the truths
rather than the privileged mediators are all that matters. The truths are not revelation
properly but insights or intuitions of the human mind and heart. They do not enjoy the
undeniability of revealed truth as we have in orthodox religions. This is why Hinduism is
called a natural religion, a metaphysical religion and a reflective religion rather than an
orthodox religion.

In the light of the afore-mentioned reasons, Hinduism is best studied as a process rather than as a
fixed and integrated body of doctrines. It is best studied as a developing tradition which changed
considerably over the centuries and which is still changing in a creative direction. Thus in the
study of Hinduism, we do not present a list of fixed and integral system which could be
designated by the term Hinduism. We rather present a process which had a beginning and which
has gone through several main phases of development up to the present time. Hinduism is still a
living process and must be seen as such.

The Hindu Scripture

Hindus scriptures give us a clear understanding of the basic tenets of Hinduism. They provide a
framework of its historical development. These scriptures are mainly written in Sanskrit and they
cover a very wide variety of religious beliefs and practices. The texts are believed to have been
written over a period of more than 2000 years. The fact of the matter is that at different periods
in the history of Hinduism, different philosophical schools and religious movements have been
found in selected scriptures, inspiration and authority for their beliefs and social behaviour.
For these reasons the scriptures merit our attention.

Classifications of Hindu Scriptures

Broadly divided into two classes
Scruti or ‘what is heard’ refers to the eternal truths of religion which the Hindus seers saw or
heard. They are independent of any god or man to whom they are communicated. They are the
primary and final authorities of religious truth. As the external truth was related to seers their
disciples recorded it and the record is known as the VEDAS

Smriti or “what is remembered” possess a secondary authority, deriving their authority from the
Scruti whose principles they seek to expand. As recollections, they contain all the sacred texts
other than Vedas. Smriti include the Upanishads and the epics

Vedas:- The word Veda means ‘knowledge’, ‘wisdom’

In scripture it signifies the ‘Book of Wisdom”.
The Vedas the earliest Hindus scriptures,
Constitute collection of hymns, prayers rituals and magical formulae.
There are four of them’ the Rig-Veda, the Same Veda, the Yajur-Veda and the Atharva-Veda.
Upanishads:- The Upanishads constitute the foundation of later Hinduism. Their teaching
centers around the concepts of Brahman or the ‘Absolute Being’ and Arman (self). They search
for the relationship of identify of Brahman and Arman and mans knowledge of his true self. The
Upanishads, though based on the Vedas, reflect a movement away from the sacrifices and
ritualism of Polytheism to a more mancentered philosophy and to the problem or ethical
behaviour.

Epics:- The two great Hindus epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata expound the principles
of the Vedas by interpreting the exploits of the great national heroes. Characters like Rama and
Sita depict the ideals of moral and social behaviour for the individual, the family and the nation.
The Ramayana epic relates the story of Rama, the ideal man and shows how an individual should
behave towards all other men and how a community should live in peace and harmony. The
Mehabharata is the story of the conflict between two branches of the same family. Through
problems and dialogues the epic seeks to answer the moral, spiritual and metaphysical problems
of the times. For the first time in the development of Hindus spirituality the love of God for man
and of man for God is introduced.

Caste system in Hinduism

Cast system in India was not originally a planned institution: Rather, the system came into
existence as a result of circumstances of race and occupation. In term of religion, caste system
was an accidental feature of Hinduism. The four popular Castes are; the Brahmins, the Ksatriyas,
the Vaisyas and the Sudras.

The Brahmins:- These are the priestly group. They are regarded as the people nearer to the
Supreme Being. They are usually approached in all matters of worship. They offer sacrifices on
behalf of the Hindu. They are the intermediaries between the Supreme Being and men.

The Ksatriyas: The Kastriyas consists of warriors who are repressible for fighting the people’s
wars; they defend the traditional integrity of the Hindu society; the Ksatriyas also present kings
who rule the society. Because most of them were recognized soldiers, their rule over the people
was usually successful in those days.

The vaisyas:- This group produces the eminent traders. The group also constitutes a bulk of the
owners of properties including lands. Because of the financial assistance rendered to various
governments, the Vaisyas as a group are highly regarded by the Hindu.

The Sudras:- These are the coloured people. Mostly, they are the pre-Aryan settle in India. In
the early days of their settlement, they were responsible for cheap labour. They specialized in
professions such as agriculture and services of any other kind.

Out-Castes or Untouchables:- The people not belonging to any of the four Castes were the
Out-castes or the Uncountable. It was as a result of intermingling of the four castes whereby
several sub-castes were born. It should be mentioned, however, that the Hindu Caste system
cannot be regarded simply as a social scale of class distinction. Rather, when linked with the
social ministration, it is a religious justification known as Karma-Samsa which states that each
mans birth into a particular Castes determined by the actions of his previous existence or
expenses. To this extent, each Caste defines and regulates a man’s social and religious status as
well as his duties and obligations.

Basic Concepts in Hinduism

In order to understand the Hindu view of life one needs to look into the various doctrines put
forward in Hinduism. Here below are some of them:

a) Karma: This is ‘Action’ or ‘Doing’. It is an interpretation of the moral law of causation.

It states that any action is the effect of a cause and is in its turn the cause of an effect.
Karma. Is a principle of moral reaction to both good and evil action. In principle, as a
man sows, so shall he reap. Bad action reaps suffering and bondage to human existence
while good action leads to freedom from this bondage. The law of Karma is fixed in the
spiritual realm and unalterable.
b) Samsara: The Samsara concept is bound up with Karma. It is the re-birth or
transmigration of the soul. According to this concept, the soul is capable of
transmigration from body to body carrying its load of Karma with it. It makes it possible
for a man to be reborn as a god, a member of higher caste, a member of lower caste or as
an animal. The re-birth depends on individuals thought, word or action. This would then
mean that individual man carried with him his own very past. In Samsara, there is the
wheel of birth, death and rebirth. As a caterpillar gather itself up before passing into
another leaf so does the soul. The soul goes round and round in endless existences. No
wonder then that all Hindus aims at escaping from the wheel of Samsara.
c) Morksha: Morsha is the escape, release, liberation or emancipation. The idea of
Morksha is as a result of Hindu belief that unless the chain of cause and effect is broken,
the soul will forever be bound to the process of birth, death and re-birth. With Morksha,
the soul is believed to be released from both righteousness and unrighteousness. It is the
deliverance from the body. It is a final escape from the law of Karma.
d) Soul: Hindu teaches that the soul is eternal and as such shares the very essence of all
living things plants, animals and man. The soul is imprisoned with the impurities of finite
existence but in itself it is detached from the personal existence of the physical self. The
soul does not act and so it is not the agent of sin. The Hindu hope is in the realization of
the immortality of the soul either in its individuality or in its absorption into Brahman.
According to the teachings of Hinduism, the body is the prison house of the soul and
therefore any idea of an eternal union of body is unacceptable. There is No idea of
resurrection of the body in Hindu scheme of things.
e) Sin: For Hindu, sin is not the personal guilt that it is for the Christians and the Jews. It
belongs to the realm of the metaphysical. It is variously described as ignorance of truth,
attributing reality to empirical personhood, and the feeling of individuality. The true self
never sins, it is neither born nor does it die.
f) Salvation: Salvation in Hinduism is primarily the separation of the eternal soul from the
phenomenal world. It is the relationship of the soul to God. It is the soul realizing it own
mortality. Such emancipated soul is identified with the ultimate reality, Brahman. It
enters a mystical union with Brahman described as ‘dreamless sleep’. This union is often
expressed as ‘Tat Ivana Asi’ ‘Thou art that’.
Methods of obtaining Salvation
In Hinduism, there are three paths (margas) or methods of obtaining salvation each of which is
valid. Below are the methods;

i. Karma-marga (the path of selfless or disinterested Action) Karma marga is the path of
religious duty. Action is motivated by the desire for its fruits bind the soul to the wheel of
existence. Action done without any attachment to its consequences leads to spiritual
perfection.
ii. Bhakti-marga (the path of exclusive devotion to God). The second path to salvation is the
path of exclusive devotion to God. For an atheist, this is a higher path. It is the way of
love. This may depend on external aids such as ritualistic worship or it may be on a
higher level of direct communion with God. Devotion to God may assume many forms
reflecting the variety of human relationships. It may be the attitude of servant to master or
it may be the love of wife and her husband.
iii. Jana-marga (spiritual insight). The third way of achieving salvation is the path of higher
knowledge or spiritual insight. It is for the intellectual few. It leads to release from the
bondage of ignorance and to complete union with Brahman. The Vendata School hold’s
that this is the highest way of salvation while other schools think that it is preparatory to
Shakti.

Conclusion
From the study you have on this topic, you have been made to realize that:
 Hinduism is an ancient religion of the people of India.
 There is a difference in the manners at which Hinduism was revealed to the Hindus
ancestors compared with Judaism, Islam and Christianity where the truths were revealed
by God to the individuals.
 Hinduism has its own peculiar features different from any other traditions of the world.
 Hindus scriptures give a clear understanding of the basic tenets of Hinduism.
 Through the basic concepts in Hinduism one can understand Hindu view of life.
 There are three paths (Margas) or methods of obtaining salvation in Hinduism.

They are
 Karma-marga
 Bhakti-marga
 Jana-marga

Hinduism and Christianity

Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven hell and reincarnation to
mention a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit varga) and hell (Neraka) are
temporary places where every soul has to live either for the good deeds done or for their sins
committed. After a soul suffers its due punishment in hell, or after a soul has enjoyed enough in
the heave, it again enters the life death cycle. There is no concepts of permanent hell. Permanent
heaven is called (Akshardhem).

However, also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that
both religious present a Trinitarian view of God. The holy trinity of Christianity, is sometimes
seen as roughly analogues to the trimurti of Hinduism, whose members – Brahma, Vishnu and
shiva are seen as the three principal manifestation of Brahman or God head.
Christian Hindu relations are a mixed affairs. On one hand, Hinduism natural tendency has been
to recognize the divine basis of various other religions and to reverse that founders and saintly
parishioners. On the other hand, perceptions of aggressive proselytism on the part of some
Christian groups have led to occasional incidents of anti-christian violence, often fueled by
nationalist political parties.

In Summary;

Hinduism is described as orthoprazy rather than orthodoxy because;

 There is no element of dogmatism in the scheme of Hinduism
 No doctrinal orthodoxy
 Hinduism is not a creedal religion
 No revelation, as Hinduism is seen as a natural, metaphysical and a reflective religion.

Hinduism teaching about soul

 Hinduism teaches that soul is eternal and shares the very essence of all living things.
 Soul is imprisoned with the impurities of finite existence
 The does not act as the agent of sin
 Hindusism teaches the realization of the immorality of the soul
 Hindusism sees the body as the prison house for the soul
 Hindusism rejects resurrection of the body

Hinduism teaching about sin

 Hinduism teaches that sin belongs to the realm of the metaphysical
 It is the ignorance of truth
 It is the feeling of individuality
 That is Hinduism the true never sin
 Sin neither born nor does it die

Hinduism teaching about salvation

 Hinduism sees salvation as the separation of the eternal soul from the world
 It is the relationship of the soul to God
 Salvation enables soul to attain mortality
 Salvation gives way for a mystical union between the soul and Braham
 Salvation can be obtained in Hinduism through:
i. Disinterested Action (Karme-merga)
ii. The path of exclusive devotion to God (Bhakti-marga) and
iii. Spiritual insight (Janas-marga)
BUDDHISM

INTRODUCTION
Buddhism emerged in the 600 BC. This was a period of social disintergration and religious
questioning. Many people felt that their life was meaningless and had lost direction, and more
so, there was a widespread dissatisfaction with Hinduism, especially with the ritualism which
Brahmanism was offering as a way of salvation. Gautama (Buddha) thus offered an alternative
way of liberation.

EARLY LIFE OF BUDDHA

Buddha, the founder of Buddhism was born at about 563 B.C. He acclaimed himself as the last
of the 550 reincarnations. Buddha spent his early life in ease and luxury. He was housed in a
palace in order to prevent him from seeing the darker side of life. But later he became
dissatisfied with palace life. He was equally disturbed by the problem of human suffering. He
therefore broke the chain of home-life. He went out seeking answers to the riddles of life.
Buddhism came to China at a time when the intellectuals, were hungry for fresh ideas, but it
arrived with massive handicaps. It was saddled with the Indo-European focus on an appearance-
reality metaphysics and epistemology, with approximations to concepts of ‘truth’, sense-data
experience, mind as a container of a subjective world populated by counterparts of sensible
objects, propositional knowledge, representational belief, a belief-desire psychology together
with a logic-informed concept of ‘reason’ as both a human faculty and a property of beliefs and
concepts.

The highly developed Buddhist arguments had little purchase on Chinese intellectuals and the
only available common form of discourse that could “domesticate” this alien system was Neo-
Daoist “abstruse learning” which focused on the metaphysical notions of being and non-being.
That issue resonated superficially with a puzzle about the nature of Nirvana. If Nirvana was the
opposite of Samsara, (the eternal cycle of rebirth or reincarnation) then was it a state of being or
of non-being? Nirvana is the achievement of the Buddha- the expression of Buiddha-nature. So
the cosmology of this version of Buddhism, like that of the Neo-Daoists, aided achievement of
some goal. Realization of the puzzling nature of this state led to Buddhahood.

In his search, he saw a dead man, a suffering old man and a begging monk. This experience was
in fulfillment of a prophecy earlier disclosed to him that once he sees these, he (Buddha) would
leave home. Now that Buddha had left the palace, he came under the instruction of two famous
Brahmin hermits, Alara and Uddaka. He was instructed in ancient wisdom but he was not
satisfied with their teachings. Alara and Uddaka were not able to tell him how to put an end to
rebirth. Next, Buddha shifted his base to other five ascetics for further instructions. Yet
Buddha received no satisfaction. To him, their teachings were mere delusions. Buddha,
therefore, broke on his own. After a prolonged meditation and extreme asceticism, he claimed to
have gained enlightenment. He came out with a proclamation that he possessed a message which
the world must hear. His message consists in the four truths.

The Four Truth to life.

The truths are that:
i. Suffering is omnipresent;
 ii. Suffering is caused by the desire for possession and self enjoyment;
iii. Suffering ceases when desire ceases;
iv. The Eight-folk path that leads to extinction of desires can only be found in a disciplined
mind.

First Truth: The first truth simply asserts that suffering is omnipresent in the world. It is
involved in the very nature of life; all forms of existence are subject to it. This is what makes life
basically a successor of suffering experiences.

Second Truth: The second truth deals with the cause of suffering. Buddha felt that the sole
cause of suffering is a desire for possession and self enjoyment of every king. But a more
important factor is the desire for the individual to acquire wealth by all possible means. To
Buddha therefore, suffering would continue unless the deep, inner craving for possession is
forgotten because this cannot ultimately be satisfied.

Third Truth: The third truth states that suffering ceases when desire ceases. At this point the
selfish craving for possession and the lust for life would have been renounced. Then, genuine
peace is found because at this stage, all human passions have been completely extinguished.

Fourth Truth: The fourth truth is the path which leads to cessation of suffering. It is the Eight-
fold path. This Eight fold path leads to the extinction of mans insatiable desire. It also results in
moral perfection. The Eight steps in the path are:
 Right views
 Right aspirations
 Right speech
 Right conduct
 Right mode of livelihood
 Right effort
 Right awareness
 Right concentration
Such is the way put forward by Buddha. According to the Four Truths, it is only when the mind
is pure and the heart is soft that the divine seed of wisdom grows. Such wisdom means the power
of seeing things as really as they are and perceiving the right way to peace.

THE EIGHT – FOLD PATH

According to the teaching, there are eight steps to Buddhahood. The Eight of steps are as
follows:
i. Right Views: This involves acceptance of the Four Truths and a resolute rejection both
of incorrect philosophical positions regarding such things as the self and its destiny and
of unworthy attitudes which result in covetousness, lying and gossiping.
ii. Right Aspirations: Freeing ones thought from such things as lust, ill-will and cruelty,
one should have a firm resolve to achieve the highest goals.
iii. Right Speech: A man must speak plainly and truthfully and abhor lying or vain talk.
Works must be gentle, soothing to the ear, penetrating the heart, rightly timed and
according to the facts.
iv. Right conduct: This includes charity and abstinence from killing any living being.
 v. Right mode of livelihood: A mans life must be free from luxury. Each must take up
work which will give scope to his abilities and make him useful to his fellowmen.
vi. Right-Effort: Always pressing on and particularly in four directions. First, there is the
effort to avoid the uprising of evil, Second the effort to overcome evils; third, the effort to
develop meritorious conditions such as detachment, investigation of the law and fourth,
to maintain the meritorious conditions which have already arisen and to bring them to
maturity and perfection.
vii. Right Awareness:- This involves contemplation of the feelings of oneself and others, the
contemplation of the mind and the contemplation of aiming at the complete mastery of
ones mental processes.
viii. Right concentration: This amounts to complete one pointedness of thought,
concentrating the mind on a single object, all hindrances having been overcome. It leads
into trances where the devotee is purified from all distractions and evils and is filled with
rapture, happiness and later passes to the highest possible state of perfection. Such is the
way according to Gautama Buddha. It is a combination of morality, concentration and
wisdom which consist in the long spiritual processes leading to Buddhahood. According
to the way, it is when the mind is pure and the heart is soft that the divine seed of wisdom
grows. Such wisdom means the power of seeing things as they really are and perceiving
the right way of peace.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF HINDUISM REJECTED BY BUDDHA AND HIS FOLLOWERS

Writers on the comparative study of religion have pointed out that Buddhism is an aristocratic
revolt against Hinduism. According to their findings, Buddhism is an aristocratic revolt against
Hinduism. Its Brahmin concept and the supporting Caste system. It is quite true to say that
Buddhism is to Hinduism what Islam is to Christianity. It is a movement of religious thought
which runs counter to Hinduism denying most of what if not all that Hinduism affirms and stand
for. Perhaps Buddha’s social background had prepared way for this. He belonged to the
Ksatriyas class the War Lords and Aristocracies. But this group was superceded by the
Brahmins. Buddha curiously observed the suffering of the lower classes Vaisyas, Sudras and the
out-Castes. He then organized an aristocratic religious revolt which gave rise to a dialectical
process. Here below are some basic concepts of Hinduism rejected by Buddha and his followers:

a) The concept of God

The concept of God is one of the prominent features of every religion Hinduism believed
that there is a supreme being called Brahma. It is the Brahma that governs the universe.
Buddha did not concern himself with this concept. He neither affirmed nor denied the
existence of Brahma. The question of whether God exists or not is out of his thought.
Rather, his interest was based on morality which is expected of everybody.

b) Denial of Spiritual Beings, Angels, Sacrifices, Temples, Relies etc.

In Hinduism gods are represented by status or images. To Hinduists, God is the most high
and transcendal. This God could however, be viewed in human form. God is then
represented by various images. The result is that the Hindusists concentrated so much on
the worshipping of the gods, building of temples and incarnation so much that they
almost forget about God. The concept of God was therefore uneffective in their lives.
Instead, they imagined supernatural forces in the phenomenon of nature. They have a
 large number of gods such as Indra the god of cloud, lightening and thunder; Shiva, the
god of destruction and Vishnu the god who creates and preserves life. Buddha
vehemently denied those gods. He maintained that they have been postulated to safeguard
the exploitative position of the Brahmins over the supporting Castes.

c) The institution of Priesthood

The institution of priesthood or Brahmin is the most influential and privilege caste. This
is because the Brahmins were the keepers of the Hindu scripture. The Brahmins were the
keepers of the Hindu scripture. The Brahmins prescribed the rule and conduct for the
other groups. They institutionalized the Caste system to safeguard their interest and
elevate themselves. The Caste to which they belonged, to, the Brahmin, was tied down to
heritage, no social mobility. No matter how highly placed, once born a sudra, one must
die a Sudra, onces a Brahmin, always a Brahmin. To further complete their exploitation
of the masses; no ritual could be held without a Brahmin; and an individual was not free
to worship unless a Brahmin presided over that ceremony. Lastly, the Brahmin believed
that only people of their caste could achieve salvation, Morksha, unto becoming
Brahmin. Those belonging to other Castes were to go on suffering transmigration. In
Buddhism however, priesthood received frontal attack. Buddha declared that man does
not need the help of a priest to achieve salvation. Buddhists rejected the Caste system and
in its place came ‘Songha” the order of the Monk.

d) Re-incarnation
Hinduism has the concept of Karma, meaning duty and action. According to this concept,
ones soul is not empirical but ‘as man’ goes into a higher or lower class when reborn
according to how one lived and obeyed the Karmic and dharmic laws of liberation. If one
wants to change the position of the Brahmins one would have to destroy both the religion
and the Caste system.
Buddah rejected this concept of reincarnation because it was intolerable for people of
other castes to stomach, especially by the Kastriyas. The overall effect was the revolt of
the self-impressing nature of the religion.

In summary
The origin of Buddhism
 Buddhism, the founder of Buddhism was born at about 563 B.C
 He spent his early life in ease and luxury
 Buddha was later dissatisfied with palace life; thus he went out seeking answers to the
riddles of life
 Buddhism came to China at a time when the intellectuals were hungry for fresh ideas.
 Buddha, having left the palace came under the instruction of two famous Brahim hermits
who instructed him in ancient wisdom but he was not satisfied.
 Buddha shifted his base to other five ascetics for further instructions but he saw their
teachings as mere delusions, thus he broke on his own.
 Buddha subjected himself to a prolonged meditation and extreme asceticism thereby he
claimed to have received the four truths, which was later tagged Buddhism.

Four truth of Buddhism

The four truths in Buddhism includes:
i. The first truth: suffering is Omnipresent. This truth, affirmed that suffering is part of life
and that all forms of existence are subject to it.
ii. Suffering is caused by the desire for possession and self enjoyment. Also, the desire to
acquire wealth by all possible means.
iii. Suffering ceases when desire ceases. The ability to be contented with an individual
possession brings genuine peace of mind.
iv. The path that leads to cessation of suffering. This path is of eight folds, they include:
1. Right views
2. Right aspirations
3. Right speech
4. Right conduct
5. Right mode of livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right awareness
8. Right concentration

The eight paths that lead to Buddhahood

i. Right view: This involves acceptance of the four truths and a resolute rejection of
incorrect philosophical positions.
ii. Right Aspiration: Freeing ones thought from such things as lust, ill-will and cruelty.
iii. Right Speech: Man must speak plainly and truthfully according to the facts.
iv. Right Conduct: Thus includes charity and abstinence from killing or destroying the
works of other people.
v. Right mode of livelihood: Man’s life must be free from luxury and perishable things
alone rather man’s work must be able to speak for his abilities and fame to influence
fellowmen.
vi. Right effort: Man should always pressing on to avoid the uprising of evil to overcome
evils, develop meritorious conditions and efforts that will bring maturity and perfection.
vii. Right awareness: This involved contemplating to master one’s mental processes.
viii. Right concentration: This is a combination of morality, concentration and wisdom
which consist in the long spiritual processes. Leading to Buddhahood.

The basic concepts of Hinduism rejected by Buddha and his followers.

The basic concepts of Hinduism rejected by Buddha and his followers were:

a) The Concept of God

i. Hinduism believed that there is a supreme being called Brahama
ii. Buddha did not affirmed nor denied the existence of brahama, rather, his interest
was based on morality which is expected of everybody.

b) Denial of spiritual beings

i. Hinduism concentrated on the worship of the gods, building of temples and in
carnation at the expense of the true God.
ii. Buddha vehemently denied those gods and maintained that they have been
postulated to safeguard the position of the Brahamins over the supporting castes.
c) The institution of priesthood
i. The institution of priesthood or Brahim is the most influential and privilege caste.
ii. The Brahmins responsible for the rule and conduct of other groups
iii. They institutionalized the caste systems to safeguard their interest and elevate
themselves.
iv. An individual was not free to worship unless a Brahmin presided over that
ceremony.
v. The Brahmins believed that only people of their caste could achieve salvation and
Morksha, while those belong to other castes were to go on suffering
transmigration.
vi. In Buddhism, Buddha declared that man does not need to held of a priest to
achieve salvation
vii. Buddhist rejected the caste system and in its place came ‘Songha’ the order of the
monk

d) Re-incarnation
i. Hinduism has the concept of karma, meaning duty and action
ii. For one to change is position of the Brahmins one would destroy both the religion
and the caste system.
iii. Buddha rejected the concept of reincarnation
SHINTOISM
Shintoism is the ancient traditional religion of Japan. The religion is as old as the Japanese
history itself. Shintoism has no founder, rather the religion was as a result of the reaction of the
elites which led to the reformation, compilation and documentation of Japenese ancient
traditional religion to become what is now known as Shintoism. The religion originated in Japan,
it developed among them with all the beliefs customs and practices and other underlying
elements that go to support such practices. Shintoism has got no dogma no scripture and no
canon. There are no systematic practices and no permanent ideologies. It also varies from clan to
clan.

Varieties of Shinto
Shintoism could be classified into categories:

i. Folk Shinto: This is the type of Shinto practices mainly in Shrines. For the purpose of
worship, various shrines are constructed in different locations throughout the land of
Japan. Inside the shrines are different Kamis attached to them. Because of the presence of
many shrines where worship is carried out, there is no universal application in its
doctrines. It lacks a form of moral of doctrinal standard which tends to make it an elusive
entity. This fact make it possible for adherents of shrine Shinto to use the religion for evil
as well as for good.

ii. Domestic Shinto: In Domestic Shinto, rituals are basically carried out in private homes.
In such homes ‘Kamii Dana’ the god-shelf, is constructed to house the local god. Kami
Dana is a kind of long box containing simple symbols. In front of it is green sakaki twigs
and water are placed. Prayers are murmured there daily and hands clapped. On special
occasions the family gathers round to say prayers while candles are lit. From all
indications therefore Shinto is by nature a religion limited to a particular people. It laid
special emphasis on the Japanese people and their ancestors, rather than transmitting a
creed based upon inspired writings Shinto worshipers tried to communicate a tradition
through rites centered in the shrines. No attempt is made to spread the faith beyond the
Japanese people.

iii. Sect Shinto: This exists in organized groups with historical founders. They sometimes
have canonical scriptures and organized membership, systematized doctrines and specific
rituals.

iv. Shrine Shinto: These are various shrines located in different parts of the country where
people offer sacrifices. These shrines have certain Kami attached to them. Different
shrines are constituted for different Kami.

Shinto Mythology and its moral values to the Japanese

According to Shinto mythology, in the beginning were two Kamis Isanagi and Isanami (both
male and female). The first of the two, a male, was regarded as the creator of the Japanese
highland. Shortly after the creation, the two of them descended on the highland where they begat
other kamis. The other kamis were sea, wind, rivers, plants, and fire-the last of them all.
While begetting fire, Isanami, the mother, was burnt and died. And when she was about to die,
Isanagi followed her and disobediently viewed her beauty. The inhabitants of the land of the
dead were furious with Isanagi’s action and wanted to kill him. He escaped to the land of the
living. Isanami had to purify herself through which she begat other Kamis Sun goddess,
Amateresu Mikamis,’ The Moon god “Tsykiyomi” and the god of Storm’ ‘Susano ’. But it was
discovered that the god of storm, Susano’ became uncontrollable in behaviour. His unbecoming
attitude forced the Sun goddess ‘Amateresu Mikami’ to withdraw into a cave consequently; total
darkness came upon the earth. In order to restore light, other Kamis danced round the cave and
eventually induced the sun-goddess to come out. The god of storm was then banished into the
land of darkness.

Its Moral Values

The Shinto mythology gives us an insight into Japanese morality. As evident in the myth, both
the good and bad attributes of Kamis are also attributes of men as well. Goodness is compared to
beauty, brilliance light, excellence, harmony and conformity. Isanami was a good example in all
she did. The sincerity, loyalty and humble obedience of some of the Kamis is another excellent
example. The myth emphasized that:
i. Man must act in ways that enhance order and harmony in the society.
ii. Man is basically good and must strive to remain good
iii. Man is pure but comes in contact with sickness and death, which make him impure.
iv. Because of mans contact with evil spirits and ceremonial laxity, man is defiled and he
needs ritualistic purifications.

WORSHIP IN SHINTO RELIGION

Worship is reverence and respect paid to God or any other spiritual beings. In Shinto religion,
worship is carried out in domestic altars popularly called ‘Karma Dana, it usually something like
a shelf protruding from the wall. It has a small roof on it to protect the object of worship the
‘Kami’. There is also the public shrine, usually situated in an atmosphere conducive to the
worship of the Kami. For the purpose of worship, Rocks, Mountains, Seas are usually conceived
as the goddesses of the Kami.

Materials for Worship:

For the purpose of worship, a bowl of water is usually found at every Kami shrine. This is meant
for purification. Also located there is a large offering box placed at the entrance of the Shrine. A
bell is ring to arouse the Kami to worship or to drive away evil spirits. There is a symbolic
representation of Kami usually found in the innermost sanctuary. This is called the Kami body. It
includes salt, mirror, stones, beads to mention but a few. These objects of worship are not all that
matter but the ceremony attached to them.

Elements of worship:
The three key elements of worship in Shintoism are purification, prayer and sacred meals.
a) Purification: It is the first step in every worship be it National or Domestic. Before a
worshipper approaches the Kama Dana, he or she has to wash his or her mouth and
hands. A person with illness or evil spirit should not participate in Shinto worship
because such a person is ritually unclean.
 b) Prayer: During Shinto worship prayer is usually said inwardly. Since prayers are not
vocalized, such prayers are limited to petitions or a kind of reporting to Kami: on special
occasions, an offering could be offered to a fully dressed priest in regalia and a prayer
called ‘Morito’ is said on his behalf in the presence of the worshipers. For a higher fee, a
ritual dancing by female dancers is entitled.
c) Sacred Meals: Sacred meals are usually taken with the Kami. The meals are of the kinds
which the worshipers eat in their houses, although they are of richer quality. The meals
are means of communion between the Kami and worshipers who are his ‘children’ and
consequently a means of fellowship among the ‘children’ themselves.

Shinto festivals:
Shinto is accorded the highest worship during various festivals and ceremonies. Every shrine has
its own festival days. It is in a gala of such celebrations that families gather to celebrate. Such
festivals come up before the planting seasons.

Preparation: Before the festival days worshippers would have purified themselves with
purification water. Sometimes a priest uses the Shakaki tree to purify the congregation in the
midst of songs and dancing. Having done this, the door to the shrine is then opened. Offerings of
food and wine are made. Prayers are said and worshippers come before the Kami and bow before
it. Food offered on the occasion are then carried away, worshippers withdraw to eat the meal, the
also taste wine as a sort of communion with Kami.

Celebration: During the festival, kaguar or sacred dances are performed inside the shrines. For
the general public the crux of the ceremony is the procession carried out by the people in
jubilation with portable shrines carried along with them. The portable shrine contains the picture
of Kami. After the procession, the portable shrines usually taken back to the larger shrine where
the procession usually ends.

Festivals are also held during the enthronement of the Emperor. Other occasions for festivals are:
Japanese New Year days and Harvests festivals, the emperor himself performed the priestly
function and it takes place during the Autumn. It is now called Japan National Thanks given
Days. The Emperor, on behalf of the people, presents the first fruits to the Kami. It is the most
solemn of the Shinto ceremonies because it takes place at midnight. Worshippers carry torches or
light. It is during this ceremony that the emperor, as a descendant of Amaterasu, communicates
with his ancestors who are the Kamis.

Besides these, there is the Grand Purification Ceremony. This is performed twice in a year in the
last days of June and December and the purpose is the cleansing of the people and the land from
all evils and pollutions they might have incurred during the previous half year. This ceremony
indicates a close communion between the Japanese and the Kami. Shinto religions is then
basically concerned with this world alone, there is no personal invitation to repentance.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion in this unit, you have learnt that:
 Shintoism is an ancient traditional religion of Japan
  Shintoism has no founder, rather it evolved through the reaction of the Japenese elites
who compilled and documented Japanese traditions.
 There are Shinto varieties they include the folk and domestic Shinto.
 Shinto mythology gives an insight to Japanese morality.
 There is a unique way of worship in Shinto religion
 The elements of worship in Shinto include purification, prayer and sacred meals.
 The Japanese has peculiar way of celebrating Shinto festivals.

In Summary;
Origin of Shintoism
 Shintoism is the ancient traditional religion of Japan
 It has no founder but rather emerged through the reaction of the elites
 Shintoism has got no dogma, no scripture and no canon
 There are no systematic practices and no permanent ideologies
 Shintoism is of various kinds
 The varieties that exists in shintoism brought some differences in the manner at which it
is being practiced from one clan to the other

Shinto Mythology and its moral values to the Japanese

 Shinto mythology declared the existence of two Kamis, Isanage and Isanami
 Isangi was regarded as the creator of the Hapanese highland
 Isanagi and Isanami descended unto highland after the creation, there they begot, sea,
wind, rivers, plants and fire.
 Isanami was burnt to death while she was giving birth to fire
 Isanagi viewed her beauty when she was about to die and this made the inhabitant of the
land of the dead to be furious and wanted to kill him.
 Isanagi escaped to the land of the living
 Isanami before she die purified herself and there he gave birth to other Kamis, sun
goddess. Amateresu Mikamis, the moon god ‘Tsykiyomi’ and the god of storm, susano.
 Man must act in ways that enhance order and harmony in the society.
 Man is basically good and must strive to remain good Man is prue out comes in contact
with sickness and death which make him impure
 Man is defiled and need ritualistic purifications.

Key elements involved in Shinto worship

The key elements of worship in shintoism are:
a Purification
 Purification, this is the first step in every worship be it National or Domestic
 Worshippers are to wash their hands and mouth before approaching kamadan
 A sick person is not allowed to worship Shinto because he/she is seen as an unclean
person ritually.

b Prayer
 Prayer is usually said silently and inwardly during Shinto worship
 Prayers usually be a petition or a reporting to Kami
  Special occasion called for offering to be offered to a Priest, who in return pray a prayer
called ‘Morito’.

C Sacred Meals
 Sacred meals are usually taken with the Icamis
 The meals in most cares ate in the worshippers houses
 Meals are means of communion with the Kami
 They also enhancing deep fellowship and relationship among the worshippers who were
said to be children of Kami