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Egypt
Egypt (Arabic: ‫ِم صر‬, romanized: Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [masˤr]), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental
country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by
the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and
Libya to the west. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital and largest city of
Egypt, while Alexandria, the second-largest city, is an important industrial and tourist hub at the Mediterranean coast.[13] At approximately 100
million inhabitants, Egypt is the 14th-most populated country in the world.

Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a
cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central
government.[14] Iconic monuments such as the Giza Necropolis and its Great Sphinx, as well the ruins of Memphis, Thebes, Karnak, and the
Valley of the Kings, reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of scientific and popular interest. Egypt's long and rich cultural heritage is
an integral part of its national identity, which reflects its unique transcontinental location being simultaneously Mediterranean, Middle Eastern
and North African.[15] Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, but was largely Islamised in the seventh century and remains a
predominantly Sunni Muslim country, albeit with a significant Christian minority, along with other lesser practiced faiths.

Modern Egypt dates back to 1922, when it gained independence from the British Empire as a monarchy. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt
declared itself a republic, and in 1958 it merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic, which dissolved in 1961. Throughout the second
half of the 20th century, Egypt endured social and religious strife and political instability, fighting several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948,
1956, 1967 and 1973, and occupying the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, officially
withdrawing from the Gaza Strip and recognising Israel. The country continues to face challenges, from political unrest, including the recent
2011 revolution and its aftermath, to terrorism and economic underdevelopment. Egypt's current government, a semi-presidential republic led
by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, has been described by a number of watchdogs as authoritarian or heading an authoritarian regime, responsible for
perpetuating the country's poor human rights record.

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Islam is the official religion of Egypt and Arabic is its official language.[16] With over 100
Arab Republic of Egypt
million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa, the Middle East, and
‫جمهورية مصر العربية‬
the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa (after Nigeria and Ethiopia), and the Arabic: Jumhūrīyat Miṣr al-ʻArabīyah
fourteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks Egyptian: Gomhoreyyet Maṣr el-
ʿArabeyya
of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the only
arable land is found. The large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt's
territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's
urban areas,[17] with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo,
Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Flag
Coat of arms
Egypt is considered to be a regional power in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim
world, and a middle power worldwide.[18] It is a developing country, ranking 97th on the Anthem: "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady"
"‫ بلادي‬،‫ بلادي‬،‫"بلادي‬
Human Development Index. It has a diversified economy, which is the third-largest in Africa, (English: "My country, my country, my
the 33rd-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the 20th-largest globally by PPP. Egypt is a country")

founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the 1:26

African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the World Youth Forum.

Names

The English name "Egypt" is derived from the Ancient Greek "Aígyptos" ("Αἴγυπτος"), via
Middle French "Egypte" and Latin "Aegyptus". It is reflected in early Greek Linear B tablets as
"a-ku-pi-ti-yo".[19] The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "gyptios",
and from there into Arabic as "qubṭī", back formed into "‫"( "قبط‬qubṭ"), whence English
"Copt". The Greek forms were borrowed from Late Egyptian (Amarna) Hikuptah or

Capital Cairo
and largest city 30°2′N 31°13′E (http

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s://geohack.toolforge.
org/geohack.php?pag
ename=Egypt&param
s=30_2_N_31_13_E_ty
pe:city)
Official languages Arabic
"Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name (⟨ḥwt-kȝ-ptḥ⟩ 𓉗 𓏏𓉐𓂓𓏤𓊪 National language Egyptian Arabic[a]
𓏏 𓎛), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at
Religion See Religion in Egypt
Memphis.[20]
Demonym(s) Egyptian
"Miṣr" (Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; "‫ )"ِم صر‬is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern
Government Unitary semi-
official name of Egypt, while "Maṣr" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤɾ]; ‫ )َم صر‬is the local presidential republic
pronunciation in Egyptian Arabic.[21] The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with • President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew "‫ִמ ְצ ַר ִי ם‬‎" ("Miṣráyim/Mitzráyim/Mizráim"). • Prime Minister Moustafa Madbouly
Legislature Parliament
The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")[22][23] related
• Upper house Senate
to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".[24] The Neo-Assyrian Empire used
• Lower house House of
the derived term , Mu-ṣur.[25] Representatives

Establishment
• Unification of c. 3150 BC
Upper
and Lower
Egypt[1][2][b]
• Muhammad Ali 9 July 1805[3]
The ancient Egyptian name of the country was (𓆎 𓅓 𓏏𓊖) km.t, which means dynasty
inaugurated
black land, likely referring to the fertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from the
• Independence from 28 February 1922
deshret (⟨dšṛt⟩), or "red land" of the desert.[26][27] This name is commonly vocalised as Kemet, United Kingdom
but was probably pronounced [kuːmat] in ancient Egyptian.[28] The name is realised as kēme • Revolution Day 23 July 1952
• Republic declared 18 June 1953
and kēmə (Ⲕⲏⲙⲉ) in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek
• Current constitution 18 January 2014
as Χημία (Khēmía).[29] Another name was ⟨tꜣ-mry⟩ "land of the riverbank".[30] The names of
Area
Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (⟨tꜣ-šmꜥw⟩) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (⟨tꜣ mḥw⟩) • Total 1,010,408[4][5] km2
"northland", respectively. (390,121 sq mi) (29th)

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• Water (%) 0.632

History Population
• 2022 estimate 107,770,524[6] (15th)
• 2017 census 94,798,827[7][8]
Prehistory and Ancient Egypt • Density 102/km2 (264.2/sq mi)
(118th)

GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate

• Total $1.493 trillion[9]
(21st)
• Per capita $14,226[9] (99th)

GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate

• Total $438.348 billion[9]
(36th)
• Per capita $4,176[9] (118th)
Temple of Derr ruins in 1960
Gini (2017) 31.5[10]
There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th medium · 46th

millennium BCE, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers was replaced by a grain-grinding HDI (2021) 0.731[11]
culture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BCE began to desiccate the pastoral high · 97th

lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they Currency Egyptian pound
(LE/E£/£E) (EGP)
developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralised society.[31]
Time zone UTC+2[c] (EGY)
By about 6000 BCE, a Neolithic culture took root in the Nile Valley.[32] During the Neolithic Driving side right
era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The
Calling code +20
Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to
ISO 3166 code EG
dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by
about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with Internet TLD .eg

their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, .‫مصر‬

but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian a. ^ Literary Arabic is the sole official
language.[12] Egyptian Arabic is the
hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery spoken language. Other dialects and
vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.[33] minority languages are spoken
regionally.
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b. ^ "Among the peoples of the ancient

Near East, only the Egyptians have
stayed where they were and remained
what they were, although they have
changed their language once and their
religion twice. In a sense, they
constitute the world's oldest nation".[1]
Arthur Goldschmidt Jr.

The Giza Necropolis is the oldest of c. ^ See Daylight saving time in Egypt.
the ancient Wonders and the only one
still in existence.

A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BCE by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia.
Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two
ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BCE, which constructed many pyramids, most
notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids.

The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.[34] Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of
government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BCE, reaching a peak during the reign
of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic
Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an
Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.

The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded
during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for
some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II.
The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new
ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually
drove them out and regained control of their country.[35]

Achaemenid Egypt

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Egyptian soldier of the

Achaemenid army, c. 480 BCE.
Xerxes I tomb relief.

In 525 BCE, the powerful Achaemenid Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III
at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran),
leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save for Petubastis III, was an
entirely Persian ruled period, with the Achaemenid Emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against
the Persians marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.[36]

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians again in 343 BCE after the last native
Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, as the Persians were toppled
several decades later by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt

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The Ptolemaic Queen

Cleopatra VII and her son by
Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at
the Temple of Dendera

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the
frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a centre of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian
populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed
on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[37][38]

The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony who had died in
her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced
rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the
kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.

Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century.[39] Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from
the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been
translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in CE 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[40]

Middle Ages (7th century – 1517)

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The Amr ibn al-As mosque in Cairo,

recognized as the oldest in Africa

The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Sasanid Persian invasion early in the 7th century amidst the Byzantine–
Sasanian War of 602–628 during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as Sasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when
Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Islamic caliphate by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs
brought Islam to the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices,
leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[39] These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.[41]

In 639 an army of around 4,000 men were sent in Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. They were joined by
additional 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which
surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in
646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantine Romans to regain
possession of the country.

The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called Fustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to
grow to become the largest and richest city in the Arab caliphate, second only to Baghdad and one of the biggest and richest in the world.

Abbasid period

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The Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, of

Ahmad Ibn Tulun

The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th
century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a
deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the
government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad has led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under
Abbasid allegiance, the Tulunid dynasty (868–905) and Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.

Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks

The Al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo, of Al-

Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth caliph,
as renovated by Dawoodi Bohra

Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With the end of the
Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea,
India, Malaya, and East Indies.[42] The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[43]

Early modern period: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)

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Napoleon defeated the Mamluk

troops in the Battle of the Pyramids,
21 July 1798, painted by Lejeune.

Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation
damaged its civil society and economic institutions.[42] The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt
vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[42] Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.[44] The 1784
famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[45]

Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the
Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.

Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 (see French
campaign in Egypt and Syria). After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power
struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of
the Ottomans.

Muhammad Ali dynasty

Egypt under Muhammad Ali dynasty

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Muhammad Ali was the

founder of the Muhammad
Ali dynasty and the first
Khedive of Egypt and Sudan.

After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in
Egypt. While he carried the title of viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal. Muhammad Ali massacred the
Mamluks and established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952.

The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century,
concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.[46]

Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful
lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to
modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.[46]

He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the
Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.[47]

Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great modernised army. He
introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with

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numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation.
The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of
life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial
unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.[48]

The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and
Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and
industrial sector.[49]

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in
1854), and Isma'il (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.[47]

Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)

Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or
Khedivate in 1867, a legal status which was to remain in place until 1914 although the Ottomans had no power or presence.

The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also
went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the
canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet,
and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[50]

Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's
dependency on foreign debt even further.[51]

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The battle of Tel el-Kebir in 1882

during the Anglo-Egyptian War

Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmed
ʻUrabi a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian
army at the Battle of Tell El Kebir and militarily occupying the country.[52] Following this, the Khedivate became a de facto British protectorate
under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.[53]

In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the
Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only.

In 1906, the Denshawai incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.

Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)

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Female nationalists
demonstrating in Cairo, 1919

In 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive Abbas II (who had grown increasingly hostile to
the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power
and replaced him with his brother Hussein Kamel.[54][55]

Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of Sultan of Egypt. Shortly following independence,
Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom.

After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When
the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK
government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[56]

Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)

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