Robert C.

Till
J. Walter Coon

Fire
Protection
Detection, Notification, and Suppression
Second Edition
Fire Protection
Robert C. Till • J. Walter Coon

Fire Protection
Detection, Notification, and
Suppression

Second Edition
Robert C. Till J. Walter Coon
John Jay College of Criminal Justice Overland Park
New York, NY, USA Kansas, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-90843-4    ISBN 978-3-319-90844-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018941853

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

First edition (c) 1991 R.S. Means Company, Inc.
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For My Parents
Preface

While fire protection engineering should be left to the experienced professional,

those outside this discipline should have sufficient knowledge not only to under-
stand the fire protection engineer’s input, but to help make the installation produc-
tive and cost effective.
From the Foreword of the First Edition

This book is designed to educate third and fourth year fire science stu-
dents, graduate students in protection management, mechanical engineers,
architects, estimators, fire service personnel, and designers in the “nuts and
bolts” of fire protection system selection, design, and equipment.
This cohort requires knowledge of the pros and the cons of what is being
proposed and how systems should be compared to one another. It also gives
non-fire engineering practitioners a sense of proportion when they are put in
a position to select a consultant, and to give a sense of what the consultant
may be doing and how a system is being matched to the hazard.
To match fire systems to hazards requires that one understands how detec-
tion and suppression systems work, what the hazards of the occupancy or
process being protected are and understand what the ultimate goals are. Goals
may include life protection, property protection, historic occupancy protec-
tion, etc. These areas of exploration will help one to decide what system to
choose for the occupancy, and the codes and standards that need to be applied.
Automatic systems are simply systems that do not require human interven-
tion. An automatic sprinkler system will apply water to a fire without human
intervention provided that there are no elements within the system that will
cause it to fail.
The title of the first edition of this book, published in 1991 was Fire
Protection – Design Criteria, Options, Selection. The book was and still is
designed to provide a basic foundation for fire suppression, detection, and
alarm systems.
Over the last 27 years some technology has changed dramatically. For
example, the rise of the internet has changed the way devices speak to each
other in a fire alarm system. Global warming and climate change have
changed the way that gases are employed to suppress fire. The jurisdictional
individuals, agencies, and standards involved in the field have also changed
radically, with three major building codes integrated into the International
Building Code first published in 1997. Finally, knowledge of possible fire
department intervention and the time that it might require are being
integrated.

vii
viii Preface

All systems mentioned are governed by NFPA codes and standards which
are available to the general public at no cost at: https://www.nfpa.org/Codes-
and-Standards/All-Codes-and-Standards/Free-access.
FM Global data sheets are available at: http://www.fmglobal.com/
research-and-resources/fm-global-data-sheets. Finally, while direct access to
the current IBC is still an expense, access to the New York City Building
Code, based on the 2014 version of the International Building Code (but with
many modifications), is available at no cost at: https://www1.nyc.gov/site/
buildings/codes/2014-construction-codes.page#bldgs. It is an excellent
resource for educational purposes.
There are three simple steps to putting out a fire – fire detection, location,
suppression.

1. Fire and Its Detection

2. Notification of Occupants and Fire Service
• Occupants need to evacuate
• Fire service needs to find the fire
3. Manual Fire Suppression
4. Automatic Suppression Systems

The book is divided such that each of these is covered by their own parts.
The reader first must become aware of what fire is and how it grows. This
stage is covered in Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth. Building inhabitants and
the fire service both need to be notified so they can act accordingly. This stage
is covered in Notification.
A major advance from the bucket brigade is the implementation of pumps
and pipes to get water to the fire. This is included in fire pumps and water
supplies. Finally, the suppression stage in general (including the fire service)
is covered in Fire Suppression Systems. Fire suppression systems usually
perform the act of both notification and suppression simultaneously, except in
the case of manual suppression, where the fire department must act to deliver
water to the fire.

A Word on Units

Time has been called the yardstick of fire control. The larger the fire is, gener-
ally the more heat and smoke are delivered in a given period of time. It is
ironic that for most cases, heat release rates are given in metric units, so it
might be more appropriate to say the time is the “meter-stick” of fire
control.
Thus, the first chapter and in other chapters presenting information on heat
release, equations are in English and metric units, while the later chapters
will present them in imperial units, as is the custom for hardware here in the
USA.

New York, NY, USA Robert C. Till

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I would like to thank my coauthor J. Walter Coon, PE,
who I never had the chance to meet but certainly had the opportunity to learn
a great deal from. I truly appreciate the permission of his children to continue
the work.
I would like to thank Robert Fitzgerald, my good friend and PhD advisor
at WPI. I never get to complain to Fitzy about how difficult writing can be,
since he has always been writing something for as long as I have known him.
Without his inspiration this effort would not have been completed.
I would also like to thank Doug Nadeau, Chris Marrion, Fred Hart, and
Tom Derienzo for contributing photographs and for their general encourage-
ment. I would also like to thank Tom and Robbie Snelham for all the coffee.
Finally, I would like to thank Paul Drougas and Caroline Flanagan at
Springer for all their help in putting this together. My apologies to anyone I
have missed.

ix
Contents

1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth��������������������������������������������������    1

What is Fire?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Fire Growth����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Fire in the Room of Origin��������������������������������������������������������������    1
Stages of Fire Growth������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Full Room Involvement ��������������������������������������������������������������    3
Notification of Occupants����������������������������������������������������������������    4
Notification of the Fire Department������������������������������������������������    4
Influence of Fire on Humans������������������������������������������������������������    4
Modeling Fire: Empirically and Numerically����������������������������������    5
Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron and Suppression ��������������������������������    5
Classes of Fire: What Is Burning? ����������������������������������������������    5
Calculation of Flashover��������������������������������������������������������������    5
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package ������������������    6
Diagnostic Room Fires����������������������������������������������������������������    6
Office Building Design Fires: Examples ������������������������������������    7
Open Office Plans and Spreadover����������������������������������������������    8
Suppression of the Fire��������������������������������������������������������������������   10
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads����������������������������������������������������������   11
Early Automatic Suppression Systems��������������������������������������������   11
History of the Sprinkler: 1864 ��������������������������������������������������������   12
Fusible Element Sprinkler Head��������������������������������������������������   12
Parmelee Sprinkler Head ������������������������������������������������������������   12
Skepticism������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   12
The Influence of Frederick Grinnell��������������������������������������������   13
The Modern Spray Sprinkler Head��������������������������������������������������   14
Development of the Spray Sprinkler��������������������������������������������   14
Sprinkler Heads����������������������������������������������������������������������������   14
Component: The Deflector����������������������������������������������������������   14
Components: The Operating Element(s)�����������������������������������������   15
The Solder Link ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   16
Frangible Bulb Sprinkler Head����������������������������������������������������   16
Temperature Rating����������������������������������������������������������������������   16
K-Factor ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16

xi
xii Contents

Development of the Large Orifice Head��������������������������������������   17

Small Orifice Head����������������������������������������������������������������������   18
Dry Pendant Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������   18
Sidewall Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������������   19
Decorative Sprinklers������������������������������������������������������������������   20
Old Style Versus New Style Sprinkler Head��������������������������������   21
Special Heads����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21
Large Drop Sprinkler ������������������������������������������������������������������   22
Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) Sprinkler ������������������   22
On-Off Sprinkler��������������������������������������������������������������������������   22
Corrosion-Resistant Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������   22
Rack Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������������������   23
CMDA (Standard Spray) ������������������������������������������������������������   23
CMSA (Large Drop)��������������������������������������������������������������������   24
Sprinkler Accessories������������������������������������������������������������������   24
Other Common Characteristics of Spray Sprinkler ��������������������   24
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices��������������������������������������������   27
Detection and Alarm Systems����������������������������������������������������������   27
Alarm Initiating Devices������������������������������������������������������������������   27
Manual Pull Stations��������������������������������������������������������������������   27
Thermal Detection Systems ��������������������������������������������������������   27
Pilot Head Systems: Sprinklers Themselves��������������������������������   29
Continuous Line Detector������������������������������������������������������������   29
Protectowire Type Detector����������������������������������������������������������   29
Rate of Rise Detector ������������������������������������������������������������������   29
Ionization Versus Photoelectric Spot Detection��������������������������   31
Ionization Detector Operation������������������������������������������������������   31
Photoelectric Detector Operation������������������������������������������������   31
Linear Beam Smoke Detector������������������������������������������������������   32
Rate Compensation Detector ������������������������������������������������������   33
Duct Detectors ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Flame Detectors ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Air Aspirating Smoke Detection Systems������������������������������������   37
4 Notification ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
History of Notification ��������������������������������������������������������������������   39
The Telegraph������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
Fire Alarm������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
The Influence of John Gamewell ������������������������������������������������   40
Telephone Systems����������������������������������������������������������������������   40
911 System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 40
Internet and Addressable Systems ����������������������������������������������   41
Notification System��������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Fire Alarm Systems����������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Fire Alarm Control Unit������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Conventional FACU ��������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Contents xiii

Addressable FACU����������������������������������������������������������������������   41

Analog Addressable System��������������������������������������������������������   42
Supervision����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42
Other Issues����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42
Types of Fire Alarm Systems ����������������������������������������������������������   43
Local Alarm System��������������������������������������������������������������������   43
Auxiliary Alarm System��������������������������������������������������������������   43
Remote Alarm������������������������������������������������������������������������������   43
Proprietary Alarm System������������������������������������������������������������   44
Central Station ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   44
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   44
5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies ��������������������������������������������������   45
Early Methods of Suppression of Fires and Conflagrations������������   45
Fire Pumps ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45
General Criteria����������������������������������������������������������������������������   46
Horizontal Fire Pumps ��������������������������������������������������������������������   47
Suction and Discharge ����������������������������������������������������������������   47
Pump Suction ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
Suction and Discharge Piping������������������������������������������������������   48
Circulation Relief Valve��������������������������������������������������������������   49
Main Relief Valve������������������������������������������������������������������������   49
Pump Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   50
Pump Test Design������������������������������������������������������������������������   50
Valve Supervision������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Automatic Air Release ����������������������������������������������������������������   52
Diesel Fuel System����������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Pump Rotation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Engine Exhaust����������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Ventilation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53
Diesel Engine Cooling ����������������������������������������������������������������   53
Reliable Power Supply to Electric Drive Fire Pumps����������������������   53
Diesel Engine Exhaust ����������������������������������������������������������������   53
Diesel Engine Cooling System����������������������������������������������������   53
Booster Pumps ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Fire Pumps in a Bypass��������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Pump House ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Coupling Guards��������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Jockey Pump Controller��������������������������������������������������������������   54
Controller ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   55
Pressure Considerations ��������������������������������������������������������������   55
Controller Cabinet������������������������������������������������������������������������   55
Controller Alarm and Signal Devices����������������������������������������������   55
Weekly Diesel Drive Pump Test��������������������������������������������������   56
Fire Pump Controller Alarm Signal Operations��������������������������   57
Diesel Engine Batteries����������������������������������������������������������������   57
Vertical Turbine Fire Pumps��������������������������������������������������������   57
Flushing and Testing��������������������������������������������������������������������   57
Fire Pump Field Acceptance Test������������������������������������������������   57
xiv Contents

Miscellaneous������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Water Supplies ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Tank Selection������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Concrete Reservoir����������������������������������������������������������������������   60
Embankment Fabric Reservoir����������������������������������������������������   61
Tank Heating��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
Tank Water Level ������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
6 Underground Fire Mains��������������������������������������������������������������   63
Underground Fire Mains������������������������������������������������������������������   63
Underground Pipe Selection������������������������������������������������������������   63
Cast Iron Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63
Ductile Iron Pipe��������������������������������������������������������������������������   64
Specifics for Cast Iron and Ductile Pipe��������������������������������������   64
Friction Loss: The “C” Factor������������������������������������������������������   64
Other Types of Underground Piping��������������������������������������������   65
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic Pipe (PVC)����������������������������������������   65
Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pipe����������������������������������������������   65
Asbestos Cement Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������   65
Steel Pipe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   66
Underground Pipe Bury ��������������������������������������������������������������   66
Rodding and Thrust Blocks ��������������������������������������������������������   66
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Hydrants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Flushing and Testing��������������������������������������������������������������������   67
7 Equipment and Devices ����������������������������������������������������������������   69
Equipment and Devices ������������������������������������������������������������������   69
Control Valves������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69
The Outside Screw and Yoke ������������������������������������������������������   69
The Post Indicator Valve (PIV)����������������������������������������������������   69
Important Considerations When Using the PIV��������������������������   71
Butterfly Valve ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   71
Pit OS&Y and Post Indicator������������������������������������������������������   72
Check Valves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   72
Detector Check Valves and Full Flow Fire Meters����������������������   72
Key Valve ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73
Full Flow Fire Meters������������������������������������������������������������������   73
Backflow Preventers��������������������������������������������������������������������   73
8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression ������������������   75
The Fire Service: Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������   75
Established Burning to Arrival����������������������������������������������������   75
Arrival and Size Up����������������������������������������������������������������������   76
Manual Suppression Coordinated Operations ��������������������������������   78
Locating the Fire��������������������������������������������������������������������������   78
Establish a Continuous Water Supply����������������������������������������������   78
Standpipes: Minimizing Set Up Time����������������������������������������������   78
Contents xv

Class I Standpipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79

Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Pressure Requirements����������������������������������������������������������������   79
Class II Standpipe����������������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80
Pressure Requirements����������������������������������������������������������������   80
1–1/2″ Hose Stations��������������������������������������������������������������������   81
Class III Standpipe��������������������������������������������������������������������������   81
Standpipe Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������   82
Types of Standpipes ������������������������������������������������������������������������   82
Hose Station Distribution������������������������������������������������������������   83
Roof Hose Stations����������������������������������������������������������������������   85
Standpipe Zoning ������������������������������������������������������������������������   85
Combined Standpipe and Sprinkler Riser����������������������������������������   86
Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Set Up Time: Firefighting Tasks������������������������������������������������������   86
Set Up Time: Firefighter Factors�����������������������������������������������������   87
Set Up Time: Location of Fire Within a Structure��������������������������   87
Interior Attack����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87
Size of a Fire that Can Be Extinguished������������������������������������������   87
Average First Alarm Crews��������������������������������������������������������������   88
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88
9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types ��������������������������������������������   89
Water Agent Suppression Systems��������������������������������������������������   89
Wet Pipe Sprinkler System��������������������������������������������������������������   89
Advantages and Disadvantages����������������������������������������������������   91
Wet Pipe System Alarm ��������������������������������������������������������������   91
Water Damage������������������������������������������������������������������������������   91
Initiating the Alarm��������������������������������������������������������������������������   92
Water Flow Indicator�������������������������������������������������������������������   92
Alarm Valve ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   94
Water Motor Alarm����������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Pressure Switch����������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Retard Chamber ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Alarm Valve Trim������������������������������������������������������������������������   96
Fire Department Pumper Connection����������������������������������������������   97
Main Control Valve����������������������������������������������������������������������   98
Inspector’s Test��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   99
Discharge ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 100
Location �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Wet Pipe System Drainage���������������������������������������������������������� 100
Dry Pipe Sprinkler System�������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry Pipe Systems������������������ 102
Differential Dry Pipe Valves�������������������������������������������������������� 103
Low Differential Dry Pipe Valve�������������������������������������������������� 103
Dry System Air Supply���������������������������������������������������������������� 104
Optional Devices�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
xvi Contents

Pressurized Nitrogen Supply�������������������������������������������������������� 106

Dry Valve Intermediate Chamber������������������������������������������������ 106
Dry System Fire Department Pumper Connection���������������������� 106
Quick Opening Devices ������������������������������������������������������������������ 106
Accelerators �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 106
Exhausters������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 107
Dry Pipe System Drainage���������������������������������������������������������� 108
Pipe Support�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Refrigerated Areas ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Special Conditions ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Maintenance Considerations�������������������������������������������������������� 108
Drainage Capacities �������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Drum-Drip Drain ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109
Low Points ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
Dry System Design Features������������������������������������������������������������ 109
Calculating the Area of Application�������������������������������������������� 109
Location of Dry Valves���������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Water Columning ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
Deluge Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Pre-action Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
The Pre-Action Valve������������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Detection System ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Protection of Equipment������������������������������������������������������������������ 116
Supervising the Piping System with Air�������������������������������������� 116
Use of Preaction Systems������������������������������������������������������������ 116
Pre-action System Design Features �������������������������������������������� 117
Types of Pre-action Systems������������������������������������������������������������ 118
Basic Pre-action System: Single Interlock���������������������������������� 118
Double Interlock�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118
Non-interlock ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
Water Spray System ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
Extinguishment���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Controlled Burning���������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Exposure Protection �������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Fire Protection���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Electrical Conductivity���������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Water Spray Versus Sprinkler Systems���������������������������������������� 121
Design Considerations ���������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Nozzle Selection�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Configuration of Equipment�������������������������������������������������������� 123
Water Supply�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Water Mist Systems ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
Extinguishing Method������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
Electrical Conductivity���������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Design Considerations ���������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Water Supply�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Contents xvii

10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems ���������������������������� 125

Hydraulic Calculations�������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Design Criteria ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Flow Data������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 126
Flow Test�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
Approximate Calculated Demand������������������������������������������������ 129
Computer Versus Hand Calculations ���������������������������������������������� 129
Necessity of Hydraulic Calculations������������������������������������������������ 130
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 130
11 Foam Systems �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
History: Foam Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Use and Calculation of Foam���������������������������������������������������������� 148
Proportioning ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149
Selecting Proportioning Systems and Devices���������������������������� 149
Balanced Pressure Proportioning���������������������������������������������������� 150
Reserve Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 150
Direct Orifice Proportioning������������������������������������������������������������ 151
Detection Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Jockey Pump������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
Diaphragm Pressure Proportioning�������������������������������������������������� 152
Water Supply������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
High Expansion Foam���������������������������������������������������������������������� 153
High Expansion Foam Generators ���������������������������������������������� 153
High Expansion Foam Fire Suppression�������������������������������������� 154
Blessing and Curse���������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
High Expansion Foam Uses�������������������������������������������������������� 154
Sizing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Advantages���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155
Activation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Air Supply������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Types of Foam – Properties Performance���������������������������������������� 155
Protein Foam�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156
Fluoroprotein Foam (FP) ������������������������������������������������������������ 156
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)���������������������������������������� 156
Alcohol-Resistant Foam Concentrate (AR-AFFF)���������������������� 156
Medium Expansion Foam������������������������������������������������������������ 156
High Expansion Foam������������������������������������������������������������������ 156
12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems�������������������������������� 159
Dry Agent Suppression Systems������������������������������������������������������ 159
Carbon Dioxide Systems������������������������������������������������������������������ 159
Local Application Systems���������������������������������������������������������� 160
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������ 160
Temperatures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Grounding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 160
Total Flooding Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Hazards of Total Flooding Carbon Dioxide�������������������������������� 161
Discharge Time Delay������������������������������������������������������������������ 161
xviii Contents

Re-Ignition ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161

Choosing the Time Delay������������������������������������������������������������ 162
Extended Discharge �������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������ 163
Carbon Dioxide and System Criteria ���������������������������������������������� 163
High Pressure Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 163
Maintenance Considerations for High Pressure�������������������������� 164
Reserve Cylinders������������������������������������������������������������������������ 165
How the System Works���������������������������������������������������������������� 165
Design of the Piping System�������������������������������������������������������� 166
Terminal Pressures ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Discharge Nozzles����������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Thumbnail Calculation���������������������������������������������������������������� 167
Low Pressure Carbon Dioxide Systems������������������������������������������ 167
The Storage Tank and Refrigeration�������������������������������������������� 167
Pipes and Fittings������������������������������������������������������������������������ 168
How the System Works���������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Dual Purpose Carbon Dioxide Units�������������������������������������������� 168
Inerting an Area with Carbon Dioxide���������������������������������������� 169
Carbon Dioxide Hose Stations���������������������������������������������������� 169
The Detection System and Air Leakage�������������������������������������� 170
Carbon Dioxide System Design������������������������������������������������������ 170
Local Application System Design������������������������������������������������ 170
Rate-By-Area Method������������������������������������������������������������������ 170
Rate-By-Volume Method ���������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Special Considerations���������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Total Flooding System Design���������������������������������������������������� 173
General Design Notes������������������������������������������������������������������ 175
Clean Agents-Replacing Halon�������������������������������������������������������� 175
Types of Clean Agents ���������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Greenhouse Gases and the Ozone Layer ������������������������������������ 176
Global Warming Potential������������������������������������������������������������ 176
Naming Conventions�������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Inert Agents���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Halocarbon Agents���������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
NOAEL and LOAEL and the Need for Precise Design�������������� 178
Quantities of Clean Agents���������������������������������������������������������� 178
Halon Systems and Halon Phase Out���������������������������������������������� 181
Use of Halon 1301 �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Need for Precise Design�������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Alarm Systems ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Rapid Discharge Rate������������������������������������������������������������������ 182
Storage of Halon������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 183
Control Switches for Storage ������������������������������������������������������ 183
Placement of Halon Cylinders ���������������������������������������������������� 183
Storage Conditions���������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
Estimating Approximate Amounts���������������������������������������������� 184
Partial Total Flooding Halon 1301 Systems�������������������������������� 184
Dry Chemical Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Contents xix

Classification of Dry Chemicals�������������������������������������������������� 185

Safety to Personnel���������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Dry Chemical System Design������������������������������������������������������ 186
Tests �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Local Application Dry Chemical Systems���������������������������������� 187
Dry Chemical Hand Hose Systems���������������������������������������������� 187
Pre-Engineered Dry Chemical Systems�������������������������������������� 188
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations ���������������� 189
Regulatory Agencies and Authorities���������������������������������������������� 189
National Fire Protection Association ���������������������������������������������� 189
National Electric Code�������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
FM Global���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Building Codes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192
Types of Buildings: General�������������������������������������������������������� 194
New Versus Existing Buildings���������������������������������������������������� 194
Fire Marshal and Fire Prevention Bureau���������������������������������������� 195
Other Authorities Having Jurisdiction �������������������������������������������� 196
Water Department���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 197
14 Fire Suppression System Specifications �������������������������������������� 199
Construction Specification Standards���������������������������������������������� 199
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Applicable Standards ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Design Criteria �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
Hydraulic Calculation Specifications���������������������������������������������� 202
Acceptable Manufacturers �������������������������������������������������������������� 202
Equipment and Material������������������������������������������������������������������ 203
Sprinkler Heads�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Testing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 205
Reference ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth
1

or total involvement of the compartment or

What is Fire? enclosed space.

Once a room has flashed over, it will serve as a

We can’t discuss manual and automatic fire sup- source of smoke and heat to ignite surrounding
pression systems without first discussing fire. rooms and move smoke throughout a structure.
This chapter answers the question “what is fire?” While a single room fire is relatively simple for a
and how does it grow. This it contrasts with the fire department to extinguish, multiple room fires
actions of occupants and the fire service. Fire is become more, sometimes far more complex.
defined by Quintiere (2017) as a “chemical reac- Large fuel sources such as open office plans
tion that involves the evolution of light and do not have barriers to contain the fire, but large
energy in sufficient amounts to be perceptible”. fires can quickly result from “spreadover”.
The concept of flashover and its importance to
any building fire are also examined.

Fire in the Room of Origin

Fire Growth
A determination of the proper detection or sup-
Figure 1.1, courtesy of the Home Fire Sprinkler pression device to use depends on a basic knowl-
Coalition, shows a fire timeline, in this case for a edge of the function of the different systems, the
residential occupancy. hazard characteristics, and the stages of fire
The type of fire we are of course, concerned growth. For the purpose of discussion, the stages
with are unwanted fires as shown in the Figure. of development are summarized in Table 1.1
The growing fire is shown in the figure starting as adopted from Fitzgerald and Meacham (2017).
the orange line that transitions to purple at time
1 min 30 s. The fire is seen to transition to flash-
over at about 3–5 min. Flashover is defined by Stages of Fire Growth
the NFPA 921 2017 (Guide for Fire and Explosion
Investigations) as: The table refers to the following stages of fire
A transition phase in the development of a com- growth:
partment fire in which surfaces exposed to thermal
radiation reach ignition temperature more or less 1. Preburning
simultaneously and fire spreads rapidly throughout
the space, resulting in full room involvement (FRI) 2. Initial Burning
3. Vigorous Burning

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 1

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_1
2 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Fig. 1.1 Fire Timeline. (Courtesy of the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition)

Table 1.1 Fire Timeline

Fire in the Room of Origin 3

4. Interactive Burning klers may activate – depending on the height of

5. Remote Burning the room and the location of the detector.
6. Full Room Involvement (FRI) Interactive burning is a time in fire growth
where flames are beginning to touch the ceiling.
Preburning refers to the time from when over- The heat release rate when flames touch the ceil-
heat point to ignition point. It is important in the ing is generally 800 kW to 1 MW and flames will
fire detection realm as certain detectors are able just be beginning to roll over on the ceiling when
to sense it via the gases that may be produced, the fire moves from the Enclosure Point to the
and any smoldering. This may go on for a long ceiling point.
period. The flame has now mushroomed across the
These four stages from preburning to initial ceiling and some areas remote from the initial
burning are: ignition may experience auto-ignition. The room
moves into flashover.
1. The incipient stage, where invisible products Finally, the fire moves to full room involve-
of combustion are produced. At this stage, ment. This will occur due to flashover or
smoke is not visible, nor has the heat of com- spreadover.
bustion developed. This entire process (up to flashover) is shown
2. The smoldering stage occurs when the com- as the fire growth “curve” in Fig. 1.1.
bustion has developed to the point where com- The potential hazards should be thoroughly
bustion products are visible as smoke, but evaluated in order to determine the anticipated
flame and heat are not yet a factor. combustion stages and how quickly a fire will
3. The flame stage is an intermediate stage where pass through the various stages. This information
considerable heat is not yet being produced by is integral to the selection of the proper and most
the combustion, although this stage very efficient detector/suppression for the hazard area.
quickly moves into the next, the heat stage. In A fire that has achieved established burning, as
this stage there may be a clean (laminar) shown in the table above, can them grow through
flame, but little or no smoke. up to a point of full room involvement (FRI). One
4. The heat stage combines all the elements of of the main benefits of suppression systems is
combustion invisible products as well as visi- that, if they are designed properly, the fire will be
ble smoke, flame, and heat. controlled, and FRI will not occur.

Initial burning is the time when the first small

flames grow into established burning (EB) – Full Room Involvement
about 19 Btu/s (20 kW) – also referred to as the
radiation point. Human beings will not survive flashover. Even in
Vigorous burning is the period of time when a full firefighter turnout gear, humans will be sub-
fire moves from established burning until it is ject to fatal levels of heat and radiation.
about as high as a person (379 Btu/s – 400 kW). When a compartment has flashed over, the fire
It should be noted that once a fire is as high as a has changed from a fuel-controlled fire to a
person’s head, a non-firefighter should consider ventilation-­controlled fire. This means that any
leaving the area and abandoning any attempt to air entering the compartment at this point will
use a fire extinguisher. The fire is generally devel- allow an equal amount of smoke (by mass) to
oping very rapidly at this point, and an unpro- leave the compartment. The quantity of smoke
tected individual would be in great danger, produced post flashover can be extremely large
particularly if they are untrained in the use of fire depending on the remaining contents in the room,
extinguishers. It should also be noted that in this and the amount of ventilation. It is generally very
realm in which heat detectors, including sprin- sooty due to the lack of oxygen at the point of
4 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Table 1.2 Pre and post flashover

Pre-flashover Post flashover
Mass of unburned fuel through door Low High
Heat release rate in room Regulated by fuel Regulated by
ventilation
Heat release of door jet None High

burning, and it is known that in most fires fatali- Notification of the Fire Department
ties are due to smoke, not heat. Post flashover
fires are known to produce smoke on the order of Notification of the presence of fire, particularly
lb/s (kg/s). the fire department may be non-trivial. In the case
When a fire is ventilation controlled, the air of a protected premise fire alarm system, there
entering the compartment through whatever may be a local fire alarm, but the fire department
openings are provided will limit all combustion may not be notified until someone alerts them. In
occurring inside the compartment. At the same the era of the cell phone this can be simpler than
time, there will be combustion outside the com- it was in the past, but it is often assumed by the
partment of pyrolized fuel that was hot enough to public that if a fire alarm system is in alarm, the
burn inside the compartment, but that did not fire department has been notified.
come in contact with any oxygen until it left the Report of the fire, dispatch and the fire
compartment though a vent. This is why “tongues response itself – will likely occur in similar time
of flame” emerge from windows and doors after periods to the Fig. 1.1 graphic. For these cases
flashover has occurred. It should be noted that and others, without sprinklers or some other
these flames will also roll across the ceilings of automatic fire suppression system fire growth is
adjacent rooms inside the structure and will likely unconstricted.
result in a multi-room fire. The level of sophistication of the fire alarm
So it has been established that a pre-flashover system may be such that finding the fire once the
compartment is quite a different environment fire department has arrived is a trivial task, but in
from a post-flashover compartment (Table 1.2). some cases where no detection or limited detec-
Once FRI has occurred, unburned hot gasses tion is present, or the sophisticated fire alarm sys-
will move out of the room of origin and have the tem is experiencing some sort of fault, the fire
potential to spread from any openings to sur- may also need to be located by the fire
rounding rooms. It is much more difficult for a department.
fire the department to extinguish a fire once it has
moved beyond the room of origin. Fixed suppres-
sion systems can prevent this from happening, Influence of Fire on Humans
and therefore may prevent the destruction of an
entire structure. Fire is hazardous to humans for a number of rea-
sons, some obvious and some less so. The more
obvious hazards to humans are the physical burns
Notification of Occupants that can happen to people exposed to fire. Less
obvious are the exposure to narcotic gasses, irri-
In this case, one hopes that if the occupants are tant gasses, and the limitations on visibility that
sleeping, they will wake up upon activation of a can influence safe egress. The narcotic gasses
smoke alarm and leave the premise. This isn’t include Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide as well
always the case however, and a portion of occu- as Hydrogen Cyanide. These gases are responsi-
pants perish even in the presence of a working ble for the majority of fire fatalities. All can cause
smoke alarm. death at different concentrations. The early
Modeling Fire: Empirically and Numerically 5

detection of these gases can activate alarms or bles are not referred to as a dry chemical, but
suppression systems that can both warn occu- as dry powders.
pants of danger and suppress a fire to make it less Class K – Class K fires are fires in cooking oils
dangerous to occupants. and greases such as animal fats and vegetable
fats.

 odeling Fire: Empirically

M
and Numerically Calculation of Flashover

Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron It is possible to calculate the heat release rate at

and Suppression flashover. It should be noted that a Watt is the
metric unit of energy commonly used to denote
The concept of the fire triangle was developed to the heat release per unit time used for fires.
provide a simple model of fire suppression. The Specifically, a Watt is a Joule/Second. A Joule is
fire triangle has three sides, the elimination of the amount of heat necessary to raise a gram of
any one of which will cause a fire to be extin- water about 0.24 (almost a quarter) of a degree
guished. The three sides are Heat, Oxygen and Celsius. This small-scale definition isn’t particu-
Fuel. larly helpful to us, as we will generally be con-
The fire tetrahedron contains the three sides of cerned about thousands (kilowatts) and even
the fire triangle with an added fourth “dimen- millions (megawatts) when we are discussing
sion”. The fourth dimension of the fire tetrahe- fires.
dron is chemical chain reactions. It was added to The 2016 NFPA glossary defines flashover as
explain the supression characteristics of some “a stage in the development of a contained fire in
powdered suppressants such as sodium bicarbon- which all exposed surfaces reach ignition tem-
ate and Purple K, as well as the characteristics of perature more or less simultaneously and fire
halon gas, all discussed in later chapters. spreads rapidly throughout the space”. As dis-
cussed later, upper layer temperatures at flash-
over can be 900–1200 °F(500–600 °C), and the
Classes of Fire: What Is Burning? radiative heat flux at the floor is roughly 1.9 Btu/
s-ft2 (20 kW/m2), sufficient to cause paper to
Fire can be divided into different classes. This ignite.
structure helps identify what means can be used A simple equation (there are others) for deter-
to suppress the fire. mining the necessary heat release rate (HRR) for
flashover was determined by Babrauskas (1980) as:
Class A combustibles are ordinary combustibles ·
such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and some Q ( Btu / s ) = 36.5 A H ( English )
plastics. These are basically the types of fires
·
we encounter in most buildings. Q ( kW ) = 750 A H ( Metric )
Class B combustibles are flammable liquids,
paints, grease, solvents, etc. These types of Where A is the area of the opening in sq. ft (sq.
fires are generally encountered in commercial m) and the square root of H is the square root of
situations. the height of
·
the opening in ft (m). Using this
Class C is not combustible, but indicates that the equation, Q , the HRR at flashover, is roughly
agent most be electrically nonconductive, and 1990 Btu/s (2100 kW) for a room with a standard
can therefore be safely discharged on energized door, roughly 6.56′ (2 m) high and 3.28′ (1 m)
electrical equipment, devices, and wiring. wide. Note that this calculation applies to a com-
Class D refers to combustible metals such as partment with one opening.
magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Agents It should also be noted that flashover is NOT
used for extinguishment of Class D combusti- the maximum heat release rate that can occur in a
6 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

compartment fire. An order of magnitude can be noted on the graph. Examples of how this can be
noted by comparing an equation for the maxi- done are located in the next section.
mum heat release rate for a compartment with a
single opening (Hurley et al. 2015)
· Diagnostic Room Fires
Q ( Btu / s ) = 68.1A H ( English )
Actual specified fires are generally not part of
·
Q ( kW ) = 1400 A H traditional building codes. A specified fire (a
( Metric )
diagnostic or design fire) is usually introduced
Different configurations may produce differ- in “performance-based designs”. A method for
ent results, but this is the result for a single open- performance-­ based design is outlined in the
ing. It can easily be seen that the maximum HRR Society of Fire Protection Engineers “SFPE
in a post-flashover compartment can be on the Guide to Performance-Based Fire
order of double the HRR at flashover. Protection”(SFPE 2007). A formal introduction
of these building design methods will not be
adopted in this book; however, the concept of
 ire and Time: Fire Growth
F design fire is important.
for a Single Fuel Package Multiple design fires may be introduced in order
to address the full range of potential issues that
It is important to understand how to quantify the could arise. Choosing a relatively large “diagnostic
time it takes for the fire to pass through the phases fire” to simulate what the firefighters will encoun-
listed above to achieve flashover or FRI. This is ter has some advantages. A larger fire should pro-
because the time for detector activation, particu- duce less visibility, more heat, more smoke, more
larly heat detector activation, as used standalone fatigue, and increased the rate of structural fire
or as the detector in a sprinkler head is a function attack. These characteristics will make all the
of the growth rate of the fire (Table 1.3). buildings’ architectural obstacles more difficult
The time for a single fuel package to move than they would be in a smaller fire.
through to flashover is generally quantified math- In addition, if the resources to suppress a large
ematically as an alpha t2 fire. This is for a single fire are brought to bear in an adequate time, those
fuel package such as a chair or couch. Each value same resources should be able to suppress a small
of alpha corresponds to a different fire growth fire in the same rooms of a similar building. This
rate. These rates are given the simple names slow, is similar to the concept used in structural build-
medium, and fast. Applications of these and their ing codes for floor loading. If large loads can be
relationship to detector activation is discussed handled, the smaller ones can be effectively
more in the fire alarm section, and the corre- ignored. In short, a building design that is ade-
sponding alphas are shown in Table 1.3. quate for large fires should be more than adequate
These types of fires can be “mixed and for smaller ones.
matched” with the number of fuel packages ignit- Potential disadvantages in the choice of large
ing in the course of the move toward flashover. design fires are: Worst case conditions may not
Figure 1.2, shows a fire heat release timeline be very useful for determining fire department
for 5 min. These types of fire growth curves are intervention, as in using this methodology, there
easily reproduced on spreadsheets and can be
used to determine the approximate time to flash- Table 1.3 Alpha and Heat Release Rate
over. For example, if the Babrauskas flash over Rate Alpha (kW/s2)
equation determines that a room will flash over Slow 0.002931
when the HRR reaches 2500 kW, a fast fire would Medium 0.01127
flash the room over in a little under 4 min, as Fast 0.04689
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 7

Fig. 1.2 Fire growth 5,000

timeline Slow Medium Fast

3,750

HRR (kW)
2,500

1,250

0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290
Time (Seconds)

may theoretically be no building left standing must also be developed. It is important that infor-
when the fire department arrives. If an unreason- mation about smoke and heat in the burning com-
ably large fire is chosen for the given scenario, partments and their neighbors is available so the
the effects of smoke, heat, visibility and potential influence of these factors on firefighter move-
for structural collapse will be overestimated, and ment can be established.
the potential of fire department intervention may For some occupancies such as office build-
be grossly underestimated. This can result in the ings, there is a large amount of generalized infor-
recommendation of a costly redesign of a pro- mation available about ventilation and fire
posed structure when none is necessary. loading. Information about the building is vital to
Large design fires have the potential to make the development and integration of the overall
detection and location a simple matter when model. Fire models such as the zone model
under real conditions this is often not the case. It CFAST can be used to develop generalized
is very important to address detection and fire design fires for individual compartment types.
location separately. The output from these programs includes infor-
mation on time to compartment flashover and
smoke movement information outside the room
 ffice Building Design Fires:
O of origin.
Examples Information about different room types is pro-
vided in the work of Culver and Milke (Culver
NFPA 72 (The Alarm Code) lists many fuel pack- 1976). These studies give sizes ventilation areas
age fires in its Annex, including heat release rates and fire loadings for different office building
for furniture and other fuel packages. They are room configurations. These room types are mod-
very useful in determining the potential response eled based on their contents and content layout. If
of sprinklers and other fire detection devices. these categories can be effectively modeled, then
However, the fires described here incorporate fire any fire in an office building will be quantified.
in the room of origin but can spread outside the We will be choosing the more hazardous room
room of origin as well. layouts, as this is the most significant to firefight-
Fires must be developed for the associated ers, and measuring time for firefighter accessibil-
office building compartments for the type of ity. Design layouts are included for these rooms.
building layout that is being studied. An associated Sizes for traditional offices can be divided
model for the spread of fire to other compartments many different ways. Figure 1.3 shows the areas
8 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Fig. 1.3 Left to right – small, medium, large and open office spaces

Table 1.4 Office areas, vent sizes and time to flashover

Type Size Floor area (Sq. Ft) Vent area (Medium and slow fire) Time to flashover
Small office 10′ × 11′ 110 80 Sq. ft 150–230 s
Medium office 20′ × 16′ 320 160 Sq. ft 160–280 s
Large office 30′ × 16′ 480 240 Sq. ft 150–230 s
Open office 2 panel - - ~570 s

used for the design offices. This table also shows The time to full room involvement is one of the
the vent areas that will be used in the d­ evelopment most common calculations performed by fire pro-
of medium and slow fires. The vent area for fast tection engineers using computer models such as
fires is taken to be the size of an open door. CFAST. There are a number of definitions of FRI
For the purposes of demonstration, a set of including the point where upper layer gas temper-
theoretical design fires was developed for office atures reach 500–600 °C., or a radiative heat flux
compartments. In order to construct such a design at the floor level of 20 W/m2. Zone models describe
fire, it is necessary to obtain heat release rates for the boundary between the hot upper layer and a
particular fire packages. This is done so that to cooler lower layer and most account for variations
flashover for individual rooms, and fire spread in room ventilation (Table 1.4).
throughout buildings, can be modeled. It can be seen that the flashover times for these
In developing design fires, we are particularly rooms are on the order of minutes, similar to the
concerned with time from established burning to time shown in Fig. 1.1.
flashover. Established burning is defined as the
point where the dominant heat transfer mode
shifts from convection to radiation. Radiation Open Office Plans and Spreadover
feedback is assumed to occur when flames reach
a height of approximately 10 inches. After this A number of important conclusions were drawn
point, the fire grows much faster. about fires in open office spaces in Harold Nelson’s
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 9

review of the First Interstate Bank Fire of 1988 involved is important if persons may have to
(Nelson 1989). These conclusions include: take refuge in the building during the fire.
5. Floor to floor propagation is a potentially
1. The recognition that open arrangements in serious problem in window wall buildings.
office settings can develop to flashover. There The knowledge of flame extension from win-
is a demonstrable fire potential associated dows, particularly where petroleum based
with open office arrangements that contain polymers are involved is insufficient. A bet-
concentrated grouping of combustible work ter understanding of the relationships
areas. Where such concentrations occur in between burning rates and flame lengths is
spaces involving large floor areas and rela- needed.
tively low ceilings, there is usually sufficient 6. In this fire the duration of burning on a floor
combustion air within the space to allow a and the rate of fire propagation from floor to
developing fire to reach flashover conditions. floor were close to each other. A longer dura-
This even if no additional air is introduced tion fire or a faster floor to floor spread could
into the space. The traditional light hazard result in an unstoppable fire. Longer duration
expectations associated often associated with condition would be expected where a higher
offices do not apply in these cases. total fuel load existed such as commonly
2. High space utilization office landscape have occur with merchandising displays or exten-
the potential, even without the assistance of sive use of combustible interior finishes.
flashover, of spreading fire over large areas
producing fires of major portions. Data is available on workstation heat release
3. There is an important relationship between the rates from a paper by Madrzykowski (1996).
release of fuel from a burning array as the Using data he developed design fires were con-
result of heat impinging on it and the avail- structed for workstations with 2, 3 and 4 panels
ability of oxygen (air.) These relate to effi- respectively. Understanding that “cube farms” can
ciency of combustion. Efficiency of consist of vast areas of open office plan, it is obvi-
combustion is in turn a major determinant of ous that fire may “spread over” to other cubes
the ability to burn, room layer temperature, very rapidly, and could quickly ignite an entire
carbon monoxide production, oxygen content, floor, or even multiple floors with extension out-
fuel transport and flame length. side the building, as it did during the First
4. It must be expected that fire products will be Interstate Bank and One Meridian Plaza fires. The
spread by natural forces to remote portions of importance of sprinkler protection becomes par-
the building given sufficient time. The degree of ticularly important, as these fires can grow very
problem ensuing will be a function of the effi- rapidly over the evenly spaced, large fuel pack-
ciency of combustion of the fire, the tightness of ages that open office plans provide (Table 1.5).
the shafts and other communicating passages, It can be seen that open office plans can
the presence or absence of smoke control sys- behave similarly to compartments due to their
tems, the height of the building, and the weather large heat release rates. Spreadover across these
conditions at the time. Analysis of the potential items can result in very large fires that move

Table 1.5 Ceiling heights, number of workstation panels, and time to flashover
Type Ceiling height Fire Time to flashover
Slow fire 9′ 2 panel 570 s
Medium fire 8′ 3 panel 460 s
Fast fire 8′ 4 panel 290 s
10 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

through these open areas rapidly. Automatic sup- they are sleeping or medically impaired), and
pression in the form of sprinklers is one of the destroying property that might otherwise have
few ways of consistently dealing with the prob- been saved.
lems that these fires represent. Note that while this Figure demonstrates
response for a residential occupancy, it is demon-
strated that flashover can occur in the same order
Suppression of the Fire of magnitude (2–5 min or so) for other occupan-
cies as well. Fire department setup can change
For the purpose of discussing the fire protection dramatically based on many factors ranging from
management of buildings in 2018, there are still location of the water supply relative, the weather,
essentially two kinds of buildings, sprinklered the location of the fire and interior conditions.
and unsprinklered, and this is also described by Automatic suppression in the early stages of fire
Fig. 1.1. may be the only way of saving a structure and the
In sprinklered buildings, detection, location lives within it.
and suppression/control are handled by the sprin-
kler system. A modern functioning wet pipe sys-
tem will control or extinguish a fire before a room References
flashes over. In unsprinklered buildings this is not
the case, and the fire department and building Babrauskas, V. “Estimating Room Flashover Potential.”
Fire Technology 16.2 (1980): 94–103.
occupants can be confronted with a far different Culver, C. Survey Results for Fire Loads and Live Loads
scenario where smoke and heat are being dis- in Office Buildings. Vol. (NBS Building Science Series
charged in copious amounts by the time the fire Number 85) National Bureau of Standards, 1976.
department arrives, and a much of the building Fitzgerald, Robert W., and Brian J. Meacham. Fire
Performance Analysis for Buildings. Wiley, 2017.
may be just starting to evacuate. Hurley, Morgan J., Daniel T. Gottuk et al. SFPE Handbook
of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer, 2015.
Madrzykowski, D. “Office Work Station Heat Release
Summary Rate Study: Full Scale Vs. Bench Scale.” Interflam ‘96,
7th International Interflam Conference Proceedings.
Cambridge, England 1996.
Figure Fig. 1.1 explains an extremely important Nelson, Harold E. “An Engineering View of the Fire of
concept that this book will repeat – automatic May 4, 1988 in the First Interstate Bank Building, Los
systems can stop fire spread outside of the room Angeles, California.” NISTIR 89–4061 (1989)
Quintiere, James G. Principles of Fire Behavior, Second
of origin immediately and prevent toxic smoke Edition. 2nd ed., New York: Taylor and Francis,
from moving around a premise and impairing or 2017.
killing occupants who may or may not be aware SFPE. SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire
that the fire is even occurring (for example, if Protection. National Fire Protection Association, 2007.
 Automatic Sprinkler Heads
2

New England was at the center of the textile mill

 arly Automatic Suppression
E industry. These operations were housed in large,
Systems multi-story, wooden structures.
The textile mills contained machinery driven
Automatic sprinkler heads were the first practi- by pulley and belting systems, plus primitive
cal, widely used, heat detectors. Their history is heating and lighting systems which provided a
fascinating. source of ignition. Once ignition occurred, it
The earliest piping system intending to serve could readily feed not only on the wooden con-
as a sprinkler system had fittings resembling struction, but also the lint and fabric products
salt shakers installed in the piping. A cord and inside. Since these buildings were constructed
weight arrangement controlled the operation of prior to the age of fire protection engineering and
the water supply valve, which was normally modern construction requirements, when a fire
kept in the closed position. The water supply did break out and was not immediately extin-
was stored in a tank above the piping arrange- guished, it would spread rapidly through unpro-
ment, thereby effecting static pressure on the tected openings to other floors. The loss was
water supply pipe. In the event of a fire, the cord usually total. The need for an efficient automatic
in the fire area burned through, thereby releas- fire extinguishing system became painfully obvi-
ing the weights and opening the valve. While ous and economically prudent.
the concept was sound, there were several Perforated piping systems appeared to be the
defects. For example, the cords sometimes most practical answer. The customary installa-
stretched and lowered the weights, allowing the tion consisted of manually operated control
valve to leak. In other cases, when the system valves serving risers for each floor. Because of
was called upon to function, the valve, (lacking this design, however, the water damage was usu-
modem gasket and lubricating material) after ally severe. For example, a small fire in one
standing inoperative over a long period of time- corner of a 15,000 or 20,000 square foot floor
would stick and fail to open. area meant flooding the entire floor with water. In
In 1852, the first perforated piping system was many cases, the area over the fire might never
installed in America at the Locks and Canals receive water because perforations would be
Company in Lowell, Massachusetts. At that time clogged with paint, sediment, and corrosion.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 11

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_2
12 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

History of the Sprinkler: 1864 during this period that Henry S. Parmelee
invented and developed the forerunner of what
In an attempt to overcome the problems caused we know today as the automatic sprinkler head.
by the clogging of holes drilled directly into the The Parmelee Number 3, was an upright sprin-
perforated piping system, and to afford better kler first used in 1875. It consisted of a perforated
water distribution, the next step in the develop- water distributor completely enclosed in a brass
ment of automatic fire suppression systems was cap which was held in place by solder. When the
the installation of crude, open sprinklers con- solder softened from the heat of fire, the cap was
nected to the piping. These open sprinklers were forced off by the water pressure, and the water
metal bulbs with numerous perforations, which discharged on the fire area.
resulted in a spray pattern. Unfortunately, these Parmelee developed this first automatic sprin-
perforations were also conducive to severe clog- kler system to protect his New Haven, Connecticut
ging, which not only prevented water discharge, piano factory, and by so doing demonstrated the
but also disrupted the discharge pattern the head first practical automatic fire protection system.
was supposed to develop. That same year, Parmelee designed a new model,
further improving it in 1878 (Fig. 2.1). In the fol-
lowing years, many improvements resulted in a
Fusible Element Sprinkler Head mass-produced supply.

In London, England, in 1864, Major A Stewart

Harrison developed the first fusible element Skepticism
sprinkler head. Harrison’s device consisted of a
hollow brass sphere that contained a large num- New inventions are always greeted by suspicion.
ber of counter-sunk holes plugged with solder. Parmelee’s invention was no exception. Would it
When the solder melted from the heat of the fire, work after standing idle for years? Wouldn’t
the water was discharged. As with previously water damage be severe if the head operated
described methods, the small holes frequently because of a small fire? If the head or the piping
clogged with sediment, making the head at least leaked, would the system be capable of control-
partially inoperative. In addition, the Harrison ling a fire of any proportion? Was the expense of
head had a rubber valve which had a very short installation justified? These questions that were
life, and once inoperative, was useless. asked in 1878 are still being asked of the systems
There is no record of a patent in Major that are available today. But between 1878 and
Harrison’s name for this device, and apparently it 1882, the Providence Steam and Gas Pipe
was never installed in a system. Perhaps this was Company sold and installed over 200,000 of
because of the defects that appeared in the exper- these crude, but remarkably efficient, sprinkler
imental models. Nevertheless, Harrison’s sprin- heads – a testimony to their performance record.
kler represents the first automatic application of By this time, Factory Mutual Insurance
water from an individual head. But certainly the Company (FM) had compiled records clearly
reports of this idea influenced future sprinkler indicating the proficiency of automatic sprinkler
head development. protection in the facilities they insured. From
1877 to 1888, their records indicated a total fire
loss in unsprinklered facilities of $5,707,000, the
Parmelee Sprinkler Head result of 759 fires, or $7500 per fire. By compari-
son, there had been 206 fires in sprinkled proper-
It is impossible to say just how much influence ties during their 10-year span, with a total dollar
the Harrison head concept had on the consider- loss of $224,480, or $1080 per fire. These statis-
able amount of sprinkler head experimentation tics convinced insurance companies of the
that was performed from 1874 to 1878. It was dependability of automatic sprinkler protection.
History of the Sprinkler: 1864 13

Fig. 2.1 1878 Parmelee

sprinkler head.
(Courtesy of Ryan
Craig)

The companies, in turn, encouraged their policy- Between 1873 and 1882 several sprinkler
holders to install automatic sprinkler systems, head inventions appeared which influenced the
thereby protecting themselves against serious fire thinking of practical men like Frederick Grinnell.
loss claims. The cost of insurance was reduced if A sprinkler head developed by Charles E. Buell
the client installed automatic protection. One of New Haven, Connecticut in 1873, incorpo-
example of this sprinkler installation incentive rated a new feature which was to become a stan-
comes from Factory Mutual records which indi- dard design feature on all future sprinkler heads.
cate that in 1875, the cost of fire insurance was 30 This head used the principle of a baffle, or deflec-
cents per $100 valuation; in 30 years, this rate tor, to break up the water, effecting both a greater
had dropped to 4 or 5 cents per $100 valuation. water distribution and smaller water droplets for
greater heat absorption. Between 1872 and 1914,
over 450 automatic sprinkler heads were regis-
The Influence of Frederick Grinnell tered with the U.S. patent office, and very likely
an equal number were invented but never pat-
If one man’s name is to be remembered as the father ented. However, in 1914, Factory Mutual’s
of the automatic sprinkler, it should be Frederick approval list of sprinkler heads carried only 10
Grinnell. Grinnell was with the Providence Steam brands, and the 1974 approval list indicated only
and Gas Pipe Company during the Parmelee years. 15. In 2018, there are now 20 brands.
He went on to become President of its successor, the Despite the numerous advantages offered by fire
General Fire Extinguisher Company, later named the sprinklers, the high cost of retrofitting fire sprin-
Grinnell Company – a fire protection company that klers in existing buildings and the lack of integrity
holds a prominent place in the fire protection in system interfaces are some of the important fac-
tors restraining the growth of the fire sprinkler
industry. market. The increasing fire protection expenditure
Frederick Grinnell was not only the inventor of several enterprises to avoid the loss of life and
who perfected the Grinnell sprinkler head, but property caused by fire, various norms laid by gov-
also a man who could see the life safety and prop- ernment agencies, increasing trend of automation
in commercial buildings and homes in developing
erty protection value of automatic protection. He nations, and decreased insurance expenditure are
used his genius as both an inventor and a busi- some of the factors driving the market for fire
nessman to overcome the public’s apathy and sprinklers.
skepticism, to render automatic sprinkler installa- (Today) the major players in global fire sprin-
kler market include Tyco (Switzerland), API
tions commercially feasible as well as practical. Group, Inc. (U.S.), Honeywell International, Inc.
14 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

(U.S.), Johnson Controls, Inc. (U.S.), United sure and the leakage around the valve cap that
Technologies Corporation (U.S.), Hochiki
Corporation (Japan), Robert Bosch GmbH
may result.
(Germany), Siemens AG (Germany), Minimax Another feature common to all sprinkler
GmbH & Co. KG (Germany), and VT MAK heads is the stamp required on the metal piece of
(U.S.). (Markets 2015) the fusible element stating the temperature rat-
ing of the head. In addition to this, every head
The Modern Spray Sprinkler Head further will have the use-position stamped into the
explains the modern spray sprinkler head and deflector, frame, or fusible link. The manufac-
examines some of these devices. Spot detection turer’s name and model number are cast into the
appeared about the same time as sprinklers. The frame, and all approved heads will indicate the
first detectors used roughly the same technol- date of manufacture stamped into the fusible
ogy – fusible material that closed or opened a cir- element.
cuit as opposed to a sprinkler head. After 2001 a SIN (sprinkler identification
number) has been used to identify the type of
head. This is located on the deflector. When used
The Modern Spray Sprinkler Head with a corresponding technical bulletin, the SIN
is used to verify most of the characteristics of the
Development of the Spray Sprinkler sprinklers described below, in addition to a sprin-
klers manufacturer.
Once practical and efficient sprinkler heads were The frame of most standard sprinkler heads is
developed, tested, and approved by a nationally made of high-grade bronze, and the valve cap or
recognized testing laboratory, activity was con- disc covering the water entrance orifice is usually
centrated on ways to increase the cost effective- constructed of copper or bronze, or a combina-
ness of sprinkler protection. Research toward tion of these two metals. One manufacturer fea-
developing more economical manufacturing tures a copper disc in the cap which forms an
methods, less expensive materials, better quality expansion chamber between itself and the bronze
control, and ease of testing has taken place. cap. In this way, if the water should freeze,
thereby causing expansion pressure, the copper
disc would be punctured by the pressure, and a
Sprinkler Heads warning drip of water rather than a complete
water discharge would occur to indicate the fro-
Many companies manufacture sprinkler heads zen condition.
that have been tested and approved by nationally
recognized testing laboratories, and each manu-
facturer has incorporated slightly different fea- Component: The Deflector
tures to individualize their own particular
sprinkler head. However, the devices are all simi- As shown in Fig. 2.2 the deflector is the part of
lar in several respects. the device against which the water stream is
First, all approved sprinkler heads are con- directed. The deflector is usually attached to
structed so that the mechanical pressure on the the frame of the sprinkler head by a deflector
valve cap far exceeds any anticipated fluid pres- screw. This screw not only holds the deflector
sure exerted on the bottom of the cap. This fea- in place on the frame, but also creates a posi-
ture is incorporated into all sprinkler heads to tive tension on the fusible elements of the head.
prevent any possibility of a severe pressure surge, The pressure is transmitted to the cap, which
water hammer, or exceptionally high-water pres- covers the water discharge orifice, thereby
Components: The Operating Element(s) 15

Fig. 2.2 Key sprinkler

head components.
(Courtesy of John
Morrison)

keeping the water from discharging. The The spray sprinkler head may be used in the
deflector performs two functions: first, it upright or the pendent position, but their posi-
breaks up the solid water discharge after it tions cannot be interchanged. The Spray Sprinkler
leaves the opening, or orifice, into relatively Upright (SSU) must be used in the upright posi-
small droplets, and second, it creates the tion, and the Spray Sprinkler Pendent (SSP) must
umbrella pattern common to modern standard be used in the pendent position, due to the design
spray sprinkler heads. This discharge pattern, of the deflector-large on the SSU and small on the
and water distribution within this pattern, is SSP.
relatively uniform at all levels below the sprin-
kler head.
At a distance of 4′ below the spray sprinkler
deflector, with the head discharge at 15 gpm Components: The Operating
(7 psi), the standard sprinkler head covers a cir- Element(s)
cular area of approximately 16′ in diameter.
With this uniform pattern of water discharge, It is in the operating elements of the spray sprin-
fire control and extinguishment is greatly kler head that manufacturers express their indi-
enhanced at the floor level, thereby decreasing viduality. The operating elements can be
the exposure of the ceiling to heat from the generally classified as solder-link and
combustion. frangible-bulb.
16 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

The Solder Link bulb becomes completely filled with liquid. With
the cushion of air gone, and the liquid continuing
The solder-link sprinkler consists of a combina- to expand, the pressure inside the bulb increases
tion of levers, links, and struts arranged so that until it shatters-literally explodes-thereby releas-
the water or air pressure acting upward on the cap ing the valve cap and allowing the water to dis-
covering the orifice, and the deflector screw force charge against the deflector. The air bubble size is
acting in a downward direction, minimize tension a very important design feature of this head,
in the solder element. By minimizing the force because by adjusting and regulating the ratio of
that acts on the solder, a lesser amount of solder liquid to air when the bulb is sealed, the exact
can be used, thereby reducing the level of heat operating temperature of the head can be
necessary to raise the solder to a temperature at determined.
which it becomes soft enough to release the link-
age. The solder used in sprinkler heads is usually
an alloy of tin, lead, cadmium, and bismuth, and Temperature Rating
is prepared to provide a predetermined, sharply
defined melting point. Mixing two or more met- Table 2.1 indicates the temperature rating and
als that have different individual melting points corresponding color coding of solder-link sprin-
can produce a eutectic alloy, an alloy with a melt- kler heads used in areas where the maximum
ing point lower than the lowest melting point of ceiling temperature has been determined. If the
any of the metals comprising the alloy. range of room temperature is not known, or if a
The solder, or alloy, in a sprinkler head has a piece of equipment in the area will produce heat
predetermined melting point that establishes the above the ambient room temperature, it may be
temperature rating of the specific head. This tem- necessary to hang a recording thermometer in the
perature rating is stamped on the soldered link. area in question to determine temperature condi-
tions. The recording thermometer records the
highest temperature attained. Unlike ordinary
Frangible Bulb Sprinkler Head thermometers, it will remain at this temperature
until reset.
The frangible bulb sprinkler is similar in con- The color code indicated in the table is painted
struction to the solder-link sprinkler, except for on the sprinkler head frame so that an inspector
the operating mechanism, which does not depend or maintenance worker can identify the tempera-
on the heating and melting of a solder element. ture rating of the head without having to examine
The frangible-bulb sprinkler operating mecha- its stamp. The use of color on the head to identify
nism consists of a special glass bulb which takes a fusing temperature above the ordinary classifi-
the place of the mechanical linkage in the solder- cation is not required for decorative heads, such
type head but performs the same function of as those installed below a suspended ceiling, or
holding the valve cap over the orifice against the on chrome-plated heads. Unless otherwise speci-
water or air pressure. This glass bulb contains a fied or indicated on a plan, the temperature rating
liquid with high expansion qualities. However, of an ordinary sprinkler head is 165 °F.
the liquid does not completely fill the bulb, allow-
ing for a small air bubble. A pendant frangible
head sprinkler is shown next to a fusible element K-Factor
sprinkler head in Fig. 2.3.
When the heat from the fire reaches the head, The k factor stamped on every sprinkler deter-
the liquid expands, compressing the air bubble. If mines the relationship between the water pres-
the heat continues to be absorbed by the sealed sure behind a sprinkler head and the amount of
glass bulb, the liquid continues to expand until it flow that the sprinkler head will produce. This
has completely absorbed the air bubble, and the relationship is shown below.
Components: The Operating Element(s) 17

Fig. 2.3 Pendant SSP

sprinkler heads.
(Courtesy of Reliable
Sprinkler)

Table 2.1 Temperature ratings, classifications and color codes

Temp. Rating °F, 135–170 175–225 250–300 325–375 400–475 500–575
Temp. Class Ordinary Intermediate High Extra high Very extra high Ultra high
Glass Bulb Color Orange or Red Yellow or Green Blue Purple Black Black
Color Code Uncolored or Black White Blue Red Green Orange

Q=k P When an intense fire develops, it can create

exceptionally strong fire plumes. As a result, the
As the suppression requirement of certain haz- discharge from standard sprinklers operating
ards (e.g. plastic storage) has continued to rise, so over such a fire may be unable to penetrate the
has the K factor. A typical K factor is 5.6 (1/2″ fire plume, with the droplets turning to steam far
thread), but in some storage occupancies they can above the burning fuel surface, or combustion
get as high as 32 as of this printing (1 1/4″ thread). core. With the expanded spacing that the spray
The k factor becomes an important element as sprinkler allows, an excessive number of sprin-
the fire size at activation gets larger. Clearly more klers around the perimeter of the fire center will
water is required when a larger design fire is begin to open when the first sprinklers directly
expected. The k factor may be raised accordingly over the fire fail to control the combustion. As
to accommodate this. more and more heads open, the discharge density
of the heads directly over the fire will decrease,
producing less efficient fire control.
Development of the Large Modern technology demanded a sprinkler
Orifice Head head with a higher water discharge and density. It
also required sprinklers with droplets in the dis-
The new spray sprinkler was a solution to the charge large enough to penetrate the kinds of fire
threat of the high-challenge fire posed by indus- plumes found in intense fires from combustible
trial advancement. It was also an answer to better products that were not anticipated when the spray
fire protection at a smaller investment. head was first installed. The improved sprinkler
Nevertheless, the interest in improved fire protec- head would also have to cope with fire plumes
tion was not dulled by this radical change in resulting from storage configurations of a height
sprinkler head design. High-level fire challenges- and extensive square footage area unheard of
fires that were beyond the capabilities and dis- before. Development of the large orifice head
charge capacities of standard spray sprinkler was the result: a sprinkler head similar to the
installations continue to drive the development standard sprinkler with a design exception a
of new sprinklers. 17/32″ orifice.
18 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

It was discovered that an orifice 1/32″ larger limited and must be recommended with great
than the normal 1/2″ orifice would deliver 140% care by experienced fire protection engineers,
more water, at the same pressure. This proved and only after all of the protection circumstances
exceedingly advantageous when there was a have been carefully evaluated. The small orifice
demand for high water density without the corre- head is available in several orifice sizes: 1/4″,
sponding demand for high water pressure to meet 5/16″, 3/8″, and 7/16″. When considering the use
the density requirements. The fire protection engi- of the small orifice head, one should keep in mind
neer could now meet the high density gpm per that increasing the orifice head by 1/32″ increases
square foot requirements of rack storage, plastic the discharge by 40%. For an example, at 65 psi
and rubber storage, flammable liquid operations, at the sprinkler head, the orifice head will dis-
and a multitude of situations occasioned by new charge about 45 gpm, the 17/32″ orifice head will
products and processes and changing industrial discharge about 66 gpm, and the small orifice
storage and operational demands. These needs 1/4″ head will discharge about 13 gpm.
could be met with smaller pipe sizes and less pres- To avoid mistaking a small orifice head for a stan-
sure than the orifice head required. The chapter dard head, every small orifice head with an orifice
Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems, less than has a very noticeable pintle, or extension of
describes in detail the importance of demand and the compression screw, which extends to above the
supply conditions, and points out the advantages deflector. In this way, an inspector can tell at a glance
of the large orifice head over the regular size in which size sprinkler head he or she is dealing with.
satisfying unusual demand and supply situations.
The pipe thread connection of a large orifice
sprinkler is 3/4″ NPT (National Pipe Thread). The Dry Pendant Sprinklers
standard orifice sprinkler has a NPT pipe thread
connection. This explains why the large orifice When the sprinkler system piping is installed
head is sometimes referred to as the 3/4″ head. above a suspended ceiling (concealed piping),
For some specialty situations, the orifice can and the sprinkler heads are all that show below
be the 17/32″ standard, but the pipe thread con- the ceiling (down feed), the drop nipple from the
nection is only 1/2″ NPT. With the proper hydrau- sprinkler line to supply these pendant heads
lic calculations and complete re-evaluation of the below the ceiling will obviously fill with water
system layout, it is possible to remove the stan- when a dry system trips and will not drain when
dard spray sprinkler (orifice) from an existing the dry pipe system is emptied of water. The
system and to install this head in its place. industry solved this problem with the develop-
ment of the dry pendent sprinkler.
A dry pipe system is installed in areas subject
Small Orifice Head to freezing. Water is only admitted to the system
piping when a head fuses and the compressed air
While the large orifice head is used where a high that holds the water out of the piping is exhausted
density (gpm per square foot) is required and/or through the open head.
the residual pressure (the pressure left over which Once a dry system has tripped, or filled with
shows on the gauge, when water is flowing) is water, the open head or heads must be replaced,
low, the small orifice head is used when low den- and the system must be drained of all water and
sity is required, and/or a high residual pressure is refilled with compressed air to prevent the water in
available. Smaller orifice heads discharge less the pipes from freezing. A review of a c­ ross-section
water than the standard orifice head at the same of a sprinkler head will reveal a pocket from the
pressure. They are used in both light and ordinary valve cap on the orifice to the end of the male pipe
hazard areas where there is a limited water sup- thread where the head screws into the pipe fitting,
ply, for conservation and efficient limitation of and where water could collect if the head was
water. The application of the small orifice head is installed in the pendent position. This water would
Components: The Operating Element(s) 19

remain when the dry system piping was drained Note that when the dry pendent head is
and would be subject to freezing. screwed into place, it projects a considerable dis-
A dry pendent sprinkler head consists of a drop tance into the fitting. For this reason, the dry pen-
nipple with a standard pendent head sprinkler dent sprinkler must always be connected to a tee
attached. Inside the drop nipple is a specially and never to an elbow. If used in an elbow, the
designed shaft that holds a cap at the top of the sprinkler head could impinge on the curvature of
nipple to prevent water from entering the drop nip- the fitting and could also create turbulence that
ple. This shaft is under tension in order to hold the could affect the flow of water from the fitting to
cap against the water pressure. This tension is the sprinkler head. Therefore, when dry pendent
maintained by engaging the shaft with the operat- heads are installed on the end of a sprinkler line,
ing elements of the sprinkler head. When the sprin- the elbow must be replaced with a tee and nipple
kler head fuses and the operating elements are and cap, with the dry pendent sprinkler installed
released, the restraint on the shafts is relieved. It in the tee outlet.
then drops a predetermined distance, which pulls Dry pendent heads can also be used on wet
the cap away from the opening, allowing water to pipe systems to protect a freezer or cooler. For
enter the nipple, flow around the sides of the shaft, example, a supermarket may be protected with a
and discharge through the orifice of the head. wet pipe sprinkler system because the store is
Unlike the standard pendent sprinkler heads, the heated and not subject to freezing. The insurance
dry pendent sprinkler cannot be cut-to-fit in the field carrier, however, might require protection of a
due to the single unit construction of the sprinkler small freezer box where a pendent sprinkler sup-
head and drop nipple. After the concealed line piping plied from the wet pipe system would surely
of a dry pipe system is installed, accurate measure- freeze. A dry pipe sprinkler in the freezer box
ments must be taken from the face of the fitting (the supplied by the wet pipe sprinkler piping would
bead of the line tee outlet) to the underside of the be appropriate in this case.
suspended ceiling. These dimensions are then used In this example, if the top of the freezer box
to order the dry pendent sprinkler heads (Fig. 2.4). were several feet below the ceiling where the wet
pipe system piping was installed, it would be nec-
essary to drop down from the ceiling with the
supply pipe for the dry pendent head and install
the horizontal tee and nipple and cap for the dry
pendent head a few inches above the top of the
freezer box. Dry pendent heads are expensive,
and the cost of the head is based on the length of
the dry pendent head unit. The same design crite-
rion is true for dry pendent heads on a dry pipe
system.

Sidewall Sprinklers

Sidewall sprinklers are similar to standard sprin-

kler heads, with the exception of the deflector.
The deflector produces a discharge that looks
somewhat like half of a normal sprinkler umbrella
pattern. Installed on one wall of a room, a side-
wall head will distribute, or throw, this pattern
Fig. 2.4 Dry pendant sprinkler head. (Courtesy of Reliable across the length of the room, covering the entire
Sprinkler) square footage of the room.
20 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

Fig. 2.5 Sidewall

sprinkler heads.
(Courtesy of Reliable
Sprinkler)

Naturally there are limits to the discharge provide adequate protection. However, these spe-
distance of regular sidewall sprinklers, and they cial discharge heads must only be used under the
should be installed according to their listing. recommendation of an experienced engineer, so
There are currently on the market sidewall as not to stretch their protection parameters
heads called extended coverage heads that are beyond their limitations.
designed for light hazard areas where extra-long
water spray patterns are needed; for example, in
above-average sized rooms in hotels, nursing Decorative Sprinklers
homes, motels, and so forth where standard side-
wall heads are impractical (Fig. 2.5). The sprinkler industry has responded to the
The extended discharge sidewall head patterns restrictions by architects that regular pendent
are mentioned here for reference only, because sprinklers showing below their suspended ceil-
their installation and use must be overseen by ings are too unsightly. The result-the industry has
experienced fire protection engineers and sprin- provided a vast array of decorative sprinklers.
kler designers. Sidewall sprinklers are available In designing a more attractive device, the
in the upright, pendent position, as well as in the sprinkler industry knew that as long as the deflec-
horizontal positions. They are installed along tor of the pendent head was one inch below the
sidewalls, where their deflector discharges the ceiling when the head discharged, they could
majority of the water away from the wall, with continue to provide a suitable discharge pattern.
only a small portion discharged against the wall With this in mind, they proceeded to conceal as
behind the sidewall head. Upright and pendent much of the body of the sprinkler head as
sidewall sprinkler deflectors should be posi- possible.
tioned at a distance from walls and ceilings not In preparing a specification for the use of a
more than 6′ 10″ or less than 4 10″. Horizontal decorative sprinkler head, one must be careful
sidewall sprinklers are allowed to be positioned not to use generic terms like flush head. It is
less than 4″ from the wall, and 6″ to 12″ below imperative to identify the type of head being
noncombustible ceilings. The following example specified by a manufacturers name and model
demonstrates the advantages of sidewall sprin- number-or engineer approved equal. The rea-
klers. Installing a sprinkler system in an existing son for this is best explained by browsing
hotel where the ceilings are plastered and install- through the illustrations of decorative heads.
ing piping above the ceilings with pendent heads Some manufacturers refer to the recessed head
would require tearing out the plastered ceilings -which is just a pendent head recessed in a cup-
and replacing them. By using sidewall heads and type ceiling escutcheon-as a flush head.
installing the sprinkler piping close to the ceiling There are decorative heads available that are
and close to one wall of the rooms where it will completely concealed, where the only part that
not be noticeable, the rooms can be protected shows below the ceiling is a round plate. The
without disturbing the existing ceilings. This is plate is held in place by a fusible material that
but one of hundreds of examples in new and will melt before the fusible element of the sprin-
existing construction where sidewall heads can kler head melts. When this happens, the plate will
Special Heads 21

drop off exposing the sprinkler deflector. The up into smaller droplets, thus exposing more
deflector, in turn, drops below the ceiling when water surface to absorb the heat by evaporating
the head fuses. to steam.
Naturally, decorative heads are more expen- The new standard spray sprinkler head still
sive than regular brass sprinkler heads, and the used a 1/2″ orifice discharge outlet similar to the
more complicated or the more concealed they old-style head. In fact, with few exceptions, all the
are, the more expensive they will be. The use of features of the old-style head were similar to the
chrome pendent sprinkler heads, which are new-except for the deflector, which was com-
slightly more expensive than brass pendent pletely redesigned to direct approximately 98% of
heads, may prove an acceptable alternative to the water downward onto the floor, or fire area.
decorative heads as will the recessed pendent This new type of deflector broke the solid dis-
head. However, in areas where appearance is charge stream through the 1/2″ orifice into a water
extremely important, the additional cost of a truly spray consisting of droplets of water smaller than
flush, or totally concealed head may well be those released by the old style head discharge.
worth the additional cost. Now it was possible, theoretically, to extinguish or
control a fire that was producing twice the amount
or intensity of heat because the head could now
 ld Style Versus New Style
O deliver twice the amount of water directly on the
Sprinkler Head fire in a controlled pattern and density.

Sprinkler heads manufactured prior to 1953 are

now referred to as old style sprinklers because of Special Heads
the drastic industry-wide change that occurred
that year with the introduction of the spray sprin- The introduction of this spray sprinkler allowed
kler. The old-style sprinkler had an exceptional an increase in head spacing (square foot coverage
record of property protection, such that fire insur- per head) because of the expanded and uniform
ance companies were cutting the premiums of discharge pattern. This meant fewer heads were
sprinklered properties as much as 80%. However, required to cover the same area. Smaller pipe
construction methods and materials as well as sizes and valves could be used, which resulted in
occupancy patterns were changing, and manufac- less total system cost without sacrificing fire pro-
turing and warehousing areas were increasing in tection efficiency. Now that the sprinkler industry
size. All of these factors put a tremendous strain had a sprinkler head that discharged 98% of the
on the sprinkler systems ability to extinguish, or water onto the floor, a relatively simple mathe-
even control, high-intensity, large-area fires. matical formula could be used to determine the
Sprinkler system research at this time con- amount of discharge reaching the floor at various
centrated on developing a standard sprinkler head pressures. Pressure versus discharge is dis-
head that could control the excessive fire load- cussed in the chapter on Hydraulic Calculations,
ing created by modern technology and construc- but it is important to note here that it was the
tion, while meeting the increasing demands of spray sprinkler that introduced to the sprinkler
industry. The old-style sprinkler head had dis- industry the use of hydraulically calculated sprin-
charged approximately 50% of the water upward kler systems.
onto the ceiling, which meant that only 50% of There are a number of special heads available
the water discharge from the head landed on the today. They are briefly described here for refer-
fire in a uniform pattern. The objectives of the ence purposes only, as they have very limited
new research were to discharge more water on applications and should only be specified and
the fire without increasing the water pressure installed by experienced fire protection
and volume, and to break this water discharge designers.
22 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

Large Drop Sprinkler On-Off Sprinkler

A system for storing commodities is the use of Another special sprinkler head is the on -off sprin-
rack storage, with some system racks reaching kler. This head automatically resets itself after a
heights of 100. A fire in a rack storage warehouse fire has been extinguished. Water is discharged
produces extremely high heat release and rapid when the temperature rating of the head is
fire development that can easily overpower the reached; when heat from the fire drops below a
heavy discharge of a sprinkler system. The nar- predetermined temperature, the head automati-
row aisles and flue spaces between the racks cre- cally turns off.
ate a chimney effect, with heat plumes racing up One manufacturer describes the operation of
the face of the rack storage at speeds exceeding its on-off sprinkler as such: When a bi-metallic
30 miles per hour. snap disc is exposed to heat in excess of 165 °F, it
Spray sprinklers installed at the ceiling and in snaps open and allows a small amount of water to
the racks themselves produce large volumes of pass through a small pilot orifice. This passage of
very fine droplets of water. However, tests have water releases pressure to a piston assembly,
proven that the majority of these droplets -up to forcing the piston down and allowing the water to
98% – are unable to penetrate the high velocity be discharged through the main orifice or port.
heat plumes. In response, the industry has devel- When the fire is controlled and the heat decreases,
oped a head called the large drop sprinkler which, water pressure builds up in the pressure chamber
as its name implies, produces very large drops in and forces the piston assembly closed. The dis-
the discharge. Tests with these large drop sprin- charge flow of water is arrested, and the sprinkler
klers indicated that significantly more of the head is therefore automatically reset when the
water discharged penetrated the heat plumes and snap disc returns to the operational position.
extinguished the combustion. The balance of the These on-off heads should be used with great
discharge from these large drop heads performed care and only with the approval of the buildings
cooling that assured control of the combustion insurance carrier. When a standard sprinkler head
until the fire was suppressed. fuses it remains open until someone in authority
determines that the fire has been extinguished
and the water supply to the system may be closed
 arly Suppression Fast Response
E and the fused head replaced.
(ESFR) Sprinkler Insurance carriers want the reliability of a stan-
dard sprinkler system, as well as a physical assur-
Factory Mutual Research combined the advan- ance that the fire is out. They generally will permit
tages of the quick response sprinkler head with the use of these on-off heads only for a very spe-
the advantages of the large drop sprinkler, and the cial condition and even then they will limit the
result was the early suppression fast response. number of on-off heads used to a particular area
ESFR heads provide the protection that their or hazard.
name implies: They respond much more quickly
than regular heads with the same temperature rat-
ing and discharge a density with drop sizes that Corrosion-Resistant Sprinklers
provide fast suppression of combustion. These
ESFR heads offer tremendous advantages in sup- Corrosion-resistant sprinklers also fall under the
pressing the high-challenge fire, especially rack special head category. These are standard sprin-
storage fires, but systems using these heads kler heads that have been coated at the factory
require a high level of fire protection engineering with wax or lead to prevent the head from cor-
expertise and should never be specified or recom- roding. When a sprinkler system is installed in
mended by the layman. an area containing chemicals, moisture, corro-
Special Heads 23

installed in storage racks at various levels of the

rack-this is in addition to a sprinkler system at the
ceiling of the rack storage warehouse. When a
sprinkler at the ceiling discharges, or when a
head located higher up in the rack discharges, it
will throw water on the heads at lower elevations.
This water would keep the heads below the dis-
charge wet and cool so that they cannot absorb
sufficient heat to fuse. This phenomenon is called
cold soldering. The water shield on these lower
heads keeps the water discharge (from above)
from wetting and cooling the fusible links of the
lower heads. In short, they act as umbrellas for
the heads to keep the fusible links dry.
It is important to note here that cold soldering
does not occur in rack sprinkler systems alone.
Sprinkler heads on any sprinkler system must be
installed no closer to one another than 6′ to pre-
vent cold soldering. On standard, horizontal,
sprinkler systems, never install sprinkler heads
Fig. 2.6 Chrome frangible pendant sprinkler head. closer together than 6′ or one head discharge may
(Courtesy of Reliable Sprinkler)
prevent another head from fusing. Since a rack
sprinkler with a fixed water shield is more expen-
sive vapors, or where the heads are exposed to sive than a regular head without the water shield,
the elements, corrosion-resistant heads must be there are on the market separate water shields
installed. According to the specifications, the that can be attached in the field to regular upright
corrosion-resistant coatings shall be applied and pendent sprinkler heads. These separate
only by the manufacturer of the sprinkler head. water shields come with a sprinkler head guard,
Any homemade coating application will very which is simply a wire enclosure around the
likely render it an unapproved head. Furthermore, head. In rack sprinkler systems, where commodi-
if the protective coating is damaged during ties are constantly being added or removed from
installation, it must be repaired using only the the racks, the probability of damaging the head,
coating furnished by the sprinkler manufacturer especially the fusible link, is very high. The head
and applied in an approved manner, so that no guard protects the rack sprinkler head from phys-
part of the head is exposed to the corrosive atmo- ical damage.
sphere (Fig. 2.6).

CMDA (Standard Spray)

Rack Sprinklers
CMDA sprinklers are used to protect both storage
The sprinkler heads used in storage racks also fall and non-storage systems. Non-storage systems
under the special head category. These are stan- include offices, manufacturing, and retail. Some of
dard heads with one exception; they have a water the options for storage systems provide standard
shield about three inches in diameter attached densities such as 0.495/2000 or 0.33/3000. These
above the deflector on upright heads and attached densities are designed in the worst case to control
above the frame of the head on pendent heads. the fire to within a design area until the fire depart-
The reason for this is simple. These sprinklers are ment arrives and extinguishes the fire.
24 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

CMSA (Large Drop) whelmed by modern plastics. An example of this

type of hazard is discussed in Fitzgerald and
A type of spray sprinkler that is capable of pro- Meacham (2017).
ducing characteristic large water droplets and In the past, a sprinkler head with a tempera-
that is listed for its capability to provide fire con- ture rating of 165 °F could operate when the head
trol of specific high-challenge fire hazards. reaches a temperature of 165 °F, plus or minus
Similarly, it also allows for protection of com- 5 °F. However, because of the heat absorption of
modities in buildings with higher ceilings with- the mass of the fusible link, the sprinkler head
out (in most cases) the need for in-rack frame, the piping, etc., the air temperature may
sprinklers. be as high as l000 °F before the fusible element
These systems like CMDA are only designed operated. This phenomenon can be referred to as
to control the fire, not extinguish it. Since the thermal lag.
CMSA sprinkler heads are more expensive than a In response, the industry has developed a
standard CMDA head, and yet there are no sprinkler head with an extremely sensitive fusible
“breaks” given as with ESFR (for example smoke element that overcomes most of the thermal lag.
and heat vents are still required), these type of As a result, a 165 °F head could operate approxi-
sprinkler systems are not used as often as CMDA mately six times as fast as a sprinkler head with a
and ESFR systems. conventional fusible element temperature rated at
165 °F.
To deal with this situation, the concept of
Sprinkler Accessories Response Time Index (RTI) was developed. RTI is
defined by NFPA 13 (2016) as “A numerical value
Head guards should be used on any sprinkler sys- that represents the thermal response sensitivity of
tem where the heads are subject to physical dam- the sensing element in a heat detector, sprinkler, or
age or are within reach. Head guards can also be other heat-sensing fire detection device to the fire
obtained for some decorative heads. environment in terms of gas temperature and veloc-
Every sprinkler installation must have a sup- ity versus time.” Sprinklers defined as fast response
ply of spare sprinkler heads in every type and have a thermal element with an RTI of 50 (meters-
temperature rating used in the system. The spare seconds)1/2 or less. Standard response sprinklers
heads are to be installed as quickly as possible so have an RTI of 80 or more.
that the system may resume service without The differential between the temperature rat-
delay. The NFPA dictates how many spare heads ing of the head and the ambient temperature
shall be on hand based on the number of heads in affects the speed of operation. A head rated at
the system. These spare heads are to be stored in 212 °F, installed in an area where the surrounding
a cabinet designed specifically for that purpose. atmosphere is 0 °F, may need to absorb
Contained within the cabinet will also be a sprin- ­considerable heat to reach operating temperature
kler wrench which is designed to fit the heads depending on the RTI of the head.
installed in the particular system. This cabinet is The number of sprinklers that are anticipated
usually installed adjacent to the sprinkler riser. to open in a fire is based on several factors: height
of the heads above the floor, square footage each
head covers and, most importantly, the fire haz-
 ther Common Characteristics
O ard classification of the occupancy. In addition,
of Spray Sprinkler regardless of the temperature rating of the heads,
it is obvious that the heads directly over the com-
Sprinklers need to be replaced on a 50-year basis bustion will fuse first, and as the heat from the
(unless a representative sample is tested). Older combustion mushrooms at the ceiling in the form
sprinklers are slowly being phased out. Their use of ceiling jets, the heads around the perimeter of
may result in the sprinkler system being over- the combustion will also be activated.
References 25

The heat from the fire may continue to spread and in unventilated areas having high-powered
across the ceiling, and although the temperature electric lights on the ceiling. Specifications
decreases at the edges, it is still sufficient to activate usually specifically state that high-temperature
more heads via ceiling jets. The discharge from heads shall be provided in the area of heat-pro-
heads that are too far from the origin of the fire to ducing equipment. The specifications also make
contribute to fire suppression, control, or property recommendations as to the location of the head.
protection will only cause water damage and tax The decision to use higher-than-required tem-
the water supply to the operating heads. Therefore, perature-rated heads must be made based on
if all the heads in the area are temperature-rated experience and a thorough understanding of fire
only slightly above that required by the ambient protection. Otherwise, the time delay in fusing a
temperature of the area, the aforementioned heads head, and the opening of too few heads, can allow
on the fringes of the ceiling heat will not fuse as a fire to develop to a point that is beyond the abil-
rapidly as heads with a lower temperature rating, ity of the sprinkler system to control. A fire that
preventing unnecessary water damage. develops rapidly and increases ceiling tempera-
Heads that may fuse too quickly can use up tures quickly will operate a 212 °F sprinkler head
the water supply needed to put out the fire. The almost as quickly as a 165 °F, head, but a fire that
chapters on Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler develops slowly, with a slow rise in ceiling tem-
Systems, describes how extremely important it is perature, will introduce a considerable time dif-
to know how many heads will fuse before the ferential between the activation of the 165 °F, and
water supply is no longer capable of furnishing 212 °F sprinkler head.
sufficient water to the system. It will show the
importance of sprinkler temperature rating in pre-
venting heads that are outside of the calculated Summary
area from fusing. Establishing the proper tem-
perature rating of sprinkler heads from a chart Automatic sprinkler heads were the first practi-
when the ambient temperature is known, and no cal, widely used, heat detectors. They have a fas-
unusual heat producing equipment is present, is cinating history and are now available for many
relatively simple. different applications, including areas that need
It is imperative that the temperature rating of to stay dry most of the time, but still have high
sprinkler heads above the standard requirements quantities of fuel, such as refrigeration units.
be accomplished only by an experienced fire pro- They have the advantage not only of detecting
tection professional. Recommending heads with fire (though the use of flow switches and other
higher temperature ratings than required based technology discussed later), but also of immedi-
on the layman’s view of preventing water damage ately controlling and possibly suppressing it.
can be very dangerous. These high-temperature
heads over the combustion may not fuse while
the fire is small and the discharge may come too References
late to prevent combustion from intensifying and
spreading. High-temperature heads must be used Fitzgerald, Robert W., and Brian J. Meacham. Fire
Performance Analysis for Buildings. Wiley, 2017.
under skylights where the heads are exposed to Markets 2015. <https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/
the direct sunlight or located in unventilated Market-Reports/fire-sprinkler-system-market-
attics, in confined spaces under uninsulated roofs, 3646511.html>.
 Other Detection and Alarm
Devices 3

the fire grows such as increasing levels of smoke

Detection and Alarm Systems and heat.

Selecting the proper fire detection and alarm sys-

tems requires a careful evaluation of all that the Manual Pull Stations
system is designed to accomplish as well as the
hazard and the environment in which the detection Manual pull stations, or as NFPA 72 (2016) refers
system must operate. A detection system must ful- to them “manual fire alarm boxes”, are essen-
fill two basic requirements. It must be sensitive tially switches that activate a fire alarm by open-
enough to detect combustion within an acceptable ing or closing a circuit. They are often referred to
and required time frame, and it must be reliable as pull stations. The two varieties are single-
enough to not respond to non-fire activation action pull stations, which only require one step
sources. A determination of the proper detection to activate (as shown in Fig. 3.1), or double action
system to use depends on a basic knowledge of the pull stations that require two steps. The double
function of the different detectors, the hazard char- action stations help prevent false alarms.
acteristics, and the four stages preburning initial
burning (Chapter 1). It also must be pointed out
that while some systems may be more sensitive to Thermal Detection Systems
fire and smoke, they may not offer the unique
advantage that sprinklers do – water where it is Thermal detectors are designed to actuate at a
needed and when it is needed. predetermined fixed temperature, and they should
be used when the protected hazard area has the
potential to produce considerable combustion
Alarm Initiating Devices heat, or at least sufficient combustion heat to acti-
vate the detector before considerable damage is
Alarm initiating devices are hardware compo- done passing through the early stages of the
nents that communicate the presence of fire to the combustion.
Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU), and there are A sprinkler head is a thermal detector. When
many types. Some are activated by people such combustion heat reaches the temperature setting
as manual pull stations, while others automati- of the fusible element of the sprinkler head, the
cally activate under other conditions that occur as fusible element melts, or softens sufficiently to

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 27

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_3
28 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

Fig. 3.1 Pull station. (Robert Till)

release the head linkage, thereby releasing the tric circuit, thereby activating the alarm or sup-
discharge. The water movement in the piping pression system.
actuates a device that transmits an alarm. The One caution should be noted regarding the use
sprinkler head is also a good example of a non- of self-restoring detectors. Unless equipped with
restorable detector. Once the head is activated, it special devices, some suppression system valves
must be replaced. that are operated when a thermal detector is acti-
Some other types of thermal detectors are also vated can close when the thermal detector cools
non-restorable. A thermal element melts at a pre- and is restored to a normal operating condition.
determined temperature, releasing a mechanical When a suppression system has been activated, it
arrangement such as a spring or a plunger which is important that the system not be shut down
makes or breaks an electric circuit, activating the until the combustion is completely extinguished,
alarm system. Other thermal detectors are avail- and in some instances until the surrounding area
able that activate at a predetermined fixed tem- has cooled sufficiently to prevent a re-ignition of
perature but are self-restoring. After the detector the combustion.
has been activated and the combustion heat Once the flaming stage of the combustion has
removed, the detector returns to room tempera- been controlled, the temperature at the ceiling
ture and automatically resets itself. could drop below the operating point of the
One type of self-restoring thermal detector detector and the detector could reset, re-opening
operates on the principle of a disk made of two or closing a solenoid valve and shutting down the
different metals, with a curved shape. When the suppression system valve automatically. When
detector is subjected to combustion heat that designing a detection system that activates a sup-
reaches the fixed operating temperature of the pression system, and the detectors are self-restor-
detector, the disk curvature is reversed, trans- ing, always determine what may be required to
forming from concave to convex shape. This maintain the suppression system in an operating
reversal of the disk allows a spring tension condition should the detectors reset. Unless a
plunger to drop, which makes or breaks an elec- suppression system is designed to shut down
Alarm Initiating Devices 29

automatically, the system should not be shut metal tube. The control panel senses this current
down until a professional firefighter determines flow and activates the detection system devices.
that it is time to close a manual valve. The line-type detector is self-restoring if the
fire does not physically damage the equipment.
Line detectors come in various lengths joined
 ilot Head Systems: Sprinklers
P together at junction points. The line detector can
Themselves indicate on an annunciator panel the exact loca-
tion of the line where the combustion heat has
The pilot head detection system is a thermal activated the line. The line detector is also avail-
detection system frequently used to activate sup- able in different temperature ranges.
pression systems. The pilot head system uses The line detector has many advantages when
regular sprinkler heads as the thermal detectors. used in long conveyor enclosures and in convey-
These heads are installed on 1/2″ pipe which is ors without enclosures as well as in and around
filled with compressed air. When a head fuses, irregularly shaped equipment. It is also used on
the compressed air is released, and the release of the ceiling of a building, similar to the placement
compressed air pressure activates the suppression of spot-type thermal detectors.
system valve. The line-type detector has excellent reliability
The pilot head system is very reliable in that it in terms of not responding to non-fire sources of
is not subject to false trips from non-fire sources, activation, but like any thermal detector, it is not
which can cause havoc with other detectors that sensitive enough to be referred to as an early
operate on a principle other than heat. warning detector, since it must have sufficient
Pilot head detection systems are frequently combustion heat to react.
used to activate cooling tower and outdoor trans-
former deluge suppression systems. Since these
systems use regular sprinkler heads, the heads Protectowire Type Detector
must be located so that sufficient heat can collect
to fuse the head. When the system is located Protectowire type detectors (named after one of
within a structure, the location of the heads the first companies to produce them) consist of
should closely follow the rules for sprinkler head two conductors separated by a heat sensitive
location below a ceiling. If the system is used polymer. The polymer melts at a fixed tempera-
outdoors, as it would be with transformer protec- ture (135 °F for example) and an alarm is initi-
tion, each pilot head should have a heat collector ated. The location of the fire along the line of fire
installed above the head. can be determined based on the resistivity of the
metals used. This type of detector is shown in
Fig. 3.2. Digital versions of these systems are
Continuous Line Detector now able to discriminate between physical dam-
age to the cabling and an actual fire event.
The continuous line detection system, sometimes
referred to as a continuous wire detection system
or thermistor system, uses a detector with the Rate of Rise Detector
appearance of a wire. A simple description of one
type of line detector is a metal tube containing a The rate of rise detector responds to a rate of tem-
wire, or conductor, surrounded by a special com- perature rise of 15° per minute regardless of the
pound. When a section of the line detector is sub- rooms ambient temperature. This feature gives
jected to the heat of combustion, the compound the rate of rise detector an advantage over ther-
loses its electrical resistance and a small current mal detectors because it is not affected by ther-
passes from the wire in the core of the tube to the mal lag.
30 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

Fig. 3.2 Protectowire Linear Detector. (Courtesy of Protectowire)

When a thermal detector with a fixed operat- rate of temperature rise is 15° or more per min-
ing temperature reaches that operating tempera- ute. It also has a fusible element with a predeter-
ture, the air surrounding the detector is mined operating temperature.
considerably higher than the detector-set temper- The combination electrical spot detector is a
ature. This difference in surrounding air tempera- hollow shell containing a diaphragm. When the
ture and the operational temperature of the unit is shell is subjected to combustion heat that is
due to the rate at which the temperature rises, and increasing in temperature at a rate of 15° per min-
heat is lost in both the body of the unit itself and ute or greater, the air trapped in the detector shell
the surrounding area. expands, thereby forcing the diaphragm up to
The rate of rise detector is activated by the make an electrical contact that closes a current
very rate of temperature rise that is lost with a and activates the system. The system may be an
thermal detector. If the temperature rises at the alarm system, a suppression system, an equip-
rate of 15° per minute, or faster than 15° per min- ment shutdown system, an equipment start-up
ute, the rate of rise detector will activate. system, or a combination of any of these systems.
Certain disadvantages of the rate of rise detec- By closing the electrical circuit, the detector sig-
tor must be considered. Slow-burning or smol- nals the control panel which transmits a signal, or
dering combustion may produce considerable signals, to the various systems.
heat, and the ceiling where the detector is located There is a small vent on the detector to vent
may rise to a very high temperature, but unless small pressure changes within the shell due to
the rate of heat rise is rapid enough to produce a changes in the environment where the detector is
15° per minute increase, the detector will not located. These environmental changes may
activate. It is for this reason that combination include starting up the area heating system, or
fixed temperature and rate of rise detectors are sun on the metal roof after a cool night, or any
used to overcome the rate of temperature rise dis- number of situations that cause a slow rate of
advantage. The combination fixed temperature temperature increase. These increases are not in
and rate of rise detector are activated when the the 15° per minute range, but would cause a slow
Alarm Initiating Devices 31

increase in pressure within the detector shell electric detector when recommending either type.
which could eventually depress the diaphragm The public generally refers to both the ionization
and activate the detector if not vented. and the photoelectric detector as smoke detec-
The vent is calibrated so as not to be capable tors, but when an engineer is recommending a
of venting sufficient pressure increase when the detection system based on the results of an engi-
temperature rise of 15° per minute increases the neering evaluation, it is very important that the
pressure to the trip point. terminology be correct.
Except for the fusible element that melts and
is released from the detector at a fixed ­temperature,
the detector in the rate of rise mode is self-restor- Ionization Detector Operation
ing. When the fusible element reaches its operat-
ing temperature and is released from the detector, The ionization detector contains a minute amount
it releases a spring that mechanically depresses of radioactive material that ionizes the detector
the diaphragm and activates the detector. chamber. In other words, the radioactive material
emits sufficient material to charge the atmosphere
in the chamber of the detector to develop a cur-
Ionization Versus Photoelectric Spot rent flow through the air space separating two
Detection electrodes. When minute invisible products of
combustion (and/or small smoke particles) enter
In evaluating the hazard, the level of required this electrically charged chamber, they attach
detection sensitivity, the environment in which themselves to the charged radioactive particles in
the detector will function, and the type of com- the current flow, and by so doing, reduce the cur-
bustion anticipated, it may be determined that the rent flow between the two plates. This is shown in
combustion should be detected in the incipient Fig. 3.3.
stage before there is appreciable heat and smoke When the flow level between the plates is
in order to prevent heat and smoke damage to reduced by these heavy particles to a predeter-
delicate electronic equipment. In such cases, ion- mined level, the minute voltage change is ampli-
ization detectors should be seriously considered fied and the detector is activated. This is a
because they react when invisible products of simplified explanation of how the ionization
combustion are given off by the combustion detector functions and is offered to further illus-
before there is visible flame, or heat development trate the difference between an ionization detec-
at the ceiling level, and little or no visible smoke tor and a photoelectric smoke detector.
has developed.
The analysis of the combustibles present and
the type of fire that these combustibles will pro- Photoelectric Detector Operation
duce should be the first concern when making a
detector selection. Fires that develop rapidly into A photoelectric smoke detector works on an
the flaming stage without the accumulation of entirely different principle than the ionization
heavy, visible smoke particles are detected most detector. One type of photoelectric smoke detec-
effectively by ionization detectors. A photoelec- tor uses a light source that is projected onto a
tric smoke detector is activated by visible smoke photosensitive device. When visible smoke par-
particles entering the detector. When a smoke ticles enter the detector and pass between the
detection system is proposed, it is recommended light source and the photo-sensitive receiver
that a determination be made whether ionization device, they reduce the light reaching the
detectors or photoelectric smoke detectors would receiver. This causes a slight voltage change,
be best suited to the hazard conditions. It is not which is then amplified, and the detector is acti-
just a matter of terminology but is important to vated. Another type of photoelectric detector
differentiate between ionization and the photo- uses the light source and the photosensitive light
32 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

Fig. 3.3 Ionization Smoke Detector Operation. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

receiver, but with this particular detector, the detection, recommend the installation of both ion-
light source does not fall on the receiving sensor. ization and photoelectric detectors if the type of
When visible smoke particles enter the detector, fire potential cannot be readily determined.
the light is scattered by the smoke particles and In an effort to obtain a sensitive, early warning
in addition, the light is reflected from the smoke detection system where ionization detectors
particles. When enough of this light reflected appear to be the best selection, it is imperative
strikes the sensor receiver, the voltage change is that the general environment be considered
amplified, and the detector activates. This is because these detectors may react to many non-
shown in Fig. 3.4. The photoelectric detector fire invisible particles, including exhaust fumes,
responds to the thicker, heavier, visible smoke welding operations, kitchen odors, and pilot
that develops when slow-developing and smol- lights. Almost any detector can be activated by
dering combustion is present. A slow-burning or electrical equipment of a certain voltage and radi-
smoldering fire is typical of combustion of mate- ation level. Hospitals may have problems with
rials found in the office, home, hotels, dormito- detectors exposed to CAT scanners, high fre-
ries, and hospitals, since this type of combustion quency radio transmissions, etc.
produces the type of smoke created by this type Maintenance is a prime consideration with
of occupancy. detection systems. Dust and contamination can
It is important to realize that the selection of the affect the sensitivity of any detector, either by
proper detector is an extremely difficult decision making it more sensitive to non-fire detection
because of the many variables that sometimes sources, or by reducing the sensitivity.
make it almost impossible to determine with
accuracy the nature of the potential fire. Every
modem building contains equipment and furnish- Linear Beam Smoke Detector
ings manufactured of different, and sometimes
unique, materials that may produce a type of com- The linear beam smoke detector basically oper-
bustion that is not anticipated in evaluating the ates on the same principle as the photoelectric
proper detector for the area. Although the cost of smoke detector with a light source directed on a
a detection system will be increased, an engineer photo-sensitive receiver. The difference is that
may, in order to provide reliable combustion the linear beam smoke detector consists of two
Alarm Initiating Devices 33

Fig. 3.4 Photoelectric Smoke Detector Operation. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

separate units. The light source is one piece of rectional institutions where spot-type detectors
equipment, and the light beam receiver is a sepa- would be subject to vandalism.
rate piece of equipment. The linear beam smoke
detector light source, or transmitter, emits an
invisible infrared beam over open area distances Rate Compensation Detector
of 35ʹ–300ʹ onto the light receiver.
When no smoke interferes with this beam, the The rate compensation detector, sometimes
receiver accepts the beam at a specified voltage referred to as a rate anticipation detector, consists
level, but when smoke interferes with the beam, of two metallic struts mounted inside of a steel
the infrared light reaching the receiver is less- elongated shell. The stainless-steel shell has a
ened, and when the beam intensity drops below coefficient of expansion greater than the two
the predetermined sensitivity level of the receiver, metallic struts mounted within it. When the shell
it initiates a signal from the detector. This is is exposed to heat, it expands, and since the ends
shown in Fig. 3.5. of the two struts are attached to either end of the
This type of smoke detector has many applica- shell, the expanding shell pulls the struts and
tions in areas where spot-type smoke detectors stretches them until they make contact at the cen-
could not be installed to operate efficiently, such ter of the struts. Rate compensation detectors have
as atriums, airport terminals with very high ceil- a predetermined fixed temperature set point, and
ings, aircraft hangars, churches, and large open when the two struts make contact and activate the
facilities. Spot-type smoke detectors installed on detector, it has reached this temperature set point.
the extremely high ceilings of these areas would Unlike the rate of rise detector that requires a min-
be almost inaccessible for maintenance, and imum of 15° per minute rate of temperature rise to
since the beam transmitter and the sensor receiver operate, a smoldering fire producing a slow rise in
are installed on the walls, the architectural beauty temperature will heat both the outer shell and the
of a church ceiling or hotel atrium will not be struts equally until the set point of the detector is
compromised by the appearance of several spot reached. When the combustion heat rate is rapid,
detectors. One special application of a linear the rate compensation shell expands rapidly until
beam detector is in psychiatric facilities and cor- the struts are stretched to the point of contact, thus
eliminating the thermal lag that may prevent a
34 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

Fig. 3.5 Linear Beam Smoke Detector Operation. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

fixed temperature detector from operating when combustion is occurring that by the time it reaches
the surrounding air has reached the set point of the the duct detector, it is not concentrated enough to
detector. activate the detector.

Duct Detectors Flame Detectors

Duct detectors are either ionization or photoelec- Flame detectors respond to the visual radiant
tric. They are usually installed on a return air duct energy of a flame. A flame produces visible
close to the fan unit. Duct detectors are installed wavelengths of radiant energy, and different
on the exterior of the duct with long tubes flame detectors see different radiant wavelengths
­extending into the duct. These tubes have holes given off by a flame. There are two basic types of
that pick up products of combustion in the air flame detectors. One is ultraviolet, and the other
stream returning from the vents in the facility, is infrared. The ultraviolet flame detector
transmitting them into the detector unit on the out- responds to ultraviolet flame wavelengths, and
side of the duct. (See Fig. 3.6.) the infrared responds to infrared flame wave-
When the detector is activated, one of the sig- lengths (Fig. 3.7).
nals it actuates is an automatic shut-down of the Ultraviolet flame wavelengths are the shorter
heating and air-conditioning fans to prevent the wavelengths emitted by high intensity flames, but
products of combustion from being sent back this range of wavelengths is also emitted by the
through the heating and air-conditioning system sun, so when using an ultraviolet detector, it must
throughout the building. be designed to be “solar blind”.
Duct detectors provide an excellent function, The ultraviolet detector sensitivity decreases
but always keep in mind that they should not pro- with the distance from the flame source, whereas
vide a substitute for a detection system throughout the infrared detector will function effectively when
the facility. The return air to the fan units may separated some distance from the flame source.
come from many parts of the building, and smoke This is a generic statement, backed up by the actual
generated in one room of the building and sucked fact that ultraviolet detectors installed in an aircraft
into the return air vent of that room may be so hangar have been activated by welding operation
diluted by return air from other rooms where no several thousand feet from the hangar.
Alarm Initiating Devices 35

Fig. 3.6 Duct Type

Detector. (Photograph
by Robert Till)

Fig. 3.7 UV Detection

in Subway Booth.
(Photograph by Robert
Till)

Flame detectors are quite specialized detec- on top of a truck, a slowly rotating fan blade, or
tors and a considerable level of expertise is the heat from an aircraft engine can activate a
required to design a system that is free from acti- flame detector.
vation by non-fire sources, yet sensitive enough In order to attempt to reduce false activation,
to activate at the first flicker of a flame. These the ultraviolet and infrared detector can be used in
detectors are also extremely sensitive, and a sys- tandem. Both must be activated in order to acti-
tem using them must be designed with great care vate alarms or trip systems. It is anticipated that a
by experienced engineers. A rotating beam light non-fire ultraviolet source will not occur at the
36 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

same time as a non-fire infrared source, but that a the center line of the detector. This is particu-
flame in a flammable liquid will produce a flame larly important when designing floor coverage
front that will emit both ultraviolet and infrared detection with the ultraviolet detector. The
wavelengths sufficient to activate the detector. cones of vision of the individual detectors
The ultraviolet detector has a viewing area should overlap so that a flame anywhere in the
resembling a cone. This cone of vision is approxi- area will be within the sensitive area of the
mately 90° closer to the detector and widens out to detector cone of vision.
approximately 60° at some distance from the detec- The infrared detector also has a cone of vision
tor. The detector sensitivity decreases as the dis- similar to, but not as wide as, the ultraviolet
tance from the flame source to the detector increases. detector. As with the UV detector, the IR detector
For example: is most sensitive to flame detection when the
A one-square-foot hydrocarbon pan fire can flame source is directly in line with the detector.
be detected when located some 50 from the The IR detector has only has an 80% sensitivity
detector, and a nine-square-foot hydrocarbon fire when the flame source is 30° off the center of the
can be detected some 100 from the detector. detector, and 50% sensitivity is accomplished
As the fire size increases, the detector can be when the flame source is 45°, off the center line
activated with the flame front at greater dis- of the detector (Fig. 3.8).
tances from the detector. It must, however, be When flame detectors (optical detectors) are
kept in mind that the sensitivity of the detector selected for the detection system, and the system
is decreased as the flame front moves away from is to activate suppression systems, it is recom-

Fig. 3.8 UV/IR and Protectowire Application. (Courtesy of Protectowire)

Alarm Initiating Devices 37

mended that one detector activation operate the detection system also activates the monitor which
alarm system, and the second detector operate the prints out a date and time of the activation. The
suppression system. non-fire source of activation can usually be deter-
Flame, or optical, detectors are extremely sen- mined. Having a record of the causes of false
sitive to flaming fires, but are also very sensitive to detector activations will allow corrective mea-
non-fire sources of activation. When a flame detec- sures to be instituted before the suppression sys-
tion system not only activates an alarm system, but tems are placed on automatic activation.
also automatically operates a suppression system, Monitoring has an initial cost, and the manual
it may be advisable to monitor the optical system activation of the suppression systems in a fire
for a short period of time after installation. situation requires prompt attention. Nevertheless,
This monitoring is best explained using the if the monitoring keeps an area as free as possible
example of aircraft hangar protection: When the from non-fire-related sources of detector activa-
foam systems in a large aircraft hangar are acti- tion, the initial cost of the monitoring is negligi-
vated, they will discharge a large amount of foam ble compared to that of an unnecessary system
over a wide area. This expended foam is expensive operation.
to replace, and the labor involved in replacement The latest infrared technology of flame detec-
can also be time consuming and costly. The cost of tors (IRRR) provides a very high level of sensi-
foam replacement is actually minor compared to tivity in detecting flames from hydrocarbon-based
the cost impact of discharged foam removal from liquids and gases within a wide field of view. The
machinery, electrical equipment, HVAC units, and technology ignores false triggers from sources
the aircraft parked in the hangar. where UV in other detectors may be a problem.
The sensitivity of the flame detectors is criti- This includes areas such as direct or indirect sun-
cal to the protection of the aircraft undergoing light, welding, resistive heaters, fluorescent, hal-
maintenance in the hangar, and to the hangar ogen, and incandescent light.
structure itself. A jet fuel spill fire under the air-
craft must be controlled by the suppression sys-
tem within 30 s and extinguished within 60 s.  ir Aspirating Smoke Detection
A
Otherwise, the aircraft could be damaged beyond Systems
repair.
An ultraviolet or an infrared detector can look Air aspirating smoke detection systems, often
under the wings of an aircraft with the sensitivity called VESDA systems (after one of the first
to trip the suppression systems within the required companies to produce them) provide very early
time frame. But it is this very sensitivity to non- warning of smoke conditions. Suction tubes
fire sources of activation that can cause the seri- are used to draw air for different locations
ous and expensive problem of false dumps of the within a protected space. Air drawn into a
suppression systems. smoke detector or gas-analysis device deter-
Once the installation of the detection and sup- mines if fire is present (see Fig. 3.9). These
pression systems is complete, the detection sys- systems are very sensitive, and often tubes are
tem is connected to a monitor, having the signals mounted inside electrical cabinets and other
from the detection system interlocked with the spaces where rapid detection is necessary to
suppression systems. prevent damage. They are often used in con-
When the detection system is activated, the junction with halon alternatives to keep the fire
alarm system becomes operational, and if a fire is size and therefore the amount of hydrofluoric
observed, the suppression systems can be acti- acid to a minimum in situations where these
vated by operation of a manual pull station. The suppression systems are used.
38 3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices

Fig. 3.9 VESDA type system operation. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

 Notification
4

...This system would ...[prevent] nearly all false

History of Notification alarms, and at the same time transmit the alarm in
case of fire to all parts of the City with such cer-
tainty and promptitude that it would be the means
The Telegraph
of saving annually to the city a sum nearly equal to
the cost of its erection... and maintenance; it would
Fire alarm systems that report either on the prem- also very greatly diminish the labors of the
ises being served or to parties remote from the Firemen, for in the event of a fire, the policeman on
whose post it occurred would give the alarm imme-
original premise are direct descendants of the
diately to the station house, and it would then be
first viable commercial telegraph in developed in transmitted to the nearest bell station by telegraph.
1837 by Samuel Morse. In 1844 the first com- (Ditzel 1990)
mercial telegraph line was constructed between
Washington DC and Baltimore. The telegraph However, the first system developed in New York
was the “internet” of its day, allowing text to City had a number of shortfalls:
travel from city to city on wires at the speed of
light. Limitations were only the speed at which • All 8 towers, including the city hall watch
they could be coded and decoded. tower, as well as the belfries with bells, were
linked together in a single telegraph circuit,
and therefore the system lacked a central
Fire Alarm station.
• Anyone who detected a fire needed access to
In 1847, the New York City commissioned the the alarm telegraph as well as the wherewithal
first fire alarm system based on the telegraph. to use it -not a very common thing.
The system, required by ordinance “to construct • The system could not distinguish between two
a line of telegraph, by setting posts in the ground separate alarms, a common occurrence in a
... for communicating alarms from the City Hall city like New York.
to different fire stations and to instruct the differ-
ent bell-ringers in the use of said invention” An improved telegraphic fire alarm, suitable
(Greer 1991). for development at the commercial scale, was first
Cornelius Anderson, the New York Chief developed when Channing and Farmer constructed
Engineer, distilled the hopes for the new system a system in Boston in 1852. This system consisted
in his annual report of 1947: of alarm boxes located in various districts that all
From the Proceedings of the Board of reported to the same central station within the city.
Assistant Aldermen: Volume 30: Fire companies could be dispatched based on the

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 39

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_4
40 4 Notification

activation of particular boxes within the district. Table 4.1 Number of systems installed per decade
The fire departments could report to the particular Years Number of systems
box and determine where the nearby fire was from 1852–1962 4
there. 1862–1872 40
1872–1982 60
1882–1892 299
1892–1902 359
The Influence of John Gamewell

John Gamewell became aware of the system drawback that most families that adopted the
developed by Channing and Farmer. He bought phone had party lines (multiple phones on the
the rights to the system first for the south and same line). This could develop some confusion as
west, and later for the entire US. John N to where the fire actually was. It should be noted
Gamewell and Co. was formed in 1859. Gamewell that the first equivalent of 911 service was devel-
quickly took control of the newly formed fire oped in 1937 in the United Kingdom. The devel-
alarm industry by purchasing patents that cov- opment of the telephone simplified other
ered most of the key components. Up until 1861, variations on how a fire might be transmitted.
Gamewell managed to sell systems to These include the remote alarm system and the
Philadelphia, St. Louis, Baltimore, New Orleans proprietary alarm system and provided more con-
and Charleston S.C. fidence in the local alarm system.
The American Civil War, from 1861 to 1865
nearly ruined Gamewell. As a Southerner he lost
all of his patents for fire alarm systems. He moved 911 System
to Hackensack, New Jersey, after realizing that
moving his business forward in the south would The US did not have a universal phone number
before the 1960’s. In the event of an emergency
be difficult. John Kennard of Boston purchased (fire, police etc.) callers had to know the phone
Gamewell’s patents after the war and returned number for each police department or fire depart-
most of them to him. The firm of Gamewell, ment that needed to respond. In the days before
Kennard and Co. was formed in New York in automatic switching, the process may have been
held up by an operator who was busy with another
1857. call. (Stone 2014)
In 1871, Gamewell patented a design that
eliminated interference when two boxes were In the case of large cities this situation was exac-
pulled at the same time. This occurred when two erbated as there might be 50 different police or
boxes were pulled on the same fire by two differ- fire departments and just as many numbers.
ent individuals. The growth of central station fire Telephone operators were sometimes left to
alarm systems is summarized in the Table 4.1. direct calls if the caller wasn’t sure which fire-
After 1904, the Census Bureau reported there house or police department was theirs.
were 764 systems operating in the US. In 1957, to deal with these issues, a national
Gamewell effectively perfected the central emergency number was suggested by the National
station and auxiliary alarm systems. Systems Fire Chief’s Association. A decade later a report
were activated by fire alarm boxes, heat detectors to President Lyndon Johnson’s Commission on
or sprinkler systems. Law Enforcement and Administration also rec-
ommended a single national number for citizens
to call in the event of an emergency.
Telephone Systems The Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) partnered with the American Telephone
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell developed the and Telegraph Company (AT&T) to determine
practical telephone. It was able to transmit fire what number should be used. AT&T proposed the
alarm signals and notify firefighters. It had the numbers 911. The technical reasons that these
Notification System 41

numbers were chosen are simple – they are short, Fire Alarm Control Unit
easy to remember, and can be dialed quickly on
the rotary phones of the day. In addition, AT&T A fire alarm control unit is defined by NFPA 72
had started to use 611 and 411 numbers for (2016) as “A component of the fire alarm system,
reporting telephone service problems and for provided with primary and secondary power
providing telephone number information respec- sources, which receives signals from initiating
tively, so a new number of this type could be eas- devices or other fire alarm control units, and pro-
ily accommodated by the existing phone cesses these signals to determine part or all of the
switching hardware. required fire alarm system output function(s)”.
About a quarter of the US had 911 service
about 10 years after congress established the
number as the universal emergency phone num- Conventional FACU
ber. In 1989 that number rose to about half. Today
almost all people in the US have 911 service. A conventional Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU)
has one or more circuits connected to initiating
devices, which are wired in parallel. The initiat-
Internet and Addressable Systems ing device circuits are zoned so that fires can be
located within the building. An initiating device
The internet began as a reliable military network circuit will show a zone in one of three states;
that could tolerate losing nodes of communica- normal, trouble, or alarm.
tion. It spawned another revolution in the civilian
sector – the modern addressable fire alarm sys-
tem. The method of addressing individual devices Addressable FACU
in on the network ultimately became a network
layer that detection devices could converse on. At Modern addressable systems are essentially large
first this prospect was extremely expensive, but computer network with each device having its
as time and economies of scale improved the own address. They began to appear on the market
prices of these devices, it is now cheaper to use during the 1980’s during the initial microproces-
addressable devices in a fire alarm network than sor boom. When a detector goes into alarm, the
it is to use a zoned approach. fire alarm control panel is able to locate exactly
where the fire is by essentially looking up the
devices address on a table and can direct the fire
Notification System department directly to the location of the fire.
Advantages of addressable systems include:
Fire Alarm Systems
1. Upon arrival at a fire, firefighters can quickly
It is extremely important that detection systems identify the specific detection devices that
that alarm and operate suppression systems be have activated.
designed with every effort to prevent false activa- 2. The devices and appliances can continuously
tion of the alarm (notification) and/or the sup- inform the panel that they are working correctly.
pression systems, without decreasing detection In other words, the panel can supervise them.
sensitivity below the point at which it reads effec- 3. The exact location of every activated device
tively in a fire situation. Systems include a fire can be determined by consulting the FACU
alarm control unit, primary and secondary power because each device has its own address.
supplies, and various circuits used to connect to 4. Devices or appliances need to be serviced are
detection (input) devices, notification (output) easily located, because they can report their
devices or both (known as signaling line own failures to the FACU, or simply will not
circuits). “talk” to the FACU.
42 4 Notification

5. If system designers would like certain appli- Most equipment reactivates the audible alarm
ances such as horns or strobes in specific areas when the trouble is corrected, and the audible
to activate under certain conditions this is eas- alarm will not be silenced until the silence switch
ily achieved because only certain network is returned to active position, indicating that the
addresses can be programmed to activate panel or annunciator has been returned to opera-
under these conditions. tional condition. Supervision for detection,
alarm, and control systems is imperative, because
a system that has been rendered inoperable with-
Analog Addressable System out any indication of its condition, will provide a
very serious false sense of protection. Pneumatic
Analog addressable systems are the latest system detection, alarm, and control systems must have a
available as of the publication of this book. They low air alarm device to activate a trouble alarm
operate in analog mode in terms of how they when the air pressure drops below operational
detect fires. For example, they can provide pre- pressure.
cise measurements within a protected area. They
may report that the temperature in some area of a
building is 70 °F while in another area it is Other Issues
72 °F. These systems allow for increased flexibil-
ity in setting an alarm condition. For example, a Another system installation feature that must be
system may activate in a “pre-alarm” mode when considered in evaluating the area where the sys-
the temperature reaches 120° at a specific detec- tem is to be installed is the possibility of flam-
tor and then go into full alarm mode when the mable vapors or dust conditions, both of which
temperature reaches 135°. could produce an explosion when the atmosphere
These same units operate digitally in terms of is exposed to an electrical spark. When this con-
how they are connected together. They each have dition is encountered, the detectors, wiring, and
their own “address” so that the precise location of equipment must be specified as explosion-proof.
the detector can be known. Explosion-proof equipment and wiring is
designed to prevent any spark-producing connec-
tions from being exposed to the atmosphere
Supervision where it could initiate an explosion. Explosion-
proof equipment and wiring are more expensive
Supervision of detection and alarm systems is a to purchase and install; therefore, it is important
key word in the design of all systems. The word to always make this determination when specify-
control used in the following description of sys- ing and estimating a detection, alarm, and control
tem supervision refers to all of the action that a system.
signal from a detection system may control or Another feature of detection, alarm, and con-
activate: suppression system activation, equip- trol systems that is extremely important to include
ment shut-down, equipment start-up, magnetic in the design, specification, and estimate sheet, is
door closers, etc. battery back-up. If the system does not have a
Detection, alarm, and control systems that are separate, reliable, and uninterruptible source of
electrically operated must have wiring supervised power to use when the primary, commercial
to activate a trouble alarm should a wire break, source of power is lost, the system must have a
short out, become unintentionally grounded, or battery back-up power source. Battery back-up to
should a detector malfunction. Usually, the trou- operate the system and all of its components dur-
ble signal activates a light and an audible alarm at ing loss of primary power must be arranged and
the control panel or annunciator, and a silence equipped to come on line automatically, and
switch shuts off the audible trouble alarm, but the within a matter of seconds, when the primary
light will remain on until the trouble is source of power is lost. The batteries should be
corrected. kept fully charged by an automatic battery char-
Types of Fire Alarm Systems 43

ger, and the battery power should be sufficient to signal received by the fire alarm headquarters
operate the entire system for an extended time identifies the individual fire alarm box transmit-
(which is usually 24–48 h). The control panel or ting the signal. The fire department can be
annunciator must have an indicator light which directed to the specific location of the fire alarm
shows that the system is operating on battery box.
back-up, and should also have an indication that
the batteries are in a charged condition. On the
subject of power supplies, supervision, and wir- Remote Alarm
ing of detection, alarm, and control systems, the
National Electric Code (NFPA Standard 70) This is a very effective fire alarm system which,
requirements must be followed. when activated, automatically transmits a signal
to a constantly attended location. A constantly
attended location is most often the most impor-
Types of Fire Alarm Systems tant facet of any fire alarm system, as is the auto-
matic transmission of this remote alarm signal.
There are a number of different ways to notify the Any time the human element is introduced, there
inhabitants of a building and the fire department, can be delays in summoning the fire department
so they can each respond to a fire. The most obvi- which can spell the difference between success-
ous for the fire service is via 911 service as dis- ful lifesaving operations and extinguishment of
cussed. Other standard systems are described the combustion, or loss of life and total destruc-
here. tion of the property.
The components used to detect the fire have One relatively simple and inexpensive method
been described previously. They include smoke of transmitting a remote signal to a remote alarm
and heat detectors, flow switches from sprinkler device is over a leased and dedicated telephone
systems, and other means. line. The remote alarm device can be located in a
fire station, or any facility where someone is in
constant attendance. The control panel should be
Local Alarm System specified as having contacts for the automatic
transmission of remote alarms, and the transmis-
A local alarm system produces alarms only for sion of trouble alarms, which can also be incor-
the facility it serves, or the premises of the area porated into the panel. Usually when the remote
served. This type of alarm system may be used in signal is transmitted to a municipal fire alarm
schools, hospitals, institutions, and industrial headquarters or fire station, the authority having
facilities where the alarm is audible, and some- jurisdiction must give permission to transmit
times also visible, within the building or facility trouble signals.
it protects. In this case notification of the fire Usually a municipal fire alarm remote device
department is a human operation by telephone or will receive only alarm signals, since the receipt
other human means. of the signal and correction of trouble on the sys-
tem should be handled by the owner of the sys-
tem. If life safety is a major factor, the municipal
Auxiliary Alarm System fire alarm department may allow trouble signals
to be automatically transmitted as well. If the
The auxiliary alarm system activates local alarms, remote signal is transmitted to a municipal sta-
but this system is also connected to a municipal tion, a requirement is imposed to have the facility
fire alarm box so that when the alarm system is owner sign a contract to have the systems remote
activated, the municipal fire alarm box is also alarm tested on a monthly or periodic schedule.
activated, which in turn transmits a coded signal This requirement is intended to prevent false
directly to fire alarm headquarters. This coded alarms, with the resulting responses from the fire
44 4 Notification

department. This additional ongoing cost should ted to a central station that employs experienced
be realized by the client or owner of the detection personnel whose only occupation is the monitor-
and alarm system. ing of the panels that receive the signals. A cen-
tral station usually has many clients, and when an
alarm or trouble signal is received, the panel indi-
Proprietary Alarm System cation will inform the operator exactly which cli-
ent facility is transmitting the automatic signal.
The proprietary alarm system serves a facility or Central station firms receive security and other
complex of facilities with its own alarm-receiv- monitoring alarms, and the operators are trained
ing location. An example is a complex of indus- to interpret the signals, dispatch their personnel
trial facilities equipped with detection and to investigate the alarm, and also to notify the fire
suppression systems, where every system acti- department and/or police department. Naturally,
vates local alarms and also transmits an alarm to there is a monthly charge for this central station
a central, constantly attended area that is a part service, and sometimes these central station com-
of, and owned by, the complex. This system is an panies require that their own equipment be
independent alarm and alarm notification system installed to transmit the alarms in order to pro-
under one ownership. The alarm-receiving sta- vide adequate integrity of the equipment and to
tion also receives trouble signals, fire pump sig- avoid the possibility of inadequate equipment
nals, etc. Usually the alarm and trouble signals transmitting numerous false alarms.
are received by an audible and visual indicator.
The signal location is typically indicated on a
graphic annunciator, or an annunciator that indi- References
cates which system or equipment has transmitted
the signal. The response can then be immediate to Ditzel, Paul. Fire Alarm!: The Fascinating Story Behind
the Red Box on the Corner (Fire Service History
the area where the signal originated. Series). Squire Boone Village, 1990.
Greer, William. A History of Alarm Security. Bethesda,
MD: National Burglar and Fire Alarm Association,
Central Station 1991.
Stone, Sarah. “How 911 Became the Emergency Call
Number.” 12/4/16 <https://gizmodo.com/how-911-be-
A central station system is a commercial system come-the-emergency-call-number-1601064956>
where alarm signals are automatically transmit- (2014).
 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies
5

 arly Methods of Suppression

E Fire Pumps
of Fires and Conflagrations
Fire pumps are an integral part of fire protection,
The first recorded attempts at fire suppres- and as such, must be part of the working knowl-
sion involved the use of water as an extin- edge of anyone designing, specifying, or estimat-
guishing agent to control an uncontrolled ing the cast of fire suppression systems. This
fire. Leather buckets filled with water were section will address the two most common fire
kept on hand by the householder to extin- pumps: the diesel drive fire pump and the electric
guish fires in the home, or to wet down com- drive fire pump.
bustible roofs to prevent the spread of fire to When the municipal water pressure available
adjacent buildings from exposure to sparks is not sufficient in pressure or volume for a sus-
and radiant heat. tained fire extinguishing operation, then other
In 1723, Ambrose Godfrey devised an sources must be found. If the water is available,
improvement over merely throwing a bucket of but not at sufficient pressure, then fire pumps are
water or sand on a fire. Godfrey’s arrangement used to maintain the required pressure and vol-
consisted of a barrel filled with water which ume. In situations where there is no reliable water
also held a charge of gunpowder in a water- source, the use of storage tanks and reservoirs are
proof container. The idea was to light a fuse and warranted.
then throw the barrel into the fire. The fuse If the pressure demand of the suppression sys-
ignited the gunpowder and the explosion shat- tems exceeds the city mains capacity, the first
tered the barrel, scattering the water on the fire. consideration is the use of a fire pump to boost
Crude as it may seem, the Godfrey Barrel was the pressure. If, on further examination, it may be
the first attempt to convey extinguishing water found that the booster pump can furnish the
to the seat of the fire-an area that previously required demand pressure, but at the volume
could not be reached because of intense heat (gpm) demand of the suppression systems, the
and flames. city main pressure will be below the 20 psi resid-
The next step in the evolution of fire suppres- ual pressure necessary to allow the fire depart-
sion systems was the automation of water deliv- ment pumper trucks to utilize the hydrants. On
ery through a piping system, as opposed to the other hand, the supply main may not be large
applying the extinguishing agent to the fire by enough to furnish the volume demand of the
hand. suppression systems. In either case, the use of a

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 45

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_5
46 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

stored water source to supply the fire pump and The chapter Regulatory Agencies, Authorities
system demands is warranted. For example: and Organizations discusses the requirements
that insurance carriers place on the use of UL
A large company builds a large manufacturing and
rack storage warehouse in a small town. Because listed and/or FM approved fire pumps to meet the
of the extensive rack storage system, the demand water supply volume and pressure required to
for the suppression systems far exceeds the supply maintain operable and safe fire protection sys-
offered by the city water system. The result is a
tems. Insurance carrier requirements are based on
storage tank dedicated to supplying the fire protec-
tion filled from the city water system and furnished how the pump is constructed, successful test
to the suppression systems through the fire pumps. results, and the performance of the pump in dis-
Actually, two storage tanks of an equal volume are charge volume at various pressures. The carrier
required, each dedicated to fire protection supply.
has confidence in a pump that, except for periodic
This requirement is based on the concern that if
one tank were out of service for repair and paint- testing, may lay dormant for years, and then have
ing, the facility would be without fire protection. to operate at 100% efficiency when activated in a
This is a very important consideration in recom- fire condition. The main distinction between lab-
mending and designing reliable fire protection
oratory testing requirements lies in the type of
water supplies.
motor. When a fire pump is to be driven by a die-
sel engine, both the pump and the engine must be
Elevating the storage tank is one way to attain
UL listed and/or FM approved. When a fire pump
the required pressure. Another is with the use of
is to be driven by an electric motor, only the
fire pumps. This chapter provides a basic under-
pump must be UL listed and/or FM approved.
standing of fire pump design, devices, and equip-
ment, and the difference between fire pumps and
mechanical pumps. It also provides an overview
of tanks and their use in fire protection. General Criteria
Each pump manufacturer submits their pump
to a nationally known testing laboratory such as First, we will define a few terms that identify the
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or Factory types of fire pumps.
Mutual Research (FM). These laboratories run Centrifugal Pump: The discharge pressure is
exhaustive tests, and if the pump and all the developed by the rotation, or centrifugal force, of
accessories meet their standards, the pump the water.
obtains the UL listing label and/or the FM Horizontal Split Case Centrifugal Pump: A
approval. The requirements for such listings are fire pump that has the suction and discharge in a
costly, and therefore, a listed or approved fire horizontal plane, and is denoted by the pump cas-
pump is considerably more expensive than a hot ing, or housing, split horizontally.
water or chilled water circulating mechanical Vertical Shaft Turbine Pump: This is also a
pump of equal size. Estimators, designers, and centrifugal type pump, but the pump is a vertical
specifiers should always be certain that water column connecting the impellers that drive the
supply pumps are UL listed and/or FM approved. water up the column to be discharged from the
It is often said among mechanical engineers top, or head, of the pump column.
that the only difference between a fire pump and Basic Design Feature of Fire Pumps: A fire
a mechanical pump is that the fire pump is painted pump will deliver 150% of the discharge volume
red. Actually, it takes a great deal more than red (gpm) it is designed to deliver, at 65% of the
paint to create a fire pump. Not only is the cost design pressure (psi). For example:
higher (the pump manufacturer invests a consid- A fire pump designed to deliver 2,000 gpm at 100
erable amount in obtaining the Underwriters psi. At 3,000 gpm discharge, this pump will be dis-
charging at 65 psi. The design gpm and psi, and the
Laboratories and/or Factory Mutual Research 150% gpm at 65% psi, are the two fixed points on
tests necessary to obtain the listing or approval), the pump curve. There is one other fixed point on
but the fire pump performs with totally different the pump curves-shutoff pressure-that reflects the
criteria. gpm and psi with the pump operating against a
closed valve. Shut-off pressure is sometimes
Horizontal Fire Pumps 47

referred to as the churn pressure because the pump 5. Listed butter y valve
is discharging against a closed valve and is just
churning. Shut-off pressure cannot exceed 140%
6. Listed main relief valve
of the pump design pressure. 7. Single point electrical connection
8. Pre-piped fuel system
9. UL Listed FM approved fire pump
controller
Horizontal Fire Pumps 10. Closed waste cone
11. Listed check valve
“Standard” approved fire pumps have rated 12. Stuffing box and engine raw water drain
capacities of 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 13. UL Listed fuel tank sized per NFPA 20
3000, and 5000 gpm, and pressure ratings from 14. UL Listed FM approved fire pump
40 psi to 200 psi. Standard is in quotation marks
because this chapter will only be dealing with
these common pump capacities although smaller Suction and Discharge
capacity fire pumps are available for special uses.
Horizontal fire pumps must have a suction supply The size of the suction and discharge pipe, fit-
providing water to the suction of the pump under tings, and valves is mandated by NFPA Standard
pressure. This positive pressure on the supply to 20, and by the Factory Mutual Data Sheets.
the pump suction must be available when the (Factory Mutual Data Sheets are equivalent to the
pump is operating at 150% of its design dis- NFPA Fire Codes.) The following suction and
charge, which is called operating at overload. discharge pipe sizes are minimums:
This is an important consideration when the
pump is taking its supply from a city water main. 500 gpm fire pump 5″ suction and discharge
It must be carefully determined that when the 750 gpm fire pump 6″ suction and discharge
pump is operating at overload, or in other words 1000 gpm fire pump 8″ suction, 6″ discharge
is discharging 50% more water than its design 1500 gpm fire pump 8″ suction and discharge
capacity, it cannot be allowed to pull the pressure 2000 gpm fire pump 10″ suction and discharge
of the city main below 20 psi. In addition to the 2500 gpm fire pump 10″ suction and discharge
volume of water being discharged by the pump at 3000 gpm fire pump 12″ suction and discharge
overload, the anticipated flow from hydrants on
the city water main must also be added. The com- Note: The use of fire pumps with capacities of
bined pump discharge volume plus the antici- 500 gpm through 3000 gpm is an example only.
pated hydrant volume must not reduce the There are many fire pumps with various capaci-
pressure in the city main below 20 psi. ties up to and including 5000 gpm, and so-called
The basic reason for this requirement is that the special service pumps with capacities starting at
fire department pumper trucks require the 20 psi 25 gpm.
minimum pressure to operate their fire truck
pumps when they take suction from the hydrant. In
addition, this is a margin of safety to prevent suck- Pump Suction
ing the main dry which could result in collapse of
the main or leaking of the fittings on the main. The control valve in the pump suction line must
Fig. 5.1 shows the following components:. be an outside screw and yoke gate (OS&Y) valve.
This type of valve will provide full and unob-
1. Pressure sensing lines installed per code structed flow into the suction side of the pump
requirements with little turbulence, where a butterfly type valve
2. UL Listed/FM Approved diesel engine might not have the vane fully open, causing an
3. Flowmeter loop uneven flow into the eye of the impeller. It is also
4. Listed OS&Y valve recommended that the OS&Y valve be installed
48 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

Fig. 5.1 Diesel fire

pump unit on skid.
(Courtesy of AC Fire
Pump)

in the upright position to further guarantee the be used. It is imperative that the reducer be an
even flow through the valve. eccentric rather than a concentric, to prevent any
The one gallon per horsepower of the engine possibility of air being sucked into the pump and
for the fuel supply is based on one pint per horse- causing reduced suction and possibly creating
power per hour for 8 h. The fuel supply volume cavitation. Cavitation is a complex phenomenon
should be verified by the engine manufacturer that can cause serious damage to the pump. The
before supplying the fuel tank. use of the eccentric reducer minimizes the intro-
duction of air into the pump at this point of con-
nection. (See Fig. 5.2).
Suction and Discharge Piping The use of an elbow with the center line paral-
lel to the horizontal pump and installed at the
It is good engineering practice to flange all of the suction flange of the pump (or bolted to the
pump suction and discharge fittings and valves eccentric reducer) can create turbulence in the
for tightness and ease in replacement or repair, pump and must be avoided. When multiple fire
although screwed and mechanical grooved joints pumps are installed, they usually take suction
are acceptable. The suction pipe should be galva- from a large pipe header that supplies all the
nized to prevent tuberculation. In lieu of galva- pumps. If the pump suction pipe is smaller than
nized suction pipe, the pipe may be painted this header pipe, it is not good practice to connect
inside with an approved water-resistant paint. the smaller pump suction pipe to the center line
All discharge piping is hydrostatical tested at of the larger pipe header. The large pipe header
200 psi for 2 h. may not always be completely full of water, and
Another important feature of the suction into if the surface of the water in this pipe drops below
the pump is the fact that the suction pipe size may the top of the pump suction pipe, air will be
not be the size of the flange on the pump suction. drawn into the pump. If this condition could
In order to reduce the suction pipe size to bolt to exist, then it is better to connect the pump suction
the pump suction flange, a flange decreasor must line to the bottom of the large pipe header.
Horizontal Fire Pumps 49

Fig. 5.2 Eccentric pump reducer. (Courtesy of the AC Fire Pump)

All of these measures-including the eccentric engine cooling water passes through a heat
tapered reducer and the OS&Y valve-are exchanger on the engine and is discharged. (This
designed to maintain a constant flow of water to discharge must also be provided with a floor
the pump, with a minimum of turbulence, since drain.) The circulation relief valve is relatively
the introduction of air and/or turbulence in the small – 3/4″ or 1″ depending on the size of the
flow can reduce pump efficiency. pump but the diesel engine cooling water could
be discharging a considerable amount of water. It
is best to determine from the diesel engine manu-
Circulation Relief Valve facturer how much water is anticipated before
designing the drain size.
Every pump driven by an electric motor and radi-
ator-cooled diesel motor must have a circulation
relief valve, an automatic valve that provides suf- Main Relief Valve
ficient water circulation when the pump is operat-
ing with no flow-against a closed discharge valve. Unless the system pressure is expected to exceed
If sufficient water is not circulated in this situa- the design pressure (usually 175 psi), a relief
tion, the pump would keep churning the same valve is not required on fire pump systems where
water in the pump casing and the water would the pump is driven by an electric motor. System
eventually overheat and damage the pump. pressure could escalate if the suction pressure
In designing the pump house or pump room, a increased and subsequently increased the dis-
drain must be provided to carry off the water dis- charge pressure.
charged from the circulation relief valve. Fire The electric motor is considered to be a con-
pumps driven by a diesel motor without a heat stant drive motor, but the diesel engine is an
exchanger cooling system do not require a circu- adjustable speed driver, and also has the potential
lation relief valve because the diesel engines (although remote) of running wild and accelerat-
water cooling system takes suction from the dis- ing the pumps discharge pressure. A relief valve
charge of the pump. in the discharge line is sometimes required on all
When the pump is running against a closed diesel drive fire pump systems, depending on the
valve, the diesel engine is obviously also running design.
and taking water from the discharge of the pump The main relief valve is sized according to the
and circulating it through the diesel engine to size of the fire pump – a 3″ valve for a 500 gpm
maintain the engine temperature. This diesel pump up to an 8″ for a 3000 gpm pump. To make
50 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

sure there is no back pressure in the discharge the 2–1/2″ valves open, the flow is obtained and
pipe from the main relief valve, the relief valve the pump discharge pressure recorded.
discharge line is also quite large – 5″ for a 500 Subsequent valves are opened until the pump is
gpm pump up to a 12″ for a 3000 gpm pump. operating at design gpm and pressure, and then
Although the main relief valve does not discharge on up to overload – 150% of discharge and 65%
more than a trickle of water when the pump of pressure.
starts, malfunction or excess pressure could expel There is another method of testing a pump.
hundreds of gallons per minute. For this reason, The pump test line is located as described above
the most desirable location for this main relief (in the pump discharge line), and the test line has
valve discharge is outside the pump house or a normally closed test line control valve. A test
pump room onto grade. Discharging onto the meter is installed in the test line and another nor-
floor of the pump house or room and into a floor mally closed test line valve installed on the dis-
drain can invite damage from splashing and the charge side of the test meter. The pump discharge
accumulation of water. control valve is closed, both test line control
If the water supply to the pumps comes from a valves are opened, and the pump is started. By
tank where the quantity of water is limited, the controlling the amount of water supply to the
main relief valve discharge can be discharged pump by gradually opening the control valve on
back to the tank. Regardless of how the main the pump suction, the meter will indicate the
relief valve discharge water is handled, the flow flow, and the gauges on the pump will indicate
of water from the relief valve must be visible. the pressure up through design and overload. The
This is accomplished by the use of a relief valve discharge from the metered test line can dis-
cone connected between the relief valve and the charge back into a storage tank, or if no other dis-
relief valve discharge line. This cone can be open charge area is available, it can discharge back
or closed, with small windows to view the flow. into the pump suction.
Some insurance carriers require both the test
meter and the discharge header. The discharge
Pump Test header is used to check the calibration on the test
meter.
The fire pump must be tested by flowing the pump When the test header is used, extreme care
discharge after installation, and the insurance car- must be taken relative to the discharge, which can
rier may require an annual full flow discharge test. be the pumps capacity (150%). Hoses can be
This flow test is accomplished in two ways. attached to the 2–1/2″ valves on the test header
and run to a safe place for discharge, but the pres-
1. The pump test line is connected to the pump sures and volumes encountered can cause serious
discharge line after the discharge line check damage if not carefully controlled.
valve and ahead of the discharge line control This test header can be used as a hydrant if the
valve. location places it in the vicinity of a facility that
2. The pump test line has a normally closed con- requires hoses. It should not take the place of
trol valve and is piped to a test header installed regular yard hydrants because of the time required
on the exterior wall of the pump house or to open valves, but it can play an important role if
pump room. (See Table 5.1). needed (as a supply for fire department hoses).
There are two types of relief valves: spring
operated and pilot operated diaphragm type. The
Pump Test Design pilot, or pressure, relief valve can maintain a con-
stant system pressure within very close limits as
When the pump is to be tested, the discharge line the system demands change. The spring-operated
control valve is closed, and the test line control relief valve is set at a predetermined pressure
valve opened, and the pump starts up. As each of ­setting, and when this pressure is exceeded, the
Pump Test 51

Table 5.1 NFPA 20 Fire Pump Data Table

Pump Rating
(gpm) Minimum Pipe Sizes (Nominal) (in.)
Relief Relief Valve Meter Number and -Size Hose Header
Suctiona,b,c Dischargea Valve Discharge Device of Hose Valves Supply
25 1 1 ¾ 1 l¼ 1 — 1½ 1
50 1½ 1¼ 1¼ 1½ 2 1 — 1½ 1½
100 2 2 1½ 2 2½ 1 — 2½ 2½
150 2½ 2½ 2 2½ 3 1 — 2½ 2½
200 3 3 2 2½ 3 1 — 2½ 2½
250 3½ 3 2 2½ 3½ 1 — 2½ 3
300 4 4 2½ 3½ 3½ 1 — 2½ 3
400 4 4 3 5 4 2 — 2½ 4
450 5 5 3 5 4 2 — 2½ 4
500 5 5 3 5 5 2 — 2» 4
750 6 6 4 6 5 3 — 2½ 6
1000 8 6 4 8 6 4 — 2½ 6
1250 8 8 6 8 6 6 — 2½ 8
1500 8 8 6 8 8 6 — 2½ 8
2000 10 10 6 10 a 6 — 2½ 8
2500 10 10 6 10 8 8 — 2½ 10
3000 12 12 8 12 8 12 — 2½ 10
3500 12 12 8 12 10 12 — 2½ 12
4000 14 12 8 14 10 16 — 2½ 12
4500 16 11 8 14 10 16 — 2½ 12
5000 16 14 8 14 10 20 — 2½ 12
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 20-2016, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection,
Copyright © 2015, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is not the complete and
official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety which
may be obtained through the NFPA website at www.nfpa.org.

valve will open and relieve the pressure on the equivalent length of straight pipe for fittings, the
system. There should be minimal back pressure next larger pipe size from that given in Table 5.1
in the relief valve discharge line so as not to affect must be used.
the pressure relief with the discharge. If the test line for a test meter arrangement
The pipe size in Table 5.1 for relief valve dis- exceeds 100′, including equivalent length of
charge lines must be increased one pipe size if straight pipe added for fittings, the next larger
there is more than one elbow in the line, if the size pipe shall be used, and the meter shall be
line is quite long, or if it rises above the elevation sized for the increased pipe size. The meter read-
of the relief valve in order to minimize the back out device shall be sized according to the rated
pressure. In addition, there cannot be any shut-off capacity of the pump. When using a test header, a
valves in the relief valve discharge line. An unof- ball check valve should be installed on the test
ficial rule-of-thumb is not to exceed 15 psi of header side of the control valve before the pipe
back pressure in the discharge line of the relief passes through the wall to the test header. This
valve. If this level is exceeded, pipe size should ball check will automatically drain off condensa-
be increased. Pipe size increase may be necessary tion and residual water in the line and prevent
for the pump test line. If the pump test line to a freezing of the piping through the wall and in the
test header is over 15 in length, including the test header.
52 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

Valve Supervision level in the tank. A sight glass type of device is

not acceptable.
The suction valve must be maintained in its open No shut-off valve can be located in the fuel
position. The open position can be assured by return line to the fuel supply tank, and the fuel
installing a device that will activate an alarm supply line to the engine must be adequately pro-
when the valve closes. One method of supervi- tected against physical damage. The size of the
sion is to install a device that closes or opens an fuel piping and the piping arrangement of the
electric contact with the valve wheel. When the supply and return must comply with the engine
wheel turns, the device transmits an audible trou- manufacturers specifications and requirements.
ble signal to a constantly attended location. If this
electric supervision system is not practical or
economical, the suction control valve can be Pump Rotation
locked open.
Rotation of the fire pump is important because it
determines the location of the suction and dis-
Automatic Air Release charge, and the pump rotation that is specified or
stipulated on the purchase order must comply
An automatic air release valve must be installed with the location of the suction and discharge
on the casing of a split case pump to automati- indicated on the pump design. The best way to
cally release air from the pump casing when the determine the direction of the pump rotation for a
pump starts. The automatic air release is required horizontal split case centrifugal fire pump is as
on fire pumps that start automatically. The auto- follows: Imagine that you are sitting on the
matic air release must be a UL listed float-oper- (driver) electric motor or diesel engine. If the
ated type device. suction is on your right hand, the pump rotation is
clockwise. If the pump suction is on your left
hand, the pump rotation is counterclockwise. It is
Diesel Fuel System best to design diesel drive fire pumps with a
clockwise rotation – the suction on the right.
The fuel supply for a diesel drive fire pump Diesel engines are available with a counterclock-
requires at least one gallon per horsepower of the wise rotation on special order, but there is usually
engine, a figure based on one pint per horse- a delay plus additional cost involved. Ordering
power per hour for 8 h. The fuel supply volume the pump with the proper rotation is critical to
should be verified by the engine manufacturer avoid the delay and expense of returning it.
before specifying the fuel tank. To this volume
must be added 5% for expansion and 5% for the
fuel that will remain in the sump of the fuel tank. Engine Exhaust
The fuel line to the engine is located so that the
fuel in the sump cannot be used by the engine. Each fire pump diesel engine requires a dedicated
Note: Where there are multiple diesel drive fire and independent exhaust system. The exhaust
pumps, each engine should have its own dedi- pipe should discharge outside the pump room or
cated fuel supply tank and fuel supply piping, pump house, so that the exhaust discharge will not
and the fire pump diesel engine fuel supply affect personnel or adjacent structures. It is impor-
should only serve the fire pump diesel engine. tant to check with the engine manufacturer regard-
The diesel fuel tank should be located in the ing the type of muffler and the size of the exhaust
pump house or pump room, particularly in areas pipe. This is especially true if there is an extensive
where freezing temperatures are possible. The length of exhaust pipe, to avoid exceeding the
fuel tank requires a device to determine the fuel back pressure requirements of the specific engine.
Reliable Power Supply to Electric Drive Fire Pumps 53

Ventilation ation. The NFPA Standard for fire pumps and the
FM Data Sheets that describe the requirements
The diesel engine manufacturer should be con- for fire pumps both provide detailed requirements
sulted for assurance that adequate air will be sup- for power supplied to electric drive fire pumps.
plied to the engine. This critical item is sometimes The rule-of-thumb for power supply to electric
neglected completely or grossly underestimated drive fire pumps is two independent dedicated
in the design of the pump room or pump house. supplies. When considering a fire pump installa-
The efficient operation of the diesel engine or tion, especially one where the fire pumps are
engines depends on a supply of adequate makeup large capacity requiring large horsepower motors,
air for engine operation. furnishing independent electric power supplies
that will meet the requirements of the insurance
carrier may not be cost effective. In this case it is
Diesel Engine Cooling best to evaluate the use of diesel in lieu of electric
drive fire pumps. Diesel drive election is also
Two types of diesel engines are available that worth considering if the fire pumps are larger
carry the UL listing and/or the FM approval for than the available electric power supply.
use with fire pumps. (Both the fire pump and die- Where two fire pumps are required by the
sel engine must be UL listed and/or FM insurance carrier-one primary fire pump and one
approved). These two types are closed circuit, reserve pump – it is sometimes prudent to use an
liquid cooled and closed system type. electric drive fire pump for the primary pump and
The first type uses a closed circuit, liquid a diesel drive fire pump of equal size for the reserve
cooled arrangement with a heat exchanger. This pump. The use of a primary and a reserve pump is
liquid cooling water is taken from the discharge usually a requirement of an insurance carrier when
of the fire pump so that any time the pump is the fire pump is the only source of volume and/or
operating, water is being supplied to the engine pressure to a suppression system protecting a high
cooling system. With this type of cooling system, value property. The pumps are equally sized for
the water must be discharged to waste. This volume and pressure. Should the primary pump
means a floor drain is required in the pump room fail to start or be out of service for repair, the
or pump house with adequate capacity to carry reserve pump will serve as the primary pump.
off the discharged water without flooding the
area. The diesel engine manufacturer can furnish
details on the engine cooling system, including Diesel Engine Exhaust
the amount of water that will be discharging
when the engine is running. To protect personnel, the engine exhaust pipe
The second type of diesel engine listed for should be encased with a high temperature insula-
driving a fire pump is a closed system type with a tion at least 6′ above the floor, and the exhaust
radiator in lieu of a shell and tube heat exchanger. pipe passing through a non-combustible roof with
With this type of engine, a floor drain is not a combustible cover should have at least an 8″
required, but adequate ventilation air to cool the clearance between the exhaust pipe and the roof
radiator must be provided. sleeve. If the exhaust pipe exceeds 15′ in length, it
should be increased at least one pipe size over that
recommended by the engine manufacturer.
 eliable Power Supply to Electric
R
Drive Fire Pumps
Diesel Engine Cooling System
Reliability of the electric power supply to the
electric motor driving a fire pump is extremely Any discharge from water-cooled diesel engines
important and requires careful engineering evalu- cooling system should be piped to an open drain
54 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

located where the discharge is visible. The relief engine water heaters or oil heaters is required.
valve waste cone is an acceptable open receptacle These heaters maintain the engine at an efficient
for the discharge if the relief valve discharge line starting temperature.
discharges to the atmosphere. The diesel engine
controller will transmit a signal indicating an
overheated engine, low oil pressure, over speed, Coupling Guards
and failure of the engine to start. If overheating or
low oil pressure occurs, the engine will continue The shaft between the pump driver and the pump
to run until it fails. Some controllers have a safety has a coupling, and since this shaft rotates at a
feature to shut the engine down with a low oil high rate of revolutions per minute when the
pressure or high-water temperature if this condi- pump is operating, it is necessary to have a cou-
tion should occur during the weekly test. If a fire pling guard to ensure the safety of personnel.
condition should occur calling for the pump start,
this shutdown safety feature will be canceled,
and the engine will start and run to destruction. Jockey Pump Controller

The pressure maintenance pump, or jockey

Booster Pumps pump, has its own dedicated controller which
automatically starts the pump when the system
When a fire pump is taking suction from a city pressure drops below a predetermined point, and
water main where the volume (gpm) is adequate automatically shuts the pump down when the
to satisfy the system demand, but the system required system pressure has been restored.
requires more pressure than the city main can The jockey pump probably derives its name
supply, the fire pump is referred to as a booster from the fact that it rides on the system. The
pump. jockey pump takes suction on the water supply
side of the fire pump suction control valve so that
it has a water supply even if the suction control
Fire Pumps in a Bypass valve is closed. The suction side of the jockey
pump has an indicating type control valve, and
When the water supply to a suppression system is the discharge line from the jockey pump has a
furnished by a water source that could provide at check valve and an indicating type control valve.
least minimum volume and pressure, the fire These control valves are intended to facilitate
pump will be installed in a bypass. Should the fire repair of the jockey pump. The discharge of the
pump be out of service, the system would have a jockey pump is connected into the system piping
water supply to at least control the combustion. on the system side of the fire pump discharge
check valve and control valve. Jockey pumps
should have very small discharge volume,
Pump House especially on tight systems (such as sprinkler
­
systems) because there should not be any leak-
The pump house or pump room should have a age. If the jockey pump is discharging into large
reliable heating system to maintain the tempera- multiple systems supplied by underground pip-
ture above 40 °F. The temperature of a pump ing, the discharge should be sized at least to com-
room or pump house for diesel drive fire pumps pensate for possible leakage.
should not be less than that recommended by the The water pressure in this line reflects the sys-
engine manufacturer. If the temperature in the tem pressure drop and subsequently trips the pres-
area where diesel drive fire pumps are installed is sure switch which, in tum, starts the pump motor or
not maintained at 70 °F, the use of automatic pump engine.
Controller Alarm and Signal Devices 55

Controller ardous area and design pressure on the system is

needed quickly. The protection of an aircraft
The controller for diesel or electric drive fire from a fuel spill fire is an example.
pumps is completely assembled, equipped, wired, A few seconds delay can mean the destruction
and tested at the factory before it arrives on site. of an aircraft involved in a jet fuel spill fire. The
For this reason, it is imperative that no alterations fire pumps, especially the diesel engines that can
or additions be made to the controller after it take a few seconds to come up to speed, should
leaves the factory, as this will void the UL listing be started to bring demand pressure on the sys-
and/or FM approval. tem the second a foam deluge or foam monitor
Each fire pump shall have its individual con- nozzle system commences discharge. When a
trol panel, and the control panel should be sprinkler system protects a hazardous area, a fire
installed within sight of the pump it controls. The may almost immediately open numerous heads,
starter switch for an electric motor drive pump or and the need for immediate water pressure is
diesel drive engine pump is contained within the imperative. When it is important to start the fire
control panel. Most fire pumps start automati- pumps before waiting for the system pressure
cally, and are stopped manually, with the starter drop, it is necessary to have the pressure drop
switch actuated by a drop in water pressure. starting as a backup.
When a suppression system is activated, sprin-
kler heads fuse, a signal from a detection system
trips a valve, and there is a drop in the system Controller Cabinet
pressure as water begins to flow. A small, mini-
mum size water line is connected to the system The controller cabinet, as shown in Fig. 5.3 con-
piping on the discharge side of the check valve in tains the motor or engine starter, the circuit
the pump discharge line and piped to the pressure breaker and the disconnect switch, the manual
switch in the controller. start device, and the manual stop device. It also
provides the relays for alarm and control devices,
plus annunciation of the condition of the pump
Pressure Considerations and driver. The controller should be mounted on a
dedicated concrete base not less than 12" above
The pressure rating of the jockey pump should be the floor to prevent any water from the pumps
10–15 pounds above the starting pressure of the causing damage to the controller. In designing the
fire pumps. The fire pumps should never be used location of the controller in the pump room or
as pressure maintenance pumps, and the jockey pump house, the dimensions for the controller
pump should not have a discharge volume that being used can be obtained from the m ­ anufacturer.
will satisfy any of the suppression system If the cabinet is serviced from the rear of the cabi-
demands. Fire pumps can also be started on an net, allow at least 3–1/2′ from the back of the
electric signal from a suppression system, with cabinet to the wall, and to permit inspection and
the system water pressure drop starting as a servicing, allow not less than 2′ on the sides of the
backup. Automatic starting of a fire pump by acti- cabinet.
vation of a water flow device in lieu of water
pressure can be used in situations where the water
pressure of the supply fluctuates so much that a Controller Alarm and Signal Devices
predetermined cut-in pressure starling cannot be
maintained. Another instance where the pumps Electric drive pump controllers have a power
may be started by a signal from a detection sys- available pilot light on the panel. If the pump
tem or the activation of a water flow device is room or pump house is not constantly attended,
when the suppression system is protecting a haz- remote audible and visible signals shall be
56 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

Fig. 5.3 Fire Pump

Controller and Power
Transfer Switch
(Robert Till)

transmitted to a constantly attended location. Some controllers are required to have a relay
These signals are: that will start the pump motor or pump engine
when there is a power failure to the controller.
• Controller has started the motor and the motor With electric motor drive pumps, if the power
is in a running condition. supply is adequate, the motor should start across-
• Loss of power to the motor starter. the-line to full power on signal from the starter. If
• Phase reversal on the line side of the motor starter. the power supply is not capable of accepting the
surge of power, the motor can use a reduced volt-
Diesel engine drive fire pump controllers have age starting sequence where the motor comes up
a visible indication that the controller is in an to full speed slowly or in stages. When using
automatic condition. The diesel engine controller multiple electric drive pumps, the motors should
should also have the following visible and audi- be started in sequence, with a several second
ble alarms. If the pump room or pump house is interval between the starting of successive motors
not constantly attended, these signals should be to prevent a breakdown of the power source
transmitted to a constantly attended location: because of the heavy load.

• Low oil pressure

• High engine jacket coolant temperature Weekly Diesel Drive Pump Test
• Failure of engine to start automatically
• Engine shutdown from overspeed The controller for a diesel drive fire pump must
• Battery failure be equipped to provide an automatic start of the
• Battery charger failure engine once a week, and a device to keep the
Controller Alarm and Signal Devices 57

engine running for not less than 30 min. The con- be calculated and designed by experienced fire
troller can be equipped with an automatic shut- protection engineers. The support of the pump
down. This weekly test run can be recorded on a shaft and electric motor or right-angle gear drive
pressure recorder. is a consideration of a professional structural
engineer. The pump house design must incorpo-
rate a closable opening in the roof to allow the
 ire Pump Controller Alarm Signal
F installation and removal of the pump shaft. The
Operations electric motor for a vertical pump must be
equipped with non-reverse ratchets, and the
The following options can be provided as relays right-angle gear used when the pump is driven
in the controller to transmit trouble signals to a by a diesel engine must be equipped with a non-
constantly attended location. Some of the fol- reverse ratchet (Fig. 5.4).
lowing may be required by the insurance
carrier:
Flushing and Testing
• Low pump room (house) temperature
• Relief valve discharging Before performing the fire pump acceptance tests,
• Flow meter left on by passing pump the piping must be hydrostatically tested at 200 psi
• Suction supply water level below normal for 2 h with no leaks. If the system pressure is to be
• Suction supply water level near depletion greater that 150 psi, it will be necessary to deter-
• Diesel fuel supply below normal mine the maximum system pressure and establish
the hydrostatic test pressure at 50 psi over the
maximum system pressure. The fire pump suction
Diesel Engine Batteries piping must be flushed at a predetermined flow
rate. Once the system demand has been deter-
The diesel pump starts from not less than two mined by hydraulic calculations, the flushing flow
batteries that are mounted on the engine base. rate shall not be less than the calculated system
The batteries are constantly charged by a battery flow rate. It is possible that the calculated system
charger that is specifically listed for use with fire flow rate will not be sufficient to meet the flushing
pumps. flow rate requirements of the NFPA, which are
based on the pipe size of the suction piping.
If the pump has a 10″ suction pipe and the cal-
Vertical Turbine Fire Pumps culated system demand is 1800 gpm, a check of
the NFPA Standard for fire pumps, Standard 20,
When it is not possible to have a water supply to indicates that the flushing flow rate for a pump
the pump under a positive pressure, the use of a with a 10″ suction is 2440 gpm. NFPA 20 will
vertical turbine fire pump should be considered. indicate the greater flow rate system demand gpm
A vertical shaft pump is a centrifugal pump with or NFPA flow rate requirements. When the flush-
the impellers in a column. The primary consid- ing and testing has been completed, the contractor
eration with vertical fire pumps is that the source will provide a certificate verifying the successful
of water is adequate and dependable. This completion of the flushing and testing.
source can be from reservoirs, lakes, or rivers
supplying wet pits. Vertical turbine fire pumps
can be driven by an electric motor mounted on Fire Pump Field Acceptance Test
the top of the pump shaft, or by a diesel engine
operating the pump shaft through a right-angle When the tire pump installation is subjected to
gear. The design of the supply to a vertical tur- the field acceptance tests, the following represen-
bine fire pump is rather sophisticated and should tatives must be present:
58 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

Fig. 5.4 Vertical VERTICAL TURBINE PUMP

Turbine Pump. (ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVEN)
(Courtesy of AC Fire
Pump)
VERTICAL HOLLOW-SHAFT
ELECTRIC MOTOR

PUMP DISCHARGE HEAD

PUMP COLUMN

PUMP IMPELLER BOWLS

PUMP SUCTION STRAINER

• Pump manufacturer These representatives include the cost of

• Engine manufacturer (if diesel drive) attendance in the quotation or at least have some
• Controller manufacturer agreed financial arrangement with the contractor.
• Transfer switch manufacturer (if supplied) The owner, insurance carrier, engineer, and all
Water Supplies 59

authorities having jurisdiction (or their appointed be a reflection of what is included in the quote. It
representatives) should be present during the is important to stipulate in the bid request exactly
tests. Parties should be notified of the place, date, what equipment should be included in the quota-
and time of the tests not less than 5 days before tion. The following is a list of items the pump
the test date. manufacturer can and should furnish:
There is always a concern that because the
pump water supply is not adequate to allow test- • Pump
ing the fire pump at overload, or 150% of its • Driver
design, the test will not be successful. If this situ- • Controller
ation exists, the pump shall only be required to • Jockey pump and jockey pump controller
discharge the maximum that the supply is capa- • Flow meter easer
ble of furnishing to complete this phase of the • Hose test header
test successfully. The installing contractor will • Relief valve
furnish all labor, material, and devices required • Closed waste cone
for the tests. It is recommended that the contrac- • Open waste cone
tor run the pump through the test procedure a few • Circulation relief valve
days before the official field acceptance test date, • Eccentric reducer
to uncover any deficiencies and make the neces- • Concentric increaser
sary corrections or repairs. The fire pump will be • Pressure recorder
required to discharge at the minimum, the rated, • Relief valve tee
and the peak pump loads, and the results will be
compared with the manufacturers certified pump
test curves. The controller manufacturer has a Water Supplies
recommended test procedure, but it is important
that this procedure include a minimum of 10 Bulk supplies of water are necessary to put out
automatic and 10 manual pump starts, and that any fire. When a free-flowing water supply is not
the pump driver operate at full speed for not less available, water must be stored locally in tanks
than 5 min during each of these test starts. All and reservoirs. When an adequate supply of water
alarms, both local and remote, will also be acti- is available, but the pressure is not adequate to
vated and tested. move the water to the fire, a fire pump must be
Following completion of the acceptance tests, employed.
the fire pump installation should be returned to
the automatic operating condition, including
refilling of the diesel fuel tanks. The NFPA Tank Selection
Standard 20 and the FM Data Sheets contain
information regarding field acceptance tests. In Water storage for fire protection is available in
addition, the insurance carrier may have specific ground level tanks, elevated storage tanks, and
acceptance test requirements. It is recommended ground level reservoirs. The ground level steel
that the insurance carrier input be obtained rela- tanks are referred to as pump suction tanks and
tive to their acceptance test requirements. The are available in a wide range of capacities.
preparation of a test schedule will expedite the Approval of the fire tank system must be obtained
test procedure, especially if the acceptance test from the insurance carrier. Factory Mutual has a
involves a multiple pump installation. list of approved tank designs, capacities, and
dimensions, and the data sheets mandate the con-
struction and installation of these tanks. NFPA
Miscellaneous 22 – Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection-
mandates the construction, design, and installa-
When pump manufacturers submit quotations for tion of water storage facilities for fire protection
a fire pump project, the difference in costs may system water supplies.
60 5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies

If the client is insured by Factory Mutual, the adequate room around the pump shaft to prevent
system must use FM approved tanks and installed the water flow from forming a vortex, which could
in accordance with FM standards. If the client is affect the efficiency of the pump. Webster defines
insured by an insurance carrier other than FM, a vortex as a “whirling mass of water which forms
the specifications, cost estimates, and purchase a vacuum at its center.” It is easy to visualize the
orders must stipulate that the tanks conform to affect on the efficiency of the pump with the pump
the requirements of NFPA relative to construc- shaft in the center of a vortex. A mini-vortex is the
tion, design, and installation. whirling water rotating around the open throat of a
To lend some flexibility to these statements, a drain. In a wet pit, the pump shaft with the impel-
manufacturer of Factory Mutual approved water lers is rotating at tremendous revolutions per min-
storage tanks has the option to design, fabricate, ute. The pump manufacturer should provide the
and erect a tank using dimensions other than correct dimensions of the wet pit for their specific
those that have been approved by FM, but the vertical turbine pump.
tank is subject to review and approval by Factory In pump suction tanks, the suction pipe is
Mutual Research. FM Research is part of the FM installed near the bottom of the tank, with an
insurance family that establishes the specifica- elbow on the end of the suction pipe in the tank.
tions for FM approved devices, materials, sys- To avoid the creation of a vortex as the water
tems, and equipment, and lists them in the FM rushes into the suction pipe elbow, a vortex plate
Approval Guide. In the Factory Mutual Approval is fastened to the elbow.
Guide, the dimensions-both height and diameter- The vortex plate fastened to the suction elbow
for each tank capacity are presented. Factory is a 4′ by 4′ square plate, located a distance one
Mutual also lists approved elevated gravity tanks half the diameter of the suction pipe above the
in standard sizes. tank floor, but not less than 6″ above the tank
NFPA 22 also details dimensions and capaci- floor. Water entering the suction elbow must pass
ties for a variety of tanks, including wooden ele- around the square sides of the vortex plate, which
vated gravity tanks or wooden towers. Although prevents the swirling or whirling action of the
some yard or site conditions dictate the dimen- water entering the elbow.
sions of a ground level pump suction tank, or the A single bare end suction pipe would create
height, dimensions, and location (possibly on a the same action as the water entering the open
building in lieu of a tower) of an elevated gravity drain, accented because this water is being sucked
tank, if at all possible the use of an FM approved into the suction pipe in a great capacity and with
standard tank design and size will save the trou- considerable velocity, and a vortex would surely
ble, time, and expense of obtaining approval of a form. Where yard site space was limited, con-
special design. In geographic areas subject to crete reservoirs have been constructed under the
freezing, these tanks require an approved form of floor of the pump room or beneath the basement
freeze prevention. floor of a building, using vertical turbine pumps
to supply water to the suppression systems. It was
previously noted that two above ground steel
Concrete Reservoir pump suction tanks were required to be installed
for reliability of the water supply. With concrete
If space is available, a concrete ground level res- reservoirs, it is only necessary to split the reser-
ervoir can be provided for fire protection water. voir into two sections for the same results. If one
These reservoirs come in all sizes and shapes, side of the reservoir should be drained for repair
covered or open. The suction originates from a or cleaning, the other side of the reservoir would
point in the reservoir that provides a positive suc- still have an adequate water supply to meet the
tion pressure to horizontal pumps. system demand. The piping supplying the pumps
The pit where vertical turbine pumps are from this divided reservoir must take suction
employed must be designed very carefully to allow individually from both sides of the reservoir with
Summary 61

control valves in each suction pipe, and the two the tank site on this map, the lowest temperature
pipes connected to a common pump suction that the tank will experience establishes the
header. This design allows the pumps to take suc- amount of heat that will be required. This deter-
tion from either side of the reservoir, or both mination of the lowest 1 day temperature the tank
sides simultaneously. will experience, and the capacity of the tank, are
both factors that are used in calculating the
amount of heat necessary to maintain the water
Embankment Fabric Reservoir temperature in the tank at or above 42 °F. A low
water temperature alarm should be provided to
A reservoir that deserves serious consideration as alert personnel if the heating system should fail
a fire protection water supply is an embankment- to maintain the minimum temperature of the
supported, rubber-coated, fabric tank. The tank is water. The heating arrangement should automati-
actually a reservoir liner with a cover. When the cally control the water temperature in the tank.
liner is filled with water, its top floats upward and
remains floating when the tank is full of water. The
earth banks are built on all four sides of a square, Tank Water Level
and the tank liner is laid, unrolled, in the square
within the embankments. Once the liner is in place Tanks and reservoirs should be kept full automat-
within the open enclosure, it is anchored to the ically by use of an altitude valve arrangement or
embankments and the piping connections are some other approved configuration. All tanks
completed. The tank is constructed of a high- should have some device to determine their water
strength nylon fabric that is coated with synthetic level, and a low water level alarm device should
rubber that not only seals the liner watertight, but the water level fall below normal capacity.
also protects it from deterioration from weather,
abrasion, temperature changes, chemical fumes,
and ozone. The synthetic rubber coating keeps the Summary
liner flexible and shock-resistant, and therefore the
tank is able to resist severe damage in earthquake Tank and reservoir designs should be engineered
areas. The inlet-outlet drain fitting is installed in a by experienced professionals and involve all
concrete pad with a vortex plate bolted to the inlet- concerned disciplines-civil, structural, mechani-
outlet drain fitting. The exposed surface of the cal, and electrical. The location of the tank
filled tank is painted as recommended by the man- requires the expertise of a civil engineer, the
ufacturer and is applied according to the recom- design of foundations and structure of a concrete
mendations. In areas subject to freezing, the tank reservoir mandates nothing less than the engi-
water should be heated by circulating the water neering expertise of a structural engineer. The
through a heat exchanger. piping and heating equipment, design and engi-
neering, should only be trusted to a mechanical
engineer, and all alarms and control devices and
Tank Heating equipment can only be engineered and designed
by an electrical engineer. The fire protection
Embankment reservoirs, like all the tanks and engineer can determine the required capacity of
reservoirs described, must be constructed, the tank, and select the appropriate, cost effec-
installed, and heated (in areas subject to freez- tive, water storage unit. He or she can design and
ing), in accordance with the requirements of engineer, and specify the required fire protection
NFPA 22 and the Factory Mutual Data Sheets. features, all based on experience and expertise
The map in these publications indicates (by means and to meet the requirements of NFPA and/or
of temperature lines) the lowest 1 day mean FM and the insurance interest having
temperature for all areas of the country. By locating jurisdiction.
 Underground Fire Mains
6

Underground Fire Mains Underground Pipe Selection

Selection of underground pipe for fire protection Suppression systems that use water as their extin-
depends on several considerations: an evaluation guishing agent are usually designed for a maxi-
of the soil conditions, the maximum working mum working pressure of 175 psi. If the system
pressure, and the external loads the pipe may pressure is expected to exceed 175 psi, extra
experience by virtue of vehicular and other traf- heavy fittings (250 lb, 300 lb), valves, and devices
fic. Fire protection water mains must be capable must be used. In addition, the sprinkler heads
of withstanding the unusual, and sometimes must be UL listed, another factor that adds to the
severe, conditions associated with fire protection system installation cost. Systems that will not
systems: exceed this pressure limit can use standard weight
fittings, valves, and sprinklers. System pressure
• fire pump pressure surges levels also have a design impact on both the
• hose stream operation underground fire mains and the above ground
• deluge system operation system. For example, pump installation requires
• the sudden closing or opening of valves considerable experience to balance pump shut off
pressure of 120% of the rated head for vertical
Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, and asbestos turbine pump suction and system demand, while
cement underground piping do not carry either maintaining the system working pressure below
UL listing or FM approval. This pipe, when used 175 psi. Shut off pressure can be particularly dif-
for underground fire mains, is acceptable to ficult while attempting to size a fire pump to
Factory Mutual and to the insurance carriers who deliver the system demand without exceeding the
normally rely on UL listed equipment, as long it 175 psi level.
is manufactured according to the standards of the
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
and the specifications of other nationally recog- Cast Iron Pipe
nized engineering organizations.
This chapter explains underground pipe selec- For standard systems (working pressure below
tion, hydrant selection, flushing, and testing for 175 psi) underground cast iron and ductile iron pipe
the various types of piping listed above. rated as Class 150 is most commonly specified.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 63

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_6
64 6 Underground Fire Mains

The Class 150 rating represents the main working able for use under heavy vehicular traffic condi-
pressure. This distinction can be confusing, as com- tions and in unstable soil where the pipe could be
pared with the 175 number. The 150 psi classifica- subjected to the stress of traffic loads. The tre-
tion for cast iron and ductile iron pipe (and most mendous pressure impact of a water hammer has
flanged valves) is the maximum working pressure no effect on ductile iron pipe, where cast iron
with high temperature fluids. At the normal operat- might crack or rupture.
ing temperatures of suppression systems, namely
transporting water, the 150 psi working pressure is
adequate to handle pressures in excess of the  pecifics for Cast Iron
S
175 psi. These ratings are normally cast into the and Ductile Pipe
valve bodies: For example, 125 WSP (working
steam pressure), and 200 WOG (water, oil, gas). For Cast iron and ductile iron pipe for fire protection
175 psi suppression systems and the laying condi- should be lined pipe (cement/enamel/polylined),
tions previously described (namely 5′ bury and a to prevent the buildup of tuberculation within the
tamped backfill) the pipe should be listed as Class pipe interior. This type of growth is shown in
22, 150 pound working pressure. If system pressure Fig. 6.1. Tuberculation can be a precursor or
will exceed 175 psi, cast iron underground pipe occur with MIC (Microbiologically Influenced
Class 200, 250 and up should be considered based Corrosion).
on an evaluation of all of the conditions involved. Cast iron and ductile iron pipe joints can be
bell and spigot, mechanical, and push-on type.
The spigot, or plain end of the pipe, is inserted
Ductile Iron Pipe into the bell end of the pipe; packing, usually
jute, is fitted into the bell around the spigot end;
This type of piping is, as its name implies, much and the joint is sealed with molten lead. Although
more flexible than cast iron. Ductile iron will bell and spigot use to be the most common type
bend considerably before it will ultimately fail of cast iron pipe joint, they require considerable
and exhibits a tremendous impact strength. One labor to assemble. As a result, bell and spigot
manufacturer of ductile pipe demonstrated its joints are seldom used in fire protection mains in
strength by dropping a length of pipe from a great todays labor conscious market. Mechanical joint
height onto a rail without having the pipe length pipe push-on joints are basically a modified bell
break. In another demonstration, a 4500 pound and spigot arrangement where the plain end of
weight was dropped on a length of ductile iron the pipe is inserted-pushed-into the bell end over
pipe, and the pipe was flattened but did not break. a rubber or neoprene 0 – ring type gasket, com-
The strength of ductile iron pipe makes it desir- pressing it, thereby sealing the joint.

Friction Loss: The “C” Factor

The coefficient, or constant, for friction loss in

underground piping is represented by the letter C,
followed by an indicating number. The larger the
number following the letter C, the less friction
loss in the pipe. For example:

• Cast iron unlined-new C = 120

• Cast iron lined-new C = 140
• Cast iron in use (public or industrial main) for
Fig. 6.1 Tuburculated pipe. (Courtesy of Fred Hart) moderately corrosive water:
Underground Pipe Selection 65

• 10 years old C = 90 over the material cost of handling and installation

• 20 years old C = 65 and the decreased cost of installation for PVC over
• 30 years old C = 55 cast iron, must be carefully evaluated if cost is the
primary reason for using PVC pipe. PVC can be
These C factors can make a major difference in
field cut with a power saw and uses a modified bell
pressure loss when hydraulically calculating the
and spigot type joint with a ring placed in a groove
underground piping supply to Are protection sys-
in the bell end that provides a tight seal when the
tems. For example:
spigot end is installed in the bell end.
• 1000 gpm, 6″ cast iron pipe, C = 100, friction Flanges can be attached to the PVC to accom-
loss per 1000′ of pipe is 52 psi. modate attachment to cast iron valves or fittings.
• 1000 gpm, 6″ cast iron pipe, C = 140, friction Being nonmetallic pipe, PVC is not subject to
loss per 1000′ of pipe is 27.92 psi. external or internal corrosion, nor will it experi-
ence the effect of electrical currents that cause
external corrosion. The C factor for PVC is 150,
Other Types of Underground Piping compared with new lined cast iron and ductile
iron pipe with a C factor of 140. PVC under-
There are some instances in which soil and/or ground pipe may be required due to soil condi-
water conditions can cause considerable corro- tions that would corrode other piping materials,
sion with cast iron or ductile iron pipe. The water or to take advantage of the improved C factor of
in the soil may be extremely corrosive to these 150. If there is a considerable amount of under-
pipe materials, because of the acidity and alkalin- ground fire main involved, the use of PVC could
ity of the area. Through a complicated electro- mean the difference in hydraulically calculating
chemical reaction, external corrosion of cast iron the demand between a large cast iron or ductile
and steel pipe can be relatively rapid. Stray cur- iron pipe size, and a smaller PVC fire main. (See
rents can follow the buried piping to a point the chapter Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler
where the soil has less electrical resistance than Systems for an explanation of hydraulic calcula-
the pipe, and the current leaves the pipe. This cre- tions.) It should be noted that PVC are not as
ates ionization that is similar to soil corrosion. strong as metals in terms of burst pressure and
When a soil survey reveals these electrical cur- collapse pressure as pipe diameters increase.
rents from an external source, there are two meth-
ods of preventing this current from causing severe
erosion of the cast iron pipe-namely coating and Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pipe
wrapping the pipe or using cathodic protection.
Currents can be bled-off by providing low resis- Another nonmetallic underground pipe which
tance metallic grounding connections. Basically, resists corrosion, fiberglass-reinforced pipe, also
cathodic protection applies a direct electric cur- does not require cathodic protection. Like PVC,
rent to the pipe line to nullify the stray current. this pipe is lighter than cast or ductile iron, and
the joints are of a modified bell and spigot type,
where the spigot end is coated with an adhesive
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic Pipe (PVC) before being inserted into the bell end.

A reliable substitute for cast or ductile iron pipe,

polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping is highly resistant Asbestos Cement Pipe
to corrosion, is available in Class 150, and is lighter
in weight. In fact, its relatively light weight pro- This pipe is another material that does not cor-
vides a considerable labor savings cost impact due rode, and usually consists of a sleeve (coupling)
to ease of handling and installation. This compari- with an 0-ring gasket at each end. The ends of the
son between the additional material cost of PVC pipe are tapered, and when inserted into the
66 6 Underground Fire Mains

sleeve they compress the gaskets which make a underground piping passes under a building
tight joint. The C factor for asbestos cement pipe foundation, the bury should be the same as that
is 140. required for outside bury – a sleeve through the
Due to its nature as a carcinogen, asbestos foundation wall is the most common solution.
cement pipe is no longer used, and a lot of it There are times when it is absolutely necessary to
needs to be replaced because of its age. run the fire main under a footing that is at greater
depth than the pipe line. When this occurs, the
pipe must not be raised to pass above the footing,
Steel Pipe otherwise it will not have the required bury.
Extreme caution must be taken in fill compaction
Steel pipe can be used for buried fire mains using in the area to prevent future settling which can
welded joints with the pipe coated and wrapped, shear through the pipe line. This condition man-
but even with this corrosion precaution, the cor- dates other innovative solutions, which may
rosion factor of buried steel pipe is a major con- prove to be more expensive; for example, trench-
cern. If it ever becomes necessary to bury a dry ing at a greater depth for the entire run of piping
pipe system, the use of steel pipe with welded or placing 45° ells to drop the line under the foot-
fittings and joints is the only means of retaining ing. However, violating the required bury leaves
the compressed air without excessive loss. Fire open the potential of the water laying static in the
mains smaller than 6″ may be used, but they must pipe freezing, and subsequently cracking the
be lined, their use must be proven by hydraulic pipe, which is much more expensive than the
calculations, and the main must be as large as the innovative installation solution. Even if the freez-
system riser. The cost of installing a 6″ fire main ing is not severe enough to crack the pipe, any ice
is almost equal to installing a 4″ main. The mate- formation will obstruct the water flow that the
rial difference is very minor, and the trench work suppression system needs in a fire.
almost identical, so always consider the advan-
tages of a 6″ supply to that of a 4″ in relation to
the slight cost increase. The bury or cover of Rodding and Thrust Blocks
earth over the top of the pipe, depends on the
temperature of the area (which determines the Tremendous thrusts are created in the buried pip-
depth of the frost line). Maps are available which ing wherever the pipe changes direction, due to
indicate the recommended bury depth of piping pressure surges in fire protection underground
throughout the country determined by the maxi- piping when flow is started or stopped. Most cast
mum depth of frost penetration. In locales where iron and ductile iron pipe, bell and spigot, or
frost is not a consideration, underground piping mechanical joints, will use rods that run from fit-
should not have less than 2-1/2′ of bury to protect ting to fitting, or fitting to joint to hold the joints,
the piping from mechanical damage. Where fittings, and valves in opposition to these thrusts
freezing is a factor, depth of static or stationary and relieve the pressure that could cause a joint to
fire protection piping should be 6″ deeper than separate.
municipal water mains which have a regular flow When soil conditions are not stable enough to
of water. hold a fitting in place when a water surge occurs,
it is necessary to install thrust blocks. Under any
number of conditions – excessive pressure in the
Underground Pipe Bury main, unstable soil-thrust blocks may be required,
even if the piping is rodded. This of course
The term bury is used to establish the cover on requires a thorough engineering evaluation.
the pipe. When determining the required depth of Thrust blocks are masses of poured concrete,
the pipe trench, be certain to provide the required poured against the fitting where the pipe changes
bury while compensating for site grading. When direction, or against a valve that could be subject
Underground Pipe Selection 67

to surge pressure. The consistency of the con- Hydrants

crete, the size of the thrust block, and the tech-
nique for pouring the thrust block must be in The installation of fire hydrants supplied by a pri-
accordance with the authority having jurisdic- vate fire main involves three types of hydrants.
tion. It is also this authority, especially if they are One is a wet barrel hydrant used in areas that are
an insurance carrier, who may dictate the use of not subject to freezing because the water fills the
thrust blocks, rodding, and retainer glands hydrant exposed above ground.
(devices used on mechanical joint pipe to prevent The second type of hydrant is a dry barrel
separation of joints). Whether or not the stability hydrant where the water is kept at its base by a
of the soil is known, it is always advisable to valve that is opened when the hydrant nut is
meet the insurance requirements. operated.
Bell and spigot pipe can be rodded by install- The third type is the wall hydrant. It is installed
ing a pipe clamp and rodding through the pipe on the wall of the building, is similar in appear-
clamps. But in the majority of cases there is no ance to the fire department siamese connection,
question that nonmetallic pipe like PVC must and water is controlled by a non-rising stem valve
have thrust blocks. There are very few instances located inside the building with the operating nut
where the use of thrust blocks will not be required on the exterior wall. In most cases, the hydrants
when using piping other than mechanical joint that are installed on private property supplied by
cast iron or ductile iron piping. private fire mains consist of 2-1/2″ hose outlets.
Most public hydrants also have a larger, usually
4″, pumper connection, but insurance carriers
Other Considerations may not permit the pumper connection on private
hydrants. They are usually concerned that too
Underground piping must never be installed much water is being taken from this outlet,
below the floor of a building. This is against thereby decreasing the supply to the suppression
NFPA Fire Codes and good engineering practice. systems. To cite an actual project experience:
Installing piping below the floor means that a The hydrants for installation on a private property
leak or break would not be detectable, and could fire main were incorrectly ordered with the 4″
undermine the floor, causing collapse. Even if the pumper connection. The insurance carrier required
leak or break were detected through a meter, find- the owner to weld the 4 outlets shut so there was no
chance they would be used.
ing the location of the leak and repair would be a Private hydrants should be located approxi-
costly operation. When there is an underground mately 300–500′ apart, using the 300′ spacing in
piping system that supplies several hydrants and/ areas of greatest hazard, and 500′ between hydrants
or several suppression systems, or even several in other areas, but no hydrant hose length should
exceed 500′. Placement of hydrants becomes an
buildings in an industrial or office complex, the experienced engineering judgment, and here again,
fire main should be sectionalized. This means their location is subject to the authority having
installing post indicator valves (PIVs) at various jurisdiction.
locations so that, should a repair of the fire main
be required, the entire fire main supply would not
have to be shut down-the section between two Flushing and Testing
sectional PIV s could be isolated by closing just
these two valves. There is a rule of thumb that Above-ground suppression systems must be
sectional valves should not control more than five hydraulically tested, but underground fire mains
systems, with hydrants being considered as a sys- must be flushed and tested. The piping must be
tem. This rule exists because the placement of flushed at the water demand rate of the system,
sectional valves must be reviewed and approved and this demand flow must be at least of a capacity
by the insurance interest having jurisdiction. to produce a velocity in the flushing water of 10′
68 6 Underground Fire Mains

per second. To produce this velocity, the follow- appointed representatives, and at the conclusion
ing gpm must be discharged through the appro- of the flushing and tests, the installing contractor
priate pipe size: must furnish a signed Contractors Material and
Test Certificate, countersigned by the witnesses.
4″ pipe 390 gpm If the installing contractor is not performing the
6″ pipe 880 gpm tests, the above ground system contractor must
8″ pipe 1560 gpm receive a copy of the flushing and test certificate.
10″ pipe 2440 gpm The above ground contractor is assured that the
12″ pipe 3520 gpm main has been flushed and tested, and any prob-
lems with obstructions in the above ground sys-
After the piping is installed, and before con- tem are his responsibility.
ducting the hydrostatic test, the installing con- To complete the testing of the underground
tractor should not backfill and cover the piping piping system, each hydrant supplied by the fire
joints or valve connections. However, it is man- main must be opened and closed while the system
datory to backfill the trench between the joints to is under pressure to uncover any hydrant leaks.
prevent any pipeline movement during the pres- In addition, all control valves on the underground
sure test. fire main must be closed and opened while the
All flushing and tests must be witnessed by system is under operating pressure to ensure that
the authorities having jurisdiction, the owner, or the valves are opening and closing properly.
 Equipment and Devices
7

operation. The outside screw rises above the yoke

Equipment and Devices when it is open, and the yoke is part of the body
of the valve where the stem lodges when the
The proper location of valves and other critical valve is closed.
devices is important to ensure that the system
may be shut off promptly after sprinklers have
extinguished the fire, or to conserve water and The Post Indicator Valve (PIV)
pressure if pipes are broken. Equipment such as
strainers are necessary to prevent clogging of the This is one of the most common fire protection
nozzles. These devices, as well as backflow pre- valves, controlling a system from outside the
venters, tap connections, and hangers, are inte- building. The post indicator portion of the valve
gral parts of any fire prevention system. The is a post that protrudes approximately 3′ from the
purpose, use, and installation of these important ground with a window-an open slot in which the
elements are discussed in this chapter. word open or shut appears (See Fig. 7.2). A cast
steel wrench is attached to the top of the post that
is designed to house a padlock for security. A
Control Valves wrench fits the nut on the top of the valve stem,
and when the stem is turned to dose the valve, the
Every suppression system must have a control window will read shut.
valve, with one requirement-the valve must visi- When the PIV is installed on the underground
bly indicate whether they are open or closed. piping, the valve part is a non-rising stem type
valve (N.R.S.). This means that when the valve is
opened, the stem does not rise vertically as it
The Outside Screw and Yoke does in the OS&Y valve. When the valve is
opened or closed, the stem turns within the post
The OS&Y valve is one of the most common and indicator portion of the PIV.
easily recognizable fire protection system control When PIV valves control the water supply to a
valves (Fig. 7.1). This valve has a threaded stem suppression system, they serve two main func-
that projects several inches above the operating tions. First, the control valve is closed when mak-
wheel when in the open condition. When closed, ing repairs on the system or when remodeling or
the valves threaded stem retreats into its yoke, adding to the system. The second primary function
and the top of the stem becomes flush with the of the control valve is to shut the system down in a
wheel; thus, its name, OS&Y is derived from its fire situation. For example, a fire has gotten out of

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 69

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_7
70 7 Equipment and Devices

Fig. 7.1 OS & Y Valve. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

Fig. 7.2 Post Indicator

Valve (PIV). Photograph
by Robert Till
Equipment and Devices 71

control and opened so many s­prinkler heads that Important Considerations When
the water supply pressure at the hydrants has Using the PIV
dropped below the fire departments requirements.
Another example might be that a roof may col- When ordering the post indicator valve for under-
lapse due to the effect of heat from a fire on the ground piping, the distance from the ground level
structural steel; the collapse may break a large to the bottom of the main is important. Naturally
sprinkler supply pipe; or an explosion destroys the it is imperative to state the size of the main to
sprinkler supply piping. obtain the proper size valve, but the depth of the
Any of these incidents would create a tremen- underground pipe trench, which is the bottom of
dous loss of fire protection water not directed the pipe, is also critical because the post exten-
toward extinguishing the fire. This loss causes sion that connects the post to the valve is avail-
decreased pressure and volume at the fire able in various lengths. This dimension must be
hydrants. That seriously hinders firefighting. If fairly accurate, or the post will either protrude too
the control valve on the system is an OS&Y far above ground (unsightly) or too close to the
valve located inside the building, in all probabil- ground (unseen). The rotation of the valve open-
ity it would not be accessible. A similar situation ing is another consideration-shall the valve open
may occur if the fire approaches the system riser by turning right or left, clockwise or counter-
and control valve location, because the fire could clockwise? The new valve should open the same
prevent access to the control valve. This is the way that other valves on the property open, in
primary reason that the authority having juris- order to avoid confusion in a fire condition.
diction over approval of fire protection plans and Should a valve be forcefully turned the wrong
installation will require a PIV, located outside way, it could damage or possibly snap the valve
the building for control of the system water stem. Unless otherwise specified, the PIV will
supply. turn in a counterclockwise opening direction.
The ideal location of the PIV is about 40′ from For wall type post indicator valves, it is impor-
the building, to allow access to the control valve tant to designate the center line of the riser where
even if a fire breaks out of the exterior wall or an the non-rising stem valve is located.
exterior wall collapses. Despite this requirement,
there are many situations where it is impossible
to locate the PIV 40′ from the building, or where Butterfly Valve
use of a PIV is not possible (when there is no
yard around the building, or the entire area is The indicating butterfly control valve is a popular
congested with roads). substitute for the large OS&Y valve. This is a
There is an alternative-the use of a wall type thin valve which does not have the long yoke and
post indicator valve. The wall type indicator post stem of the OS&Y valve. Therefore, it does not
valves post is installed on the exterior of the take up valuable installation space both in and
building and the valve shaft passes through the around the perimeter of the system riser.
wall, connected to the non-rising stem valve For example:
installed in the system riser. Installed in a system riser as the control valve, the
There are a number of types of wall posts flanged butterfly valve takes out 5″ for a 6″ riser, and
operated with a wheel in lieu of a wrench, and all 6″ for an 8″ riser. By comparison, a flanged OS&Y
have the window shut/open indicator. One type of valve takes out 10–1/2″ when installed in a 6″ riser,
and 11–1/2″ in an 8″ riser. The center line to the out-
wall post extends about 14″ from the face of the side of the handle of a butterfly valve measures
wall, one type has a post extending up to 52″ approximately 11–1/2″ for a 6” valve, and 12–1/2″
from the wall; and the third is completely recessed for an 8″ valve. The 6″ OS&Y valve, center line to the
in the wall in a cast iron frame. tip of the stem in the open position, requires almost
32″ for a 6″ valve, and almost 41″ for an 8″ valve.
72 7 Equipment and Devices

The example compares flanged butterfly vales pit, install a post indicator mounted there. Valves
with flanged OS&Y valves, but when the butter- are necessary on either side of the check valve so
fly valve is designed to be used with grooved that they could be closed, and the check valve
couplings or fittings, the thickness is much less removed for repair or cleaning. With the connec-
than that of the flanged butterfly valve. In order to tion for the fire department pumper on the house
qualify as an indicating type valve, the butterfly side of the control valve, when both valves are
valve has an arrow indicating the open or shut closed, and the check valve removed, the fire
condition. The butterfly valve is available with department may still use the pumper connection
either a wheel or crank operator and can be pro- to supply water under pressure to the suppression
vided with supervisory switches to signal a trou- systems.
ble alarm should the valve be closed. The physical
dimensions and weight difference also make the
butterfly valve much easier to install, cutting Check Valves
down on labor cost.
Underwriters Laboratories and/or Factory Mutual-
approved swing check valves provide a minimum of
Pit OS&Y and Post Indicator friction loss. The check valve, disc, or clapper swings
entirely clear of the flow of water. There is now avail-
If a building or facility has multiple fire suppres- able a compact wafer check valve. This is smaller
sion systems, and they are all supplied by a com- than the iron body check valve. For example:
mon below ground fire main, it is good practice An iron body check valve measures 17″ face to
to provide a single valve pit in the main line that face of the flanges, and an 8″ iron body check valve
feeds the fire suppression systems. This arrange- measures almost 21″ for the same. By comparison,
ment is usually a requirement of the code author- a 6″ wafer check with grooved ends measures a
little over 9″ end to end. The disc on the larger iron
ity to prevent the fire department pumper from body check valves is usually cast iron, and the
being connected to the wrong building siamese wafer check valves usually have spring loaded
connection, rather than to the building needing bronze discs.
protection. The valve pit has a yard type fire
department pumper connection that sits on top of Wafer check valves are not only compact but
the concrete pit. When the fire department pumps weigh much less than the conventional swing
into this siamese, they are pumping into the entire check and, therefore, are labor saving as well as
underground piping system and into whichever materially cost effective.
building system is operating. The concrete valve
pit contains:
 etector Check Valves and Full Flow
D
• an OS&Y valve Fire Meters
• a check valve to prevent the fire department
from pumping back through the system water Some cities require that the fire water supply to
service suppression systems be metered. Originally this
• a second OS&Y valve was to keep citizens from stealing water from the
• the tee for the fire department pumper connec- unmetered fire supply. Although extremely diffi-
tion (which also has a check valve in the line cult without operating all the alarms or energiz-
to the siamese). ing the fire pumps, this theft has occurred. For
cities that do require metering, the cost of water
If a post indicator valve is required under- used to fight a fire is not their concern because as
ground, it is possible to use a non-rising stem much, if not more, water would be used by the
valve in lieu of the second OS&Y valve and, with fire department using the unmetered fire hydrants.
an extension up through the top of the concrete Nonfire usage should be metered.
Equipment and Devices 73

It was out of this concern that the detector nance, the key valve can be closed, eliminating
check valve was developed. This valve is basi- the necessity of shutting down the entire fire
cally a regular iron body swinging disc check main. Hydrants are important firefighting equip-
valve, with the disc, or clapper, weighted. Tapped ment, and it is much more practical to have one
into each side of the check valve around the disc hydrant out of service than the whole system shut
is a small pipeline with a water meter. When there down for repair. All valves must have the UL list-
are small flows in the fire main, the weighted ing and/or FM approval.
clapper will not rise off its seat and the water
flow, seeking the line of least resistance, passes
through the small pipe bypass and into the meter. Full Flow Fire Meters
When a suppression system is activated and there
is a fire flow in the main, the demand flow of the When a meter is necessary for both small and full
suppression system raises the clapper, allowing a flows in the fire line, a full flow fire meter must be
full flow through the check valve. With this detec- installed. These meters are large and expensive
tor check valve, only small flows of water are compared with the detector check meter and are
metered; fire flows are not. The concept is that installed between two OS&Y valves. Full flow
with a suppression system, the fire would be con- fire meters may measure approximately 45″ for a
trolled and extinguished in a relatively short time, 6″ line, and 53″ for an 8″ line. The code authority
with the fire department using unmetered public having jurisdiction may also require a bypass
water from the fire hydrants just for mop up. The around the full flow meter. Should the meter be
detector check valve may also be used in the sup- out of service, the normally closed bypass would
ply line to serve as a regular check valve and be opened. When a bypass line is required, the
must be UL listed and/or FM approved. overall measurement of the meter and bypass
connections increases 98″ for a 6″ line, and 112″
for an 8″ line-face to face of the flanged bypass
Key Valve tees. Full flow meters are required by city ordi-
nances, when the fire line is used to fill a reser-
A key valve is a non-rising stem valve installed in voir or when testing deluge systems. The
the underground piping. Covering the operating requirements of the local code authorities will
nut on the top of the valve is a round metal shaft determine their needs for metering the fire water
known as a roadway box that fits over the top of lines. Most municipalities and authorities do not
the valve and extends to the surface of the ground require metering, but if this is not determined up
or pavement. A metal cap fits on the top of the front and is later discovered, it can be a costly
roadway box and cast in the metal of the cap is addition to the system, especially if full flow
the word water. To operate this valve, the cap is metering is required.
removed, and a long-handled metal wrench is
slipped into the roadway box and fitted over the
valve operating shaft. The operating wrench, or Backflow Preventers
key, has a crossbar to facilitate turning and open-
ing or closing the valve. Since the key valve is not Fire protection water in sprinkler systems may lay
an indicating valve, it is never to be used as a con- dormant for years and, as a result, can become con-
trol valve on water supplies to suppression taminated. A pendent head that has been installed
systems. for a number of years, untouched, contains water
Fire hydrants require periodic maintenance. trapped in the drop. This contaminated water might
Those on private property are supplied from the find its way back into the potable drinking water if
fire main that feeds the suppression systems. Key the sprinkler system is connected to a public water
valves are installed on the supply to the fire main and a flow reversal occurs. Backflow preven-
hydrant so that when the hydrant requires mainte- ters, installed between the potable water supply and
74 7 Equipment and Devices

Fig. 7.3 Backflow

Preventer with Open
OS&Y valves (Robert
Till)

the sprinkler system to prevent such contamination, arrangement is UL listed. The double check
are not only becoming more popular, but have valves in this type of backflow preventer can be
become mandatory in most states and cities. detector check type with a small metered back-
There are two basic types of backflow pre- flow line around the preventer. Some models of
venters: the double check valve arrangement backflow preventers can be installed in the verti-
(Fig. 7.3) and the reduced pressure type. The cal position, and others horizontal only. The
installer is not given a choice of which type to backflow preventer should be installed immedi-
use; state or local requirements specify the type. ately ahead of any system risers where the
Both types must always be installed between underground supply line enters the building.
two shut off valves, preferably OS&Y valves. The reduced pressure backflow preventers
The double check valve backflow preventer require provisions to facilitate the use of test
does not use standard check valves. They are connections. Backflow preventers must be UL
spring loaded check valves, and the entire listed and/or FM approved.
 Firefighter Intervention: Manual
Fire Suppression 8

hood of quick extinguishment will differ for vari-

The Fire Service: Introduction ous fires of similar size at the time the first fire
apparatus arrives. The change in impact is brought
about by the building and the location of the fire
Fire department tactics are usually a function within the building (Callery 1996).
of the structure being defended. Because of the Captain Jim Callery – Worcester, Massachusetts
large lumber industry in the US, there is a ten- USA Fire Department
dency to construct structures of wood. The
configuration of wood in these structures leads
to fires that may not only consist of burning the Established Burning to Arrival
contents of a structure, but also the structure
itself. Many countries outside the US, depend- The fire department time line, Fig. 1.1 in
ing on their location and legislation, may use Chapter 1, begins with established burning.
more brick and stone in their construction. The line then sequentially recognizes that
This leads to more contents fire and less struc- detection, fire department notification and
tural fires, and therefore sometimes completely arrival are requisites to the time duration
different fire department tactics. The “manual needed to apply to first water. The time from
suppression coordinated operations” very gen- established burning to fire department notifica-
erally discussed here are those of the US. tion is generally a function of building opera-
Architectural and site conditions for a build- tions in the structure of origin as shown in the
ing can dramatically affect an initial fire attack figure.
and the tactics used by the fire service to extin- When modeling the time to suppress a fire
guish a fire. When architectural obstacles and dif- after fire department notification, it is neces-
ficult site conditions delay the initial fire attack, sary to acquire data on individual tasks to
the fire grows and propagates causing additional develop the model and whole evolutions to
property damage and greater danger to occupants validate the model. The time to fire department
and firefighters. Callery describes the interactive arrival can be estimated from statistical data of
nature of the process as follows: the local community. A variety of different
When a fire department quickly extinguishes a techniques may be used for this analysis. For
challenging building fire, the firefighters usually example, simple speed and distance estimates
take the credit for making a “good stop”. Often the may be used.
building deserves much of the credit. Likewise, One direct solution to the time between fire
when a fire gets away from the department, the
building deserves some of the blame. The likeli- department notification and arrival first water is

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 75

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_8
76 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

Fig. 8.1 Fire timeline

shown in Fig. 8.1. In this study it was found the safety threats, establishing a water supply, and
following equations provide travel time laying attack lines. Shortly after the first com-
estimates. pany arrives, a chief and the other companies
Figure 8.1, is derived from the equations may arrive.
below. These equations are based on analysis of The fire ground commander is the senior offi-
data from Trenton N.J., Denver CO, Wilmington cer at the fire scene. Initially, it is the officer of
DE, and Yonkers, NY. Rand Study of 1979 the first arriving company. However, this position
(Warren et al. 1979). is transferred when a more senior officer arrives.
The fire ground commander is in responsible
 2.10 D if D < .38 charge of the scene and all of the operations. The
E ( D) = 
0.65 + 1.70 D if D ≥ .38 fire ground commander is placed in a position of
making rapid decisions on the basis of incom-
It can be seen that a travel distance of two plete, often inaccurate, and constantly changing
miles requires about 4 min. for fire department information. In addition, these decisions must be
arrival according to this model. The study found made during periods of maximum distraction and
that this correlation worked well for most cities. emotional stress within very short periods of
It should be noted that the time from notification time. The process becomes decision making
to arrival must also include alarm handling and under uncertainty in a very pure form. Experience,
turnout times. These time durations, combined knowledge, and training are very important to a
with the transit time, provide the total response fire ground commander’s educational back-
duration. ground. Timely, astute decisions can make the
difference between a good stop and a fire that got
away.
Arrival and Size Up
The other important element to the success or
The first arrival is usually an engine company. failure in limiting the fire to acceptable sizes is
This first-in company places itself in what the influence of the building site and design fea-
appears at the time to be the most appropriate tures. An initial size up becomes the basis for the
position to carry out initial activities. This posi- fire ground commander’s decisions. A size up is a
tioning involves balancing several immediate and mental model of the entire system that makes up
possibly conflicting needs including gathering the fire ground conditions at the time of arrival. A
information about the location and magnitude of size up begins on route and becomes more
the fire, ascertaining if there are any potential life defined upon arrival at the site when better infor-
mation becomes available.
The Fire Service: Introduction 77

The goal of fire ground operations is to use the • Fire Attack. – Where are the building access
available community resources of manpower and locations? Are there any natural or man-
equipment to rescue endangered individuals and made obstacles to approaching the building
to minimize the destructive damage of a hostile from different sides? Where are the stair-
building fire. The size up provides the i­ nformation wells? Where are the standpipes? How do
on which to base decisions regarding the strategy we gain access to the floor of origin? What
and tactics to achieve that goal. An ideal size up fire attack routes are available? How clearly
would include the type of information described are they recognizable? Will doors have to be
below. Obviously, time constraints of required forced to gain access to the fire location?
early action preclude the collection of all of the How many? What size and how many hose
information initially. However, when complete lines can be stretched with the manpower
information is not available, the fire ground com- available? How long will it take to lay the
mander makes decisions based on the accumu- hose lines? Are there critical locations at
lated knowledge at the time. which to position hose lines in order to
defend people or valuable property from fire
• Life Safety – Are any occupants remaining in extension? Will these positions help or hin-
the building? Where might they be located? der fire attack or control? Where and how
How certain is the information? can the building be ventilated.
• Building Construction Information – In build- • Environmental Conditions – What is the time
ings of this type, will the barrier effectiveness of day? What are the weather conditions?
quality contain a fire to one or few rooms or What are the site conditions that influence
will it allow the fire to propagate easily? What movement, such as mud or snow? How will
is the collapse potential? Can the building con- the wind conditions affect firefighting? What
struction be used to advantage to control the are the smoke, heat, and visibility conditions
fire and limit its propagation? Does this build- within the building? What are the heat and vis-
ing present a safety hazard to fire fighters ibility conditions near the fire?
• Fire. – Where is the fire? What is its size? • Exposures – Are there any other external
What is burning, and what is the fuel loading? buildings exposed to the fire? Should those
What types of hazardous materials may be exposures be protected before or subsequent
present? Are they involved in the existing fire? to attacking the existing fire? Are there inter-
Can they become involved if the fire extends? nal exposures that should be protected?
• Water Supply – How many hydrants are • Building Services Information – What type of
available, and where are they located? How heating fuels are used, where are they stored,
much fire flow is available? Are static water and where is the fuel shut off located? What is
supplies available for drafting? Must water the electrical system and where is the shut off?
be supplied by tankers? Is emergency lighting available? Does the
• Fire Fighting Resources. – How many engines HVAC system continue operation, shut off, or
and fire fighters are available? What other shift to an emergency mode of operation at
types of apparatus are present or available? detection? Can its operation be changed to
Where is the equipment now placed? Should help firefighting? Where are the controls and
they be relocated? If additional equipment how is it done? Are elevators in operation or is
will respond, where should they be placed? there a recall at detection? Is there a fireman’s
Are personnel needed for a primary search key for emergency use? What other building
and rescue or are they available for firefight- services information is available that would
ing? How many hose lines could we lay? What influence life safety or firefighting?
fire flow can be delivered internally and • Resource Augmentation. – Does standpipe
externally? water need to be augmented from the build-
78 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

ing’s fire department connection? Does the vent fire extension to threatened exposures out-
building have a sprinkler system at the fire side or within the building.
location? Would connection to the sprinkler Building and fire conditions may change over
Siamese enable the system to operate? Are time, requiring the fire ground commander to
additional alarms or mutual aid needed? alter tactics from an offensive mode to a defen-
sive mode.
The more information that is available, the
better the decisions can be made. However, as
the fire continues to burn, the conditions change. Locating the Fire
The fire companies will take initial actions in
accordance with a preconceived plan of opera- Although locating the fire may seem to be a triv-
tions and immediate needs before a size up is ial problem, the process is not as easy as it at first
completed. This plan will be modified by the may appear. Of course, small buildings do not
fire ground commander to reflect conditions that usually pose much difficulty. However, in large
are evident or that change during the course of or complicated buildings, finding the fire can be
the fire. Communications and the chain of com- time consuming and difficult. Dense smoke
mand become essential features in fire ground obscures visibility, and a fire often is located by
operations. In many instances, communication feeling the heat rather than by seeing the flames.
becomes the basis for the transmission of new Consequently, accurate information given to the
information about conditions inside the building fire officer can substantially reduce the time to
to the command post. agent application in a complicated building.
Communication is also crucial to the proper Accurate information on the fire location is
deployment of resources and to learn of the out- important not only to place the attack hose lines
comes of the actions taken (Till 2001). effectively, but also to become aware of potential
life safety or property protection concerns.

 anual Suppression Coordinated

M
Operations Establish a Continuous Water
Supply
While life safety may be the principal concern for
the fire ground commander, the focus of this Another part of the process that must be evalu-
chapter is on building evaluation for its ability to ated is the establishment of water to supply the
limit fire extension by manual suppression. attack lines. Engines will carry some water in
Manual suppression involves five coordinated their tanks. Often, the 500 or 750 gallons is suf-
operations. They are, ficient to provide enough water to extinguish a
smaller fire or to start a fire attack, before the fire
1. find the fire department connects to hydrants or provides
2. establish a water supply lay attack lines and other means for a continuous water supply.
3. initiate agent application to the fire
4. prevent extension of the fire to other spaces
5. extinguish the fire.  tandpipes: Minimizing Set
S
Up Time
Depending upon the size up, the fire ground
commander may employ an interior offensive Standpipe systems are piping systems that pro-
attack to extinguish the fire aggressively. vide fire hose stations for manual application of
Alternatively, the commander may select an water to fires in buildings. Standpipes are classi-
exterior or interior defensive procedure to pre- fied in three classes. For more advanced coverage
Class II Standpipe 79

of this topic, the reader is referred to Isman The pressure requirement for Class II, standpipes
(Isman 2016). is a water supply that will provide 65 psi residual
pressure with the required gpm flowing at the
highest outlet on the standpipe. Residual pressure
Class I Standpipe is the pressure reading on the gauge with the
required gpm flowing. (Residual pressure will be
This category of standpipe supplies 2–1/2″ hose discussed in Chap. 10.)
outlets at each floor level, usually located in A method commonly used in high rises to
stairtowers, for use by firefighters or those maintain operating pressure is to employ pres-
­(thoroughly) trained in handling heavy 2–1/2″ sure reducing valves (PRV’s). However they need
hose fire streams. These 2–1/2″ outlet hose valves to be set properly, as demonstrated by the One
furnish the firefighters with a hydrant at each Meridian Plaza fire (Philadelphia, PA) February
floor level, and an adequate water supply to pro- 23, 1991.
vide an effective hose stream for use during the
advanced stages of a fire. A live hose outlet at
each floor level installed in a fire-resistive stair- Class II Standpipe
tower to protect the fireman ascending to the fire
floor allows the fireman to carry dry hose up the A Class II standpipe system is one designed to
stairs in lieu of dragging a connected hose up the be used by the occupants of the building until
stairs. The fireman can control the flow of water the arrival of the fire department. It is some-
from the floor below the fire floor to reduce the times referred to as a small hose standpipe
possibility of fire involvement in the stairtower at because it supplies 1–1/2″ hose stations. Note
the point of hose connection when the stairtower hose stations, not hose valves, are supplied by
door is opened on the fire floor. a Class II standpipe system. It is extremely
dangerous to have 2–1/2″ hose station with
hose connected to the 2–1/2″ hose valves on a
Water Supply Class I standpipe. If untrained individuals
attempt to use the hose to fight a fire, they
Class I standpipes must have an adequate water could be seriously injured from the excessive
supply to furnish sufficient volume and pressure thrust produced by the flow of water under
for 2–1/2″ hose streams. The water supply for pressure. Handling 2–1/2″ hose streams is a
Class I standpipes must provide a minimum of job for trained firefighters; not a one man job.
500 gpm if only one standpipe is required, and Some city building codes require 2–1/2″ hose
250 gpm for each additional standpipe. For at each outlet to eliminate the need for firefighters
example, if a building requires four standpipes, to carry the hose up the stairs. Although a good
the watersupply must be capable of providing concept from the firefighters standpoint, there
1250 gpm. The total supply demand shall not should be some latitude for judgment because
exceed 2500 gpm, and based on the 500 gpm for there is always a good likelihood that an occu-
the first standpipe and 250 gpm for each succeed- pant could attempt to fight a fire with the 2–1/2″
ing standpipe, a maximum of nine standpipes. hose. The possibility of serious personal injury
and unnecessary heavy water damage may out-
weigh the benefit to the firefighters.
Pressure Requirements There is another important reason for not
furnishing 2–1/2″ hose. The 2 1/2″ hose outlets
The pressure requirement for Class I, and Class on the standpipe are usually (and should be)
III standpipes is a water supply that will provide located in a stairtower that is constructed to
100 psi residual pressure with the required gpm provide safe exit for occupants and a safe
flowing at the highest outlet on the standpipe. access to the fire floor for fire fighters. If an
80 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

occupant connects the 2–1/2″ hose to the hose system. This maximum pressure requirement is
valve and drags the hose through the stairtower especially important to safeguard the untrained
door to attempt to fight a fire in the building, occupant using a 1–1/2″ hose stream for the first
the hose will prop open the stairtower door time. Even with a 1–1/2″ hose, high pressure dis-
allowing smoke and heat to enter the stairtower charge in inexperienced hands can make control
which could make the stairtower impassable extremely difficult and dangerous. Standpipes
for occupants attempting to exit the building. that have a water supply that provides a standpipe
Even a small amount of smoke and heat in pressure in excess of 100 psi often occurs when a
an exit stairtower can cause disorientation of standpipe serves a multi-story building or is sup-
building occupants, which can contribute to
­ plied from a fire pump. To ensure a pressure of
death and injury as easily as fire. People com- 65 psi at the top-most outlet of 100 high building
ing down the stairs in the stairtower from the means that a pressure of at least 143 psi must be
upper floors may trip over the extended hose in provided at the first floor. Disregarding friction
their haste to escape. loss to transport water to the 100′ hose outlet and
One more consideration against placing a sup- merely adding the static pressure of 0.434 psi per
ply of 2–1/2″ hose by the 2 1/2″ hose valve is the foot which must be overcome to lift the water up
likelihood of an untrained occupant dragging the to the 100′ elevation. Pressure and flow will be
hose to the fire area in the building and, when he fully explained in Chap. 10.
opens the nozzle, the hose is whipped from his To reduce the various pressures at the hose
hands. In the confusion of a live hose crashing outlets on different floors to 100 psi or below,
about, the novice firefighter will run for the exit. special hose valve equipment must be installed.
By the time the fire department arrives, they are The simplest method is to install a pressure-
faced with a fully involved fire on the floor of fire reducing disc in the hose valve outlet. This disc
origin, a partially opened stairtower door on the consists of a brass plate with an orifice of a pre-
fire floor making access to the hose valve at that determined size drilled in the center. The pres-
floor level impossible, and a 2–1/2″ hose wasting sure reducing disc is quite efficient if the
water and reducing water supply volume and standpipe pressure is relatively constant because
pressure needed to combat the fire. the orifice size can be determined by a calcula-
tion of the standpipe pressure at the specific hose
outlet.
Water Supply Current state-of-the-art practice is to use a
hose valve that is not factory set for a specific
The water supply for Class II standpipe service pressure reduction, but that automatically adjusts
must be capable of supplying 100 gpm at the the inlet pressure to a safe outlet hose pressure.
highest outlet on the standpipe with a residual The Class II hose stations should not be
pressure of 65 psi with the 100 gpm flowing. A located in an exit stairtower: The obstruction the
Class II standpipe supplies the 1–1/2″ hose rack hose would present to people using the stair to
or hose rack in a cabinet, that are commonly exit the building, and the propped – open
found in commercial, industrial, and institutional stairtower door on the fire floor. The hose valve
facilities. These hose stations provide a means of referred to can be either an angle valve or straight-
controlling a fire in the early stage when used by way valve connected to piping from the stand-
the occupants of the building. pipe riser. This valve can be opened before the
hose is removed from the hose rack without emit-
ting water from the nozzle. The folds in the hose
Pressure Requirements prevent water from flowing until the last fold
comes off the rack. Water will then flow from the
One hundred psi is the maximum pressure nozzle unless it has a device to control the flow.
allowed at any hose valve outlet on a standpipe Some nozzles not only have an on-off control, but
Class III Standpipe 81

also a means of changing the flow from a straight potential to conduct an electrical current.
stream to a water-fog, and some of these combi- However, the voltage of the electric equip-
nation nozzles have a method of adjusting the ment and the closeness of the nozzle to the
water-fog pattern. The selection of a nozzle for equipment could produce an electrical shock
1–1/2″ hose is extremely important and must be to the hose operator.
based on a thorough evaluation of the hazard and The hose rack on which the hose is hung is
user. usually a semi-automatic type. The hose is hung
Improper application of a straight stream on pins, and it is released as the nozzle is pulled
hose discharge has the potential to spread the away from the rack.
combustion by scattering the burning material.
For example, when directing the stream from a
garden hose into a pocket of mud, the mud is 1–1/2″ Hose Stations
scattered in all directions. The same situation
will occur when an 1 1/2″ straight stream is Small fires can be extinguished with a small hose
directed onto burning combustibles like paper, before they grow into a major conflagration, or
trash, etc. For example: can be controlled until the fire department arrives.
An accidental flammable liquid spill that was Hose stations with 1–1/2″ hose for occupant use
ignited should never be fought with a straight may be a curse or a blessing. Time is the greatest
stream water discharge. Like the mud puddle, the ally of fire, and unless there is a water flow alarm
burning liquid will be scattered over a wide area. on a Class II standpipe that will automatically
With this fuel spill fire, a combination nozzle, alert the fire department and activate local alarms,
and an individual with some training in the use of there is always the possibility that an occupant
small hose firefighting, the fuel fire can be con- will not call the fire department right away. In an
trolled with the water spray nozzle adjustment. In attempt to fight a fire, they will not call until real-
addition, the straight stream nozzle adjustment izing it is beyond their ability to so do, and then
can provide a discharge onto material and equip- summon the fire department and alert other occu-
ment that is exposed to the radiant heat of the pants. Meanwhile, the fire has ample time to
combustion to maintain a temperature that will develop before the firefighters arrive or the alarm
prevent heat damage and/or prevent flammable is sounded.
liquid drums and tanks from exploding. These advantages and disadvantages must be
Some nozzles discharge only a very fine given serious consideration when a standpipe
spray pattern of tiny water droplets. This system is being evaluated.
water pattern is like an extremely heavy fog.
The spray pattern absorbs so much combus-
tion heat that a person can advance close to Class III Standpipe
even an intense fire without being overcome
by the heat. This fog pattern will not scatter The third standpipe system is called a combina-
the burning material, and the water droplets in tion standpipe and is classified as a Class III
changing to steam absorb sufficient heat to standpipe. The Class III standpipe system is a
control and extinguish the combustion. combination of a Class I and Class II standpipe.
Another important consideration is the pres- The Class III standpipe supplies both 2–1/2″ hose
ence of live electrical equipment. A solid outlets at each floor level in the stairtower, and
straight stream discharging onto electrical Class II 1–1/2″ hose stations located throughout
equipment, to especially high voltage equip- the building outside of the stairtower.
ment, can act like a wire and conduct the cur- On Class I and Class III standpipes it is some-
rent back to the nozzle and the user. Unlike times required, and always a good idea, to install a
the straight stream, discharge of the spray pat- 2–1/2″ by 1–1/2″ removable reducing coupling in
tern on electrical equipment does not have the the outlet of the 2–1/2″ fire department valve. With
82 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

this coupling, the fire department can connect their construction may remain dry or be converted to a
1–1/2″ hose or remove the coupling and connect standard wet standpipe when the construction is
their 2–1/2″ hose. The coupling is usually a pin lug enclosed, heated, and a water supply connection
type with two pins that fit the hole on a spanner complete.
wrench for quick removal of the coupling. When a dry, no water supply, standpipe is
installed, and rises several floors above the
pumper connection, a check valve should be
Standpipe Water Supply installed in the main supply line on the standpipe
system side of the pumper connection. With the
The water supply for standpipes can be furnished riser(s) full of water under a static head, or eleva-
by a connection to a city water main, through a tion pressure, the small clappers in the siamese
fire pump to boost the pressure, gravity tank, or connection cannot be expected to retain the water
pressure tank. If the supply is from a limited under pressure. When hoses are removed from
source – such as a tank in lieu of an unlimited the siamese, a backflow can result. The check
supply from a city water main-it must be of ade- valve can hold water in the riser(s) until it can be
quate capacity to furnish the total demand for at safely and conveniently drained off through a
least 30 min. drain valve installed on the standpipe system side
of the check valve.
An important feature which must be incorpo-
Types of Standpipes rated into wet standpipe design for all three
standpipe classes is a main control valve at the
There are two types of standpipe systems: a wet base of each standpipe riser, on the water supply
standpipe and a dry standpipe. Like wet sprinkler side of all hose outlets on each riser. This valve is
systems, a wet standpipe pipe is constantly full of used to control the water supply to each riser in
water under pressure and is used when the area is case of a break in the standpipe or if a hose that is
heated to prevent freezing. discharging has been abandoned because of some
There are two types of dry standpipe systems. unexpected firefighting condition, (as in the
One type is dry because it is not connected to any example of the occupant using a 2–1/2″ hose). A
permanent water supply. A standpipe with fire control valve on each riser gives the fire depart-
department 2–1/2″ hose valves at each floor level ment control of each standpipe riser if, for any
provides firefighters with an outlet when the fire reason, water volume and pressure is being
department pumper truck pumps water into the wasted. Another reason for this individual riser
standpipe riser(s) through a pumper connection control valve is that should a riser be down for
similar to the siamese connection on a sprinkler repairs, additions, or alterations, only that one
system. riser will be shut off and the others will remain in
The total demand for a standpipe being used by service and ready for immediate use.
the fire department may be more than a standard The second type of dry standpipe is also used
2–1/2″ × 2–1/2″ × 4 siamese connection can pro- in unheated buildings or stairtowers and is some-
vide. Depending on the size and number of stand- times referred to as a remote control fire hose
pipes, the fire department pumper connection on standpipe. Except under unusual circumstances,
either a wet or dry standpipe may have four 2–1/2″ the dry standpipe with no permanent water sup-
outlets manifolded into a 6″ supply pipe. ply should only be a Class I standpipe.
The dry standpipe without a permanent water The remote control dry standpipe system
supply is used in unheated areas, areas where the design is similar to the wet Class I, Class II, or
water supply is questionable, and buildings under Class III standpipe, but the piping is empty. The
construction where the pipe is exposed and could water is held back by a deluge valve installed in a
freeze or where the water supply is not completed warm area of the building or a heated valve
during construction. Dry standpipes used during house.
Types of Standpipes 83

A remote control fire hose station, like a break leaving the hose valve closed until the system
glass manual fire alarm station, is installed imme- fills with water and then opening the hose valve
diately adjacent to each hose station. Each of and removing the hose. Once the water reaches
these remote-control stations is connected to the the closed hose valve, the system is a wet pipe
release mechanism of the deluge valve, and water standpipe system.
fills the system when the manual station is
­activated. Some remote-control systems electri-
cally activate the deluge valve release mechanism, Hose Station Distribution
but to eliminate the possibility of power failure
making the standpipe system inoperative, several The distribution of hose stations is a matter of
manufacturers have developed pneumatic sys- engineering judgment. Hose stations should be
tems. Operation of a remote manual station located so that each section of the protected area,
releases compressed air which, in turn, trips the and all portions of each floor, are within 30′ of a
deluge valve and water fills the standpipe system. nozzle attached to 100′ of hose. Hose for use by
One dry standpipe system consists of remote occupants longer than 100′ becomes unwieldy,
control stations that function as follows: When could lead to twisted or kinked hose limiting the
the small glass window on the face of the remote flow, given the fact that all the hose must be
manual box is broken with a small hammer pulled off the rack before water will flow. This
(which is attached to the unit by a chain), a spring location of 1–1/2″ hose stations is a minimum
is released which operates a bellows sending an requirement, but the number of standpipes, loca-
air pressure impulse to the release mechanism of tion, and distribution of hose stations depends on
the deluge valve. occupancy, construction of the building, accessi-
If air tight hose valves are used on a dry stand- bility of hose outlets, and number of types of haz-
pipe system, it is possible to use a regular dry ards. The standpipe risers with 2–1/2″ hose
pipe valve to control the water supply with the outlets should be located where they will be pro-
piping filled with air under pressure. When a hose tected from mechanical and fire damage and
valve is opened, compressed air is released, and exposure, and readily accessible in a fire condi-
the dry pipe valve releases water to the system. tion with the center line of the hose outlet approx-
The remote station deluge valve system and the imately 2′–6″ above the floor.
dry pipe valve system standpipes introduce an Each occupant-use hose station should consist
element that is not encountered with a wet pipe of a 1–1/2″ hose valve supplied from the riser. An
standpipe. Once the dry system is activated by automatic drip drain must be installed at the hose
operation of a manual remote station or opening valve when linen hose is used to prevent any
a hose valve on the dry pipe valve system, there is leakage past the hose valve from entering the
a delay in water reaching the nozzle. This charg- hose. The hose nozzle may be a straightway pat-
ing period can produce some unusual hose action tern with no shut off valve and a 3/8″ orifice.
when it is suddenly pressurized with water. A test When the hose is pulled off the rack with the hose
conducted on a dry standpipe using remote sta- valve, open water will discharge. The hose should
tions (the spring and bellows) indicated that 11 s be rubber or Neoprene lined, as lined hose greatly
after activating the remote station 333′ from a 6″ reduces the friction loss, with an outside woven
deluge valve in the basement of the building, jacket. Unlined linen hose has been used quite
water was discharging from a 2–1/2 hose line. It extensively because it folds easier and fits into a
is obvious that water rushing through piping and smaller space, and initial cost is less than lined
into hose at a velocity of 30 per second or more hose. Unlined hose will mildew and rot if left
can create hose and nozzle reaction that could be damp or if stored in a damp atmosphere, and
dangerous, especially in inexperienced hands. If unless dried in a professional manner it is, in real-
an individual is knowledgeable of the operation ity, a one-shot use hose. Firefighters usually do
of the system, the remote station can be activated not know if the hose stations are stocked with
84 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

unlined hose that may crumble when pulled off With the advent of extensive use of hydraulic
the rack, or even lined hose that may be old and calculations for sprinkler systems in lieu of the
in an unreliable condition. In most cases they will pipe schedule sizing, it is recommended that
use their own 1–1/2″ hose. standpipe systems be afforded the same engineer-
If unlined linen hose is stored in a dry, heated ing status. By hydraulically calculating a stand-
atmosphere, it should last indefinitely, and for pipe system, the pipe sizes can usually be greatly
emergency use it is the most economical hose. reduced, but of more importance than this eco-
On a construction project to serve the hose out- nomic advantage is the fact that calculations will
lets of a standpipe that is installed as the building determine that the flow and pressure at each hose
construction progresses, and with no intent to use outlet will be adequate to meet requirements.
the unlined linen hose in the finished building Hose racks in buildings where appearance is a
hose cabinets, unlined linen hose will serve an factor, are usually stored in cabinets that are com-
excellent, economical, purpose. This hose is usu- pletely recessed in the wall with the door flush
ally constructed of 100% linen flax yarn to meet with the wall, or semi-recessed with 1–3″ extend-
Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing and Factory ing beyond the wall surface. Surface mounted
Mutual (FM) approval requirements, and it can cabinets are not recessed into the wall and are
be given a mildew treatment to retard mounted on the surface of the wall or in a
deterioration. column.
Most lined hose has a cover of cotton wrap When designing a standpipe system and locat-
with a Dacron or polyester filler, either single or ing hose cabinets, it may be necessary to recess a
double jacket. The lightweight polyester single cabinet in a wall that is rated to resist fire spread.
jacket, neoprene-lined (tube) can be used on pin Fire walls are constructed to prevent fire from
racks, and occupies only a little more room on the spreading from one area to another for a specified
rack than unlined linen hose. Some hose con- time. These rated walls enclose stairtowers to
struction like single jacket and double jacket con- protect people from the heat of a fire and smoke
sisting of cotton/polyester with a neoprene tube while they are exiting the building. Recessing a
lining cannot be folded to go on a pin rack and cabinet in a fire wall in effect creates a weak
must be stored on a hose reel or hump rack. A point in the fire wall. Should the thin metal cabi-
hump rack is a rack where the hose is piled in net be distorted by the heat of the fire, the cabinet
horizontally, one fold on top of the next. For can drop out of the fire wall and allow smoke and
many years, the size of the standpipe was gov- heat to pass through, involving personnel and
erned by the height of the standpipe as follows: material on the protected side of the fire wall.
If it becomes necessary to locate a recessed
(A) Standpipe not exceeding 75′ in height or cabinet in a fire wall, the wall can be extended
100′ in length, 4″ in size. around the back, top, and bottom of the cabinet.
(B) Standpipe in excess of 75′ or 100′ length, If the cabinet should be lost, the integrity of the
6″ in size. fire wall would not be destroyed.
(C) Standpipe height limit 275′ and when a The center line of a 1–1/2″ hose valve should
building is in excess of 275′, the standpipe be located 5′–6″ to 6′ above the finished floor, for
system will be zoned. (Standpipe zoning in ease of operation. Unless local conditions dictate
highrise buildings is explained at the end of a different arrangement, the hose valve is usually
this chapter.) an angle valve with a nipple, called a rack nipple,
which screws into the valve outlet and supports
Note that the sizing requirements use the the hose rack. The hose coupling connects to the
phrase, in height or length. A piping system sup- rack nipple. The hose rack swings on the rack
plying hose stations throughout a one-story build- nipple a full 90°, and this operating distance,
ing is also referred to as a standpipe system. combined with the cabinet door swing of 170° (to
Types of Standpipes 85

give full and unobstructed access to the hose rack the hose folded horizontally under a waterproof
in the cabinet), must be considered in designing cover that unlatches and lifts up on hinges.
the location of racks and cabinets. Some hose
cabinets are sized to accommodate both the
1–1/2″ hose and a separate 2–1/2″ hose valve. Standpipe Zoning
Also available are cabinets for individual 2–1/2″
hose valves. The maximum height for standpipe systems is
275′, and when a standpipe must exceed this
height, the system must be zoned. A zone signi-
Roof Hose Stations fies the upper and lower levels of a building
served by standpipes. When zoning a standpipe,
Some building codes require hose outlets on the 275′ is maximum height, but the zones may be
roof of a building to provide firefighters with a less than 275′.
hose outlet to fight roof fires ignited by embers An example would be a building 355′ in
from an exposed fire, a fire in an elevator, or height. The lower level, or zone, could be 275′,
mechanical penthouse, or to direct water to a fire with the upper level of 80′, but a more equal zon-
in an adjoining building. These roof outlets- ing would be a lower zone of 200′ and an upper
known as roof manifolds-consist of two or three zone of 155′. If the two zones had exceeded 550′,
2–1/2″ hose valves with caps over the openings the building standpipe system would have been
to prevent foreign matter from falling into the extended to three zones. In the two-zone exam-
valve. The supply for these roof manifolds is a 4″, ple, the lower zone would have been a standard
6″, and 8″ extension above the roof of the stand- standpipe arrangement, with the possibility of a
pipe riser. Since wet standpipes and the hose gravity tank at the top of the zone supplying the
manifolds are exposed to the weather and subject lower zone standpipes.
to freezing, an indicating control valve is installed The upper zone standpipes would be fed by
at hand height in a heated area at the floor level express risers or risers that do not supply water to
below the roof and opened when the roof mani- any system below the base of the upper zone
fold is used. An automatic drain is installed on standpipes. The upper zone standpipes may also
the roof monitor side of the control valve to make have the additional supply of a gravity tank. Due
sure the pipe and roof monitor remain dry when to the excessive height of both of these zones, a
the control valve is used. fire pump will undoubtedly be required to pro-
The roof manifolds are 2–1/2″ hose valves vide sufficient pressure to overcome the static
because they are hydrants on the roof for use by (elevation) pressure loss and still furnish 65
the firefighters. If there is a possibility of fires at pounds at the topmost standpipe outlet. In the
the roof elevation that could be controlled or example, the topmost outlet of the upper level is
extinguished by building occupants or a company 355′ above the supply, and it would take 154 psi
fire brigade, roof hose storage cabinets are avail- just to raise the water to this height. This is one
able for 1–1/2″ hose. These roof hose stations are reason for the gravity tank above the standpipe
supplied from piping on the ceiling of the floor zone elevation to maintain positive pressure on
below, but instead of controlling the supply to the the system.
roof hose station from the floor below the roof, Each zone of high rise zoned standpipe sys-
the valve is installed in the piping on the ceiling tems requires a separate siamese connection.
below the roof. The handle of the valve extends According to conditions, one fire pump may sup-
through the roof and into the roof hose cabinet. ply the lower zone in the example and the lower
The drain valve is installed like the handle, also zone gravity tank, and the second fire pump
extended into the hose cabinet. The cabinets con- located at the bottom of the upper zone takes its
tain 100′ of 1–1/2″ lined, hose and nozzle, with suction from the lower zone gravity tank. This
86 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

arrangement prevents the upper zone from having has activated sprinkler heads. Each sprinkler
to overcome an additional 87 psi static pressure to supply from the riser at each floor is provided
get the water to this elevation. For multiple zones, with a paddle-type flow switch on the system
additional pumps for the upper zones will be side of each floor control valve. It is also neces-
required. These pumps are located at the base of sary to test the individual flow switches and, in
the higher zones. The lower pumps supply water addition to the drain, a test valve must be pro-
to the gravity tanks, and the upper zone pumps vided. The combination drain and test line with
take suction from the gravity tanks. drain and test valves can be piped as follows: A
restricted orifice giving the flow access to one
sprinkler head to operate the flow switch must
 ombined Standpipe and Sprinkler
C be installed in the test line. There are devices
Riser available that combine the drain and test in one
single element, and these can minimize the
Regulations allow a single riser pipe to supply space required to individually pipe the drain
both sprinklers, hose stations, and 2–1/2″ hose and test.
outlets. Additional equipment is required for Standpipe systems provide adequate equip-
each floors sprinkler supply coming from the ment to combat fires in different stages of growth.
riser such as a control valve, drain, and test con- The small hose stations give occupants the maxi-
nection. The combination sprinkler and stand- mum opportunity to provide help in a fire emer-
pipe riser installed in the stairtower supplies the gency, and 2–1/2″ outlets provide firefighters
2–1/2″ fire department valve at each floor level. If with effective equipment to combat a fire that has
1–1/2″ hose stations are required – although they reached major proportions. Standpipe systems
are usually not required when the building is must be designed based on a complete study and
totally sprinklered – the supply for these hose sta- evaluation of all facets of the structure, occu-
tions can be piped from the riser throughout the pancy, hazards, and personnel. Standpipe sys-
area. tems are not a substitute for sprinkler systems,
but they can be a tremendous complement to
automatic protection systems.
Water Supply

The supply for sprinklers is obtained from the Set Up Time: Firefighting Tasks
riser at each floor. This supply to sprinklers at
each floor must be controlled by an indicating Research identified tasks that needed to be
type control valve. completed to set up a water supply from a fire
Should the sprinkler system on one floor of hydrant – all shown to correspond not to Normal
the building have to be repaired or remodeled, it (bell shaped) distributions, but to skewed, log-
will only be necessary to shut down this one normal distributions, as show in Fig. 8.2 below.
floor system, leaving the balance of the sprin- This is not surprising since tasks involving
kler and standpipe systems in service. With the humans tend to take this form (Till 2001). It
water supply valve shut, but the piping full of should be noted that since the tasks are skewed
water, it is necessary to provide a drain valve on it is very likely that the probability of overall
the system side of the floor control valve. This attack time will be skewed as well, and that
drain valve must be connected to a drain line to summing up bell shaped distributions will not
discharge the system water to a safe location. In in all likelihood produce a valid response
most high-rise buildings, a sprinkler water flow distribution.
alarm is necessary at each floor so the fire A method of summing these times is known as
department can locate the floor where the fire Discrete Event Simulation (DES). This method
Size of a Fire that Can Be Extinguished 87

allows the simulation of water supply setup tens Interior Attack

of thousands of times, even millions of times, and
therefore the development of overall curves for a A routine procedure can be developed to deter-
setup for a particular fire. In time this could be mine the time to lay fire attack lines along a spec-
adapted for internal attack, but the data is not yet ified route within a structure and to coordinate
available. The use of helmet mounted cameras that operation with supply water establishment.
(Gopro etc.), and the understanding that this is The creation of such an analytical method that
NOT a competition will make this data easier to incorporates fire service experience to predict the
collect over time. fire size at the time of initial water application
will provide such benefits as,

Set Up Time: Firefighter Factors • numerical measures that allow local firefight-
ing resources to compare building designs.
Many factors will influence the time it takes for • fire department development of site specific
firefighters to set up water supplies and apply operational planning for available local
attack water. These include: resources and conditions.
• Low water • security • ignorance of • comparison of design alternatives to give the
pressure condition local fire authorities additional ways to com-
• Unfamiliar • no windows • arson municate with owners, architects and other
neighborhood
governmental agencies about the effect of spe-
• icy weather • remote • poor
location construction
cific building features on fire suppression and
• false alarm • no water • not enough occupant safety.
men • the evaluation of potential heat and smoke
• bad • dangerous • firefighter damage for a particular building design.
equipment chemicals deaths • fire service participation in the global move-
• obsolete • potential for • firefighter ment toward performance-based building
equipment explosion injury
• unfamiliar • poor training • unfamiliar
codes with a rational, analytical method to
area command assure that its “value added” to structural fire
safety is properly recognized and an integral
Changes in any of these factors can change the part of the process.
overall response to a fire.

 ize of a Fire that Can

S
 et Up Time: Location of Fire
S Be Extinguished
Within a Structure
After the fire size at first water application can be
If the presence of fire is not known, it cannot be estimated with some degree of confidence, the
responded to. Detection of fire may be non-triv- next consideration is the relationship between
ial for a variety of reasons, but in most situa- fire size, available suppression resources, and the
tions, it means that heat or the products of selection of offensive or defensive attack modes.
combustion (smoke) are discovered. It may be These tactics will influence the water require-
non-trivial because our sensor (detector) is ments for control and extinguishment.
blocked from the fire, or that the products of “Engine and Ladder companies work together:
combustion have characteristics that are difficult the ladder men begin ventilation as soon as the
to detect. Both of these situations will lead to hose line is charged (i.e. water is up to the nozzle
longer detection times. and ready to be applied). If ventilation occurs too
88 8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression

Fig. 8.2 Typical Firefighter Task – note the lognormal (not bell curve) shape of the distribution

soon, the air that is introduced will accelerate the Table 8.1 Number of hoses put into operation
fire (Warren et al. 1979) Firefighting in high-rise Hose size 1.5” 1.75” 2.5”
buildings is especially difficult for four reasons: 2nd Flr. 2 2 2
4th Flr. 2 2 2
1. Aerial ladders will not reach beyond about 8th Flr 2 1 1
nine stories: as a result, above these levels, the
fire must be fought from the inside. Table 8.2 Largest fire controlled by one hose stream
2. Complete evacuation of occupants is not fea-
1.5″ line 850 sq. ft
sible (therefore, provision for safety and life 1.75″ line 1420 sq. ft
support systems must be made within the 2.5″ line 1350 sq. ft
building).
3. Chimney or stack effects in tall buildings
require provision for the control of smoke and This information is based on a survey of 27
products of combustion fire departments. The 2.5″ may be lower due to
4. Fixed windows make ventilating the fire floor mobility issues.
difficult:

References
Average First Alarm Crews
Isman, Kenneth E. Standpipe Systems for Fire Protection.
Springer, 2016.
Menke (Menke 1994) provides the following infor- Callery, James. “Building Evaluation for Manual
mation on the number of hoses that can be put into Suppression.” Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 1996.
operation and the size of fire in square feet that can Menke, Ken. Predicting Effectiveness of Manual
be extinguished with each hose line. For Table 8.1: Suppression. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 1994.
Till, Robert. “A Building Evaluation Technique for
the question was “how many hose lines can effec- Fire Department Suppression.” PhD Dissertation.
tively be put into operation for a high rise building”. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 2001.
For Table 8.2: the question was “for a ceiling Warren, Walker et al. Fire Department Deployment
height of 8′ to 10′, what is the largest fire that can be Analysis – a Public Policy Analysis Case Study.
New York: Elsevier North Holland, Inc., 1979.
controlled and extinguished, by square footage?”
 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types
9

this section, since the water supply and under-

Water Agent Suppression Systems ground part of the system are covered in other
sections.
There is nothing new in the world, it has often The purpose of a sprinkler system is twofold:
been said: The same basic elements and concepts detection and extinguishment. Detection is
are merely used in different ways. This holds true accomplished when a sprinkler head fuses and
for the wet pipe sprinkler system in the use of water flows in the system, which activates a water
water as the agent in fire protection. All other flow alarm device which, in turn, activates the
automatic fire protection systems using water as alarm system. The discharge from the fused
the suppression agent have evolved from the wet sprinkler head provides the fire suppression.
pipe system. The wet pipe system has been Extinguishment is obviously with water. Wet
adapted to specific requirements and environ- pipe sprinkler system piping is constantly and
ments, therefore, a thorough understanding of completely filled with water under pressure, and
this system is the foundation on which to build when the sprinkler head is heated by a fire condi-
basic knowledge of other systems using water as tion to the pre-set temperature, the fusible ele-
the fire suppression agent. After explaining the ment releases the cap which encloses the water
wet pipe system, this chapter will describe other orifice, and water is immediately discharged onto
systems in common use today: dry pipe sprinkler the fire. This is one very important advantage of
systems, pre-action systems, deluge systems, a wet pipe system—there is no delay in automati-
and water spray systems. cally applying extinguishing water after the
sprinkler head has determined that the fire is of a
magnitude requiring immediate suppression.
Wet Pipe Sprinkler System The piping in a wet pipe sprinkler system is
sized to supply water, at the required volume and
The definition of a wet pipe sprinkler system in pressure, to a pre-determined number of heads.
the National Fire Protection Standard 13 (2016) The number of heads anticipated to operate in a
reads: “A sprinkler system employing automatic fire condition is based on studies and calcula-
sprinklers attached to a piping system containing tions of the fire spread in various occupancies
water and connected to a water supply so that and types of buildings. Chapter 10, Hydraulic
water discharges immediately from sprinklers Calculations, shows how the pressure at each
opened by heat from a fire”. The wet pipe sprin- sprinkler head is affected as more and more
kler system above ground is the consideration in sprinkler heads become operable and their

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 89

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_9
90 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

combined flow demands more and more water clapper (2) and flows through the alarm port (3).
from the supply source through the supply pip- When the retard chamber is filled, (4) water flows
ing to the operating heads. to the water motor alarm (5) and/or the optional
If the fire should gain unanticipated headway, pressure switch (6) which signals an alarm bell.
and the fire area extends beyond the anticipated, or The wet pipe sprinkler system’s strength lies
calculated, area of fire spread, more sprinklers will in the fact that water is poised and ready to
operate than anticipated and more water will flow strike at the small fire, ready to shower its heat-
than the piping was designed to handle. As a result, absorbing, smothering, droplets of water
pressure will drop, decreasing the individual sprin- directly on the heart of the potentially destruc-
kler head discharge. With less pressure, the dis- tive combustion before the fire can intensify and
charge pattern will not be within the design spread.
parameters of the sprinkler heads. The extinguish- Time is the greatest ally of a fire, which it
ing efficiency of the sprinklers that are operating in needs as badly as it needs fuel and oxygen. The
the fire area will drop below 100% of design crite- wet pipe system eliminates this time element by
ria and continue to drop every time another head its speed in applying extinguishing water when
operates outside of the anticipated area of spread. the heat from the fire has reached the demand-for-
As shown in Fig. 9.1, when a sprinkler (1) attention point and actuated the sprinkler head
opens, the discharging water lifts the alarm valve directly over the fire.

Fig. 9.1 Wet pipe

sprinkler valve.
(Courtesy of the Viking
Corporation)
Wet Pipe Sprinkler System 91

Advantages and Disadvantages means more time for a pipe and water tempera-
ture differential to take effect, more time for
Before examining the components that comprise chemical reactions to materialize, and more time
a complete wet pipe system, the advantages and for the corrosion process to have a maximum
disadvantages of this system should be impact.
evaluated.
The major advantage of a wet pipe system is
that piping is constantly filled with water under Wet Pipe System Alarm
pressure for fast discharge on a fire. The disad-
vantage is that the system can only be used to When a sprinkler head is actuated and water dis-
protect areas where the temperature does not fall charges through the head, the sprinkler system
below the freezing point. Only when a sprinkler has met two of the three required functions:
head is open and discharging is there any flow of detection and fire extinguishment or control. The
water in the piping, which makes this system third vital function is alarm.
very susceptible to freezing. A fire has been detected, and within the design
The fact that the water in the piping has no parameters of the system, fire control has been
movement, except when the system is in an oper- initiated. As in any emergency, personnel are
ational condition, helps prevent corrosion from never sure whether or not their capabilities will
building up in the piping. Corrosion occurs when meet the circumstances, and so they cry for help.
a constant or occasional water flow passes In the case of the sprinkler system it may only be
through piping. (Corrosion in sprinkler piping is the need for the use of a hand extinguisher to
a saboteur working for the fire. It silently reduces snuff out the persistent fire under an obstruction
the water passage area within the pipe by build- that prevents sprinkler water from reaching the
ing up on the walls of the pipe, thereby cutting combustion zone. Or due to conditions that were
down on the amount of water that can pass not anticipated when the system was designed
through the pipe to the sprinkler head.) and installed, the sprinkler discharge can only
In a wet pipe system, corrosion on the walls of hold an intense fire in check. In many cases, the
the pipe is usually minimal since the volume of professional assistance of firefighters with hose
available corrosion chemicals in the water streams may be the only answer to complete
remains constant with no fresh supply of chemi- extinguishment.
cal available from flowing water. The tempera-
ture of the pipe and water assume identical levels
in a relatively short time after initial installation Water Damage
and remain simultaneously constant. A change in
room temperature between pipe and water will Consideration must also be given to water dam-
accelerate the deposit of scale or corrosion on the age. With a wet pipe system, the water discharge
walls of pipe, but the stagnant water in a wet pipe commences immediately upon head actuation,
system maintains a relatively constant pipe and which may eliminate an incipient fire within a
water temperature, varying only if the room tem- few minutes, but the water continues to flow. At
perature changes. the rate of 15–30 gallons per minute, a few min-
As corrosion builds up on the walls of the utes can mean a lot of water discharged and sub-
pipe, the smooth surface gives way to roughness sequently a great deal of damage to an
which, in turn, creates small eddies and turbu- occupancy.
lence as the water flows through the pipe. This Sprinkler system alarm and life safety are
turbulence slows water down, decreasing veloc- inseparable in every type of occupancy, but par-
ity of the water measured in feet-per-second ticularly where life safety takes precedence over
(FPS) and allows additional pipe-surface/water- property protection. The sound of a sprinkler
surface contact time. A slowdown of the water alarm not only demands attention in the fire area,
92 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

but also initiates emergency procedures through- diameter is 1–1/4″ to 1–3/8″ (depending on manu-
out a facility. Where the lives of incapacitated or facturer), and for larger pipe sizes the hole is
restrained individuals are at stake, all the respon- 1–7/8″ to 2–1/8″ in diameter (again depending on
sibility cannot be delegated to the ability of the the manufacturer).
sprinkler system; the alarm it has sounded is Clearance around the pipe is required to allow
merely an indication that there is serious trouble free movement of the vane or paddle.
and that the system will do its best to provide the When the unit consisting of vane and alarm
time necessary to perform orderly emergency switches is properly located with the vane in the
procedures. pipe and expanded, the unit is bolted to the pipe
with a U bolt and tightened to ensure a leakproof
seal over the hole.
Initiating the Alarm Any flow equal to one sprinkler head dis-
charging will actuate the vane-type water flow
There are two basic methods for the initiation of detector. On some wet pipe systems this one-
an alarm when a fire has automatically changed a head-flow-detection is expanded to include not
dormant wet pipe system into a dynamic fire only the flow from any head on the system, but
fighter, and both of these methods use the most also to pinpoint which sprinkler line or which
obvious feature, flow of water, in this status section of the sprinkler system is in an operating
change. The two methods are water flow indica- condition. In addition to the water flow indicator
tor and the alarm valve. installed on the main supply pipe, water flow
indicators may be installed on a cross main sup-
plying a section of the building, or even on indi-
Water Flow Indicator vidual sprinkler branch lines supplying but a few
sprinkler heads.
A water flow indicator of the paddle or vane type By installing these sectional or zoned water
utilizes a flexible vane of thin metal or plastic. A flow indicators, the exact area, or zone, where a
hole is drilled in either the horizontal or vertical sprinkler head has operated will be indicated on
sprinkler pipe that supplies all of the sprinkler an alarm panel, thus eliminating the search for
piping and sprinkler heads on the system. Then which area of the system a head has actuated and
the flexible vane is rolled up and inserted into the is flowing. In a large office building or institution
hole. After the rolled vane is entirely through the containing a multitude of small rooms, or in a
hole it unrolls or expands to its original shape, multi-story building, the time lost in locating the
completely filling the pipe with the exception of operating sprinkler head can be very costly to life
a small working clearance between the vane safety, water damage, or fire control. Practical
perimeter and the inside pipe circumference. examples sometimes help in evaluation of such
The stem of this vane is connected to a an explanation. For example:
mechanical linkage which is encased in a cover.
When there is a flow of water in the pipe the vane Scenario 1 Imagine that a six-story hospital
is deflected, and the vane-stem actuates mechani- with 50 patient rooms on each of four stories and
cal linkage which, in tum, makes an electrical the two remaining floors occupied by hospital
contact. The vane’s flexibility prevents the support facilities such as operating rooms, stor-
obstruction of water flow in the pipe, and when age rooms, and mechanical rooms, is completely
the flow ceases the vane returns to its original sprinkled by a wet pipe sprinkler system with a
horizontal position. vane-type flow indicator installed on the pipe
The size of the hole that is drilled in the sprin- which supplies the entire system. An alarm bell
kler pipe to admit the vane is dependent upon the and light installed in the hospital telephone
pipe size. For pipe sizes 3″ and under, the hole switchboard room and wired to the electrical
Initiating the Alarm 93

contacts on the water flow indicator will be program, but an additional device is wired to the
­actuated by a flow of water from any sprinkler water flow detector alarm panel. An alarm trans-
head anywhere on the entire system. mitter which, when actuated, automatically trans-
mits a signal over leased public telephone lines to
It is 2 a.m. and the telephone operator is star- a receiver in the fire station or fire alarm head-
tled by the fire alarm bell. She is a trained and quarters. This alarm receiver is marked for the
experienced individual who immediately con- facility it serves-Memorial Hospital Fire Alarm
tacts the fire department to report a fire at in this example. When this receiver is actuated,
Memorial Hospital! But where does she direct the fire department knows exactly where a sprin-
the fire department when it arrives? There have kler system is operating.
not been any in-house calls to report smoke or Every sprinkler system water supply is subject
water, and the security and maintenance crew to water surges. This is a term which is self-
that were the second parties to be alerted, have explanatory. A wet pipe system is a tightly closed
begun a floor-by-floor search but have not piping system. When the system installation is
reported to the switchboard any positive results complete, and the water is forced into the system,
of their search. Time at this point is on the side of some air is trapped in the ends of the lines where
the fire condition. it is compressed by the water until the pressure of
this small amount of air equals the water pres-
Scenario 2 Now consider the same hospital and sure. When there is a sudden pressure surge on
the same 100% sprinkler protection with one sig- the supply main, such as an additional pump cut-
nificant difference. Each supply main that ting in on the city water system, a large flow of
branches off the supply risers at every floor to water downstream of the sprinkler system on the
supply the sprinklers on that individual floor are city water main supplying the sprinkler system is
equipped with a water flow indicator. Now when suddenly stopped by the rapid closing of a valve.
the bell alerts the switchboard operator and a This excess pressure seeks the area of least resis-
light on the annunciator is lighted behind the tance, and since water is not compressible, the
Floor-5 window, she will call the fire department excess water pressure further compresses the
and report-a fire, 5th floor, Memorial Hospital. trapped air causing a momentary flow of water in
The security and maintenance crews can be the sprinkler piping. This momentary flow will
immediately sent to the 5th floor. Time is now on deflect the water flow indicator vane, operate the
the side of the sprinkler system and the mechanical linkage, and the electrical alarm
firefighters. switch makes contact, and activates the alarm
system. Since these water surges can occur with
What has been described in Scenario 2 is a some frequency, especially on a city water sys-
local sprinkler alarm. In Scenario 1, the bell alerts tem, this could mean many fire alerts and with a
personnel on the premises, and someone calls the remote alarm system the frequent rolling of the
fire department. The human element is the weak municipal fire equipment. False alarms can be
link in this chain, and in a life safety situation, the more dangerous than no alarm at all, since the old
need for professional help – the firefighters – is a cry wolf can destroy the time advantage by wait-
vital element. With a local sprinkler alarm, the ing to check and see if it is a false alarm before
human link can be eliminated and the fire depart- alerting personnel and the fire department.
ment summoned automatically when a sprinkler To control this unavoidable danger, water flow
head operates, the flow of water begins, and the indicators are equipped with a retard feature.
water flow indicator actuates. This retard feature literally retards the transmis-
The local alarm is not eliminated because the sion of the electrical signal to the alarm system,
personnel at the facility must be alerted to a fire and although it is factory-set, it can be adjusted in
condition, so they can take all available first aid the field after installation. The retard element can
firefighting measures and initiate an evacuation usually be adjusted for a 0–70 s delay, which
94 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

means the alarm signal can be transmitted the head on the system must pass through the alarm
instant the vane is deflected, or the alarm signal valve.
transmission can be delayed for up to 70 s after All alarm valves are different in some respect,
the vane is deflected by a water flow. but the basic design and function of all alarm
This retard must have an instant recycling fea- valves is identical. The alarm valve body is cast
ture so that a sequence of flows, each of less dura- iron with standard flanged or grooved connec-
tion than the predetermined retard period, will tions. It contains a clapper similar to a check
not have a cumulative effect. For example: valve, with a rubber or neoprene seat where it
A 30-s retard is actuated by a water pressure surge. makes contact with the bronze water passage
Fifteen seconds into the retard, another surge opening.
occurs and now there is an accumulative retard of Being a wet pipe system, the piping and alarm
45 s. Fifteen seconds later, another pressure surge valve are completely filled with water, and the
occurs and now there is an accumulative retard of
75 s. With the instant recycling feature, the first pressure will be equal on the top and bottom, sup-
retard time remaining would have been canceled ply and system side of the clapper position. If
when the second surge occurred causing a new water surges have occurred which force excess
30 s retard, and so on with the subsequent surges. pressure through the alarm valve compressing the
Adjusting the retard must be accomplished by
experienced personnel with the approval of the air in the sprinkler line piping, the clapper will
authorities having jurisdiction, but the instant recy- open momentarily to admit the excess pressure,
cling feature must always be specified when a flow and the close again when the surge recedes, trap-
switch is part of the specification. ping the higher pressure on the system side of the
clapper. For this reason, there are two different
pressure gauge readings on an alarm valve. One
Alarm Valve gauge monitors water pressure on the supply side
of the alarm valve clapper, and the other monitors
The water flow indicator functions electrically. rate pressure on the system side of the alarm
Therefore, if there is a power failure and the facil- valve clapper. This difference is not objection-
ity does not have a back-up power system or the able since it holds the clapper in the closed posi-
alarm system is not equipped with a battery back- tion and prevents the possibility of false alarms.
up, a flow of water in the sprinkler system will This will become clear in further examination of
not produce an alarm. Primarily through the the alarm valve function. When a sprinkler head
influence of insuring interests, with their concern opens and allows water to discharge, there is a
for property protection and their fear of excessive steady flow of water through the alarm valve
water damage from undetected sprinkler dis- which raises the clapper. While the clapper is in
charge, most wet pipe systems are equipped with the closed position, it seals off an opening to the
an alarm valve. alarm line. When the clapper raises, the water
The alarm valve, often referred to as a glori- pressure forces water into this small alarm line
fied check valve, is a special check valve with pipe opening. This feature separates the alarm
water flow detecting capabilities. This device not valve from the standard check valve, and justifies
only detects flow, but can operate a mechanical calling this piece of equipment an alarm check
local alarm, a water motor alarm, or activate an valve.
electrical alarm device. A slight amount of excess pressure on the sys-
The alarm valve is installed in the main sprin- tem side of the alarm valve clapper diminishes
kler supply line close to the point where the the chance that the clapper will raise with a surge
underground water supply enters the building. of supply pressure and expose the alarm line
The alarm valve is installed in the pipe that opening. This momentary raising of the clapper
supplies water to the entire sprinkler system so will occur from time to time, and water will be
that a flow of water from any operating sprinkler admitted to the alarm line, so provisions must be
Initiating the Alarm 95

made to prevent false alarms. Like the water flow Retard Chamber
indicator, alarm actuation must be retarded to
prevent false alarms. System water pressure transmitted through the
alarm line is the force which operates both the
mechanical and electrical alarm devices on a wet
Water Motor Alarm pipe sprinkler system. The next device which
warrants consideration is the retard chamber
The water that enters the alarm line, although a which prevents water surges from producing
small stream, has the same pressure as the sprin- false alarms.
kler system water supply, and this pressure is The alarm line runs from the alarm valve to
used to operate a mechanical water motor alarm. the retard chamber and from the outlet on the
This alarm device consists of a paddle wheel in a retard chamber to the water motor alarm and/or
sealed housing. The pressurized water stream the electric pressure switch. The retard chamber
from the alarm line discharges against the fins or is merely a holding tank, having a capacity of
paddles of the water wheel and mechanically approximately two gallons. The inlet to the retard
turns the center shaft on which the paddle wheel chamber is through a restricted orifice approxi-
is mounted. On the other end of this shaft is mately 5/16″ in diameter attached to the 3/4″
mounted a striker which when rotated within a alarm line from the alarm valve. This orifice
metal bell casing continuously strikes or rings the restricts or slows down the volume of water
bell. which the water pressure in the alarm line can
The water motor, or paddle wheel, is usually force through the opening and into the retard
installed on the inside wall of a building with the chamber. In other words, it restricts the flow of
shaft extending through the wall in a shaft sleeve, water to the retard chamber.
and the bell mounted on the exterior side of the The retard chamber must completely fill with
wall. This is strictly a local alarm for the wet pipe water before it can discharge through a 3/4″
system, and the efficiency of the water motor as an opening at the top of the chamber. Water contin-
alarm is only as great as its sound range, and per- ues on through the alarm line to actuate the water
sonnel within that sound range. It is a back-up, a motor and/or force the diaphragm in the presence
simple, reliable, mechanical, water flow indicating switch to deflect. This makes an electrical contact
alarm. If it is required, or desired, to supplement to complete a circuit, light lights, ring bells, or
this local alarm with an electrically operated water actuate a transmitter to automatically conduct a
flow alarm, a device known as a pressure switch is signal to a remote alarm. When the wet pipe
also used in conjunction with, or in lieu of the sprinkler system is subject to abnormally large
water motor alarm, if approved by the authorities water surges, it may be necessary to install two
having jurisdiction. retard chambers in tandem. The 3/4″ outlet at the
top of the primary retard chamber is piped into
the drain opening in the bottom of the secondary
Pressure Switch retard chamber, and the outlet to the alarm
devices is connected to the alarm line at the top of
The pressure switch on an alarm valve is also the secondary chamber. Both retard chambers
activated by water pressure transmitted through must completely fill with water before the water
the alarm line. This pressure acts on a diaphragm pressure can be transmitted to the alarm devices.
in the pressure switch, forcing it to move and thus At the base or bottom of the retard chamber is
make electrical contact. The details of the pres- a small 1/8″ restricted orifice drilled into a 3/4″
sure switch will be further described in the sec- drain line. If a water surge has passed water into
tion on alarm devices. the alarm line and thence to the retard chamber,
96 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

and has half filled the chamber by the time the sure. If this bleed-off arrangement is not provided,
alarm valve clapper resets and shuts off the alarm and a water motor alarm (which bleeds-off pres-
water, the water in the retard chamber will drain sure) is not installed, an automatic air vent on the
out slowly through the 1/8″ restricted orifice into retard chamber must be installed.
the 3/4″ drain pipe (which is usually connected to
the main drain pipe from the alarm valve).
There are retard chambers with more sophisti- Alarm Valve Trim
cated entry and drain mechanisms. The retard
chamber with a clapper and mechanical linkage The standard trim for an alarm valve consists of
arrangement is one example. When water is two pressure gauges to monitor supply and sys-
introduced into the retard chamber from the tem water pressure, and each gauge is equipped
alarm line, it forces a small clapper to open the with a small (usually 1/4″) control valve so that a
inlet waterway, and the clapper (being connected deflective gauge may be replaced without dis-
by an arm to a diaphragm) automatically closes turbing the entire system. Each pressure gauge
the drain opening. When the water pressure on line has a 1/4″ plug which can be removed, pro-
the alarm line is relieved by the alarm valve clap- viding an opening for an inspector to install his
per resetting and closing the alarm line outlet, the pressure gauge to check the accuracy of the
retard chamber inlet clapper resets due to a spring installed gauges.
mechanism and subsequently releases pressure Taking suction from the supply side of the
on the drain diaphragm. This, in tum, opens the alarm valve clapper is a small alarm test line
drain opening and the false alarm water in the piped through a bypass test valve, which is nor-
retard chamber drains off into the drain line. mally closed and only used for testing the alarm
If the alarm system consists of a retard cham- system. It is then piped to the retard chamber. The
ber and pressure switch only, it will be necessary inspector can open this bypass test valve and
to bleed-off the air in the retard chamber since the actuate the alarm system with a simulated flow
pressure switch is connected to the 3/4″ outlet from the alarm line. The retard chamber can also
from the top of the retard chamber. The entire be removed for repair or replacement without
complex, with water covering the chamber drain shutting off the system water supply by installing
opening, is air-tight. As the water rises in the an indicating control valve, which visually indi-
chamber, the air will be compressed until it cates the open and closed position between the
reaches the pressure of the water. At this point alarm line opening under the alarm valve clapper
of equalization, no more water will enter the and the retard chamber.
chamber. The pressure switch has a very tiny air- The wet pipe system main drain is connected
compensating vent which, under normal condi- to an opening in the alarm valve body above the
tions, maintains an equal air pressure on both clapper and is piped through an angle control
sides of the electric contact diaphragm. This com- valve to discharge through the building wall to
pensating vent may not bleed off enough air pres- the atmosphere or to an open floor drain, roof
sure to prevent this air/water pressure equalization, drain, or other discharge receptacle that can
and this can very possibly prevent the diaphragm accept the discharge flow. The main drain can be
from receiving sufficient alarm water pressure to of more importance than merely draining off the
deflect sufficiently to make the electric alarm con- system water when it becomes necessary to make
tact. The water pressure acting on the diaphragm repairs to the system. The same holds true when
is necessary to cause sufficient movement for a the area protected by the system will be subject to
positive electrical contact. To alleviate this condi- freezing temperatures and the water must be
tion, a line containing a restricted orifice is drained out of the system. If a sprinkler head
installed between the retard chamber and pressure should be damaged (hit by a lift truck, a rolling
switch. This line discharges into the main alarm scaffold, a ladder, etc.) and commence discharg-
valve drain line and bleeds off the excess air pres- ing water, the first action taken to avoid serious
Fire Department Pumper Connection 97

water damage is to close the main control valve mese connection. The fire department can now
to shut off all water supply to the system. If the pump water at a high pressure and volume
main drain is simultaneously opened wide, a directly into the sprinkler system. If the fire has
great deal of system water can be drained off overpowered the sprinkler system (more heads
through the main drain instead of running off have opened than were anticipated in the hydrau-
through the open sprinkler head. This procedure lic design of the system) this water being pumped
will immediately relieve some of the back pres- into the system can augment the volume and
sure which is forcing water out of the open-head increase the pressure to overcome the increased
even after the main water supply is shut off. This demand of the discharging sprinklers.
is one reason why the main drain discharge must The records of the National Fire Protection
be unrestricted and must discharge where the full Association (NFPA) are a tragic reminder of how
flow of the drain line will not cause additional often a main water supply control valve to a
water damage. The size of the drain line is depen- sprinkler system is not reopened after a system
dent upon the size of the system. The size of the repair is completed. In these cases, the fire depart-
system riser supplying the system determines the ment pumper connection is the only source of
system size: water supply to the firefighting sprinkler heads.
A 4″ or larger system requires a 2″ drain, a For this reason, the fire department pumper con-
2–1/2–3″ riser needs a 1–1/4″ drain, and smaller nection must always be connected to a sprinkler
risers require a 3/4″ drain. riser on the system side of all control valves.
The pipe from the siamese connection to the
sprinkler system must always have a check valve
 ire Department Pumper
F through which the fire department can pump
Connection water into the system, but when not in use, the
system water pressure will not leak out, or flow
The fire department pumper connection, or sia- out through the siamese connection when caps
mese connection, is a common sight on the exte- are removed, and hoses connected. In cold cli-
rior wall of a building. The Y-shaped pumper mates where the siamese connection on the exte-
connection has caps covering the two openings of rior wall of the building is subject to freezing, the
the 2–1/2″ pipes which protrude from the casting check valve keeps the line to the siamese dry and
that is the body of the Y. On buildings where empty of water.
appearance is a factor, all that need be seen are To drain off water in this section of line after
two, usually chrome-plated, caps installed on the siamese connection has been used, to drain
concealed 2–1/2″ pipes projecting through an off any leakage of water through the check valve,
oblong metal wall plate. These wall type fire and to drain off condensation, an automatic ball
department pumper connections are commonly drip drain is installed on the siamese side of the
sized 2–1/2″ by 2–1/2″ by 4″; meaning that the check valve either at the check valve or at a low
two 2–1/2″ outlets are siamesed into a 4″ casting point on this segment of piping. One type of auto-
into which is screwed a 4″ supply pipe. matic ball drip consists of a small, usually, cast
This 4″ pipe is piped into the main sprinkler iron body drain containing a solid metal ball
riser-the pipe that supplies all the water to every which rests in a depression beside the open drain
head on the system. (The diameter is used for opening. When the ball drip drain is under pres-
example only. Under certain conditions, a 6″ or sure while the siamese is in use, the water pres-
3″ pipe may be used.) As soon as the fire depart- sure forces the ball over the drain opening thus
ment arrives at the scene of a fire, they will con- closing off the drain.
nect a line from their pumper truck to the closest One additional element must be considered.
hydrant. From two pumper truck discharge out- Suppose the sprinkler system water supply has a
lets, two 2–1/2″ lines will be connected to the pressure of 60 pounds per square inch (psi) and is
two 2–1/2″ outlets on the sprinkler system sia- fed from a city water main. If the fire department
98 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

pumps into the siamese connection at 100 psi fact all fire protection control valves, are required
with a capacity of 500 gpm, and the sprinkler to have one feature-visual indication of an open
heads that have opened are only discharging a or shut position. This section will consider only
total of 200 gpm, the water will seek the path of the inside, or above ground, control valve.
least resistance, the 60 psi water supply. This will The terms inside or outside control valves
force the supply water back into the city water refer to valves installed in the underground pipe
mains, completely nullifying the Fire Department outside the building, as opposed to valves
siamese water and pressure to the open heads on installed in the steel pipe of the sprinkler system
the system. above ground, and inside the building. A com-
Every sprinkler system must have the auxil- monly used inside control valve for sprinkler sys-
iary water supply afforded by the siamese con- tems is the Outside Screw & Yoke (OS&Y) valve.
nection. In addition, every fire department This meets the requirement for all fire protec-
siamese connection inlet pipe must have a check tion valves controlling water supplies; namely, a
valve to prevent system water discharge back visual inspection will tell at a glance whether the
valve through the siamese. Every sprinkler sys- valve is open or closed. As a result, all valves
tem must have a means of checking the water controlling water supplies must be indicating
supply piping to prevent flow back to the supply type valves, which means they must visually
source when the fire department is pumping into indicate whether they are open or shut.
the siamese. When a vane or paddle type water There are several indicating type control
flow indicator is the alarm device on a wet pipe valves on the market for use on fire protection
system, a check valve must be installed in the systems. Except when the use of an OS&Y valve
main sprinkler water supply on the water supply is required by NFPA or the insurance carrier, but-
side of the connection of the siamese. This is con- terfly control valves may be considered to save
nected to the sprinkler riser to check the flow of space.
the siamese back into the supply. The control valve on a sprinkler system serves
When an alarm valve is the water flow alarm several basic functions. This is necessary in order
device on a wet pipe system, the check valve fea- to shut off the water supply to the system so that
ture of the alarm valve can be used to accomplish the system can be repaired, altered, or increased
this supply check. The siamese supply is con- in size.
nected to the sprinkler system on the system side When the sprinkler system has suffered physi-
of the alarm check valve. The siamese connection cal damage, and is discharging water through a
on the exterior wall of the building should be broken pipe, fitting, or sprinkler head, the supply
located not less than 18″ nor more than 5′ above of water to the entire system can be stopped by
grade (or the access level of the Fire Department). closing the main control valve.
When the sprinkler system has performed
within the efficiency of the design parameters
Main Control Valve and extinguished a fire, the water damage can be
kept to a minimum by closing the main control
The main control valve is installed in the main valve and stopping the water supply to the heads
water supply pipe to the sprinkler system, and that have been opened by the fire. At this point, it
controls all of the water to the sprinkler system. would be inexcusable not to mention the tragic
The control valve may be installed inside the record of major fire losses that have resulted from
building where the underground supply pipe this misuse of the main control valve. A fire that
enters the building, or it may be installed outside produces enough heat to operate a sprinkler head
the building in the underground supply pipe. cannot be safely declared officially extinguished
Inside or outside, all sprinkler systems, and in by the average layman. All too often in their haste
Inspector’s Test 99

to avoid water damage, a main control valve will removed from the primary fire source, and is usu-
be prematurely closed because the fire appeared ally intense enough to fuse sprinkler heads, but
to be out. Control valves are not always conve- not of sufficient duration to sustain continuing
niently located within eyesight of the fire. By the combustion within its area of influence. The
time the individual who has been dispatched to result will be a hundred sprinklers operating on a
the basement where the valve is located returns to system calculated for the operation of 30 sprin-
the third floor where the fire has occurred, he klers, and the drain on the water supply, both
finds that the fire has re-ignited and is using the pressure and volume, far exceeds design param-
time for his return trip to reopen the valve to feed eters. The fire department will also close the main
itself, uninterrupted by the sprinkler discharge. control valve to save water for their hose streams
The time element involved has changed the com- when a sprinkler system supply pipe has been
plexion of the fire situation from a controlled to broken by an explosion, collapsing wall, or struc-
an uncontrollable fire condition. tural member. The location of a main control
Many NFPA fire records have shown that a valve on a wet pipe system incorporates what we
control valve was shut off too quickly, and when have learned about the uses of a main control
the error was discovered the fire had made it valve and the fire department pumper connection.
impossible for an individual to approach the The control valve on a wet pipe sprinkler system
valve location to reopen the control valve. is always installed on the supply side of the fire
Without a water supply, a sprinkler system is department pumper connection. By following
nothing more than a complex of pipe and fittings, this rule, a closed control valve can never prevent
which points out another facet of the importance or obstruct the use of the fire department pumper
of the open control valve. connection.
When sprinklers operate, they are effective 97% of
the time, resulting in a combined performance of
operating effectively in 91% of all reported fires Inspector’s Test
where sprinklers were present in the fire area and
fire was large enough to activate them. The com-
bined performance for the more widely used wet The wet pipe sprinkler system has been installed,
pipe sprinklers is 92%, while for dry pipe sprin- and by all appearances is ready to perform its
klers, the combined performance is only 79% (Hall designed function. Unlike almost every other
2010). building system, however, its operational ability
The fire department uses the sprinkler system will not be demonstrated on a daily basis. The
control valve in situations where, in their profes- sprinkler system may not be called upon to func-
sional opinion, the fire has overpowered the tion for 10 or 20 years, but when it is needed, the
sprinkler system. So many heads have opened, system must function without fail. The eruption
and so much water is being discharged, that it is of fire is no time to discover a mechanical defect
affecting the water supply and pressure at the fire that affects the system operation, and sprinkler
hydrants. The sprinkler system has lost its value systems are seldom afforded a second chance.
at this point and has in tum become a deterrent by In order to test this completely closed and
robbing the hydrant hose streams of vital volume sealed system without the expensive and imprac-
and pressure, and the fire department will close tical fusing of a sprinkler head, each wet pipe
the control valve. Another case where the control system is equipped with an inspector’s test
valve is shut occurs when there is a flash fire: connection.
When an ignition source ignites fumes, which The inspectors test connection consists of a 1″
have spread over the entire floor area, a massive valve installed in a 1″ pipe that takes supply from
flammable liquid spill covers a wide area, or the the wet pipe sprinkler system. When this valve is
preheated combustible construction of an entire opened, water is discharged through a smooth
room. The flash of heat can open heads far bore corrosion-resistant outlet or bushing that
100 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

produces the flow equivalent to the flow from one a wet pipe sprinkler system: In order to have an
open sprinkler head. Opening the inspectors test alarm panel that indicates which floor has a sprin-
valve will, if the system is designed, installed, kler head flowing, the panel is wired to a flow
and maintained properly, operate all of the wet switch on each floor, installed in the pipe supply-
pipe system equipment and actuate all alarm ing the sprinkler on the floor. The supply to the
equipment. In order to obtain a true reading on sprinkler on each floor of the dormitory is con-
the system, the inspectors test should be installed trolled by an indicating control valve. Should a
at the end of the branch line that is most remote leak have to be fixed, or a sprinkler head replaced,
from the system supply, and at the highest point the floor control valve can be closed, isolating
on the system. If the supply pressure is not suffi- that one floor sprinkler system and leaving all
cient to provide adequate volume and pressure, other floors under sprinkler protection. In order
the inspectors test will not have sufficient pres- to be sure that the water flow switch on each floor
sure to discharge an adequate amount of water to is working properly, and to drain the piping once
operate the system or alarm equipment. The the control valve is closed, a test and drain set-up
inspectors test is a valuable tool for the experi- can be installed on each floor.
enced inspector. The test and drain set-ups discharge into a
dedicated drain riser, which picks up the test and/
or drain water at each floor and carries it to an
Discharge acceptable location at ground floor level for
discharge.
The discharge from the inspector’s test must be
unobstructed and visible. Discharge may be
either to atmosphere or, where this is not practi- Wet Pipe System Drainage
cal, the test pipe may terminate in a roof or non-
sanitary drain pipe capable of accepting full flow References have been made to shut the main con-
under system pressure. A sight test connection trol valve and drain the system for maintenance,
containing a smooth bore corrosion-resistant ori- alterations, or to freezing temperatures. The ideal
fice providing a flow equivalent to the flow from design of a wet pipe sprinkler system would be to
one sprinkler is installed between the inspector’s have all of the water in the piping network drain
test valve and the connection to the drain line. back to the main drain, but due to changes in
elevation, there are usually low points, trapped
sections of piping, or heads on the system
Location requiring auxiliary drains. To quote from the
NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler
The test valve should be located where it will be Systems, all sprinkler pipe and fittings shall be
readily accessible and not over 7′ above the floor. so installed that the system may be drained.
In the discussion of water flow indicators, the use (8.16.2.2.2 -2016).
of these devices at various locations on a wet pipe NFPA is a requirement to accomplish wet pipe
sprinkler system to afford pinpoint location of a sprinkler system drainage was to pitch the pipe so
water flow requires the installation of an inspec- that all water, exclusive of trapped areas, would
tor’s test connection to facilitate testing each of automatically drain back to the main drain. This
these water flow detection devices. rule has since been changed so that now wet pipe
Where the test connection to operate a vane- sprinkler piping may be installed level. It was
type flow switch cannot discharge to the exterior determined that the inherent pipe size change in
of a building and there are no suitable plumbing sprinkler piping with a level center-line would
drains to accept the test discharge, a closed sys- cause the water to naturally flow from the small
tem test and drain may be used. For example, a to the large diameter pipe, and thence back to the
multi-story dormitory completely protected with main drain. This change has been a tremendous
Dry Pipe Sprinkler System 101

sprinkler design advantage where long runs of ation of the dry pipe sprinkler system, including
pipe are coupled with close clearance tolerances, advantages and disadvantages of the system and
such as above a suspended ceiling. The require- an explanation of the systems components.
ments for draining trapped sections of a wet pipe
sprinkler system are based on the number of
heads that are trapped or the number of gallons of Dry Pipe Sprinkler System
water that will drain back to the main drain by
gravity. These auxiliary drains have no bearing The dry pipe system, like the wet pipe system,
on the fire protection efficiency of the system and uses water as the extinguishing agent. Unlike
are installed to minimize water damage in drain- the wet pipe system, however, the dry system
ing the system. piping is filled with pressurized air or nitrogen.
A drain plug in a small diameter pipe creates When a sprinkler head fuses, the air or nitrogen
the impression that only a small amount of water pressure is dissipated through the open head.
is trapped in the piping. Sometimes due to con- The piping then fills with water and discharges
struction or occupancy, sprinkler piping is not through the open head. Understanding how a
readily visible. It does not take much imagination dry pipe system operates requires a brief lesson
to visualize what happens when a workman in physics. A moderate amount of pressure on
removes a 1″ plug and holds up a 5-gallon bucket one side of a large surface can equalize a greater
to catch the water, not knowing that the 1″ pipe is amount of pressure on a small surface on the
on the end of a large trapped section of sprinkler opposite side. The combined pressure on the
piping containing 30 gallons of water. total surface area can be found by multiplying
Where it is obvious that the trapped section the amount of pressure expressed in pounds per
contains less than five gallons, a drain plug is all square inch (psi) by the number of square
that is required. However, when a trapped section inches.
appears to contain several gallons, supplies quite Most dry pipe valves are designed so that a
a few sprinkler heads, or has a rather large pipe moderate amount of air pressure on the larger
supply, the installation of a 1″ drain valve will diameter air side of the clapper in the dry pipe
facilitate draining. The ideal situation is to dis- valve will hold back a much higher water pres-
charge a drain line to the exterior of the sure acting on the smaller surface water side of
building. the clapper. (See Fig. 9.2). When the air pressure
The wet pipe sprinkler system is simple, effi- can no longer contain the water pressure, the
cient, and economical to install and maintain, valve will open by raising the clapper. The differ-
accounts for the majority of all sprinkler installa- ence between the air pressure and the water pres-
tions. Dry pipe sprinkler systems, on the other sure at this point is expressed as a ratio. This ratio
hand, account for a much smaller percentage of is called the differential. Dry valves that operate
sprinkler systems in use. They are designed for on this principle are called differential-type dry
use in facilities in which it is either impractical or pipe valves.
impossible to provide the heated environment Basically, dry pipe sprinkler system piping is
necessary for the proper functioning of a wet pipe filled with pressurized air or nitrogen. When a
system. The dry pipe system provides fire protec- sprinkler head operates, the compressed gas is
tion to unheated structures, and in some cases, discharged faster than the systems compressed
specific unheated areas of the structure in which air source can replenish it. The pressure on the
the system piping is subjected to freezing tem- air side of the clapper drops to the valve trip
peratures. Use of a traditional wet pipe system in point, which is the point at which the water
an unheated zone would result in frozen pipes, pressure overcomes the air pressure on the air
which could block the flow of water to a fire or side of the clapper. The clapper flies open and
cause considerable water damage should the water rushes through the system to the open
pipes burst. This section examines the basic oper- sprinkler head(s).
102 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Fig. 9.2 Dry pipe valve. (Courtesy of John Morrison)

or 40 pounds of pressure. With standard orifice

Advantages and Disadvantages sprinkler heads, this can mean a considerable
of Dry Pipe Systems time delay to evacuate a sufficient volume of air
through the orifice to reduce the pressure to the
The basic advantage of a dry pipe system is that trip point. Once the water is released into the sys-
it can be installed in areas subject to freezing. tem, it must overcome the back pressure of the
Dry pipe sprinkler systems are an economical remaining air in the piping in traveling to the
way to provide sprinkler protection in unheated open sprinkler head. While sprinkler head actua-
areas. Unfortunately, there are drawbacks to this tion-to-water discharge time in a wet pipe system
system. is instantaneous, with a dry pipe system it may
One disadvantage of this design is the time lag take 60 s or longer, depending on the size of the
inherent in the operational sequence of a dry pipe system and the air pressure level. This is precious
system. This is time that enables the fire to inten- time that could be used extinguishing the fire.
sify and spread. When the sprinkler head is actu- NFPA records indicate that on the average,
ated by the heat of a fire, and the sprinkler head more sprinklers are actuated in areas protected by
discharge orifice is opened, it is necessary to a dry pipe system than in areas protected by a wet
reduce the air pressure that fills the system to the pipe system (because the fire is bigger due to the
trip point by releasing this air through the sprin- time lag). The designed area of application for a
kler orifice. It is not unusual to have a dry pipe wet pipe system is increased 30% to compensate
system containing 300 or 400 gallons of air at 30
Dry Pipe Sprinkler System 103

for this – hence the opening of more sprinklers is when the water pressure is relatively high, or the
accounted for. water supply is subject to surges. Several devices
Another disadvantage of the dry pipe system have been perfected to narrow this time lag.
is corrosion. The piping is filled with compressed One such device is the differential dry pipe
air supplied to the system from one of two valve. Naturally, dry pipe valves cannot be manu-
sources-air compressor or shop air. Both of these factured to accommodate different water pres-
air supply methods obtain their air supply from sures. A 6″ dry pipe valve may be installed where
the atmosphere, and at ambient temperature. The the water pressure is 60 psi, or the same valve
air supply may not be the same temperature as may be installed where the water pressure is
the piping of the dry system, and if relatively 125 psi. The differential of the particular valve is
warm air is pumped into dry system piping known, and the air pressure must be adjusted to
installed in a cold area, condensation of the mois- meet the water supply pressure. To accommodate
ture in the warm air will collect on the interior the relatively high water pressures that could be
walls of the system piping. This creates an ideal encountered, the air side of the clapper has to be
atmosphere for the formation of corrosion or large. Subsequently, the body housing these large
scale in the piping. clappers became rather massive in comparison to
Aside from producing corrosion, condensa- the size of the alarm valve.
tion causes another problem. Where the tempera-
ture differential is severe (for example, where a
dry system is installed in a walk-in freezer and Low Differential Dry Pipe Valve
the dry valve and air compressor are located out-
side of the freezer) the smaller diameter piping The low differential dry pipe valve has a differen-
can fill with water, freeze, and can crack the pipe. tial in the range of 1.0 and 1.2–1 instead of the 5:
For this reason, the system air supply to the com- or 6:1 ratio common with the ordinary differen-
pressor must maintain a temperature closely tial dry pipe valve. The low differential dry pipe
approximating the temperature of the area where valve resembles an alarm check valve both in size
the piping is installed. Condensation and corro- and operation. The air pressure on the sprinkler
sion can be fairly well contained, except under system side of the clapper (the air side) actually
severe conditions. For example, a dry pipe sys- exceeds the pressure on the water side of the
tem protecting an unheated warehouse where the clapper. The valve operates when the air pressure
temperature of the piping under a metal roof may is reduced to only 10% less than the water pres-
reach 100 °F in the daytime and drop to 60 F at sure. With a water pressure of 100 psi, for exam-
night will be particularly vulnerable. ple, the air pressure would be 115 or 120 psi. To
operate the low differential dry pipe valve, the air
pressure would only have to drop to approxi-
Differential Dry Pipe Valves mately 10% below the water pressure (in this
instance 90 psi). With air pressure this high,
The differential-type dry pipe valve has a trip bleeding off 20 or 30 psi through an open sprin-
ratio of approximately 6:1. In other words, the kler orifice would require only a few seconds,
valve operates when the air pressure in the sys- unlike the excessive trip time of ordinary differ-
tem is reduced to approximately one-sixth of the ential dry pipe valves.
system water supply pressure. For example, in a The low differential dry pipe valve was found
differential dry pipe valve with a 6:1 ratio, oper- to have an advantage beyond its smaller size. An
ating on a system water supply pressure of ordinary dry pipe valve provides an unobstructed
100 psi, the trip point would be 100 divided by 6, flow of water when the valve is tripped. With the
or 17 psi air pressure. Standard practice is to conventional 5: or 6:1 differential-type dry valve,
maintain an air pressure 15–20 psi above the trip using low system air pressures as compared to
point to reduce the danger of accidental tripping the supply water pressures, the rush of water into
104 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

the system is tremendous, since the low air pres- air loss. This priming water also keeps the rubber
sure offers little compressive resistance. In the seals from drying out and shrinking or cracking.
low differential-type dry pipe valve, on the other
hand, the system air pressure at trip point nearly
approximates the supply water pressure, so that Dry System Air Supply
the velocity of water entering the system is
greatly reduced. Aside from reducing the possi- Whether a dry system has its own air compressor
ble damage to the sprinkler system caused by a or uses shop air, the air supply to the system must
pressure surge of high-velocity water through a be regulated to maintain the required system air
tripped dry valve, the amount of debris, corro- pressure.
sion, scale, and sediment entering the system is When a dry system has its own air compres-
reduced with a low-differential dry pipe valve sor, this operation is performed by a hi-low
because the carrying force of the low-velocity switch. The hi-low switch is an air pressure oper-
water is greatly diminished. This is crucial to the ated electric switch connected to the dry system
effectiveness of the system, since scale and sedi- air supply. When the system air pressure drops
ment carried to the open heads can clog the sprin- below a predetermined point (still well above trip
kler head orifices and impede water discharge pressure), the pressure switch is activated and
during a fire. closes an electric contact which automatically
Note how similar the low differential dry pipe starts the air compressor. This, in turn, supplies
valve is to the alarm valve, not only in appear- air to the system until the system pressure reaches
ance, but in the method of charging the alarm the required pounds per square inch. The preset
line. A pilot valve on the clapper arm closes the pressure again activates the hi-low pressure
alarm line opening when the clapper is in the switch, and the electrical contact is broken, stop-
closed position. When the valve is tripped, the ping the compressor.
clapper is raised and the alarm line orifice is The air supply for a dry system should be capa-
opened. Note, too, that like the alarm valve, the ble of restoring required air pressure in the system
clapper is not latched in the open position, but is within 30 min in ordinary differential (5: or 6:1)
free to swing shut. dry pipe valve systems, and within 60 min in a low
It is not accepted practice to use this valve as a differential dry pipe valve system. The compressed
check valve opposing the fire department pumper air supply should be provided with at least one
water pressure because of the possibility of dam- relief valve set to operate at a pressure 5 psi in
aging the rubber clapper ring that seals the clap- excess of the maximum system air pressure.
per. As a seal, this clapper is important regardless Shop air (compressed air used in operating the
of the type of valve. The fire department pumper plant) is not always within the acceptable pres-
connection to the dry system must be made on sure range of that required in a dry system, and
the wet side of the dry pipe valve due to the due to facility use, often fluctuates. However, ini-
inability of the check valve in the fire department tial equipment and maintenance costs can be
pumper line to hold air pressure, and the inability eliminated by using shop air in lieu of providing
of the dry valve to act as a check valve. and installing a separate air compressor. The
In the dry pipe valve, special rubber valve installation of a relatively inexpensive and main-
rings are used on clappers to maintain a tight seal tenance-free device is an existing air maintenance
when the clappers are in the closed position, and system that can provide acceptable control of
to compensate for any minute metal pocket, pit- shop air. The air maintenance device is installed
ting, or minor metal-to-metal dimensional varia- in an airline from the shop air system to the dry
tions that could allow air to escape. As a further system, where it mechanically and automatically
safety factor, the air side of the clapper is primed accepts the pressure the shop air delivers, and
with enough water to completely cover, and maintains the constant required air supply pres-
thereby seal off, the clapper, further preventing sure to the dry system.
Dry Pipe Sprinkler System 105

A note of caution: The pressure maintenance increases the reliability of constant air pressure in
device will accept shop air pressure that is higher the system. The tripping of a dry pipe valve due to
than the air pressure required in the dry pipe low air pressure and the filling of the piping with
­system piping. The device will automatically con- water in an area subject to freezing is always a seri-
vert higher pressure to the lower constant pressure ous problem if not detected before the water freezes
required for the dry pipe system but cannot accept and cracks a fitting.
a shop air pressure lower than the dry system pres- This problem quickly goes from serious to
sure and convert it to the required dry system pres- critical when this occurs with a dry pipe system
sure. In order to provide a continual acceptable protecting a freezer. The water will not only freeze
pressure for fire protection, shop air must be main- very quickly, but if ice forms in the piping, and the
tained at a higher pressure than required for a dry freezer cannot be shut down until the piping
pipe system. Another factor to monitor is during thaws, it may even become necessary to disas-
operation, ensure that the shop air used in the plant semble the system, thaw out the piping, and rein-
does not pull the pressure below the dry pipe sys- stall the system, obviously a costly operation.
tem requirements. Inexpensive devices can be installed on dry
Other maintenance considerations include pipe systems to protect it from dangerous air pres-
plant shut down. When the plant is shut down for sure fluctuations by initiating an alarm, such as a
weekends, holidays, or at night, the shop air com- low air trouble alarm. Automatic air supplies are
pressor cannot shut down; another condition dependent on mechanical and electrical equipment
where this could become a problem would be which is naturally subject to failure. This failure
during a strike. potential is usually in direct proportion to mainte-
If shop air is not a reliable source of pressure, nance of the equipment. If the automatic air supply
the next choices are an air compressor dedicated to the system should fail and the system air pres-
to supply air to the dry pipe system or a small 1/4 sure drops below a predetermined point, it would
horsepower maintenance compressor to supple- actuate the low air alarm pressure switch, electric
ment the shop air. contacts would close, and a trouble alarm would
The automatic air supply to the dry system can- alert personnel to the need for immediate attention
not in any way interfere with the operation of the before the pressure drops to the trip point. These
dry pipe valve by replenishing the air supply when devices should supervise the dry system air pres-
a sprinkler head has operated and is releasing the sure and activate a trouble alarm for either a prede-
air pressure. The air from the air supply is admit- termined low or high pressure setting. The air
ted to the system through an orifice which is so supervisory switch should be included when spec-
small that it cannot possibly admit enough air ifying a low air alarm device.
quickly enough to interfere with the tripping of the When the device is activated, and especially
dry pipe valve. when it is activated by low air pressure, the trou-
ble signal must be automatically transmitted to a
constantly attended location. A low air trouble
Optional Devices alarm means the water supply control valve for
the dry system must be closed immediately until
On large dry pipe systems, where temperature the problem is corrected to prevent serious dam-
changes may produce periodic fluctuations in sys- age to the system and/or costly maintenance.
tem air pressure, and where the possibility of the Another optional device that may be required is
dry valve tripping could cause very serious prob- a dehydrator on the air supply to the dry pipe sys-
lems, an automatic air compressor may be equipped tem. The dehydrator is used to dry the pressurized
with a reservoir tank. The air compressor maintains air supply to the system to minimize the amount of
a constant air pressure in the tank and this tank air moisture in the air supply, and thereby minimize
pressure floats on the dry system, which prevents the amount of condensation in the dry pipe system
the frequent cycling of the air compressor and piping.
106 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Pressurized Nitrogen Supply sure is not capable of holding the clapper in the
closed position.
Some dry pipe systems require the use of nitrogen
as a more economical alternative than an air com-
pressor due to a lack of available and/or adequate  ry System Fire Department Pumper
D
electric power supply. More often, nitrogen is con- Connection
sidered when the air supply will contain consider-
able moisture or where the temperature differential When the supply water pressure forces the main
between the air supply and the dry system is quite dry valve clapper to rotate on its hinge pin, it
pronounced, and relatively warm, moist air would engages a latch mechanism which holds it in the
be introduced into extremely cold piping. Nitrogen open position. To reset this type of dry pipe valve,
can also inhibit the accumulation of MIC it is necessary to drain the system of water, unbolt
(Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion). and remove a face plate, manually release the
Nitrogen cylinders are connected to the dry latch, and free the clapper.
system similar to the air pressure supply arrange- There is an interesting difference between the
ment, with an air pressure maintenance device to alarm valve and the dry valve which influences
maintain required system pressure. The use of the design of a dry pipe system. In discussing the
nitrogen cylinders introduces an additional main- wet system, and specifically the fire department
tenance item since the supply is limited, and pumper connection to the system, the alarm valve
therefore, the capacity and pressure of the cylin- served as a check valve to prevent the fire depart-
ders must be monitored regularly. The small dry ment from pumping back into the system supply
system leaks that go unnoticed with air supplied line. Since the dry pipe valve clapper latches in
by an air compressor or shop air can present a the open position, the dry pipe valve cannot be
very critical situation where the pressurized sup- used as a check valve, and a standard check valve
ply is limited. A reserve cylinder of nitrogen must must be installed in the main supply line.
be readily available at all times to replace a cylin-
der that has fallen below required capacity.
Quick Opening Devices

Dry Valve Intermediate Chamber Over time, effort has been made to overcome the
head actuation and water discharge time delay
The majority of modem dry pipe valves have an encountered with a dry pipe system. This has
intermediate chamber which surrounds the water been accomplished, to some degree, by the instal-
supply face of the clapper, but when the system is lation of quick opening devices, to either increase
in the valve closed position, this intermediate the rate of discharge of air from the system pip-
chamber is sealed off from water and compressed ing, or to accelerate the opening of the dry valve.
air supplies. The function of the intermediate These devices, depending on their method of
chamber is to speed the action of the dry pipe quick opening the dry pipe valve, are call exhaust-
valve as follows: Most dry pipe valves are ers and accelerators. Accelerators are not required
designed so that the initial drop in air pressure soley on the basis of system volume. Accelerators
when a sprinkler head operates will allow the are an option if the system exceeds a 500 gallon
clapper, or an auxiliary clapper, to raise slightly capacity and requires more than 60 s for water
due to the supply water pressure. Some supply delivery at the sprinkler.
water is then forced into the intermediate cham-
ber under the main clapper. Now the air/water
pressure differential is destroyed because the Accelerators
water pressure is acting on a much larger area-the
water supply pipe size surface plus the intermedi- The movement of the diaphragm in an accelera-
ate chamber surface. Consequently, the air pres- tor opens an auxiliary valve which admits com-
Quick Opening Devices 107

pressed air to the intermediate chamber of the dry ing list is a summary of some of the key benefits
pipe valve. This immediately upsets the water-to- of the electronic accelerator: (Golinveaux 2018)
air pressure differential of the dry pipe valve. The
air pressure on the air side of the clapper can no • Facility Operator costs decrease due to less
longer hold the clapper closed against the water frequent maintenance issues.
pressure, and the additional air pressure in the • Fewer maintenance issues insure that the
intermediate chamber and the system water pres- accelerators (critical to many systems) remain
sure forces the clapper open. in service.
In order to allow the air pressure in the inter- • Faster operation improves the performance of
mediate chamber to exert its full force on the larger dry systems.
underside of the clapper, the intermediate cham- • With no moving parts in the pressure sensing
ber drain must close automatically when the area, maintenance and dependability are
compressed air is introduced. Latched clapper or improved dramatically.
mechanical-type dry pipe valves do not have an • Without a restricted orifice, false trips due to
intermediate chamber and, therefore, cannot be temperature changes are eliminated.
tripped through the use of an accelerator. • Without a restricted orifice, maintenance and
The operating principle of one such quick resetting issues related to anti-flooding devices
opening device is based on the use of two air and drain-back do not apply.
chambers of equal pressure separated by a mov- • Built-in low and high air pressure switches:
able diaphragm. With this accelerator, one air small leakage will trigger supervisory alarm vs.
chamber is designated as the inlet or lower cham- the activation that might occur with a clogged
ber and is connected to the dry system so that the restriction in a mechanical accelerator.
air pressure in this chamber is equal to the dry • Proven electronic technology used with electri-
system air pressure at all times. The second cally operated deluge and preaction systems.
chamber, called the upper or pressure chamber, is • Consistent operating times improve water
completely closed and sealed with the exception supply analysis and dry system performance.
of a small, restricted orifice connecting the upper • Accurate dry pipe valves trip times will assist
and lower chambers. This restricted orifice allows in calculating dry pipe system performance.
the pressure in the lower chamber to seep into the • Insurance Risk assessment improvement due
upper chamber so the pressure in the upper and to dependability of service.
lower chambers can become equal. The two
chambers are separated by a diaphragm, and
when a sprinkler head actuates, there is a sudden Exhausters
drop in the dry system air pressure, and at the
same time, in the lower chamber. The restricted The movement of the diaphragm in an exhauster
orifice is much too small to allow sufficient air to opens an auxiliary valve on the device which
escape from the upper chamber to compensate dumps, or exhausts, the system air pressure to the
for this sudden drop in air pressure in the lower atmosphere. The auxiliary valve on an exhauster
chamber, and the upper chamber, or original sys- is of such a large size that great quantities of sys-
tem air pressure, exerts an unequal force on the tem air are exhausted very rapidly and, as a result,
diaphragm forcing it downward. This movement the system air pressure drops quickly to the dry
of the diaphragm actuates various mechanical pipe valve trip point. Once the dry pipe valve has
mechanisms and valves, the end result being the tripped and water starts to fill the system, water is
immediate tripping of the dry pipe valve. transmitted to the exhauster. The action of the
Today electronic accelerators are available. water, combined with the mechanical design of
They have many advantages over mechanical the exhauster in a wet condition, closes the auxil-
devices. The simplicity and dependability of the iary valve automatically, preventing discharge of
electronic accelerator switches as a substitute for water to the atmosphere through the exhauster
the mechanical accelerator are key. The follow- valve.
108 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Dry Pipe System Drainage Special Conditions

Because a dry system is used in areas subject to Due to construction conditions such as low
freezing, it is imperative to keep the piping empty rooms, or decks, a dry system, like the wet sys-
of water. Piping is pitched to facilitate (and guar- tem, may have low trapped sections of piping that
antee) gravity draining of any water in the piping will not drain back automatically by gravity to
back to the main drain at the dry pipe valve when the main drain at the dry pipe valve. These
the system is drained. The required piping pitch trapped sections on a dry system are obviously of
is at least 1/2″ in every 10′ for the branch lines, greater concern than those on a wet system;
and at least 1/4″ in every 10′ for cross mains and trapped water in the piping of a dry system can
feed mains. In refrigerated areas protected with a freeze, expand, crack the piping, cause a loss of
dry pipe system, it is good practice to increase air pressure, trip the dry valve, and cause serious
this pitch as much as possible. An increase and expensive water damage. Another hazard is
ensures that water does not accumulate from con- present when the dry system is shut down for
densation, and that all the water drains out repairs, which not only leaves the facility without
quickly after the system has tripped and is being fire protection, but also invites the possibility that
drained for resetting. a closed main control valve could be inadver-
tently left unopened, depriving the system of
water supply for an unidentified period.
Pipe Support

An additional point to consider in pitching the Maintenance Considerations

piping on a dry system is the possibility that the
construction supporting the sprinkler piping may Maintenance for draining trapped areas on a dry
settle under the additional weight of the sprinkler system must be relatively easy and trouble-free.
system. This can occur in light construction, Maintenance personnel should readily drain
especially that which was not originally designed these sections of piping after the system has
to accommodate a sprinkler installation. tripped or be able to determine if water from con-
densation has built up in the low piping.

Refrigerated Areas
Drainage Capacities
In refrigerated areas, and areas where the possi-
bility of settling exists, the piping should be Where a trapped section of piping contains five
pitched at least 3/4–1″ in every 10′ for branch gallons of water or less, the auxiliary drain for
lines, and at least 1/2″ in 10′ for feed and cross these areas may consist of a valve with a brass
mains. As mentioned previously, the branch lines, plug or nipple and cap, to reduce leakage of sys-
cross mains, and feed mains in these areas should tem air through a defective drain valve. A trapped
be pitched as much as construction and floor section on a wet system of similar capacity only
height will permit using the 3/4–1″ in 10′ for requires a plug or nipple and cap. With the drain
branch lines and 1/2″ in 10′ for cross mains and valve required for an auxiliary drain on a dry sys-
feed mains as minimum criteria. tem, it is possible to carefully bleed off condensa-
The main drain on a dry system has identical tion water accumulation by barely cracking the
size requirements to the wet pipe system, with valve without tripping it. This would be an impos-
the drain size based on riser size. sible operation if a plug or cap had to be removed.
Dry System Design Features 109

Drum-Drip Drain Low Points

Where the capacity of the low or trapped section If several low points or trapped areas on a dry
of piping on a dry system contains in excess of system are all located in the same general area, it
five gallons, the auxiliary drain consists of a will facilitate maintenance to install a tie-in drain.
drum-drip arrangement. A trapped section of pip- Connecting or tyeing in all the low point drains
ing containing more than five gallons is large through a common 1″ pipe, and providing one
enough to allow condensation to collect, which auxiliary drum-drip drain at the termination of
could build up rather rapidly in the drain line. If this tie-in drain, increases the reliability of all the
not emptied frequently, this water could com- low points being drained.
pletely fill the drain line, freeze, and break a fit-
ting. A drum-drip auxiliary drain is a collecting
point for condensation water, an area which Dry System Design Features
allows for a certain amount of expansion if the
water should freeze. This provides for easy This section will only deal with a few of the basic
removal of a relatively large quantity of collected design considerations which are required when a
water without tripping the system. dry system is installed.
Should the drum-drip fill, freeze, and crack
the pipe or fitting in the condensation collecting
nipple, the system would lose air and trip. Calculating the Area of Application
Resetting the system back into service requires
merely closing the upstream valve on the drum- Depending on the design of the dry system, and
drip, draining, and restoring the dry system to not including unusually large supply pipe or long
service, and then replacing the drum-drip assem- runs of supply pipe, the capacity of a dry system
bly at the convenience of the maintenance depart- varies between 3/4 and 1–3/4 gallons per sprin-
ment. No prolonged shutdown of the system is kler. For an existing system, a good rule of thumb
required. in estimating (not engineering) the capacity of a
A drum-drip auxiliary drain consists of two 1″ dry pipe system is to multiply the number of
valves, one on the system supply side of a 2″ sprinklers by 1.25 gallons per head, and add the
diameter by 12″ long pipe, (or unit of equivalent capacity of the bulk, or supply, piping if it exceeds
volume), which is the condensation collector, and 20 in length. This 1.25 gallons per head includes
one on the discharge side of the condensation the line piping and the cross main piping when
collector. the dry pipe system layout is relatively simple.
The valve on the supply side is kept open When calculating the accurate capacity of a
while the valve on the discharge side is closed dry pipe system, the pipe of different sizes must
and sealed with a brass plug or nipple and cap to be tabulated, totaled, multiplied by the number of
prevent air from escaping should a valve leak. gallons per foot capacity of each pipe size.
When condensation collects in the piping of a Qualification test approval of an excess capac-
trapped section, it drains by gravity through to ity dry pipe system cannot be based entirely on the
the 1″ drain line, through the open 1″ supply side 60-s water delivery. As with all fire protection sys-
valve, and collects in the condensation chamber. tems, the evaluation of all the elements involved
During regular maintenance, the supply side must be considered by a qualified individual. In
valve is closed, the discharge valve opened, and this case, the 60-s water delivery is merely one
the plug or nipple and cap removed to drain out facet of an acceptable dry pile system. The occu-
water that has accumulated. pancy being protected, construction material of the
110 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

structure, floor heights, even the availability of the to heat, the valve house must have adequate light-
public fire department, their equipment, and their ing to facilitate maintenance and inspection of
manpower, must be considered and evaluated. the dry pipe valves and be of a size that will pro-
vide easy access to all sides of the dry pipe valve
and dry valve trim.
Location of Dry Valves

The location of the dry valves is an important ele- Water Columning

ment in the design and function of the system.
The dry valve or valves should be located as close Dry system risers leaving the valve house or enclo-
as possible to the system to keep the amount of sure have been known to fill with water and freeze
supply piping to a minimum and thereby reduce due to water columning. This is due to the accu-
the total pressurized air capacity of the system. mulation of water in the riser resulting from leak-
The piping up to the clapper of the dry valve is age past the water seat of the dry pipe valve clapper
filled with water, and in some dry valves there is or slow drainage of condensation back to the dry
a priming water seal on the dry side of the clapper valve. These risers are usually large diameter pipes
in the dry valve. Naturally, this wet portion of the and when the water freezes there is enough capac-
system must be kept from freezing. This can be ity to absorb the expansion. However, the ice in the
done by locating the dry valve or valves in a pipe can render the system inoperative by prevent-
warm area of the building or locating them in a ing water passage in the pipe, or transporting the
special dry pipe valve enclosure to protect the ice to small piping or sprinkler head orifices and
wet section of the dry system from freezing. blocking them. The accumulation of water in the
A dry pipe valve house may be constructed riser may not rise to a height in the riser past the
either inside or outside of the building being pro- roof or wall of the heated valve house and into the
tected by the dry system. The valve house must freezing area. However, due to the operational
be of insulated construction with walk-in refrig- characteristics of the ordinary dry pipe valve, a
erator-type door and hardware so that a small relative minor accumulation of water in the riser
capacity thermostatically controlled heater can can produce additional weight on the air side of
maintain at least a 40 °F temperature inside the the clapper and increase the trip point of the valve.
valve house, regardless of the outside tempera- When the system operates, and the system air
ture. The heater may be electric, steam, or any pressure is released, the valve will not trip as
other practical, reliable, and economical heat quickly because of the weight of water on the dry
source. side of the clapper.
To increase the reliability of maintaining ade- The dry pipe valves equipped with intermedi-
quate heat in the valve house or enclosure, a low ate chambers overcome water columning. The
temperature alarm device can be provided. automatic drain feature, which keeps the interme-
Should the heat source fail to provide 40 °F, the diate chamber open to the atmosphere, will not
low temperature alarm will activate and transmit allow any water accumulation. This does not pre-
an alarm signal. As with the low air system on the vent slow drain back of condensation from the
dry pipe system, the low temperature trouble system from building up in the riser. In addition,
alarm signal should be transmitted to a constantly there are dry pipe valves that do not have
attended location for immediate attention. intermediate chambers, so each dry system
­
Immediate attention is not quite as critical as it design where water columning could present a
is with the receipt of a low air trouble alarm, problem should include an approved method of
because the insulated valve house or enclosure eliminating this water accumulation. This may be
will retain sufficient heat to prevent a hard freeze accomplished by installing a high water level sig-
for a short period of time, but attention to the naling device, a float – type automatic drain
problem must be given high priority. In addition valve, or an automatic drain device.
Deluge Systems 111

Low differential dry valves, because of their ible link or element is heated to a predetermined
design function, are not subject to the weight of temperature.
water on the clapper causing a time delay in oper- A deluge system consists of open sprinkler
ating. The possibility of the water accumulating heads. The sprinkler heads on a deluge system
and freezing in the riser makes it necessary to are similar to the heads on a wet or dry pipe sys-
install a high water level signaling device or an tem, but they do not have any fusible links or ele-
automatic drain even though the dry valve is the ments. When the system is activated, water is
low differential type. discharged from every head on the system, simul-
One design feature which can make a dry pipe taneously creating a deluge of water.
system more expensive than a wet system is the When the fixed temperature release (1) is acti-
necessity for concealing the piping above a ceil- vated by fire, pressure in the release system
ing and installing the sprinkler heads below the escapes from the open device, allowing the pneu-
ceiling in a pendent position, or when construc- matic actuator (2) to open. This release pressure
tion or head room mandates turning the heads in from the priming chamber (3) of the deluge valve,
the pendent position on exposed piping. Only allowing the valve to open. Water flows into the
special dry pendent sprinklers may be used in the system piping and to the alarm devices, causing
pendent position on a dry system. These special the pressure switch (4) to activate an electric
heads are described in detail in the chapter on alarm and/or operating a mechanical water motor
Automatic Sprinkler Heads, but basically, they alarm. Water flows from all open sprinklers or
are constructed to prevent water from collecting nozzles (5). When the deluge valve operates,
in the head or in the drop nipple to the pendent pressure closes the PSOV (6) cutting off the
sprinkler head. When the system trips, water water supply to the priming chamber, latching the
would naturally collect in the shaft of a head- deluge valve in the open position.
turned pendent or in the drop nipple from con- The piping on a deluge system is obviously
cealed piping to the pendent sprinkler below the empty because all the sprinkler heads are open.
ceiling. This water would not drain off when the The deluge valve prevents the water from enter-
system was drained, and the dry pendent sprin- ing the system piping until a signal from the
kler prevents water from entering the pendent detection system trips the deluge valve. A del-
head shaft or drop nipple. uge system valve is opened to admit water to the
system by the action of a separate detection sys-
tem. This detection system may be electric,
Deluge Systems pneumatic, or hydraulic. The deluge system is
designed to wet down the entire area protected
Although sprinkler systems have an admirable by the system. One typical example is the pro-
performance record of property protection, some tection of a cooling tower.
hazards require special protection in addition to For example:
the building protection provided by the sprin- By virtue of its design, there are numerous wind
klers. This is evidenced by the relatively small currents surging through a cooling tower, and this is
number of serious fire losses that have occurred especially true when it is not in operation and dry.
where combustion heat, intensity, and spread With a wet or dry pipe sprinkler system, the heat
from a fire in the northwest comer could easily be
overpowered the sprinkler system. Areas where deflected by wind currents and open closed heads in
easily ignitable and fast burning material exist the southeast corner. Obviously, the discharge from
require special hazard systems. these fused heads would have no suppression effect
One special hazard system to be considered is on the fire origin. With the deluge system valve acti-
vated by the detection system in the cooling tower,
the deluge system (See Fig. 9.3). The wet and dry no matter which detector is activated (in this exam-
pipe systems previously described have closed ple, the heat would activate the detector in the south-
sprinkler heads, heads with fusible links, or fus- east corner), the deluge valve will be tripped and
ible elements that only discharge when the fus- water discharged over the entire area, extinguishing
the combustion in the northwest corner.
112 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Fig. 9.3 Deluge

System. (Courtesy of
Viking Corporation)

Another advantage of a deluge system is its cool- takes supply from the water supply and bypasses
ing capacity. The deluge of water not only con- the clapper, discharging into the upper chamber.
trols and extinguishes the combustion, but also This priming line is referred to as the bypass line.
cools all equipment and structural members The priming line has a control valve, a
within the area of the system discharge. This pre- restricted orifice to limit the flow of water through
vents damage of equipment by radiant heat, or the line when the system is activated, and a
structural steel deformation by combustion heat strainer to prevent the passage of small particles
possibly resulting in severe building structural of sand or dirt which could clog the restricted
damage. orifice.
The first deluge valve to consider is a quick The top of the valve clapper, which forms the
opening valve having only one moving part, the bottom of the top chamber, is twice as large in
clapper, which is kept closed by water pressure. area as the bottom of the clapper where it covers
This valve can be activated by a manual release the top of the water supply inlet chamber – a 2:1
or a hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric detection area differential design.
system. The deluge valve has three chambers: the When the valve is in the closed position, the
top chamber which is under water pressure, the supply water pressure is equal on both sides of
discharge outlet which is normally dry, and the the valve clapper. On the inlet side, this water
inlet chamber or incoming water supply. The pressure is acting on approximately 28 sq. in. for
chambers are separated by the valve clapper. The a 6″ water supply to the valve, while the same
water pressure on the top of the valve clapper, or water pressure is acting on approximately 56 sq.
top chamber water pressure, is the same as the in. on the top of the clapper. With a supply pres-
inlet chamber or water supply pressure. This is sure of 75 psi (pounds per square inch), approxi-
accomplished by a small priming line which mately 2100 pounds of supply water pressure
Deluge Systems 113

pushing up on the bottom of the valve clapper is also filled with the pressurized water. This alarm
opposed by approximately 4200 pounds pushing line can supply a pressure switch which will
down on the top of the valve clapper. (These make an electrical contact when the pressurized
numbers are used for example only, and are water enters the device, and can also operate a
therefore approximations.) water motor alarm.
When the detection system is activated, the Since the clapper on deluge valves is held
water pressure on the top of the clapper is relieved closed by a mechanical latch or water pressure, a
through the release line, and the clapper is lifted by retard chamber is not necessary. It is used in other
the supply water pressure underneath. Water fills systems to prevent supply water pressure surges
the piping and is discharged from all the sprinkler from activating the alarm devices. Another device
heads on the system. The priming, or bypass, line that cannot be used is the paddle-type water flow
restricted orifice cannot make up water pressure switch. Because the water rushes into the system
fast enough to overcome the released pressure on piping when the deluge valve is tripped, the paddle
the top of the clapper when the detection system in the pipe would either be ripped off or severely
has opened the release line and relieved the pres- damaged by the velocity of a sudden rush of water.
sure on the top of the clapper. (This condition also exists on the dry pipe system.)
Most other deluge valves have a clapper that is Paddle-type water flow switches can only be used
latched in the closed position. One such valve has on wet pipe systems where the piping is constantly
a diaphragm with equal pressure on both sides. filled with water. When the system operates, the
Activation of the detection system relieves the water surrounding the paddle in the piping merely
pressure on one side of the diaphragm and, when deflects with the movement of the water.
the diaphragm moves, it operates a shaft and
lever mechanism which unlatches the clapper.
Another manufacturer provides a deluge valve Pre-action Systems
that has a weight held in a fixed position. When
the detection system is activated, the weight is The dry pipe system was an adaptation of the
released and drops, opening the clapper latch. basic wet pipe system; the pre-action system is a
The water pressure rotates the clapper to the open sophistication of the dry pipe system. The pre-
position. action system provides more efficient fire protec-
The water supply to the deluge system is con- tion than the dry pipe system and minimizes the
trolled by a valve in the water supply line to the possibility of water damage-both accidental and
system. As with the dry pipe system, once the fire related-but these features introduce addi-
system has tripped and the clapper has rotated to tional cost.
the open position, any water pumped through the When installing fire protection in a freezing
fire department connection will pass back through environment, it is necessary to accept the added
the deluge valve into the supply, if the fire depart- cost of the dry pipe system, both in equipment
ment is pumping water in at a higher pressure and labor of installation. Further, the additional
than the system supply pressure. Therefore, it is cost of the pre-action system must be compared
necessary to install a check valve in the water with the protection value for both fire and water
supply to the deluge system below the deluge damage that the pre-action system provides. A
valve to prevent the fire department from pump- pre-action system, except for the pre-action
ing back into the water supply. The fire depart- valve, resembles a dry pipe system, with the same
ment pumper line will be provided with a check piping arrangement, supports, sprinkler head
valve to prevent water from leaking out of the coverage for the hazard protected, and closed
siamese connection, or from discharging out of head sprinkler heads. However, the pre-action
an uncapped siamese, when the deluge system is system has a second system: a detection system.
activated and water fills the system. The piping for a pre-action system is dry, but
When the deluge valve is tripped and the sys- it cannot be referred to as a dry pipe system. Dry
tem piping fills with water, the small alarm line is pipe systems contain piping with pressurized air
114 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Fig. 9.4 Pre-action

System (Courtesy of
Viking Corporation)

or nitrogen and has a valve that is tripped by the Control Panel (2). The panel sends appropriate
loss of pressurized air or nitrogen in the piping. A alarm and trouble signals and, at the same time,
basic pre-action system has a water supply that is signals the release of the solenoid valve (3). The
held back by a pre-action valve. The fusing of a deluge valve priming chamber (4) is then vented
sprinkler head on the system will not activate the faster than water is supplied through the restricted
pre-action valve and admit water to the system. A orifice (5), allowing the deluge valve to open. The
piece of piping on the pre-action system can be water enters the system piping, but until a sprinkler
removed and the pre-action valve will not trip, (6) activates no water is discharged. When the del-
nor will water be discharged. The only action that uge valve operates, pressure closes the valve (7)
will trip a pre-action valve and admit water to the cutting off the supply of water to the priming cham-
system piping is the activation of the detection ber, latching the deluge valve in the open position.
system. This statement is not completely true At this point, no water is discharged until the heat
because there are manual devices available to trip from the combustion fuses a sprinkler head.
the pre-action valve, but the only automatic way
to trip the pre-action valve is activation of the
detection system. Detection System

A sprinkler head, even those temperature-rated at

The Pre-Action Valve 135 or 165 °F, are not considered to be sensitive
detectors. When the heat from combustion has
Water supply to the system is held back by the pre- risen sufficiently to fuse a sprinkler head, consid-
action valve, shown in Fig. 9.4. When the detection erable damage can be inflicted on the occupancy
system is activated: (1) When the detector (1) is before the sprinkler discharge suppresses the
activated by fire, a signal is sent to the Release combustion and cools the area.
Pre-action Systems 115

Fig. 9.5 Water mist

conductivity testing.
(Photograph by Robert
Till)

By using a detection system that is much A smoke detector system that will identify the
more sensitive than a sprinkler head to combus- products of combustion produced while the com-
tion in the very early stages, a fire alarm will be bustion is in the incipient stage-that is before
activated and personnel may be able to extin- there is visible smoke, noticeable heat, or odor.
guish the combustion before sufficient heat A rate-of-rise detection system uses detectors
develops to fuse a sprinkler head. The detection that are activated when the temperature rises in
system that has been activated not only actuates excess of 15 °F per minute, regardless of the
the alarm system, but also trips the pre-action ambient temperature of the area. When the detec-
valve and admits water to the pre-action system. tion system is rate-of-rise, the pneumatic tubing
No water has been discharged at this point also maintains a small air pressure, and should a
because none of the heads have fused, but the leak occur and the tubing pressure be released,
pre-action system has become a wet pipe system. two actions will take place simultaneously. First,
If the occupants cannot extinguish the combus- a trouble alarm will be activated, and secondly,
tion with hand extinguishers or hose, and the the pre-action valve will automatically be tripped
combustion continues to develop, sprinkler admitting water to the piping.
heads will fuse, water will be discharged from Either of these sensitive detection systems
the open heads, and the combustion controlled or will, in most cases, activate long before there is
extinguished. sufficient heat to fuse a sprinkler head or damage
A pre-action system provides an early warn- equipment. Should a fire in the area get out of
ing of a fire condition by the activation of the control, the pre-action piping has been primed,
detection system in most cases long before there full of water, and ready to discharge through the
is sufficient heat to fuse a sprinkler head. first sprinkler head that fuses. This early alarm
The detailed description of various detectors warning will allow occupants alerted by the
and detection systems will be found in the alarm to investigate and determine the source of
Chap. 3. In order to explain more fully the the combustion, and take action to extinguish the
advantages of a pre-action system, two detec- combustion, shut off power to a smoldering wire
tion systems will be briefly described in this or panel board, etc., before the combustion can
section. develop enough heat to fuse a sprinkler head.
116 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Protection of Equipment The advantage of supervising the pre-action

system piping is to prevent any leaks when the
When sprinklers must protect an area containing piping is filled with water. This could occur when
computer or electronic equipment, a pre-action the detection system has been activated and the
system is recommended, even though water dam- piping has filled with water, but the combustion
age from a non-fire situation such as a broken has been extinguished with an extinguisher
sprinkler head or a leaking fitting may be highly before sufficient heat had developed to fuse a
unlikely. Many objections are raised when an sprinkler head.
insurance carrier requires that a computer room If the detection system is electrical, it is super-
be protected with automatic sprinklers. There are vised to protect against a wiring break, short cir-
several good reasons for this requirement. cuit, or ground. When one of these faults occurs,
A computer room is situated in a building that a trouble alarm is activated, and the pre-action
is totally protected with automatic sprinklers, but valve tripped, admitting water to the piping.
there is no sprinkler protection in the computer Supervision of the detection system is necessary
room. Should a fire in the computer room get out because the detection system controls the sprin-
of control, involve the entire room, and then klers. When the detection system is rendered
break out into the sprinklered area of the build- inoperative, the pre-action valve is automatically
ing, it would, in all probability, overpower the tripped, water fills the piping, and sprinkler pro-
sprinkler system, and involve the entire facility. tection is maintained until the fault can be cor-
When objections are raised to protecting the rected and the total pre-action system restored to
computer room or the electronics room with operational status.
sprinklers, it can be stated that when a fire devel-
ops enough heat to fuse a sprinkler head, there is
sufficient heat to damage or destroy all of the Use of Preaction Systems
equipment in the room. When a fire reaches this
condition, water damage is the least of all Since the piping of a pre-action system is dry,
concerns. these systems can be used in areas subject to
freezing. The same design criteria is used for a
pre-action system in these areas: When heads are
 upervising the Piping System
S installed in the pendent position they must be dry
with Air pendent heads. When a pre-action system is used
in areas not subject to freezing, regular pendent
An additional safeguard against mechanical, non- heads may be used, but only if their use is
fire, discharge of water with a pre-action system is approved by the insurance interest. Pre-action
to supervise the pre-action system piping with systems are not recommended for use in cold
compressed air or nitrogen. In fact, the NFPA storage areas such as freezers or walk-in refrig-
requires that pre-action system piping shall be erators because of the time element between
supervised if the system serves more than 20 detection, subsequent filling of the piping with
heads. In such cases, a small air pressure is main- water, personnel response, and possible extin-
tained in the pre-action system piping, and this air guishment of the combustion before a head fuses.
pressure is monitored by a low air pressure alarm Most early warning detection systems are not
device. Should there be a small loss of air pressure affected by low temperature. A rapid rise in tem-
through a defective fitting or pipe crack, the air perature activating a rate-of-rise detection sys-
pressure will drop to a predetermined point and tem, or the products of combustion with a
activate the low air alarm. No water will fill the detection system, could fill the piping with water
piping when the low air alarm is activated because, long before any action was taken to drain the pre-
as previously explained, only the detection system action sprinkler piping. This water in the piping
can automatically trip the pre-action valve and with no movement, and the piping at the tempera-
admit water to the system. ture of the freezer, would allow the water to
Protection of Equipment 117

freeze very quickly, which would present a diffi- some of the piping and water began to gush from
cult and expensive problem. The freezer tempera- a fitting that had cracked under the pressure of the
ture could not be lowered to below freezing long frozen water. Considerable water damage
enough to allow the frozen water in the piping to occurred before the leaks were discovered, and a
turn back to water and be drained off. With the considerable expense was involved in repairing
piping completely clogged with ice, the sprinkler the sprinkler piping. The human element must be
system is useless. The only alternative is to a serious consideration in the judgment to use a
remove the piping, thaw the ice, and reinstall the preaction system under circumstances where the
piping system. During this expensive and time- reliance on adequate and informed operating per-
consuming operation, the one fire protection sonnel is a serious consideration.
advantage would be to keep the detection system
in service. The use of pre-action systems in areas
subject to freezing is a matter of engineering Pre-action System Design Features
judgment combined with a thorough familiarity
with all the conditions surrounding the installa- As stated previously, a pre-action system has the
tion. The following is an actual case example same three essentials as the wet and dry pipe sys-
where the human element was not considered. tems: alarm, water supply valve control, and fire
A pre-action system was installed to protect department pumper connection.
the coal conveyor of a steam power generating The difference is the pre-action valve, a del-
facility. A few years after installation, which was uge valve, or a pre-action deluge valve. The del-
also a few years after operating instructions had uge valve is not activated by a flow of water as is
been received and reviewed with the operating the alarm valve, or by a loss of pressurized air or
personnel (and several personnel changes had nitrogen as is the dry pipe valve. Instead, deluge
occurred) a bearing on a conveyor roller over- valves are activated or tripped by a signal from a
heated and ignited the accumulation of lubricat- detection system. A deluge valve is latched or
ing grease. It was a small fire, but intense enough held shut by water pressure and, regardless of
to activate the detection system, which opened the what may affect the system piping or sprinkler
pre-action valve admitting water to the piping and heads, the valve does not trip and discharge water
transmitted an alarm to the control room. to the system until a detection system releases the
Personnel were dispatched to the area and the fire valve to allow water flow. Once a deluge valve is
was quickly extinguished with a dry chemical tripped and water flows, water can enter an alarm
extinguisher. Since the heat from the fire diffused line and activate a pressure switch, close electri-
by the extreme draft conditions often found in cal contacts, and activate an alarm system. In
conveyor enclosures was not intensely concen- addition, water can also be admitted to the alarm
trated enough to fuse a sprinkler head, no water line to operate a water motor alarm. The pressure
was discharged. The sprinkler system looked no switch and water motor alarm are identical to
different after the fire than it had looked before the those used on the wet and dry pipe systems.
fire, and no different than it had looked to the
operating personnel every day over the years. No A word of caution The use of a paddle-type flow
one realized, or was aware of the fact that, the sys- switch is not allowed on a pre-action system for
tem had tripped and should have been drained the same reason this device could not be used on a
down and the valve reset. The result was obvious, dry pipe system. When the deluge valve opens,
the mechanical repair to the conveyor was com- there is a rush of water into the system, and the
pleted in short order and the personnel returned to velocity of this volume of water would seriously
their normal duties. The piping froze overnight, damage the paddle of the flow switch in the pipe.
and when the sun shone down on the metal roof of Do not use flow switches on dry pipe or pre-action
the conveyor enclosure the next day it thawed systems.
118 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Another important design feature of pre-action A detection system automatically activates a pre-
systems that have supervised piping is mainte- action valve and water is admitted to the system
nance of a constant air pressure. A rubber-seated piping, but no water is discharged until a sprin-
check valve is necessary to maintain air pressure kler head is activated. The fusing of a sprinkler
in the system riser, and is installed on the system head independent of the detection system will not
side of the pre-action valve. Rubber seated check initiate the filling of the piping with water, and
valves are used so that the clapper of the check therefore no water will be discharged from the
valve will form an air tight seal. With metal-to- activated head until the detection system is acti-
metal check valve seats, there can be a tiny metal vated and trips the pre-action valve.
defect that would allow air pressure to escape, or System piping may be supervised with pres-
a grain of sand or dirt can become lodged under surized air or nitrogen to detect leaks, broken pip-
the clapper and destroy an air seal. ing, or a defective or fused sprinkler head before
The fire department pumper connection is the pre-action valve is tripped and water enters
connected into the pre-action system riser on the the system. A low air trouble alarm will indicate
system side of the deluge valve between the del- the loss of the supervision pressurized air or
uge valve and the rubber-seated check valve. This nitrogen. Only activation of the detection system,
connection is made at this point on the system so manual operation of the emergency release, or
the fire department could pump into the system malfunction of the detection system will admit
even if the deluge valve had not tripped and was water to the system piping.
in the closed position.
As with the dry pipe valve, the deluge valve
does not act as a check valve to prevent the fire Double Interlock
department from pumping back into the supply. It
is necessary to have a check valve in the supply The double protection pre-action system is used
riser downstream of the deluge valve. in areas where maximum protection against acci-
If the water supply control valve is to be dental filling of the piping with water is required-
installed in the pre-action riser, it is customarily such as refrigerated storage areas, sensitive
installed below the deluge valve and above the electronic equipment areas, or computer rooms.
water supply check valve. This is referred to as a double interlock pre-action
There is always a check valve in the fire depart- system. With the double interlock pre-action sys-
ment pumper line to prevent water in the riser tem, both the detection system and a sprinkler
from discharging into the siamese connection head must be activated before the water will enter
when the deluge valve trips. This check in the the system piping. Activation of either the detec-
pumper line is required regardless of the type of tion system or a sprinkler head fusing will only
system it serves. A small, usually automatic ball activate an alarm.
check valve is installed on the siamese side of the The piping for this system contains pressur-
check valve at the low point to automatically drain ized air or nitrogen similar to the dry pipe system.
off any condensation water or leakage past the Its design utilizes a deluge valve (pre-action
check valve to prevent freezing in the siamese. valve) which can only be opened when pressure
is reduced in the sprinkler piping and the detec-
tion system operates.
Types of Pre-action Systems This system must only be used with the
approval of the insurance interests having juris-
 asic Pre-action System: Single
B diction and designed by experienced fire protec-
Interlock tion engineers because it greatly increases the
non-fire water damage reliability and the poten-
What has been described is the basic pre-action tial for delay in applying fire suppression water
system, and a single interlock pre-action system. discharge.
Water Spray System 119

Non-interlock very fine water droplets in order to provide more

cooling or to afford maximum cooling on a sur-
The combined dry-pipe and pre-action system face exposed to the radiant heat of a fire. The dis-
can be activated by operation of the detection charge pattern of a sprinkler head may be too
system or the fusing of a sprinkler head. This is uniform, and the water droplets too large to
the regular non-interlock pre-action system. One accomplish this protection, so the sprinkler heads
major design feature of this system is the use of a are replaced with water spray or nozzles (water
dry pipe valve in lieu of the deluge valve, but it fog nozzles). Although water fog is a trade name,
differs from the basic dry pipe system because of it is sometimes used to describe water spray sys-
two factors: Both the release of pressurized air or tems, regardless of the manufacturer. Since the
nitrogen in the piping, and the activation of the current sprinkler heads are referred to as spray
detection system will trip the dry pipe valve. sprinklers, the term water fog has gained even
One major advantage of this system is that, greater general use to identify true water spray
should the detection system fail to operate or systems.
malfunction, the system can operate as a dry pipe A water spray system is a deluge system using
system. By increasing the fire protection reliabil- specially designed nozzles in lieu of open sprin-
ity, this system decreases the non-fire water dam- kler heads on a deluge system. Being a deluge sys-
age potential. Should the sprinkler piping or a tem, the deluge valve is activated by a ­detection
sprinkler head by damaged, the pressurized air or system. When the deluge valve is activated by a
nitrogen will be released, the dry valve will trip, signal from the detection system, water is dis-
piping will fill with water, and the water will be charged from all nozzles on the system simultane-
discharged. ously. Unlike the requirements for sprinkler heads,
The advantage of this system over a basic dry water spray nozzles can be spaced, located, and
pipe system is the detection system sensitivity positioned in any configuration that provides
which will provide an early warning alarm. effective coverage of the protected area. The water
Activation of the detection system will trip the spray pattern, velocity, and density determine the
dry valve and fill the piping with water, but water location and positioning of the water spray
will not discharge until a sprinkler head fuses. nozzles.
As previously described, the basic pre-action Determination of the proper spray pattern and
system valve must receive a signal from the the positioning of the nozzles to take full advan-
detection system to allow water to flow in the tage of the spray pattern requires experience,
piping, but with this system either the detection expertise, and professional judgment. Each water
system or the fusing of a sprinkler head will acti- spray system is individually designed, tailor made,
vate the system. for protection of a specific hazard. NFPA pub-
Quoting from the National Fire Protection lishes a Code (NFPA 15) that furnishes technical
Association Standard for Installation of Sprinkler requirements for the design and engineering of
System (2016) Sect. 7.4.2.2: water spray systems based upon sound engineer-
Combined automatic dry pipe and pre-action sys- ing principles, test data, and field experience. But
tems shall be so constructed that failure of the dry the selection of nozzle patterns, velocity of dis-
pipe system of automatic sprinklers shall not pre- charge, density, positioning of nozzles, etc., is the
vent the detection system from properly function- responsibility of an experienced professional.
ing as an automatic fire alarm system.
Some hazards to be protected with water spray
are so unique that a fire protection company will
construct a mock-up of the equipment, using the
Water Spray System actual flammable liquid involved at their testing
site. The test data obtained is then used to design
In discussing deluge systems, there are numerous and engineer the water spray system for the haz-
instances requiring water discharge over an irreg- ard. Combustion models are also being calibrated
ular mass, like a transformer, or a discharge of to be used in system design.
120 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

There is a very thin line separating water face of the burning liquid. The film is vapor-
spray and standard sprinkler protection: A water ized by the heat of the burning liquid, and this
spray nozzle and sprinkler head discharge differs vaporization process reduces the temperature
in the discharge pattern, velocity, particle size, of the burning liquid. The vaporization of water
and density. Water spray systems may be in the emulsion also reduces the volume of
installed to satisfy several fire protection situa- flammable vapors and produces a barrier on the
tions; extinguishment, controlled burning (limi- surface which excludes air (oxygen) from the
tation of fire spread), exposure protection, and combustion.
fire prevention. Although a water spray system Vapor dilution, the water film in emulsion at
may be designed to perform all of these func- the surface of the burning liquid, can only be
tions, they will be evaluated individually. accomplished if droplets in the water spray are
large enough to pass through the flame area with-
out being vaporized and reach the surface of the
Extinguishment liquid. The flammable oil vapors immediately
above the surface are too rich to burn until they
In the history of sprinkler head development, rise and mix with air to form a combustible
one of the primary fire extinguishing advan- ­mixture. The vaporizing emulsion of water and
tages of the spray sprinkler head over the old- flammable liquid at the surface in this rich vapor
style sprinkler head was its ability to break up area produces a mixture of water and oil vapor
the water discharge into smaller particles for that will not support combustion, and the fire is
better cooling and smothering action when the extinguished.
droplets were converted to steam. Water spray Lighter liquids, like kerosene, do not form an
system nozzles produce a water spray consist- emulsion with sufficient stability to cause extin-
ing of very small water particles that are easily guishment by this method. To extinguish these
converted to steam. This action not only takes lighter liquids and oils, the vaporization of the
heat from the combustion in changing the liq- water spray droplets as they pass through the
uid to vapor, thus cooling the combustion, but flames produces a cooling and smothering
also the steam produced keeps oxygen from extinguishment.
reaching the fire and produces a positive smoth- Dilution is applying sufficient water to dilute
ering action. the flammable liquid to the point where it cannot
Water spray systems have been used, to a produce sufficient flammable vapors to support
limited degree, to extinguish certain flammable combustion. Dilution of a flammable liquid usu-
liquid fires by emulsification, dilution, or both. ally requires so much water that it becomes an
Emulsification is the mixing or combining of impractical fire protection consideration.
the flammable liquid and water to form an
emulsion: In other words, a state of suspension
of water droplets in the flammable liquid, simi- Controlled Burning
lar to the fat content in milk. With emulsion
extinguishment of oil fires, the flames in the The deluge concept of a water spray system, cou-
vapor-air mixture above the surface of the pled with the cooling action of the water spray,
burning liquid are diluted by the water vapor of can effectively limit the spread of a fire, even if
the water spray to a point where there is no lon- the fire is of such intensity that the water spray
ger a flammable vapor-air mixture and the fire system cannot complete extinguishment. In some
is extinguished. specific instances a burning material cannot be
Some water spray droplets are vaporized as extinguished regardless of the amount of water
they pass through the heat of the flames, but the applied, and the intent of the water spray system
primary source of effective water vapor comes is merely to confine the combustion to the point
from the water film in the emulsion at the sur- of origin. Another function of controlled burning
Fire Protection 121

is confinement of a fire that should not be extin- Fire Protection

guished, for example, a fire at a gas line leak. As
long as the fire continues to burn, the escaping An example best illustrates this function of a
gas is consumed. But if the fire were extin- water spray system:
guished, the escaping gas could spread and create A bank of three large oil-cooled transformers at a
a life safety situation or collect in a low point power generating facility each contain 10,000 gal-
some distance from the leak, make contact with lons of oil. An oil reservoir on one transformer is
an ignition source, and ignite or explode. The ruptured and oil starts to spread under the other
transformers. Every hot surface or high voltage
water spray system will be designed to keep the electric contact presents an ignition source. The
surrounding piping and equipment cooled to pre- water spray systems surrounding each transformer
vent explosions, fires, or damage from the radiant are actuated by tripping the water spray deluge
heat. The water spray discharge will also keep the valves automatically by a detection system. The
water spray will disperse the oil and, to a degree,
fire controlled to reduce the intensity of the radi- dilute and thin the oil spill, which very effectively
ant heat produced. keeps all surfaces cool, preventing ignition. Should
one transformer become ignited, water spray on
the uninvolved transformers will prevent or control
radiant heat damage.
Exposure Protection
Using transformers as an example serves two
Many water spray systems are designed specifi- purposes: (1) to point out the use of water spray
cally to remove or reduce the heat from the sur- systems as a fire prevention system, and (2) the
face of structures or equipment exposed to the protection of oil-filled transformers with water
radiant heat of a fire. A research firm conducted spray. An electrical short in a high voltage trans-
tests to determine the effectiveness of deluge sys- former can create enough heat to vaporize the oil.
tems with standard sprinkler heads on aircraft jet The resultant pressure can rupture the oil reser-
fuel spill fires. The data from these tests accents voir casing, spewing hot oil over hot transformer
the value of water spray structural steel exposure surfaces. The resultant fire is extremely intense,
protection. For example: and exposure protection with water spray of the
One test consisted of a fuel spill of 900 to 1300 sq. other uninvolved transformers becomes of the
ft and involving several hundred gallons of jet fuel. utmost importance.
The very turbulent fire plumes that were formed by
this fire attained velocities in excess of 50 miles
per hour and steel specimens, 6 × 8 I-beams located
at a height of 40′ above the fire, and at the ceiling Electrical Conductivity
60’ above the fire, attained temperatures between
800 and 1200 °F within a very few minutes. At  ater spray nozzles placed at a predetermined
W
such temperature levels, structural steel under a distance from electrical equipment will not con-
load condition will deform. When steel deforms,
severe structural damage can occur, therefore, the duct an electrical current on the water droplet
exposure protection of a water spray system can discharge. This is a major consideration in fight-
easily be justified when a steel structure or struc- ing a transformer fire, or a fire in any high voltage
tural steel supports are exposed to an intense fire electrical equipment.
condition.

Designs have been prepared using the water

spray system as a water curtain separating the Water Spray Versus Sprinkler Systems
fire area and the equipment to be protected.
Water spray curtains can be effective under cer- Before examining the design features of water
tain conditions, but direct application of the spray systems, it is important to clarify the inter-
water spray is much more efficient exposure face between sprinkler and water spray systems.
protection. Water spray systems are not intended to replace
122 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

automatic sprinkler systems, although water spray pattern. The engineer must select the proper
spray systems may, under certain circumstances, nozzle to fit the conditions: the nature of the haz-
supplement or compliment sprinkler systems in ard, the purpose of the system, and in severe wind
protecting special hazards. or draft conditions, the deflection of the water
spray. Generally, high velocity nozzles produce a
cone pattern, and low velocity nozzles deliver a
Design Considerations spheroid or cone pattern consisting of a much
finer spray. With most water spray nozzles, the
The first determination in recommending a water higher the velocity, the coarser the spray or water
spray system are droplets, and the greater the range of reach of the
spray. On the market there are several types of
1. the nature of the hazard. very high velocity, high capacity, spray nozzles
2. the specific purpose for using this system. designed primarily for transformer protection.
With heavy capacity few of these nozzles are
The hazards most frequently protected with required. The transformer can be removed with-
water spray systems are those involving flamma- out disturbing the water spray system piping
ble liquids, gas tankage, associated piping, because the nozzles can be located at some dis-
devices, and equipment, electrical equipment tance from the transformer, with wide spacing
such as transformers and oil switches, generators, between nozzles. Water spray nozzles produce
and other rotating electrical machinery. Primary their characteristic spray pattern in different ways
design considerations for a water spray system depending on the manufacturer. One spray nozzle
are the anticipated heat produced by the combus- develops a high rotary motion of the water inside
tion, and the radiant heat from exposure fire. the nozzle head by the use of spiral passages,
Once this is determined, a density (gpm per another by impingement of small, carefully
square foot) sufficient to absorb the combustion directed jets of water through opposite multiple
and exposure head can be calculated. discharge openings in the nozzle body, while a
third type impinges small jet streams of water by
multiple small opposed openings on the outside
Nozzle Selection of the nozzle body.
Spray nozzles are available that not only
Another consideration is the droplet size pro- resemble regular pendent sprinklers, but also
duced by the nozzles to determine if the water function as a regular sprinkler-the only difference
spray should be coarse or fine. The extinguish- is the specially designed deflector. These spray
ment of a fire occurs at an interface between the nozzles may have a fusible link similar to a stan-
surface of the burning material and the base of dard sprinkler head.
the flame, so it is necessary to use a nozzle that There are many other approved spray noz-
will not only produce a water spray at the zles on the market, but one unique nozzle
required density, but also a water spray deliv- deserves mention. The spiral-type spray nozzle
ered at a velocity and mass (droplet size) to pen- is designed to discharge water along the axis of
etrate the heated air currents and reach the fire an external spiral with a diminishing inside
zone. In the case of exposure protection, the sur- diameter. The water discharging over and
face of the equipment must be completely cov- around this spiral literally peels off in thin lay-
ered in spite of heat waves radiating off the ers from the surface of the cone, and this thin
metal surface. layer of water breaks into a spray as it leaves the
Nozzles for water spray systems come in all spiral.
sizes and shapes with an equal multitude of dis- It is usually a requirement of the insurance
charge patterns and methods of developing the interests and is always a recommendation of the
Fire Protection 123

fire protection engineer, to install a strainer in the consideration the number of nozzles that will oper-
main water supply to a water spray system to ate in any anticipated fire condition, and the
remove any foreign material such as sand, dirt, or required duration of the water supply to the water
scale before it lodges in the small orifice of a spray system, and this must be evaluated for each
spray nozzle and disrupts the discharge pattern. installation. The anticipated duration of discharge
Water spray nozzles that depend on very small jet depends on the nature of the hazard and the pur-
stream orifices to create a specific discharge pat- pose for which the system is designed. In discuss-
tern will have their own individual internal ing the water supply, two factors warrant discussion.
strainer at each nozzle, but this does not eliminate First, the number of nozzles that will operate. Most
the need for the main line strainer to remove water spray systems are open head deluge type, but
larger foreign material before it can clog the noz- closed orifice nozzles are available. These systems
zle strainer. Main line strainers are designed so operate like sprinkler systems, with only the
they can be flushed periodically. involved nozzles operating. Secondly, the size of
In addition to the possibility of internal clog- the system. Insurance standards recommend that
ging of small orifices, spray nozzles installed in the size of water spray systems be limited so that
an atmosphere similar to paint vapor or a corro- the designed discharge rate, calculated at the mini-
sive atmosphere may require blow off caps. Blow mum pressures required for the nozzle discharge to
off caps fit over the nozzle in such a manner that be effective, will not exceed 3000 gpm.
the water pressure will immediately blow them Sizing the System
off. To prevent personnel from being struck by Naturally, the size of a water spray system is
the blown off cap, it is attached by a chain or governed by:
cable to the nozzle body. This attachment allows
for reuse after the system is shut off. • The nature of the hazard
• The combustibles involved
• Size of the area being protected
Configuration of Equipment • Type and amount of equipment or structural
elements being protected
Once a nozzle is selected, the next step is to study • The size of the potential fire hazard
the physical arrangement and configuration of the
structure or equipment to be protected. This crite- Other systems in the area could limit the size
ria will enable the engineer to determine the or spread of a fire. Fire wall subdivision of the
proper placement of the nozzles and the angle at area would afford containment of a fire, and
which the nozzles will be installed, since each dikes, curbs, and drainage facilities can limit the
nozzle has a predetermined discharge cone or pat- spread and extent of a flammable liquid fire. Flow
tern. The nozzle discharge capacity, location, and from a water spray system can vary from a few
spacing of the nozzles, angle of discharge, and the hundred to several thousand gallons per minute
nozzle discharge cone or pattern, all contribute to depending on the type of hazard and the extent of
the delivery of the desired density requirement the anticipated fire area. The duration of the flow
over the entire surface to be protected. from a water spray system depends on many fac-
tors and can vary from 2 min to more than 2 h
when exposure protection is involved. Water
Water Supply spray systems usually protect high value and high
hazard equipment or facilities, and the detection
Hydraulic calculations based on supply and system that activates these systems must be
demand will determine the proper size and water reliable, dependable, and in some cases, quite
requirements. Water supply needs must take into sensitive.
124 9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types

Water Mist Systems Electrical Conductivity

Water Mist has been demonstrated to be a suit- Tests have been run at very high voltages from
able system replacement for gaseous suppression nozzles onto plates with demonstrating that water
systems (Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression mist is not a good conductor of electricity.
Systems) in many commercial and industrial
applications. Like water spray it is:
Design Considerations
• Environmentally acceptable
• Non-toxic Water mist systems generate particularly small
• Safe for use in areas occupied by humans water particles (on the order of 0.3–0.0005 mm).
• Highly efficient as a fire suppression agent These particles require high operating pressure
• Low electrical conductivity pumps and therefore large power supplies to pro-
duce these small water particles. In addition, due
The design of water mist systems in the US is to this high pressure, it is necessary to use high
governed by NFPA 750. The droplet size and pressure stainless steel piping, which is very
therefore the cooling influence of the water emit- expensive, but easily installed due to its
ted from such systems is superior even to water flexibility.
spray. Disadvantages of the systems include cost As it will not splatter fires or flammable liq-
due to the special pumps involved and the exten- uids, water mist be used on all four classes of fire,
sive use of expensive stainless-steel components although design considerations, such as initial
and piping. Another disadvantage may be the fire size may be a limitation.
large power draw of the high-pressure pumps. Water removes oxygen (and steam) at the pre-
However, when large areas (such as ships, and cise point of combustion, so it is not harmful to
underground structures) need to be protected humans, and does not require the space where it
with a minimal quantity of water these systems is deployed to be evacuated.
have proven to be a superior alternative.

Water Supply
Extinguishing Method
Use of a particular local water supply can depend
Water mist also cools the fire to such an extent on the particular suspended particle measurement
that it collapses the heat portion of the fire trian- of the supply. Areas with a large quantity of sus-
gle. Larger drops have larger surface areas than pended particles in their water supply can clog
small drops. This is important because it is screens required to be located at the entrance of
through the surface area that the water absorbs the heads.
heat. The more surface area that can be exposed
to a fire, the better and quicker the extinguish-
ment will be. In one drop of water, we can nor- References
malize the surface area to 1 and vaporization
occurs in about 1 s. Class 2/3 mist has 40 drops in Hall, John R. “U.S. Experience with Sprinklers and Other
Automatic Fire Extinguishing Equipment.” (2010)
the same volume, and this results in a surface Golinveaux, James. “Quick Opening Devices (Dry Pipe
area be exposed to the fire of 10 time that of a Valve Accelerator).” 3/12 2018. < ­http://www.tyco-
sprinkler droplet, and a vaporization rate of 0.1 s. fire.com/TFP_common/accelerators-white.pdf>.
 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler
Systems 10

Design Criteria
Hydraulic Calculations
By hydraulically calculating the area of opera-
Automatic sprinkler systems are classified as light tion, one is saying that the pipe is sized to deliver
hazard, ordinary hazard, and extra hazard based on the required flow and pressure each head in the
the building use or type of occupancy the system it is area of operation and sizing the pipe back to the
designed to protect, and there are different pipe size system water supply in order to deliver the
schedules for each of these three classifications. demand for the area of operation.
In NFPA 13 (2016) the design criteria used in Hydraulic calculations use design criteria
hydraulic calculations is also based on three clas- which is based on the type of occupancy, and
sifications, but ordinary hazard classification is mandates that each head on the system will dis-
subdivided into Ordinary Hazard Group 1 and charge not less than a specified, or predeter-
Ordinary Hazard Group 2. Extra hazard is also mined, number of gallons per minute per square
divided into Extra Hazard Group 1 and Extra foot of the protected area. For closed head sprin-
Hazard Group 2 (See Fig. 10.1). kler systems, there must also be an area of opera-
When using the pipe schedule to size sprinkler tion, or area of application, which is the maximum
piping, a table in NFPA Standard 13 provides the square footage a fire in that type of occupancy
requirements for water supply. This table is broken has the potential to cover. This area establishes
down into requirements for water supply, and the quantity of sprinklers required open to con-
requirements for light and ordinary hazard, Groups tain and extinguish the fire within the area of
1 and 2. Extra hazard requirements for water supply operation. This area also establishes the number
must be approved by the insurance carrier. of heads to be hydraulically calculated:
When using hydraulic calculations to size the sys- Divide the square footage of the area of operation
tem piping, another table in NFPA Standard 13 can by the square footage each sprinkler head covers.
be used to obtain the design criteria for the different If each sprinkler head covers 100 sq. ft, and the
classifications, or the design criteria will be provided area of operation is 3000 sq. ft, 30 heads will have
to be calculated.
by the insurance carrier. Since the piping schedule
method is rarely used, this chapter addresses the Over this area of operation, every sprinkler head
hydraulic calculation method for sizing pipe. The must have sufficient volume and pressure to dis-
purpose of this chapter is not to instruct the reader in charge at least the predetermined and stipulated
how to make hydraulic calculations, but to present gallons per minute per square foot. This area of
the concepts so as to provide familiarity with the pro- operation must be the area that is furthermost
cedure and take out some of the “mystery.” removed, hydraulically, from the source of supply.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 125

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_10
126 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Fig. 10.1 NFPA 13 Density/Area curves. (Reprinted with permission from NFPA 13–2016, Standard for the Installation
of Sprinkler Systems, Copyright © 2015, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is
not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard
in its entirety which may be obtained through the NFPA website at www.nfpa.org)

This is commonly referred to as the most hydrauli- When calculating a deluge system, the design
cally remote square feet. If the gpm per square foot criteria will state so many gpm per square foot
can be accomplished by hydraulic calculations in over the entire area, since every head on a deluge
the most remote area hydraulically from the source system is the entire area covered by the system.
of system water supply, all the heads in the other
areas of operation (closer to the system water sup-
ply) will discharge the required gpm per square Flow Data
foot, or more, since the pipe friction loss to reach
these closer areas of operation is less than that In order to hydraulically calculate a system, the
required to reach the remote area of operation. flow data must be available. Flow data is the sup-
For example (Fig. 10.2): ply criteria. This is the static pressure, or the pres-
The design criteria for this facility is 0.30 gpm per sure in the supply main with no water flowing.
square foot over the most hydraulically remote In addition, the residual pressure is that left in the
3000 sq. ft. Therefore, it is only necessary to deter- water supply main when water is flowing. But
mine which 3000 sq. ft are the most remote, residual pressure is of no value unless the amount
hydraulically, from the system water supply. With
each head covering 100 sq. ft, hydraulically calcu- (gpm) of water flowing at the time residual pres-
late the 30 heads in this area. As mentioned previ- sure is obtained is known. It is imperative to
ously, all the other areas of operation (the 3000 sq. obtain all three facts:
ft) closer to the supply will receive the same, if not
more, than the water demand in the remote area.
• static pressure
As stated, hydraulically calculating the heads in • residual pressure
the remote area of operation means sizing the • flow in gallons per minute when the residual
piping to these heads so that each head will be pressure was read on the gauge.
discharging not less than the design criteria man-
dates, namely 0.30 gpm per square foot or in the All three of these items are necessary to prepare
example with 100 sq. ft per head, 30 gpm per a supply graph. Figure 11.3 indicates the supply
head (0.30 times the 100 sq. ft). graph for a water supply from a source like a city
Hydraulic Calculations 127

Fig. 10.2 Hydraulically most remote area – Curfew Company diagram. (Courtesy of MEPCAD)

water main-it is a straight line. When the system water was at a much greater level. This example
demand is calculated, it is plotted on this graph. If is an exaggeration, but it illustrates that flow
the demand is below the supply line, the supply data can change during the course of a day or
will satisfy the demand, but if the demand is above week, and the 10 psi safety factor of the demand
the supply line, the supply will not satisfy the below the supply curve allows for these periodic
demand. It is always recommended and should “normal” changes in the flow data. Keep in mind
always be specified, and is sometimes required by that the supply curve for a fire pump actually
the authority having jurisdiction, to have the calcu- includes the pump curve, or a combination of the
lated system demand fall at least ten psi below the two, which reflects what residual pressure the
supply line. This is important because flow data on pump suction is receiving when it is delivering
a water main can depend on peak usage hours. For the required demand volume.
this reason, the information sheet on a set of
hydraulic calculations that describes the flow data
must include date, location, day of the week, and Flow Test
even time of day.
Flow data obtained from a flow test on a city Flow data from a municipal or private water supply
main performed at ten o’clock on a Sunday would is obtained by conducting a flow test. A flow test
obviously produce much better results than if the consists of placing a pressure gauge on one 2–1/2″
same flow data were obtained at 10 o’clock on a outlet of a hydrant and opening the hydrant nut to
Monday when domestic and industrial use of admit water. No water is flowing because the
128 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Fig. 10.3 Pressure and Flow Demand Using Autosprink Software. (Courtesy of MEPCAD)

pressure gauge is screwed into the hydrant outlet still closed, removes a 2–1/2″ hydrant cap. When
cap, and the other caps on the hydrant are still in both individuals are “ready,” the second person
place. With no water flowing from this hydrant opens the hydrant to allow water to flow from the
(it is now under pressure), the static pressure is open 2–1/2″ hydrant outlet. When this individual
indicated on the gauge. notices that the flow from the hydrant is constant,
One person is stationed at this hydrant with a pitot tube is inserted in the flow. This tube mea-
the pressure gauge, and another goes to a second sures the velocity pressure of the flowing water,
hydrant on the water main, and, with the hydrant which is recorded on a pressure gauge attached to
Computer Versus Hand Calculations 129

the pitot tube. When the person feels that the gpm. This increase in pressure at each succeed-
reading on the tube pressure gauge has stabilized, ing head increases its discharge. The example
a signal is given to the other person at the static above is extreme, since the friction loss of
pressure gauge hydrant, and the static pressure approximately three psi is in all probability too
gauge, which is now registering residual pres- great, and the pipe size would have been 1–1/4′
sure, is recorded. to reduce the friction loss to 0.74 psi in lieu of
When the test is over, and the hydrants returned 2.76 psi with the 1″ pipe. This does point out the
to their normal condition, the reading on the tube necessity to adjust pipe sizes in performing
pressure gauge is compared with a chart which hydraulic calculations in order to maintain the
converts velocity pressure to flow in gallons per demand, both in volume and pressure, remain
minute. The flow data is complete: static pressure, below the supply curve. The foregoing illustrates
residual pressure, and flow in gpm at the residual the reason to increase the design criteria by 15%
pressure. and even 20% to obtain a realistic demand figure.
This is a simplified explanation of a flow test. As the stamp on a preliminary plan states, this
There are certain items that must be taken into figure is preliminary and not for construction.
consideration, such as the size and shape of the The only figure that can be used to size fire
hydrant outlet. These factors influence the veloc- pumps, storage volumes underground mains,
ity pressure of the hydrant discharge, and the etc., is the figure at the bottom of the hydraulic
chart that converts velocity pressure to flow has calculation sheets.
allowances for these conditions in the form of dif-
ferent columns on the chart, or a factor to multiply
the velocity pressure by to obtain a true reading. Computer Versus Hand Calculations

Most hydraulic calculations for fire suppression

Approximate Calculated Demand systems are currently performed by computers.
The extremely simplified example presented later
The approximate gpm demand of a system can in this chapter points out one minor reason for
be obtained from the design criteria by multiply- performing hydraulic calculations by use of a
ing the density, gpm per square foot, by the area computer program. Had this calculation been
of operation. To bring this figure up to a more performed by hand, and the excessive friction
accurate demand figure and closer to what will be loss been reflected in too small a pipe sizing
the gpm at the bottom of the hydraulic calcula- throughout the calculation, the demand would
tion sheet, multiply the answer by 1.15. The fric- probably have been above the supply curve, the
tion loss in the pipe in the calculations will calculation sheets thrown away, and the calcula-
increase the psi at each head and subsequently tions redone with adjusted pipe sizing to reduce
result in slightly more gpm at each head. The end friction loss. By computer, these adjustments
head in the area of operation where the calcula- could be made, and the calculations redone
tions begin is the only head that will discharge almost at the flick of a few keys.
exactly (in our example) 30 gpm–0.30 times the The hydraulic calculations prepared by hand
area covered by head, namely 100 sq. ft. In order that have been included in this text are merely pre-
to discharge 30 gpm, this head requires a specific sented to show the steps involved in preparing
amount of pressure, in this case approximately hydraulic calculations. Including these calculation
29 psi. In getting 30 gpm through the 1″ pipe 10′ sheets is basically an effort to establish the proce-
long there will be almost a three psi loss due to dure for calculating a sprinkler system by “walk-
friction in this length of pipe. Therefore, at the ing the reader through” a sprinkler calculation to
second head, the psi will have to be 29 psi plus offer the basic concept of hydraulic calculations.
three psi, or 32 psi to deliver 30 gpm to the end The hand calculations are based on a common
head at 29 psi. This means that the second head sprinkler layout: One common supply main (the
will be discharging at 32 psi, approximately 32 trunk) feeds the sprinkler lines (the branches).
130 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Sprinkler systems where the lines are all a pipe selection system, it can only be assumed
joined together are known as gridded systems. that the combustion will be suppressed and/or
These systems allow much smaller pipe sizes but extinguished by the system discharge. There is an
are next to impossible to hydraulically calculate industry adage that if you give five sprinkler
by hand. The calculations must be done by com- designers a building to be protected, you will get
puter (unless performed by a highly experienced five different system designs. The same holds true
engineer with a lot of time on his hands). of hydraulic calculations and the resultant pipe
sizing. The previously mentioned performance
specification is a variation in layouts and calcula-
Necessity of Hydraulic Calculations tions. The performance system and specification
leaves the design up to the bidder or contractor.
Unless the system is laid out, hydraulically Usually only the point where the system water
calculated, and the pipe sizes derived from the supply enters the building is indicated, and the
calculations indicated on the plans, a detailed design, system criteria, and parameters are cov-
cost estimate cannot be prepared. If the design ered in the specifications. This can sometimes
criteria is given but a preliminary system design lead to a wide variance in bids because one bidder
with pipe sizes is not presented, the estimator may have figured a gridded system and another a
will not have any concept of pipe sizing. Many “Christmas tree” system. In addition, the architect
performance specifications will provide the and engineer generally have little control over the
design criteria, but because it is a performance system layout. When shop drawings (installation
spec, no preliminary system design will be plans) are received to be checked, the architect/
offered, and the estimator is at a loss for pipe engineer has little recourse as long as the system
sizes and lengths. Caution: If the engineer on a design meets specifications and satisfies design
project elects to use his or her experience and criteria. The architect/engineer may recommend
judgment in selecting the design criteria for the design alterations if the proposed layout does not
hydraulic calculations from the NFPA Standard meet expectations relative to appearance or poten-
13 table, it is always advisable to verify the tial maintenance or space allocation problems. A
design criteria with the insurance carrier. preliminary system design with pipe sizes deter-
Insurance carriers know the operation and haz- mined by hydraulic calculations will correct some
ards of their clients, and if the engineer selects a of these problems, and all the bids will be based
design criteria that is not adequate to satisfy the on the same factors, but the preliminary design
insurance requirements, this can cause additional and pipe sizes may not be the most economical or
and unnecessary expense in recalculating, rede- efficient. It is, therefore, always recommended
sign, and possibly retrofitting the installation. that the specifications allow the successful bidder
to redesign and recalculate the system based on
the specification requirements, subject to the
Summary approval of the engineer.
The next portion of this chapter contains
Hydraulically calculated systems provide assur- Fig. 10.4, Hydraulic Calculation Sheets, and an
ance that an efficient and effective amount of explanation (Fig. 10.5) of how these figures were
water will be discharged on the combustion. With derived.
Summary 131

Fig. 10.4 Hydraulic Calculation

132 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Fig. 10.4 (continued)

Summary 133

Fig. 10.4 (continued)

134 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Fig. 10.4 (continued)

Summary 135

Fig. 10.4 (continued)

136 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

Explanation of Hydraulic Calculation Sheets—1 through 4

A. Sheet One: Cover or Information Sheet.

1. Basic Design Data: This criteria is, in most instances, furnished by the insurance
interest having jurisdiction. If density and area are obtained from NFPA pamphlet
No. 13, or FM Loss Prevention Data, it is imperative that the criteria be approved
by the insurance interest having jurisdiction prior to preparing shop drawings.

2. Flow Test Data: The supply and demand curves (Sheet 4) present a graphic
indication of the importance of a realistic and accurate flow test.

3. The balance of Sheet 1 is self-explanatory and furnishes a concise overview of the

entire hydraulic situation.

B. Calculations:

1. Design Criteria: .25 gpm per-square-foot area of application—2,800 square feet.

2. Due to construction of the building, the system has been laid out on the basis of 10
feet between heads, 10 feet between lines: 100 square feet per head.

3. An area of 2,800 square feet is selected most remote from the supply.

a. If the design criteria can be met for this area, there is assurance that areas closer
to the supply (shorter supply runs) will be well within the design criteria.

b. We have picked the “worst condition”—hydraulically—due to the longest

supply to feed this area, and is furthest from the system supply.

4. Step No. 1: (2,800 divided by 100 sq. ft./head = 28 heads calculated)

a. 100 square feet per head .25 gpm per square foot 100 × .25 = 25 gpm.

b. This means that the furthest sprinkler head from the supply must deliver 25
gpm.

c. Head 1 (nozzle type and location column).

d. Q = 25 gpm (flow in gpm column).

5. Step No. 2:

a. Now we must determine what pressure will be required at head 1 to deliver 25

gpm.

Fig. 10.5 Explanation of Hydraulic Calculation Sheets

Summary 137

(1) In order to keep the pressure in the total system within the flow test range,
and keep pipe size to a minimum, and in view of a good gpm flow, we have
chosen a “large orifice” head which gives a large volume at a low pressure.

(2) From the manufacturer’s data, the L.O. head we are using (Viking) has a “K”
factor of 8.2.

(3) The “K” factor is a constant which reduces the friction loss in the head, and
fitting the head screws into, to a single number for loss through a single
orifice.

b. Using the Formula: Q = K P

Q = gpm flow

K = Constant

P = psi

And substituting

Q=K P

P =Q/K

P = 25 / 8.2

P = 9.30 psi

It requires 9.30 psi at the head to deliver 25 gpm. Insert 9.30 in “required psi”
column, PT = Total Pressure.

6. Step No. 3:

a. We select 1-inch pipe size for the end head supply and enter this in “Pipe Size”
column.

(1) This may have to be changed if the friction loss is too great.

b. There are no fittings to enter in the “Fitting and Device” column since the “K”
factor takes into account the fitting supplying the head.

c. We enter 10.00 feet in “pipe equiv. length” column since the pipe supplying
head 1 is 10 feet long.

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

138 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

d. This 1-inch pipe must deliver 25 gpm to head 1—the friction loss per foot
tables for 1-inch pipe, 25 gpm flowing, is .199 psi/ft. 10 × .199 = 1.99 psi (total
friction loss)

Enter this in “required psi” column under “PF” (friction loss psi).

e. The pipe is run level (NFPA 13, 1978, Wet System Piping Drainage) so there is
no static, or elevation, loss to enter after “PE” (elevation psi loss or gain).

7. Step No. 4:

a. Total the psi required (to deliver 9.30 psi at end head) at head 1 and friction
loss: PT = 11.29

b. At head 2 there is a total of 11.29 psi and we must determine how many gpm
11.29 psi will deliver.

Q=K P

Q = 8.2 11.29

Q = 27.55

c. Head 2 will deliver 27.55 gpm and head 1 is delivering 25.00 gpm.

d. Enter head 2 delivery in flow column under small “Q” and add to head 1 flow.

e. Total “Q” is now 52.55 gpm and the second piece of pipe must deliver 52.55
gpm.

f. Select 1-1/4-inch pipe. Length 10.00 feet. No fitting.

g. Friction loss per foot—1-1/4-inch pipe flowing 52.55 gpm is .210 psi/ft. 10 ×
.210 = 2.10 psi friction loss—enter in “PF” and add to obtain a new total “PT”
of 13.39 psi.

8. Step No. 5:

a. Determine what gpm head 3 will deliver at 13.39 psi.

Q=K P

Q = 8.2 13.39

Q = 30.01 gpm

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

Summary 139

b. Enter this after small “Q” and add to gpm for head 1 and 2.

c. Total gpm that the third piece of pipe must deliver—large “Q”—is 82.56 gpm.

d. Select 1-1/2-inc pipe. Length is 5 feet to the tee on top of the riser pipe. (The
riser pipe supplies lines number one and two).

e. The water coming up the riser pipe must change direction in the tee on top to
enter line number one.

f. To obtain the friction loss due to this change in direction we look on the
“Equivalent Pipe Length Chart.” Under “tees” for 1 and 1/2-inch (use the pipe
size of the pipe entering the tee) the friction loss in the tee is 8 feet. Enter this 8-
feet in “ftg” slot and add to pipe length. Total is 13-feet.

g. From the table 82.56 gpm flowing through 1-1/2-inch pipe—.324 psi friction
loss per foot.

13 × .324 = 4.21 psi (Total Friction Loss).

Enter this in “required psi” column under “PF”.

h. The total pressure at the centerline of the riser pipe tee is 17.60 psi.

9. Step No. 6:

a. The same process is performed for line number two (Sheet 3).

b. We find that at the centerline of the riser pipe tee the following condition exists.

Line (1) 82.56 gpm @ 17.60 psi.

Line (2) 116.02 gpm @ 18.51 psi.

c. Since it is impossible to have two pressures at this point, and since the
minimum pressure to supply line number is 18.51 psi, we must determine what
gpm line one will receive at 18.51 psi in lieu of 17.60 psi.

d. To do this we must convert line one to a “K” factor.

Q=K P

K=Q P

K = 82.56 17.60

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

140 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

K = 19.66 (K for line # 1)

e. Now we can determine what this “single orifice” (line one) will receive (gpm)
at the higher psi.

Q=K P

Q = 19.66 18.51

Q = 84.54 gpm (Flow to line 1 at 18.51 psi.)

f. At a balanced pressure (18.51 psi) at the centerline of the tee on top of the riser
pipe (2 × 1-1/2 × 2-1/2) the gpm to line (1) is 84.54 gpm and to line (2) is
116.02 gpm.

10. Step No. 7:

a. The riser pipe (“R.P.” Sheet 3) must supply line one and line two.

b. Enter line on gpm in “flow in gpm” column (Sheet 3) and add to line two flow.
Total “Q” = 200.56 gpm.

c. Select 2-1/2-inch for riser pipe size.

(1) Once again—this is a matter of judgment, taking into consideration total

flow vs. friction loss.

d. The length of the riser pipe is 2 feet.

(1) Section shows 3 feet to the cross main and plan indicates centerline of lines
1-foot below top of B.J. Therefore, 2-foot riser pipe.

e. The water from the cross main must change direction to enter the riser pipe, so
we have a fitting friction loss to consider. From the table 2-1/2² tee = 12 feet.

2 feet + 12 feet = 14-foot total, for riser pipe.

f. 200.56 gpm flowing through 2-1/2-inch pipe—.147 psi friction loss/foot 14 ×

.147 = 2.06 psi friction loss in riser pipe (PF = 2.06).

g. There is a 2-foot elevation change—loss, since the water must rise 2 feet from
the cross main to lines one and two.

2 × .434 = .87 psi static loss

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

Summary 141

PE = .87

h. Adding PT at top of riser pipe to PF and PE = a PT of 21.44 psi at the

centerline of the cross main tee feeding the riser pipe.

11. Step No. 8:

a. Cross main “A” must supply 200.56 gpm.

b. Length cross main (CM) “A” = 10 feet.

c. Friction loss in selected pipe size for CM “A”, 2-1/2-inch, with 200.56 gpm
flowing is .147 psi/ft.

10 × .147 = .147 psi.

d. 21.44 psi (PT) plus PF 1.47 psi = 22.91 psi (PT at centerline of cross main tee
feeding riser pipe and lines three and four.

12. Step No. 9:

a. Lines three and four supplying riser pipe are all identical to lines one and two
and R.P. for one and two.

b. Necessary to determine the gpm lines three and four will receive at a psi of
22.91.

c. Line one and two and R.P. must be reduced to a “single orifice” flow (“K”).

Q=K P

K=Q P

K = 200.56 21.44

K = 43.32 (“K” at centerline of cross main tee for R.P. to lines one and two).

d. Substituting

Q=K P

Q = 43.32 22.91

Q = 207.50 gpm (“Q”—flow—to lines three and four @ 22.91 psi).

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

142 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

13. Step No. 10:

a. CM B must supply lines one and two (200.56 gpm) and lines three and four
(207.50 gpm), or a total of 408.06 gpm.

b. Select 3-inch pipe for CM B.

c. Length CM B = 10 feet.

d. Friction loss with 408.06 gpm—3-inch pipe = .189 psi/ft. 10 × .189 = 1.89 psi
(PF)

e. Total (PT) at centerline of CM tee for lines five and six is 24.80 psi.

14. Step No. 11:

a. Lines five and six and R.P. are identical to lines one and two and R.P. which we
reduced to a “K” of 43.32.

b. At 24.80 psi lines five and six will receive:

Q=K P

Q = 43.32 24.80

Q = 215.73 gpm.

15. Step No. 12:

a. CM “C” must now supply a total of 408.06 gpm plus 215.73 gpm = “Q” of
623.79 gpm.

b. CM “C” = 10-foot length.

c. Select 3-1/2-inch pipe size for CM “C”.

d. 623.79 gpm flowing through 3-1/2-inch pipe—friction loss—.203 psi/ft.

10 × .203 = 2.03 psi (PF)

e. Total pressure (PT) at centerline of CM tee supplying line seven and eight is
26.83 psi.

f. Lines seven and eight and R.P. identical lines one and two and R.P. “K” for
lines one and two and R.P.—43.32.

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

Summary 143

Q=K P

Q = 43.32 26.83

Q = 224.40 gpm delivered to lines seven and eight @ 26.83 psi.

g. CM “D” must supply 623.79 gpm plus 225.50 gpm = total “Q” = 848.19 gpm.

h. CM “D” length—to the perimeter of the calculated area is 6.5 feet.

i. Select 3-1/2-inch pipe for CM “D”.

j. 848.19 gpm through 3-1/2-inch pipe—.359 psi/ft friction loss.

6.5 × .359 = 2.33 psi (PF).

k. Total psi (PT) at perimeter of calculated area is: 29.16 psi with 848.19 gpm
flowing.

16. Step No. 13:

a. It has been determined that we must supply the “most remote” (to the supply)
area with 848.19 gpm @ 29.16 psi.

b. It can be easily seen that if we accomplish this criteria we will more than satisfy
the design criteria (.25 gpm/sq ft) as we approach the supply.

c. Therefore: we can consider the CM and bulk main as supply pipe or bulk main
(BM).

d. No friction loss for riser pipe tees or tee that feeds the second CM since the
water flows “straight through” with no friction loss.

e. From the perimeter of the calculated area to the last line tee on the CM is 33.5
feet—BM “E”.

f. Select 3-1/2-inch pipe.

g. 848.19 gpm flowing through 3-1/2-inch pipe (to the calculated area)—.359
psi/ft friction loss.

33.5 × .359 = 12.03 psi “PF”.

h. “PT” at perimeter of calculated area, 29.16 plus 12.03 = 41.19 psi “PT.”

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

144 10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems

i. Since BM “F” is long and friction loss would be considerable, select 4-inch
pipe.

j. BM “F” = 111 feet. ELL at north end and at riser (supply riser) where water will
change direction. From table 4² ELL = 10 feet pipe equiv. BM “F” = 111.0¢
plus 20¢ = 131 feet.

k. 848.19 gpm flowing through 4-inch pipe—.194 psi/ft friction loss.

131 × .194 = 25.41 psi “PF.”

l. “PT” 41.19 psi plus 25.41 psi “PF” = 66.60 psi at top of supply riser.

17. Step No. 14:

a. Riser is 24.5 feet high from the flange of the underground to the ELL at the top.

b. The Fire Department tee is a straight through flow—no PF loss.

c. The alarm valve and gate valve (OS&Y), 4-inch size, has an equivalent friction
loss of 22 feet of 4-inch pipe.

24.5 plus 22 = 46.5 feet.

d. 848.19 gpm through 4-inch pipe—.194 psi/ft friction loss.

e. 46.5 × .194 = 9.02 psi “PF.”

f. Riser is 24.5 feet high.

Static Loss = 24.5 × .434 = 10.63 psi “PE.”

g. Total psi (PT) at underground flange is 86.25 psi.

18. Step No. 15:

a. Insurance interest having jurisdiction has allowed us to add in the flow of one
1-1/2-inch hose operating (fed by 1-inch pipe from the sprinkler system) at the
base of the riser in lieu of “picking it up” as we calculated back.

b. 848.19 gpm (“Q”) plus 150 gpm (inside hose “Q”) = 998.19 gpm.

19. Step No. 16:

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

Summary 145

a. 4-inch underground supply to fire extinguishing systems is no longer permitted

by insurance services, Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) or FM, so we must run 6-
inch to the City main.

b. The “F.S.Pc.” (flange and spigot piece) is 6 feet long and has a standard 6 × 11-
inch flange above the floor.

c. To convert to the 4-inch riser we will use a 4 × 11-inch reducing flange to

connect.

d. Equivalent pipe length for the 6-inch ELL on the bottom of the F.S.P.C. plus
the 4 × 11 flange = 19 feet of 6-inch pipe.

e. 6 feet plus 19 feet = 25.0 feet.

f. 998.16 gpm flowing through 6-inch pipe - .036 psi/ft friction loss.

25 × .036 = .90 psi “PF.”

g. F.S.PC. is 6 feet high (long).

PE = 6 × .434 = 2.60 psi static loss (PE).

h. PT = 89.75

i. 100 feet 6-inch to City main.

j. 6-inch gate valve (City key valve-tapping valve) plus City main tee (10 × 10 ×
6) equivalent 6-inch pipe length 36 feet.

k. 998.16 gpm flowing through 6-inch pipe—.036 psi/ft friction loss.

.136 × .036 = 4.99 psi PF

l. 89.75 psi “PT” plus 4.99 psi PF = 94.74 psi “PT.”

20. Step No. 17:

a. Add 500 gpm for use of a hydrant while the sprinkler system is in use 998.16 +
500 = 1498.19 gpm.

Summary: Demand 1500 gpm @ 95 psi.

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

 Foam Systems
11

located in Texas, and after drilling through 140′

History: Foam Systems of solid rock to a total depth of 1020′, Spindletop
spewed 800,000 barrels of oil in 9 days before it
In August 27, 1859, Edwin L. Drake struck oil was capped. Spindletop yielded more oil in the
69–1/2′ below the earth’s surface near Titusville, first year than the entire world was producing at
Pennsylvania, and created the first producing oil the time.
well in the United States, pumping 25 barrels a More important than the statistics of this first
day. The discovery ushered in not only a new era oil well in Texas was the fact that Spindletop
in technology, but also the beginning of new and revealed to the world the nations greatest oil
unique fire protection problems. field, ushered in the modem petroleum industry,
The oil era actually began in 1855, 4 years and opened the door to the liquid fuel age. Oil
before Mr. Drake struck it rich in Pennsylvania, discovery in Texas revolutionized industry and
when a chemist named Benjamin Stillman made raised the nations standard of living.
the first fractional distillation of oil. Stillman’s Flammable liquid fire protection during the
process was initially used to obtain oil for lamps, years following the success of Spindletop was lit-
but this led to the discovery of higher boiling erally a cannon maintained in a loaded and ready
fractions which were useful as lubricants. Later, a condition. A fire in a holding tank of oil resulted
lower fraction gasoline would find its application in the firing of the cannon to shoot holes in the
in powering the automobile. tank or blow it apart so the fuel could fill the dike
Between the Civil War and the turn of the where it could burn itself out.
twentieth century, the chemical industry made In 1896, there were four operable automobiles in
tremendous strides and mushroomed into a giant the United States, and by 1911 there were more
among business enterprises. The fire protection than 600,000. In 1903, Orville Wright successfully
industry, accordingly, had to keep up with the piloted the Flyer at Kitty Hawk, and the age of avia-
growth of new technology. New products, new tion was born. The value of petroleum and its use-
processes, and new equipment were developed to fulness increased as automobiles and airplanes
control new fire hazards, and this was especially developed and multiplied. The other uses for petro-
true of the flammable liquids that were leum rapidly made this resource the starting point
developed. for thousands of hydrocarbon-based products.
America really entered the liquid fuel age at Naturally, flammable liquid fires were com-
10:30 A.M. on the 10th of January in 1901 when mon, particularly when the internal combustion
Spindletop roared like a cannon and spouted oil a engine became practical, creating a tremendous
100 over the top of the derrick. Spindletop was market for gasoline. Water was applied to these

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 147

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_11
148 11 Foam Systems

flammable liquid fires, but this traditional film of solution. Foam is lighter than the flam-
­firefighting agent was not very effective in con- mable or combustible liquids, so the blanket of
trol or extinguishment. As always, scientists saw foam will float on the surface of the liquid. In
a challenge, industry saw a market, and the result addition, there is a certain measure of cooling
was the development of a new flammable liquid action by heat absorption from vaporization of
fire extinguishing agent – foam. When a flam- the water contained in the very thin films in the
mable liquid bums, it is the vapors from the sur- foam. This heat absorption is both derived from
face of the liquid that are burning. Foam mitigated the fuel surface and adjacent metal surfaces.
this process. Some theories consider this cooling action to be a
The lowest temperature of a flammable liquid major factor in the extinguishing action of foam,
that will produce vapors in enough concentration and in some applications, with some types of
to form a mixture with air to ignite the vapors at foam, this may be true. A good foam blanket will
the surface of the liquid is the flash point of the strongly resist the heat and flame of the fire, as
liquid. The flash point of a liquid determines the well as disruption due to wind, thermal drafts,
classification of the liquid as a flammable or and mechanical agitation, and will reseal an
combustible liquid. Each of these liquid classifi- opening in the blanket. One foam (aqueous film
cations is subdivided into subclassifications by forming foam) does not have this foam blanket
temperature range and by the boiling point of the integrity, but it is far superior to other foams in its
liquid, but the basic, conversational, difference is ability to accomplish a quick knock-down-extin-
this: A flash point below 100 °F classifies the liq- guishment of a flammable liquid fuel spill fire.
uid as a flammable liquid, whereas a flash point at
or above 100 °F classifies the liquid as a combus-
tible liquid. This generic classification of flam- Use and Calculation of Foam
mable and combustible liquids is extremely
important when considering an adequate protec- Foam can be used with open head deluge sys-
tion agent and system. Consider how easily the tems, but with careful attention to proportioning
fumes from low flash point gasoline can be (explained in the next section), foam systems can
ignited at room temperature, and how difficult it be used with wet pipe, dry pipe, and pre-action
is to ignite the fumes from fuel oil at room systems. With deluge systems every head is dis-
temperature. charging, and knowing how much gpm each head
Since the vapors given off by the liquid ignite is discharging at known pressure, the demand, or
and bum, the best way to extinguish a flammable total gpm, is easily calculated. Knowing that the
or combustible liquid fire is to cut off the supply demand will be constant, proportioning the foam
of vapors, to prevent air from mixing with the concentrate into the water supply can be calcu-
vapors, or both. Foam is one answer. Foam lated based on this constant demand. The system
applied to a burning liquid fire flows over the sur- should be designed for the individual location in
face of the liquid and forms a blanket that not which it is to be located.
only prevents the vapors from leaving the surface With a closed head wet pipe, dry pipe, or pre-
of the liquid, but also prohibits the air from reach- action system, the demand cannot be accurately
ing the vapors to form an ignitable mixture of determined because the combustion may fuse
vapors and air. When there is a flammable liquid two heads, 10 heads, or 100 heads. The demand
fuel spill which has not ignited, foam applied to will be based on the number of heads that fuse
the spill will prevent the vapors from leaving the and discharge foam/water solution. Attempting to
surface and air from mixing with the vapors, accurately proportion the correct percentage of
should the spill contact an ignition source. This is foam concentrate into the water at different flows
foam application in the role of fire prevention. is an difficult design situation, but proportioning
Foam is an aqueous (water) suspension of air or has been made easier over time by electronics.
gas in the form of small bubbles surrounded by a
Proportioning 149

Some foam deluge systems use spray heads as The foam solution is transported through the
discharge devices. The discharge pattern from system piping until it reaches the discharge
these foam spray nozzles is similar to the sprin- devices, and these devices perform the function
kler and foam/water sprinklers that have been of mixing the foam solution with air to form the
described, but these foam spray nozzles are larger characteristic foam blanket. The discharge
and have a heavier discharge. devices are often regular automatic sprinkler
heads. Since the foam solution is aerated, or
mixed with air, by being discharged against the
Proportioning deflector of the sprinkler head without any spe-
cial device other than the deflector to aerate the
Basically, foam concentrate is mixed with water to foam solution, these sprinkler heads are referred
form a foam/water solution which is transported to as non -air-aspirating foam sprinklers.
through a piping system to a discharge device or There are other foam discharge devices that
devices where it is mixed with air (aerated) to pro- aerate the foam solution within the shaft of the
duce the foam. There are any number of methods head. The discharge from these heads against the
of injecting the foam concentrate into the water in deflector creates the discharge pattern. These
a predetermined proportion. The equipment or heads are air-aspirating foam discharge heads.
device to accomplish this action is the proportion- Both the regular sprinkler heads, non-air-aspi-
ing part of a foam system. Foam concentrate is rating heads, and the air-aspirating sprinkler
available in a number of concentrations, but the heads can function as regular sprinkler heads
most common are 3% and 6%. When 3% foam when the foam supply is exhausted. The dis-
concentrate is introduced into the water in the sys- charge of water from these heads will produce
tem, the solution that is transported to the dis- the typical sprinkler head spray pattern.
charge device or devices consists of 3% foam Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) is a much
concentrate and 97% water. The same proportions more effective extinguishing agent on flammable
are created with 6% foam concentrate, namely 6% liquid combustion when discharged through reg-
foam concentrate and 94% water. ular, non-air-aspirating, sprinkler heads. An
Correct foam proportioning is one of the most example is the lower density (gpm/square foot)
important factors in the design of a foam system required when using AFFF discharged through
because the quality of the foam produced depends regular orifice non-air-aspirating sprinklers on a
on the efficiency of the proportioning system. deluge system protecting an aircraft hangar
The optimum quantity and quality of foam dis- against jet fuel spill fires. The density with these
charged on a flammable liquid fire must be sprinkler heads is 0.16 gpm per square foot with
obtained to produce the desired extinguishing AFFF, and 0.20 gpm per square foot with air-
results. Should the percentage of foam concen- aspirating foam/water heads.
trate in the water solution be too high, the dis-
charged foam will be too thick and will not flow
quickly across the surface of the flammable liq-  electing Proportioning Systems
S
uid or around obstructions. In addition, because and Devices
more foam concentrate is being proportioned into
the water than required, the supply of foam con- Efficient foam concentrate proportioning is
centrate will be depleted too quickly. required to provide quality foam production that
Should the foam concentrate be proportioned insures optimum performance as an extinguishing
into the water at less than the required percent- agent. Proportioning is the heart of a foam system.
age, the discharged foam solution will produce a As with the results obtained from a computer, the
foam blanket that has less resistance to break results of a foam system are only as good as the
down from the heat and flame of the combustion. material fed into it. A foam system is only as effec-
The water in the foam will drain off faster and tive as the proportioning system that introduces the
cause quicker foam blanket deterioration. percentage of foam concentrate into the system.
150 11 Foam Systems

The required foam/water solution flow rate The foam concentrate is pumped through a
to meet the design criteria and the available bypass from the main concentrate discharge line to
water pressure are the two most important fea- a device called an automatic pressure balancing
tures in selecting the proper proportioning valve. This valve, which is also piped into the main
arrangement. There are certain nationally spec- water supply line, regulates the foam concentrate
ified amounts. pressure to match the water pressure. As the water
Many fire department pumpers are now fitted pressure varies, the pressure balancing valve
with automatic foam proportioning and it may adjusts the foam concentrate pressure to maintain
not be necessary to use an external proportioning the required flow of concentrate into the water.
device to achieve a given foam concentration. The water supply may be supplying several
deluge systems, and as the combustion operates
more systems the water pressure will decrease as
Balanced Pressure Proportioning the volume demand increases. The pressure bal-
ancing valve automatically reacts to this pressure
The balanced pressure proportioning system uses change and maintains the flow of foam concen-
a tank to hold the supply of foam concentrate. trate consistent with the changing water pressure.
The atmospheric foam concentrate storage tank Excess foam concentrate above the required
is not a pressure tank, since the foam concentrate design flow is returned to the storage tank.
does not have to be under pressure with a bal- The foam concentrate discharge line from the
anced pressure proportioning system. The tank pump is connected to a device called a ratio control-
can be constructed of mild steel, fiberglass rein- ler, or concentrate metering device, installed in the
forced plastic, or plastic. The foam concentrate main water supply line. This device is a carefully
tank material must be compatible with the type of designed venturi. (Recalling physics, the water
foam concentrate to be stored in the tank. There passes through a throat in the venturi. Since the vol-
are many atmospheric storage tanks on the mar- ume of water into the device is the same volume out
ket but specifying or purchasing one that is not of the device, the velocity of the water increases as
specifically designed and constructed for the it rushes through the narrow throat. When the veloc-
storage of foam concentrate will not only lead to ity increases, the pressure decreases).
expensive system problems, but will reduce the The foam concentrate is under the same pres-
systems suppression effectiveness. The concen- sure of the water supply controlled by the pressure
trate life will be shortened, but more important, balancing valve, and when the water pressure
the concentrate could become contaminated and decreases in the narrow venturi throat, foam con-
not produce effective foam for fire suppression. centrate is forced into the water stream. With the
In this system, the foam concentrate is pumped pressure balancing valve adjusting the foam con-
from the storage tank to the proportioning sys- centrate pressure to match the water pressure, and
tem. The foam concentrate pumps are positive the drop in pressure at the throat of the controller,
displacement pumps, not centrifugal pumps. The the foam/water solution leaves the outlet of the
foam concentrate pump size depends on the controller at the correct foam concentrate-to-water
design rate of flow (gpm) of the concentrate and percentage, and the foam/water solution is piped to
the type of foam concentrate. With positive dis- the system discharge devices.
placement pumps, the discharge volume at a
specified pressure is constant. In the chapter on
pumps, it is obvious that a positive displacement Reserve Systems
pump discharges on a straight-line pump-con-
stant volume at constant pressure. A centrifugal On projects where the foam system is protecting
pump discharge curve indicates an increase in high values, or when the insurance carrier
discharge volume as the discharge pressure requires maximum, uninterrupted system protec-
decreases. tion, two foam concentrate storage tanks and two
Detection Systems 151

foam concentrate pumps may be required. The than the system water pressure in the riser and
second reserve tank is permanently piped into the can therefore be forced into the water stream in
system, and by manual operation of a valve it will the system riser. Based on water and foam con-
become the primary supply when the first tank centrate pressure at the two deluge valves, the
has exhausted its supply. Should one pump be out orifice size is calculated to admit the proper per-
of service, the system is still in a functional centage of concentrate into the water.
condition. A device detects the instant drop in pressure
on the foam concentrate supply line and water
supply line when the deluge valves trip, and this
Direct Orifice Proportioning pressure-sensitive device automatically starts the
foam concentrate and fire water pump.
If there are long runs of pipe from the proportion- In the chapter covering pumps it is noted that
ing system to the foam system piping and dis- some large diesel drive fire (water) pumps require
charge devices, the transit time of the foam several seconds to come up to speed. The diesel
solution may be several seconds. Some flamma- engine must run at full power so the connected
ble liquid fire hazards cannot afford the luxury of fire water pump can discharge at full volume and
waiting several seconds for the foam discharge to pressure.
suppress and extinguish the combustion. Aircraft When a hazard requires the discharge of foam
hangars are an example. without delay, the foam concentrate pump and
A jet fuel spill fire beneath a jet aircraft can fire water pump can be started electrically when
cause irreparable damage to the aircraft in the the first signal is transmitted from the detection
hangar if the combustion is not controlled in 30 s system. The pressure-drop pump-starting system
and extinguished in 60 s. So allowing several sec- is then merely a back-up.
onds for detection activation, the discharge time
of the foam system becomes a few critical few
seconds. Detection Systems
Foam deluge systems that protect this type of
hazard have a deluge valve located as close as Foam deluge systems are usually designed to pre-
possible to the system that they supply. Water vent a false dump of the system when the detec-
under pressure is supplied to each deluge valve, tion system is activated by some non-fire
and foam concentrate is supplied to a small foam condition or the combustion is large enough to
concentrate deluge valve installed immediately activate a detector, but small enough to be extin-
adjacent to the water deluge valve. The foam con- guished by hoses or extinguishers. The detection
centrate that supplies the foam concentrate del- system is arranged so that the first detector to be
uge valve is maintained at a higher pressure than activated activates all alarms, and the second
the water supply to the water deluge valve. The detector to be activated dumps the deluge sys-
outlet pipe of the foam concentrate deluge valve tems. To accomplish the starting of the water and
is piped into the riser of the water deluge valve foam pumps electrically, the water and foam
above the deluge valve. In this foam concentrate pump starting sequence would take place when
line is a carefully calculated orifice plate. The ori- the first detector is activated (The detection sys-
fice plate has a small hole in the center to allow tems used in these applications are discussed in
the flow of foam concentrate. When the foam del- the Alarm Devices chapter).
uge system detection system is activated, both the The water fire pump will harmlessly churn,
water deluge and foam concentrate deluge valves and the foam pump will discharge foam concen-
trip simultaneously and foam concentrate is trate back to the tank. If the combustion develops
forced through the orifice and into the water flow and intensifies sufficiently to activate a second
leaving the water deluge valve. The foam concen- detector, water, foam pressure, and volume will
trate pressure is higher (by approximately 15 psi) be immediately available.
152 11 Foam Systems

Jockey Pump The concentrate tank (see Fig. 11.1) is a metal

pressure vessel containing a collapsible bladder, and
In order to maintain the water supply and foam thus it derives the name of bladder tank. This foam
concentrate supply to their respective deluge system is usually referred to as a bladder tank system.
valves under pressure, both the water line and The bladder contains the concentrate, and when
foam concentrate line will have a small gpm water pressure is supplied to the tank surrounding the
pressure maintenance pump-commonly referred full bladder the water pressure squeezes the bladder
to as a jockey pump. The water jockey pump and forces the foam into the piping.
takes suction on the supply or suction side of the
fire water pump and discharges into the supply
line on the discharge side of the fire pump check Water Supply
valve. The pressure is maintained in the supply
line to the deluge valve by being blocked from The water supply line is equipped with a ratio
passing back through the pump by the check controller venturi, and on the water supply side of
valve. Here, too, the concentrate cannot pass the venturi a small water line is connected to the
back through the pump because of the check water supply side of the bladder tank. The pres-
valve. These jockey pumps maintain pressure sure on the outside of the bladder is thereby equal
slightly higher (approximately 10 or 15 psi) than to the water supply pressure. The concentrate
the starting pressure of the fire water and concen- bladder has a concentrate line from the bladder to
trate pump pressure switch. the throat of the venturi of the ratio controller.
When the water and foam concentrate deluge This line is kept closed by an automatic valve.
valves trip, the pressure drops faster than the When the water supply valve is tripped by the sys-
jockey pump can compensate for. The pressure tem detection system, the valve on the concentrate
drop reaches the pre-set starting pressure of the line to the venturi is opened simultaneously.
pressure switch of the fire water and foam con- Supply water pressure is transmitted to the
centrate pumps. outside of the bladder in the tank, and foam con-
Jockey pumps are discussed previously, but centrate is pushed through the concentrate line
water and concentrate jockey pumps should be into the venturi. Here it is proportioned into the
small volume (gpm) pumps so there is no possi- water, and the foam/water solution is piped to the
bility of making up the pressure loss when the system discharge devices. The pressure of the
deluge systems trip. This would prevent the fire concentrate is equal to the pressure of the water
water and concentrate pumps from starting. The and it can be injected into the water supply where
specifications for the foam concentrate jockey the water pressure drops as the velocity increases
pump should specify that the pump parts and at the throat of the venturi.
construction shall be compatible with the con- The atmospheric tank on the balanced pressure
centrate being used to prevent the concentrate proportioning system can be refilled with concen-
from rapid deterioration of the pump, gaskets, trate during operation of the system, but a bladder
seals, and metal parts. tank is a pressure vessel and therefore cannot be
refilled during system operation. Refilling the
bladder tank with concentrate requires consider-
Diaphragm Pressure Proportioning able time and care to avoid punching a hole in the
bladder. Even a pin hole in the nylon reinforced
The diaphragm pressure proportioning system elastomeric bladder will render the bladder tank
does not require foam concentrate pumps because useless due to loss of pressure necessary to force
it supplies water pressure to discharge foam con- concentrate out of the bladder.
centrate into the water supply and produce the Some bladder tanks have a diaphragm instead
foam/water solution. of a bladder that completely fills the tank. These
High Expansion Foam 153

Fig. 11.1 Foam concentrate tank and PIV’s. (Photograph by Robert Till)

tanks are flanged in the center and the internal of high expansion foam is similarly produced. A
diaphragm is fastened to this flange. When water foam concentrate is proportioned into the water,
pressure is applied to the diaphragm, which is at and the foam/water solution is sprayed over a
one end of the tank, the concentrate is forced metal or nylon mesh. Air passes through the
through a concentrate line at the opposite end of mesh at a high velocity, creating the high expan-
the tank and thus to the ratio-controller venturi. sion foam discharge. High expansion foam con-
sists of millions of tiny individual bubbles. The
foam may be as much as 1000 parts air to one
High Expansion Foam part water. In contact with the fire, the foam
changes to steam (which expands 1700 times)
The foam that has been previously discussed is and the oxygen content of this steam and air
called low expansion foam. When low expansion mixture becomes less than 7.5%. The combus-
foam is discharged, it forms a layer of foam about tion is oxygen starved and extinguished, literally
2–3 deep after a 10 min discharge from a deluge suffocated.
system. In contrast, the discharge of a high expan- High expansion discharge devices are called
sion foam system for 10 min can form a layer of high expansion foam generators. These foam
foam 30 high. The expansion ratio of low expan- generators are usually installed on the roof or
sion foam is about 8:1 or 10:1. High expansion high on the walls so the foam will flow into the
foam expansion ratio is about 500:1 or 1000: 1. protected area. Unlike low expansion foam dis-
charged from sprinklers or nozzles under pres-
sure, the only pressure on the high expansion
High Expansion Foam Generators foam comes from the air pressure through the
liquid foam solution on the mesh or screen. By
To understand how high expansion foam is mounting the foam generators at a high point, the
formed and discharged, recall blowing bubbles discharge can use gravity to flow into the hazard
through the film on a plastic circle. One bubble area (Fig. 11.2).
154 11 Foam Systems

Fig. 11.2 High Expansion Foam Generation. (Courtesy of Doug Nadeau)

 igh Expansion Foam Fire

H Blessing and Curse
Suppression
High expansion foam can be a blessing and a
High expansion foam also assists in controlling curse to firefighters. It can form a barrier against
and extinguishing combustion by diverting the the radiant heat of a fire as firefighters advance
flow of air into the fire area by the mass of the toward the combustion, and firefighters can actu-
high expansion foam discharge. The heat from ally work surrounded in a blanket of high expan-
the combustion forms a thermal column that sion foam because they can still breathe while
sucks air into the fire area. The high expansion completely covered by the foam.
foam discharge, by its volume, disrupts this The curse is that although people can still
flow of air. In addition, high expansion foam breathe in a high expansion foam blanket, vision
has a cooling action because of the discharge is limited to almost zero. Firefighters (and occu-
water content. This water held in suspension pants) can trip over unseen objects, fall in pits, or
cools the surface of everything it comes in con- bump into objects.
tact with in the hazard area. The bubbles in high
expansion foam are relatively uniform in size,
the walls are quite tough and elastic films, and High Expansion Foam Uses
there is very little liquid trapped in the bubble
to weaken and distort its configuration. All High expansion foam has many uses and is an
these elements produce a foam with very stable effective suppression and extinguishing agent on
liquid retention, important to cooling action both ordinary combustibles such as paper and
and extinguishment. wood (Class A combustibles), and flammable liq-
uids (Class B combustibles). This foam, (com-
Types of Foam – Properties Performance 155

monly referred to as High X foam), is most good-sized roof vents to relieve the displaced
effective when used in enclosed or confined areas, volume of air.
because when used in an open area it will tend to
flow out of the hazard area. If there is wind or a
severe draft, it will blow away. However, high Advantages
expansion foam is very effective fire protection
against jet fuel spill fires in aircraft hangars, even One advantage of high expansion foam is that it
with large hangar doors open. When used in air- uses very little water and a conservative quantity
craft hangars, the discharge of foam must be ade- of foam concentrate. The system consisting of the
quate to cover the hangar floor, build up at the rate four large foam generators has a foam concentrate
of three per minute, and discharge for 10 min. supply of 400 gallons, which is sufficient to fill the
High X foam has proved to be efficient protection warehouse four times with high expansion foam.
in roll paper storage warehouses as well. The
foam discharge fills all the spaces between the
rolls of paper and eventually covers the tops of the Activation
rolls. Sprinkler discharge would soak the paper
rolls and ruin the paper stock. A more serious con- High expansion foam systems are usually activated
sequence would be the swelling of the paper rolls automatically by a signal from a detection system.
as they become water soaked. This occurred in a Actuation may also be manual, and most installa-
sprinklered roll paper warehouse of a newspaper tions have both automatic and manual activation.
company, and the paper rolls exposed to the heavy When the high expansion foam system is activated
sprinkler discharge expanded and pushed out the automatically, the detection system should set off an
concrete block walls. The consistency of High X evacuation alarm, so personnel can at least com-
foam does not soak the material with which it mence exiting before the High X discharge begins.
comes into contact. The exterior paper skin may The detection system should also close doors, and
be wet, but the roll is not soaked. when the discharge is in an enclosed area, a signal
from the detection system opens the vents.

Sizing
Air Supply
To represent the size of a high expansion system, an
installation in a high grade rolled paper warehouse The foam generators can be either electrically or
100′ long, 55′ wide, and 50′ high consists of: hydraulically operated, and it is imperative that
Four high expansion foam generators. Each the air supply to the generator be clean air, free of
generator is capable of producing 13,500 cubic contamination from the combustion. If air supply
feet per minute of foam, for a total of 54,000 to the generator could possibly be contaminated
cubic feet per minute of foam. with fumes that would affect foam production, or
All generators are mounted on the roof. This is products of combustion, it may be necessary to
one very important consideration with this instal- supply clean air to the generator through a duct.
lation, and every high expansion foam system
discharging into an enclosed area. The air in the
enclosure must be vented because the foam occu-  ypes of Foam – Properties
T
pies so much volume. The described system is an Performance
excellent example-54,000 cubic feet per minute
discharge of High X foam will displace 54,000 The properties and performance of a foam deter-
cubic feet per minute volume of air in the enclo- mine its selection for a specific application. There
sure. The described installation consisted of eight are numerous types of foam, and the following
156 11 Foam Systems

description of the most common foam types will and no protein is involved. The AFFF is totally
help provide an understanding of their selection made up of synthetic products. Surfactants are
for a specific hazard situation. chemicals that can alter the surface properties of
water. Fluorochemical surfactants alter the prop-
erty of water so that a thin film can spread over
Protein Foam the surface of a hydrocarbon fuel even though the
aqueous (water) film is denser than the fuel.
Protein foam is composed of naturally-occurring These foams are applied on class A and B
sources of protein-hoof and horn meal, feather fires, and have a low expansion ratio, with mixing
meal, etc. The natural protein material is pro- ratios of 1%, 3% or 6%.
cessed, and stabilizers and inhibitors added to
resist bacterial decomposition, protect against
freezing, and prevent corrosion.  lcohol-Resistant Foam Concentrate
A
Protein foams are not as easy flowing on a fuel (AR-AFFF)
surface as other low expansion foams, but protein
foams do have excellent resistance against the This is a foam concentrate used for fire suppres-
foam blanket breaking up from radiant heat and sion on water-soluble fuels that would drain off
reignition of the fuel. the water in the foam. Chemicals are added to the
At one point these foams were considered foam concentrate so that when the foam is applied
obsolete, but they have been reconsidered due to to a water-soluble liquid, like methyl alcohol, a
the environmental impacts of other foams. In membrane is formed between the foam and the
short, protein foams are biodegradable. water-soluble fuel.
Considerations about spores such as those that These foams are applied on class B fires, and
cause “mad cow disease” may still be a concern. have a low expansion ratio, with mixing ratios of
Protein foams are applied on class B fires, and 3% or 6%.
have a low expansion ratio, with mixing ratios of
3% or 6%.
Medium Expansion Foam

Fluoroprotein Foam (FP) These foam concentrates do not produce foam

blankets with vapor reducing films; they produce
This type of foam is similar to protein foam but an aggregate of foam bubbles on the fuel surface.
has the addition of fluorochemical surfactants They are used on Class A and some Class B fires.
which produce an easier flowing protein foam. They have a mixing ratio of 2%, 3% or 6%.
The addition of this surfactant not only allows the (When generated from other foams).
production of the air-excluding blanket of protein
foam, but also produces a vapor-preventing film
on the surface of the fuel. High Expansion Foam
These foams are also applied on class B fires,
and have a low expansion ratio, with mixing As discussed, these foam concentrates do not
ratios of 3% or 6%. produce foam blankets with vapor reducing films
either; they produce an aggregate of foam bub-
bles on the fuel surface. They can be used on
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) LNG fires. They are used on Class A and some
Class B fires. They have mixing ratios of 1.5%,
Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) is a syn- 2.5% and 3%.
thetic foam concentrate. AFFF is a combination An example of a foam application on a floating
of fluorochemical and hydrocarbon surfactants, roof dam of a fuel tank is shown in Fig. 11.3.
Types of Foam – Properties Performance 157

Fig. 11.3 Floating roof tank. (Courtesy of Protectowire)

 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression
Systems 12

Pure CO2 is a completely odorless, inert, and

Dry Agent Suppression Systems electrically nonconductive gas which is 50%
heavier than air. Carbon dioxide has an history of
In situations where water and other wet suppres- flammable liquid fire extinguishment because of
sion systems are not practical methods of fire its ability to form a temporary inert atmosphere
protection, dry agent suppression must be used. above the surface of the liquid. If enough carbon
These include Carbon Dioxide (CO2), dry chem- dioxide is introduced into the room to displace
ical, Halon systems, and Halon replacement enough of the rooms normal atmosphere, the
systems. oxygen content of the room can be reduced below
There are many instances in which the use of the 15% required for support of combustion and
an extinguishing agent can unnecessarily damage the combustion will cease due to oxygen starva-
valuable equipment that is housed in the pro- tion. The normal oxygen content of air is about
tected area. For example, an electrical equipment 21%. Carbon dioxide will not damage delicate,
room, record vault, or storage room requires fire high value equipment or material, nor will it
protection because of its operational value, the leave a residue.
value of the equipment, and to prevent the spread In addition to its invisible characteristics, car-
of fire, yet water discharged on electrical or elec- bon dioxide is electrically non-conductive, which
tronic equipment could considerably damage makes it an fire protection agent for electrical
equipment not involved in the fire. In such cases, equipment, particularly for oil cooled and oil
many of the agents discussed here can be used to insulated electrical equipment (such as oil
extinguish the combustion without causing switches, transformers and circuit breakers).
unnecessary damage. When applied in the proper Carbon dioxide can be used to extinguish fires
concentration, they will put out fires in these in all types of combustible materials, with the
applications. exception of chemicals and materials containing
their own oxygen, which include cellulose nitrate
and reactive metals such as sodium, potassium,
Carbon Dioxide Systems magnesium and titanium. Carbon dioxide gas is
applied in one of two ways: total flooding or local
This section first presents an overview of CO2 application, depending on the physical character-
systems, followed by considerations, and then istics of the room. Total flooding of an enclosed
detailed methods of CO2 system design. Carbon area with carbon dioxide provides three dimen-
dioxide gas is, in general, colorless and odorless. sional fire protection. The carbon dioxide gas

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 159

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_12
160 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

flows in and around all equipment and objects in to understand the process by which CO2 is
the enclosed area. This means that equipment can released into the air. CO2 is stored and trans-
be moved without relocating carbon dioxide ported through the system piping as a liquid.
­nozzles or piping. However, there are instances When this liquid reaches a nozzle, the pressure is
where it is necessary to protect an isolated haz- released, and the liquid carbon dioxide converts
ardous operation, a specific piece of equipment, to a gaseous state. The ratio of expansion from
or hazardous element of a total process, but liquid to gas is approximately 9:1. The white
where total flooding is not practical. Total flood- cloud and a fog-like vapor which may linger for a
ing is difficult in areas that cannot be enclosed to considerable time consist of solid particles of
contain the gas. The carbon dioxide system is CO2 snow, which occurs when the moisture in the
designed to discharge gas directly onto the haz- atmosphere has been condensed and solidified by
ard to surround it with gas, to render the atmo- the extremely low temperature of approximately
sphere inert and to provide cooling in the −10 °F experienced when the CO2 liquid is con-
immediate area and extinguish the fire. verted to gas at the nozzle. This low temperature
will produce a frost on the CO2 discharge noz-
zles, caused by condensation of the moisture in
Local Application Systems the surrounding atmosphere.

Examples of local application protection include

dip tanks, printing presses, motors, and pumps. Temperatures
The design of local application CO2 systems is
complex, requiring a detailed study, calculations, CO2 discharge temperatures are important to con-
and design because the area does not remain inert sider in system design. If the CO2 nozzles are
for any appreciable length of time as is possible relatively close to metal parts that are in motion,
in a total flooding application. The CO2 dis- the sudden and severe change in temperature
charged in a local application system is soon dis- could cause a distortion in the hot metal, causing
sipated, and its effectiveness therefore decreases the disintegration of the machinery and very pos-
rapidly. Detection of the fire and application of sibly explosive disintegration in a machine such
the CO2 must be very rapid so that extinguish- as a turbine generator. The solid particles of CO2
ment takes place before the surrounding area evaporate or change from solid to gas without
absorbs sufficient heat to cause re-ignition after passing through the liquid state very quickly, and
the CO2 has dissipated. in spite of the extremely low discharge tempera-
Although in some cases a 30 s burst of CO2 is ture, the cooling effect of CO2 does very little, if
suitable, it may be necessary to provide an anything, in enhancing fire extinguishment.
extended discharge when re-ignition is a serious However, it may chill electronic equipment and
concern. For example, when there is a flammable disrupt its normal operation.
liquid and surrounding masses of metal, an
extended flow is necessary until the metal is
cooled below the ignition temperature of the Grounding
combustibles.
Although it is not in a liquid state for long, dis-
charge of liquid carbon dioxide can still produce
Other Considerations an electrostatic charge, causing a spark.
Therefore, when the CO2 system is protecting an
The colorless gas quality of CO2 is often ques- area that may contain a flammable liquid vapor
tioned by those viewing a system discharge (creating an explosive atmosphere), metal dis-
because it is usually accompanied by a character- charge nozzles should be used, and the nozzles
istic thick white cloud. Therefore, it is of interest grounded. To dissipate any electrostatic charge
Total Flooding Systems 161

resulting from the CO2 discharge, all objects twitching, and unconsciousness within a minute
exposed to the discharge should be grounded. to several minutes.
Since the design concentration for any total
flooding system is on the order of 34%, care
Total Flooding Systems must be taken when specifying a total flooding
CO2 system at a given location (EPA 2015).
The system using carbon dioxide to protect the
electrical or computer room previously described
is an example of total flooding. The entire room Discharge Time Delay
is filled, or total flooded, with a sufficient quan-
tity of CO2 gas to create an atmosphere which To prevent injury to occupants, it is imperative to
does not contain sufficient oxygen to support evacuate the area prior to the CO2 discharge. This
combustion. Total flooding of an enclosed area is accomplished during system design through the
with carbon dioxide provides three-dimensional use of an audible and visual pre-discharge alarm.
fire protection. The carbon dioxide flows in and Detection actuates a pre-discharge alarm and a
around all equipment and objects in the enclosed time delay device, and only after the time delay
area. This means that equipment can be moved device has completed a predetermined time delay
without relocating CO2 nozzles or piping. sequence does it activate the CO2 discharge.
There are advantages and disadvantages to Several factors must be taken into consider-
using a total flooding carbon dioxide system, all ation in determining an adequate discharge time
of which are discussed in the paragraphs that fol- delay: the number of occupants that must be
low. However, it must be noted that each hazard evacuated from the area, number of exits, travel
situation is unique, and a system should be cho- distance to the exits, and the nature of the
sen based on careful study of the location require- combustibles.
ments, combined with a careful study of each Another factor to consider is the spread of fire.
hazard situation, a thorough knowledge of avail- The pre-discharge alarm feature, although abso-
able extinguishing systems, and a system selec- lutely necessary, can easily become a fire protec-
tion decision that is based on the sum total of all tion deterrent as the time can allow combustion to
conditions, and not on the hazard only. gain headway before the extinguishing action of
the CO2 begins. This becomes a major consider-
ation when the material protected is in the Class
 azards of Total Flooding Carbon
H A category, since deep-seated fires can result
Dioxide from combustion in paper, wood, and cotton.
Because of its low cooling capacity, deep-seated
Total flooding carbon dioxide systems are combustion is difficult to extinguish with CO2.
restricted from use in normally occupied areas by
NFPA 12.
According to NFPA 12 (2015), carbon dioxide Re-Ignition
acts as both a stimulant and depressant on the
central nervous system. Health effects may be The smothering action of carbon dioxide will
seen following exposure to high concentrations quickly extinguish the flaming fire created by a
of carbon dioxide. Exposure of humans to carbon burning flammable liquid, but to completely
dioxide concentrations ranging from 17% to 30% extinguish the smoldering or deep-seated fire
quickly (within 1 min) leads to loss of controlled may require maintaining the CO2 concentration
and purposeful activity, unconsciousness, coma, for a considerable period of time. Heat is still
convulsions, and death. Exposure to concentra- present to re-ignite the fire. For example, the
tions from greater than 10–15% carbon dioxide flame stage when bulk paper is burning can be
leads to dizziness, drowsiness, severe muscle quickly extinguished with a CO2 concentration as
162 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

low as 0.125 pcf (pounds of CO2 per cubic foot of ally far in excess of the ignition temperature of
area volume), but temperatures of 700–l000 °F the lubricating oil. A rupture in an oil line, or a
can still be present below the surface. As the CO2 loosened connection in an oil line fitting caused
dissipates, the oxygen level builds up and re-igni- by vibration, will spew oil onto the hot metal, and
tion (or flashback) of the combustibles will occur. ignition will usually follow. An atomized oil
There have been cases where an individual can spray produces an extremely hot fire that is very
no longer see any sign of combustion and opens a difficult to extinguish. CO2 applied immediately
door to enter the area. The heavier-than-air CO2 will smother the flame, and the turbine generator
rapidly flows out the open door and oxygen laden unit can be shut down immediately, but lubricat-
air rushes in to replace the CO2 causing, in some ing oil must be continually pumped to the shaft
instances, a combustion explosion. during the run-down period or the bearings will
bind. As soon as the CO2 atmosphere clears, the
oil will re-ignite on the hot metal. Enough CO2
Choosing the Time Delay must be furnished to provide an extended, con-
tinuous or intermittent, discharge to maintain an
There are many variables to be considered in inert atmosphere during the entire run-down
determining the length of time required for main- period.
tenance of the CO2 concentration, and also the In evaluating the protection of turbine genera-
carbon dioxide concentration necessary to tors or other rotating equipment, one should note
accomplish complete extinguishment in a deep- that metal, when heated, expands, and conversely
seated combustion condition. In most situations, when cooled, contracts. Size and shape are dis-
the carbon dioxide concentration varies from torted by radical temperature changes. This dis-
30% to 50% maintained from 30 to 60 min. There tortion can be controlled to perform useful
have been instances where an atmosphere close functions, but uncontrolled it can be destructive,
to a 100% CO2 concentration had to be main- especially with moving metal parts operating in
tained for several days or weeks. Further criteria close tolerance, as with the turbine generator
for choosing the time delay will be discussed in between the rotating shaft and the bearings. A
the carbon dioxide system criteria section. rapid, uncontrolled, sudden cooling of the rotat-
ing metal shaft or the bearings could create
enough distortion to bind the moving parts and
Extended Discharge cause serious damage to the equipment. Placing
the CO2 nozzles too close to heated parts in
An example of an extended discharge local appli- motion can initiate a rapid lowering of the tem-
cation system is in the protection of a turbine perature when the CO2 is discharged, and for this
generator used to produce electricity. These are reason some turbine-generator CO2 local applica-
massive machines that operate at a tremendous tion protection systems are designed to vaporize
number of revolutions per minute, and the rotat- the CO2 liquid through an electric or steam vapor-
ing shaft is lubricated by lubricating oil, piped izer prior to its discharge on the bearings.
and applied under considerable pressure. When a Factory Mutual Insurance Company recom-
turbine generator is shut down, it continues to mends the use of water spray for protection of
rotate for 30–45 min before coming to a complete turbine generator bearings based on results of
stop, and during this run-down time, the shaft their research which provided no evidence of
must be continually lubricated as the bearing-to- metal distortion. One of the major manufacturers
shaft tolerances are very close. The majority of of turbine generators states that water spray pro-
turbine generators are operated by steam power, tection will definitely cause metal distortion and,
which, coupled with the high operating speed, therefore, it is not to be used as a fire protection
creates a tremendous heating of the metal, usu- system agent of their equipment. This paradox is
High Pressure Systems 163

presented to accent the importance of treating High Pressure Systems

each fire protection area carefully, basing system
selection on the sum total of all hazard High pressure cylinders for CO2 storage fixed
conditions. pipe engineered systems are available in 50
pound, 75 pound, and 100 pound sizes. In consid-
ering the proper size of a cylinder to satisfy the
Other Considerations required demand of a specific system, both the
storage space available and the gross weight of
One design factor to keep in mind is that if the the full cylinders are of importance. The use of
CO2 protection is a total flooding system to pro- 100 pound cylinders will reduce the required
tect a diesel or gasoline engine, the engine should storage space, but because of the gross weight of
be receiving its combustion air from outside of the 100 pound cylinder, difficulty in handling
the room. If the CO2 is sucked into the engine, becomes a factor. A 100 pound cylinder fully
there is the possibility of oxygen starved combus- charged has a gross weight of about 300 pounds,
tion and engine shut-down. while a 75 pound cylinder fully charged has a
Warming signs are critical. Any room or area gross weight of about 215 pounds, and a 50
protected with a total flooding CO2 system must pound cylinder fully charged has a gross weight
be provided with warning signs to prevent person- of about 165 pounds.
nel from entering the area following discharge, Carbon dioxide supply for a high pressure sys-
and to ensure that occupants are evacuated from tem is contained in high pressure cylinders which
the area before the system is discharged. meet the test standards established by the ICC
(Interstate Commerce Commission). High pres-
sure systems operate on pneumatic principles-
Carbon Dioxide and System Criteria pressure is used to open valves, release doors and
dampers, and to operate switches and accesso-
The extinguishing capability of all carbon diox- ries. Operating pressures are multiplied by large
ide systems depends on the method of discharge pistons. Operating parts are located internally.
into the fire area, the rate of application, and the The liquid carbon dioxide is stored in the cyl-
total quantity of carbon dioxide discharged. The inders at ambient or room temperature, and since
method of discharge is determined by the nozzles ambient temperature determines the pressure in
selected and their location; the rate of application the cylinder, the container must be capable of
is determined by engineering calculations that withstanding the maximum pressure that could
establish the pipe and nozzle sizing, and the total be expected. The recommended cylinder storage
quantity of carbon dioxide discharged depends temperature range is 32–120 °F, with 130 °F
on the calculated demand and the storage being the maximum permissible temperature.
capacities. Each cylinder has a frangible disc as a safety
There are two methods of storing carbon diox- valve with a bursting pressure of 3000 psi, and at
ide which characterize the system as either a high a maximum allowable temperature of 130 °F,
pressure or low pressure CO2 system. In general, there is still a margin of safety below this 3000 psi
choice of a system requires an evaluation of pressure point.
whether to use 50–100 pound high pressure cyl- There are two important factors to note when
inders requiring considerable storage space, and choosing high pressure tanks: (1) temperature
some very substantial maintenance for periodic and its effects on CO2, and (2) tank capacity.
weighing of the cylinders to determine their full Basically, the temperature of the CO2 affects its
capability, and maintenance time to replace the state-liquid, gaseous solid, or vapor. In order to
cylinders that have discharged their CO2, or to regulate the system and maintain the proper state
use a small, 1500 pound, low pressure tank. for fire protection, the temperature must be con-
164 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

trolled. In addition, temperature affects the will sublime or change to gas without passing
­volume of the liquid expansion in the tank. When through the liquid state. The extremely low tem-
filling high pressure CO2 cylinders, a vapor space perature created will also cause condensation of
is necessary above the liquid CO2 in the cylinder water vapor in the atmosphere, creating a fog
to allow for expansion of the liquid due to tem- which sometimes lingers long after the disappear-
perature changes. ance of the dry ice particles.
The following explanation attempts to At 70 °F, the pressure in a high pressure cylin-
describe the basic effects of temperature on the der is 850 psi. Carbon dioxide expands as the
state (and tank capacity) of the cylinders in high temperature rises, but as long as an appropriate
pressure systems. When the storage temperatures vapor space is maintained in the cylinder, the
of high pressure CO2 cylinders drop below 32 °F, expansion does not increase the pressure. If the
pressure decreases, and the rate of discharge can carbon dioxide cylinder was completely full of
fall below design demand. If cylinder storage liquid CO2, any rise in temperature, however
temperatures of below 32 °F are anticipated, a slight, would rapidly increase the pressure in the
method of compensating for the resulting pres- cylinder. For this reason, the Department of
sure decrease must be provided by heating the Transportation (DOT) sets a limit on the amount
area of cylinder storage. Cylinders must be main- of liquid CO2 in a cylinder. The DOT criteria
tained at a minimum of 32 °F. states that the weight of carbon dioxide liquid in
What happens when temperatures increase? a cylinder shall not exceed 68% of the weight of
As the temperature of liquid carbon dioxide in water that the container can hold at 60 °F. While
the cylinder increases, the CO2 vapor pressure this is a factor in specifying design criteria, tank
increases. As the CO2 vapor pressure increases, manufacturers label their pressure capacities
the density of the CO2 vapor over the liquid CO2 according to how much CO2 the cylinder holds,
increases; the liquid CO2 expands and its density rather than the tanks actual volume capacity.
decreases and turns to a gas. At 87.8 °F, the criti- When a cylinder is listed as a 75 pound cylinder,
cal temperature, the liquid and vapor have the it will contain 75 pounds of CO2. The same is true
same identical densities, and the liquid state has of any cylinder capacity listing-if the description
disappeared. Above 87.7 °F, CO2 is entirely a gas states that it is a 100 pound cylinder, there is a
regardless of the pressure. 100 pound CO2 supply in the cylinder.
Pressure affects the state and temperature of For example, if the hazard demand for CO2 is
CO2. At pressures below 60 psi, CO2 reaches a 750 pounds of CO2, the designer must select ten
point called the triple point. When stored at pres- 75 pound high pressure cylinders. A reserve bank
sures below 60 psi, carbon dioxide can be present of cylinders may also be required (discussed later
in a solid, liquid, or vapor state. Below the triple in this section), and the storage area for the cylin-
point, carbon dioxide can only exist as a solid or a ders will have to be large enough to accommo-
gas, depending on the temperature. At 60 psi, the date twenty 75 pound cylinders, since the reserve
liquid carbon dioxide that remains in the cylinder supply must be equal to the primary supply.
or container will convert to dry ice at a tempera-
ture of −69 °F. If the pressure is reduced to atmo-
spheric, about 15 psi, the temperature of the dry  aintenance Considerations for High
M
ice will drop to −110 F. When liquid carbon diox- Pressure
ide is discharged from the nozzles at atmospheric
pressure, this same condition is established. When The individual high pressure cylinders should be
discharging CO2 to extinguish a fire, the liquid checked semi-annually for the required liquid
converts to a vapor at approximately a 9: or 10:1 content, which is done by weighing each cylinder.
expansion ratio, and some of the vapor exists as Most carbon dioxide equipment manufacturers
dry ice particles at −110 F. The dry ice particles provide a simple arrangement for weighing the
High Pressure Systems 165

cylinders without taking them out of service. The ders. There must be adequate visual indication that
device consists of a very simple beam to which the remote station operates the reserve cylinder
the individual cylinders are attached, and a direct supply. The cylinder manifold (common pipe to
reading scale. With a 10:1 ratio on the beam, a one which the cylinders are connected) serves the main
pound pull would read 10 pounds. and reserve cylinders. The reserve cylinders are
When a cylinder weight has dropped by 10% isolated with full flow check valves to prevent the
of its required weight, it must be recharged, or charged reserve cylinders from discharging into
even replaced if the loss is due to a pin-hole leak. the empty cylinders. As a further precaution, each
Other common causes of loss through leakage of manifold has a bleeder valve which will automati-
carbon dioxide from cylinders are corrosion and cally close when the manifold pressure exceeds
damage to the cylinders (due to mishandling). 20 psi during discharge. Determination of the
This points out the necessity to secure the cylin- necessity for a reserve supply should follow a pro-
ders in an upright position to eliminate any pos- fessional evaluation of the hazard relative to the
sibility of their being knocked over and selecting frequency of fires, the areas need for uninterrupted
a safe storage area which must be outside the pro- operation, the availability of a human fire watch
tected hazard area. with hand extinguishing equipment and, most
Cylinders are generally recharged at least at importantly, the speed with which the empty cylin-
5 year intervals, and they should also be hydro- ders can be replaced with charged cylinders. In
statically tested. After a system has been installed rare cases, it is possible to recommend eliminating
for 12 years without being activated, the cylin- the reserve supply, but this may be a penny-wise-
ders must be discharged, and each cylinder and-pound-foolish decision, since fire ignition
hydrostatically tested and refilled or replaced. does not follow predictable and logical criteria.

Reserve Cylinders How the System Works

When a system with a demand for 750 pounds of To obtain an overview of how the system works,
carbon dioxide is activated by the detection sys- this section describes the process by which the
tem, manually or in the case of systems failure, the CO2 is propelled from the cylinder to the combus-
entire 10 cylinders will dump. The hazard area is tion. The pipes and fittings connecting the high
then without protection until the cylinders can be pressure cylinders to the open nozzles are empty
removed and replaced with charged cylinders. until the system is activated. When activated, the
This time lapse without fire protection, in most liquid carbon dioxide is transported to the nozzles
cases, should be eliminated with the installation of through the piping. A siphon tube extends to the
a reserve supply of carbon dioxide cylinders equal bottom of the cylinders so that liquid carbon diox-
in volume to the primary supply. The reserve cyl- ide will enter the piping. When this liquid CO2
inders also provide a second discharge of CO2 flows through the piping, there is a loss in pres-
should the primary cylinder discharge not have sure due to the increased volume of the empty
controlled the fire condition. piping and the friction between the moving liquid
Switching from the main to the reserve supply and the interior roughness of the pipe walls.
is a simple manual operation-the reserve cylinders When the pressure of the liquid carbon diox-
are similar to the primary cylinders in piping and ide drops, it changes to a vapor, and the piping
installation. A toggle switch usually redirects the fills with a mixture of liquid and vapor. As the
signal from the main detection system to the mixture of liquid and vapor continues through the
reserve cylinders. As with the main cylinders, a piping and the pressure continues to drop, the
manual pull station will activate the reserve cylin- vapor increases in volume. This is the point
166 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

where careful system design is critical. If the pip- Terminal Pressures

ing system is not designed properly, and the pres-
sure reaches 75 psia (pounds per square inch Knowing the pressure at the CO2 cylinders, and
absolute, which includes 15 psi atmosphere using the CO2 manufacturers flow charts for fric-
­pressure) or 60 psi (the triple point) any further tion loss, the terminal pressure at the nozzles can
pressure loss would result in the remaining liquid be calculated. If the terminal pressure at the noz-
flashing to a vapor and dry ice snow formation, zle is below 300 psia, it will be necessary to
which would clog not only the pipe but also the revise the pipe sizes to compensate for friction
nozzle orifices. loss.
Vaporization occurs as the first liquid carbon The piping for a high pressure carbon dioxide
dioxide enters the piping and continues until an system may be subjected to extreme pressures.
equilibrium is reached between the temperature Thus, in order to resist the maximum pressures
of the pipe and the liquid carbon dioxide. The that could be expected, the pipe and fittings must
amount of liquid carbon dioxide vaporized, and have a minimum bursting pressure of 5000 psi.
the time required to reach this equilibrium with a Valves that are under constant pressure must have
resultant uniform flow, depend on: a minimum bursting pressure of 6000 psi. The
piping system must also be corrosion-resistant
• Flow rate and be able to withstand the temperature extremes
• Storage temperature of a CO2 system.
• Temperature, length, size, and piping
material
Discharge Nozzles
It is necessary to adjust the total storage capac-
ity and flow rate of the liquid carbon dioxide to Carbon dioxide discharge nozzles come in a wide
compensate for vaporization and the time neces- variety of designs and discharge patterns. There
sary to reach a flow equilibrium. are basically two classifications: shielded, low
velocity type, and the jet high velocity type. Each
discharge nozzle consists of the orifice and usu-
Design of the Piping System ally a configuration of a horn, shield or baffle.
The design of a discharge nozzle depends on
The piping system must be designed to deliver whether it will be used on a total flooding or local
the required rate of discharge through the selected application system.
nozzle orifices at the minimum nozzle pressure The manufacturers nozzle orifice flow chart
allowed, namely 300 psia for high pressure sys- will indicate the proper nozzle orifice size
tems. This is the basic criteria for design of car- required to deliver the desired flow rate at the
bon dioxide piping systems (to be discussed nozzle pressure that was obtained from the piping
further later in this chapter). calculations. A note of caution: If the manufac-
Once the required rate of discharge for the turers orifice flow chart indicates that the nearest
hazard is determined, and the piping and nozzles available nozzle size is larger than required, it
sketched, pipe sizes can be selected. The friction will be necessary to recalculate the piping system
loss in fittings, valves, and cylinder connectors to provide the specified minimum nozzle pres-
can be determined by changing the fitting or sure. Like the requirement for a piping system,
valve to an equivalent length of pipe. Tables are carbon dioxide discharge nozzles should be of
available to convert all sizes of fittings and valves rugged construction to resist normal mechanical
to their equivalent pipe length, and charts will list damage, extreme temperatures, and working
the friction loss at various flows through various pressures of the CO2 system. The discharge ori-
pipe sizes, with friction loss presented in psi per fice must be made of corrosion-resistant material.
foot of pipe. When nozzles are installed in areas where f­ oreign
Low Pressure Carbon Dioxide Systems 167

material could clog the nozzle, they should be recommended. Massive banks of high pressure
provided with frangible disc or blow-out caps cylinders not only take up valuable storage space,
that cover the nozzle orifice and are quickly but also require considerable maintenance time
ejected by the force of the discharging carbon and labor, testing cylinder weight and replacing
dioxide. cylinders when necessary.
Each discharge nozzle is permanently marked Low pressure carbon dioxide storage is a sin-
with the orifice size and is indicated as the equiv- gle refrigerated storage unit that is available in
alent diameter. This equivalent diameter refers to several storage capacities, ranging from 500
the orifice diameter of the standard single orifice pounds to 50 tons. These storage tanks have their
type nozzle which has the same flow rate as the own built-in refrigeration unit which maintains
nozzle in question. The standard orifice is an ori- the liquid carbon dioxide at 0 F, and a pressure of
fice with a rounded entry with a coefficient of approximately 300 psi.
discharge not less than 0.98. The low pressure liquid carbon dioxide stor-
age tank is insulated, and refrigerant circulates
through coils near the top of the tank. As the car-
Thumbnail Calculation bon dioxide vapor condenses at the coils, the tank
pressure will vary. This tank pressure variance
It is possible to produce a layman’s estimate of the activates a pressure switch and automatically
amount of carbon dioxide required for a total controls the compressor that circulates refriger-
flooding system. Remember that this thumbnail ant through the coils.
calculation is for preliminary discussions only. The liquid carbon dioxide storage tank con-
The actual engineering study, design, and calcula- tains sufficient agent to supply the largest demand
tions require a seasoned professional s expertise. of a single hazard, or the individual demands of
To get a quick estimate of how much CO2 will several hazards, plus a reserve supply of liquid
be required for a total flooding system (high or CO2. With the temperature controlled, filling den-
low pressure system), determine the cubic footage sity is not the serious consideration that high
of the area and multiply this figure by 0.10 pounds pressure cylinder storage presents. In addition,
per cubic foot of CO2. This thumbnail calculation the low pressure unit has pressure relief valves to
does not take into consideration loss of CO2 gas provide vaporization with subsequent cooling of
through enclosable openings and other factors the liquid, which prevents the storage tank from
that go into detailed calculations required for a becoming liquid full. As a result, filling density
CO2 system. However, it will provide a prelimi- for the low pressure storage unit is between 90%
nary demand of CO2 for use in planning high and 95%.
pressure cylinder storage space, or the decision to
use a low pressure storage tank instead.
High pressure CO2 systems are more flexible The Storage Tank and Refrigeration
than low pressure systems because selection of vari-
ous sized cylinders −50, 75, and 100 pound - makes The storage tank must be constructed, tested,
it possible to provide almost the exact amount of equipped, and labeled in accordance with the
CO2 required to meet the system demand. Low Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels for Petroleum
pressure systems are addressed below. Liquids and Gases Specifications of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). It
must be equipped with a liquid level gauge, pres-
 ow Pressure Carbon Dioxide
L sure gauge, and a high-low pressure supervisory
Systems alarm which activates an alarm if:

When the total carbon dioxide demand is so large • the pressure in the tank rises to approximately
that it is not economical to store in multiple high 315 psi, or
pressure cylinders, a low pressure system is • the pressure drops to 250 psi.
168 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

The refrigeration system is automatically con- to protect the major hazard, several smaller haz-
trolled to maintain 0 °F in the storage tank under ards, hose stations, and a reserve supply of equal
conditions where the highest anticipated tank volume. When a single low pressure unit supplies
storage area temperature is attained. If the low multiple systems, this is accomplished through
pressure storage unit is installed in an area where the use of selector valves.
the temperature is expected to drop below 0 F, an The master selector valve located at the stor-
automatic heating unit will be installed, capable age unit automatically directs the CO2 to satellite
of maintaining 0 °F in the pressure tank. selector valves located in the immediate vicinity
Should the refrigeration unit fail, and the pres- of each individual system. The master selector
sure start to rise, relief valves on the unit are set valve is activated when a satellite selector valve
to prevent the pressure from exceeding safe lim- is opened by a signal from the specific hazard
its. When the pressure exceeds 341 psi, a dia- detection system or by manual operation of an
phragm valve bleeds off the excess pressure, and individual hazard system through an electric/
if the pressure should continue to rise, a pop-off manual pilot control system.
valve will operate at 357 psi, allowing a more
rapid release of pressure. A final safeguard is a
frangible disc which is designed to burst at Dual Purpose Carbon Dioxide Units
600 psi and vent the vapor to the atmosphere.
Where reliability of the refrigeration unit is a An interesting use of the low pressure carbon
serious concern, dual refrigeration equipment is dioxide system in a power generating facility is
provided. The main concern for the reliability of its dual use as a fire protection CO2 supply and a
refrigeration equipment is replacement of parts CO2 supply for use in purging the generators
and down time required should the refrigeration when they are emptied of the hydrogen atmo-
unit need repair. Low pressure carbon dioxide sphere which is maintained internally when a
storage tanks are so well insulated that even with- generator is in operation. Hydrogen is commonly
out the mechanical refrigeration, a four ton stor- used as a cooling medium in large electric gen-
age unit will not lose any carbon dioxide for at erators because of its very low wind resistance to
least 24 h, and at an 80˚ F outside air temperature, the rotating equipment, and because it is a non-
this size unit will only lose approximately 100 conductor of electric current.
pounds per day. Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas, and
when the generator has to be worked on, it is
imperative that all the hydrogen be evacuated.
Pipes and Fittings This can be accomplished by introducing CO2
into the generator. The hydrogen is cleaned out or
The pipe, fittings, and valves supplying carbon purged, and an inert atmosphere of CO2 is cre-
dioxide from the low pressure storage unit to the ated, nullifying the flammability of any hydrogen
nozzles must have a minimum bursting pressure that might remain.
of 1800 psi, compared with the minimum burst- These dual purpose low pressure CO2 units are
ing pressure of 5000 psi for pipe and fittings and sized so that the amount of CO2 used for purging
6000 psi for valves in a high pressure carbon does not infringe on the supply of liquid CO2
dioxide distribution system. required for fire protection. A fire is possible in
any number of protected hazards throughout the
power generating facility, and especially during or
How the System Works immediately following the generator purging
operation. By the use of shut off float valves, the
A low pressure carbon dioxide system is usually supply of liquid carbon dioxide for purging cannot
provided with a primary supply of carbon dioxide use any of the supply reserved for fire protection.
Low Pressure Carbon Dioxide Systems 169

This same arrangement is used when the tank con- CO2 hose stations will allow an operator to apply
tains both the primary supply and the reserve sup- a large capacity of CO2 from a safe distance away
ply of CO2. from the combustion.
To prevent any chilling effect or dry ice snow Carbon dioxide hose stations can be supplied
when the CO2 is introduced into the generator from high pressure CO2 cylinders, or from a low
during the purging operation, or when CO2 noz- pressure CO2 tank. The hose reels are filled with
zles protect hot bearings, the liquid CO2 is passed CO2 by an automatic or manual release. The
through an electric or steam vaporizer which con- manual release may be a pull station, push but-
verts the liquid CO2 to a vapor. This vapor is then ton, or similar device located adjacent to the hose
forced into the generator or discharged on the reel and clearly identified by a permanent sign.
bearings entirely as a CO2 gas. One familiar automatic device is the bracket
that holds the extended length of hose and dis-
charge nozzle, commonly called the discharge
Inerting an Area with Carbon Dioxide horn. When the discharge horn is removed from
the bracket, the CO2 is automatically released
Carbon dioxide is sometimes used as a fire pre- into the hose. The discharge horn nozzle is
vention agent. Spontaneous heating and combus- equipped with a squeeze-grip type, quick open-
tion in bunkers storing coal can present a costly ing and closing valve, so that the operator has
fire condition that is very difficult to control and complete control of the CO2 discharge.
extinguish. Applying large volumes of water is The supply of CO2 for a hose station shall be
the only reliable method, and it is rather obvious sufficient to supply the discharge rate for at least
what large quantities of water can do to a coal 1 min. If the hose station is to be used by an inex-
supply, especially if it is finely ground coal. perienced person who might waste some CO2, the
Natural spontaneous combustion can occur in supply should be increased. Multiple hose sta-
coal storage bunkers due to leakage of air at the tions supplied from a single supply should have a
bottom entrance gate of the bunker or through the supply adequate to accommodate all hose sta-
top of the bunker. By introducing CO2 gas tions likely to be used at one time, at the deter-
through a number of injection points, it is possi- mined discharge rate for 1 min.
ble to have the CO2 vapor spread throughout and The hose is a high pressure type with a burst-
completely fill the bunker, even a bunker filled ing pressure of 5000 psi if the supply is from
with finely ground coal. By maintaining a low high pressure cylinders, and 1800 minimum
continuous rate of application of CO2 vapor (nor- bursting pressure if the supply is from a low pres-
mally 50–100 pounds of CO2 per hour), an effec- sure tank. Three-quarter inch hose will permit a
tive inert atmosphere (insufficient oxygen to 100–150 pound-per-minute discharge rate of
support combustion) can be maintained in the C02, and by using a 1″ or larger hose, discharge
bunker. The air leakage through the bottom rates of 250–300 pounds per minute with a dis-
entrance gate can be reduced or even eliminated charge rate at 25′.
by the injection of carbon dioxide vapor into the The location and number of hose stations
hopper just above the gate. should be determined by the equipment being
protected. If possible, the hose reel should be
placed close to an exit door so that if smoke and
Carbon Dioxide Hose Stations toxic fumes from the combustion become exces-
sive, the person using the hose can quickly exit
The extinguishing capability of small hand-held the area. Anyone using CO2 hose stations should
CO2 extinguishers is limited to small fires. The be properly trained in firefighting and safety pre-
discharge range and duration of discharge of cautions. CO2 is 50% heavier than air and will
manual systems are quite limited-a few feet of flow like water to low points in the building such
range and a few seconds of discharge. The use of as pits, basements, tunnels, etc. Thus caution
170 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

must be seriously considered when there has Local Application System Design
been a considerable amount of CO2 discharged
from a local application system and/or CO2 hose As previously described, local application carbon
stations. dioxide systems are used to protect against indi-
vidual hazards, hazardous operations, processes,
and equipment where it is impractical to enclose
 he Detection System and Air
T them and use a total flooding system. Total flood-
Leakage ing may be impractical due to the low hazard
conditions that exist in the surrounding area
The detection system that activates automatic where the hazard is located, the number of people
CO2 total flooding systems provides the alarm, working in the area, the impossibility of shutting
but always specify a pressure switch on the dis- down machinery prior to leaving the area, or just
charge piping of the CO2 system to activate the the economics involved because of the size of the
alarms. If someone manually activates the CO2 total area that would have to be total flooded with
system by a mechanical device, the detection/ CO2. However, the local application system does
alarm system will be bypassed and in all proba- not have the advantage of walls that confine the
bility the CO2 will be discharged without activat- CO2 (as does the total flooding system), and the
ing any alarms. CO2 discharge is rapidly dissipated. As a result,
The pressure switch to activate the alarm sys- the design of local application hazard protection
tem can also be used to shut down the ventilation can be complex.
system in a room protected with a total flooding The local application system consists of CO2
CO2 system. It may also release magnetic door nozzles that discharge directly onto or into a
holders that hold self-closing doors in the open specific hazard or hazard area. The hazard can
position, allowing them to close automatically. be the surface of a flammable liquid or a piece
The magnetic door holder releases its magnetic of equipment. There are basically two methods
hold on the door when a signal is received from of designing a local applications system: the
the pressure switch. rate-by-area method and the rate-by-volume
An engineering evaluation of the protection method.
may mandate that the HVAC (heating, ventilat-
ing, and air-conditioning) system be shut down,
dampers closed, and magnetic door holders Rate-By-Area Method
released as a result of a signal from the detection
system, so that the room or area will be as tight as When the hazard involves a flat surface or haz-
possible when the CO2 discharges. Operating ards basically oriented on a horizontal plane that
from the pressure switch activated by the dis- can be readily measured, the rate-by-area method
charge pressure of the CO2 may present a situa- is used for design. Examples of such hazards are
tion where the doors close too slowly, HVAC fans flammable liquid dip tanks and drain boards,
keep rotating after power is shut off, and too quench tanks, open tanks, etc. Before calculating
much CO2 will be lost, effecting the rapid build- and designing a local application CO2 system by
up of the required CO2 concentration. the rate-by-area method, it must be dearly under-
stood that each type of CO2 discharge has an
approval rating which indicates its individual
Carbon Dioxide System Design design data. Design data consists of:

After clarifying the various types of CO2 systems • Rate of discharge

low and high pressure, and total and local appli- • Spacing limitations
cations), we can now explain the details involved • Maximum area of coverage at specified
in designing these systems. heights
Carbon Dioxide System Design 171

• Design flow rate versus height or distance hazard material. All forced drafts, unusual air
from the hazard surface movement, and wind currents in the area of
• Projection angle versus distance and height the hazard must be carefully evaluated and
from hazard compensated for by additional nozzles or relo-
cation of nozzles to protect areas outside the
Below are the steps involved in designing a hazard areas.
local application system using the rate-by-area 6. Total Nozzle Flow Rate. Once the discharge
method. duration time is established, and the flow rates
of the individual nozzles are determined, the
1. Extent of Hazard Area. The first step in using total carbon dioxide supply required becomes
the rate-by-area design method is to carefully as a simple multiplication problem of total
determine the extent of the hazard area includ- nozzle flow rate demand times duration of
ing not only the hazard itself, but also fringe discharge.
areas that may be involved and any discharge 7. Sizing and Routing of Piping. The number of
obstructions that could be present in or adja- cylinders has now been determined, and a
cent to the hazard. location for the cylinders remote from the
2. Prepare a Layout. The second step is to pre- hazard area is established. All that remains is
pare a layout, drawn to scale, of the hazard sizing and routing of the piping from the cyl-
and any ramifications of the hazard which inders to the nozzles. This phase of the proj-
would effect the discharge patterns of the noz- ect is the most complicated, and the part
zles. With this layout, nozzles can now be requiring the most accurate, exacting, and
spotted around and/or above the hazard. precise computations. Carbon dioxide equip-
Tankside or linear-type nozzles, if applicable, ment manufacturers prepare tables, charts,
can be strategically located to take full advan- and graphs which are a help in these calcula-
tage of their approval listings as to discharge tions, but the expertise of an engineer experi-
rate, coverage, and discharge pattern. enced in CO2 systems is required in all cases
3. Area of Coverage. The use of overhead noz- except the simplest project.
zles located above the hazard are restricted by
the height and area limitations stipulated in The general criteria for determining the place-
the approval listings for each nozzle. The ment of overhead nozzles for a rate-by-area
approval listings furnish information relative design is as follows:
to area of coverage at various heights. The
area of coverage from overhead nozzles is 1. Distance between nozzles shall not be more
considered to be in the form of a square. than the square root of the area rating.
4. Height of Overhead Nozzles. The height of 2. Distance to the edge of a hazard shall not be
overhead nozzles above the hazard determines more than half the distance calculated in (1)
the optimum flow rate for extinguishment of above.
the specific hazard material being protected. 3. If possible, overhead nozzles should be
This relationship of height, optimum flow installed over the center of the hazard and per-
rate, and hazard material is given in the indi- pendicular to the hazard surface.
vidual approved criteria of each nozzle. 4. Overhead nozzles installed at an angle to the
5. Minimum Discharge Time. The minimum dis hazard shall not be installed at an angle less
charge time for the nozzles is set at 30 s, but than 45 from the surface plane of the hazard.
the hazard material may dictate an extension 5. The distance from the face of the overhead
of this minimum. Metal heated by the fire nozzle to the aiming point of the nozzle on the
before extinguishment may demand anf exten- hazard surface shall be used to determine the
sion of the discharge time in order to cool the height with reference to determining required
metal below the ignition temperature of the flow rate and area coverage.
172 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

6. When installing overhead nozzles on an angle, depending on the hazard conditions, forced
use NFPA 12 to determine the distance of the drafts, or unusual air currents. The assumed
aiming point from the near side of the surface volume shall be increased to compensate for
of the hazard by multiplying the width of the the loss of CO2.
nozzle coverage by the appropriate aiming 3. Permanent Walls. If there are permanent
factor. walls enclosing part of the hazard, and if
these walls extend at least 2′ above the
hazard, the total discharge rate of one
Rate-By-Volume Method pound of CO2/minute/cu. ft. may be
reduced proportionately, but never below
The rate-by-volume design method of local 0.26 pounds/minute/cu. ft., and only after a
application is used when: careful evaluation of the hazard material
and conditions. Any permanent wall which
(1) the hazard is three-dimensional or an irregu- forms a partial enclosure must cover one
lar physical configuration that cannot be entire side of the imaginary enclosure, and
accurately measured and reduced to equiva- the length of this wall must be at least 25%
lent surface areas, or of the perimeter of the enclosure. If one
(2) hazards are partially enclosed but have open- wall complies with this criteria, and there
ings that are too large to consider a total are adjoining walls that comply with the
flooding system. Examples of such hazards height requirement but do not extend the
are transformers, printing presses, and roll- full length of the hazard area, these short
ing mills. The steps involved in designing a walls may be included in calculating the
local application system using the rate-by- percentage of the perimeter that is
volume method follow. enclosed.
Walls that meet the length and height cri-
1. Assume an Enclosure. The first step is to teria but are opposite each other and there-
assume an enclosure around the hazard fore not adjoining can only be considered as
with the imaginary walls and ceiling a min- one wall. If the two opposite wall lengths
imum of 2′ from the sides to the top of the added together equal at least 50% of the
hazard. Now that the hazard has been imaginary hazard enclosure perimeter, their
boxed-in, compute the volume enclosed in total length may be used in calculating the
the imaginary box. This volume calcula- required rate of discharge.
tion is the total volume of the assumed
enclosure with no deduction for the vol- The discharge rates of these semi-enclosures
ume of any solid object within the enclo- for calculations based on the rate-by-volume
sure. If the hazard is small, a minimum method are calculated using prepared tables
four square foot enclosure shall be used. found in NFPA standards.
2. Set Minimum Discharge Times. Once the If the base of the semi-enclosed or imaginary
cubic footage of the assumed enclosure is hazard enclosure has openings that exceed 3% of
determined, the standard total discharge rate the total base area, the rate-by-area method of
of carbon dioxide is one pound per minute calculations must be used to compute the dis-
per cubic foot of assumed volume for a mini- charge rate. If the openings in the base or floor
mum of 30 s. This discharge rate of 1 lb/ are 3% or less of the total base or floor area, 10
min./cu. ft. is National Fire Protection pounds per minute per square foot of opening
Association criteria, which differs from the additional CO2 must be included in the discharge
Factory Mutual Insurance required discharge rate calculations. If a permanent wall forming a
rate of 2 lb/min./cu. ft. As explained in the partial enclosure of the hazard has openings
rate-by-area design section, this minimum which total more than 10% of the wall area, the
discharge time may have to be increased wall cannot be considered as part of the enclosure.
Rate-By-Volume Method 173

If the total wall openings equal 10% or less of the The design and calculations for a total flood-
total wall area, two pounds per minute per square ing system must be adequate to provide the
foot of opening additional CO2 must be included required concentration within 1 min of the start
in the discharge rate calculations. of the discharge into the room or area for surface
fire conditions. For deep-seated fires, the design
concentration shall be completed within 7 min,
Special Considerations with a rate of discharge to provide a 30% concen-
tration within 2 min. The temperature of the area
Dip tanks and drainboards may have coated parts to be protected with a total flooding CO2 system
that hang on a conveyor above the flammable liq- will effect the fire suppression efficiency of car-
uid surface. In this hazard consideration, the flam- bon dioxide. To compensate for relatively high
mable liquid surface CO2 protection will be temperature areas, an additional 1% of carbon
figured using the rate-by-area method. If the dioxide is required for every 5° over 200 °F in the
coated parts extend more than 2 above the flam- temperature of the area being protected.
mable liquid surface, this area must be protected Following are the steps involved in designing a
by computing the discharge rate using the rate- total flooding system.
by-volume method. An imaginary enclosure is
again used, assuming the base to cover the same 1. Percent of CO2 by Volume. Charts published
area as the protected surface and extending from by the NFPA and carbon dioxide manufactur-
2 above this surface to the maximum height of the ers indicate the various carbon dioxide con-
coated parts, and calculating two pounds of CO2 centrations, or percent of CO2 by volume,
per minute per cubic foot of the total volume of required to extinguish common liquid and gas
this assumed enclosure as a rate of discharge. surface fires by total flooding. It will be noted
Hoods over kitchen ranges and hoods over special that these charts indicate Theoretical and
processes requiring exhaust systems (to collect Minimum Design concentrations. The reason
and exhaust fumes so they do not permeate the for this is the fact that some allowance is
room atmosphere) must be protected if the cook- needed to compensate for the lack of complete
ing facilities involve flammable grease or fat, or if and perfect diffusion of CO2 throughout the
the special processes involve flammable liquids. entire area being total flooded at any point in
If the area below the hood is protected with time during the inerting period.
carbon dioxide (such as deep fat fryers, process 2. Tight Enclosure. As mentioned previously, to
burners, or liquid heaters), the rate of discharge in attach effective total flooding, the area must
the hood is figured as 0.6 pounds of CO2 per min- be a relatively tight enclosure. HVAC (heat-
ute per cubic foot of hood volume. If the area ing, ventilation, and air-conditioning) systems
below the hood is not protected, the rate-by-area must be shut down automatically before the
method is used to calculate the discharge rate, CO2 discharge commences. If this cannot be
using the entire interior surface of the hood. accomplished, additional carbon dioxide must
be provided to compensate for the CO2 lost
through the HVAC system (due to HVAC fan
Total Flooding System Design run-down after being shut off, thereby causing
a loss of CO2).
Total flooding system design requires a thorough 3. Stoppage of Flammable Materials. In addi-
knowledge of the hazard, the enclosure, type of tion, flammable liquid pumps, conveyors, and
fire expected, enclosure leakage, and ventilation. mixers must also be stopped to discontinue
Calculations can be quite accurate because the the flow of combustible material into the
volume need not be assumed, but can be calculated, area. Windows, dampers, and doors are shut
and the loss of carbon dioxide from the enclosure automatically with pneumatic release devices
is a known factor. actuated by CO2 piping discharge pressure.
174 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

The pressure in the CO2 piping when dis- minutes is the average holding time for closely
charge commences enters the pneumatic packed combustible material and occupancies
release device, and this pressure performs such as fur vaults and record storage.
mechanical work which results in an electrical Calculations for the concentrations neces-
contact; electrical power is supplied to alarms, sary to extinguish deep-seated combustion
open dampers, and door closers. are difficult to establish, as the concentration
4. Rate of Discharge. The total flooding rate of required varies with the mass and physical
discharge for surface fires must be ample to arrangement of the material. Dense mass
reach the minimum discharge concentration material has a high thermal insulating effect
within 1 min after start of discharge. Flow which permits combustion to retain the heat
equilibrium (liquid-to-vapor) in the piping produced and prevents rapid soaking of the
with high pressure systems is usually an insig- mass with the CO2 gas. Tests have been con-
nificant time element, and therefore the rate of ducted using the most common materials
discharge will be the total required volume found in record storage vaults, dust collec-
divided by 1 min. Low pressure systems can tors, fur storage vaults, cable rooms where
require a significant amount of time and CO2 insulated wiring is found, and small electric
quantity in vaporization and cooling of the motors and machines, to establish the criteria
piping before a flow equilibrium is reached to to be used in designing total flooding systems
demand a calculation to increase the equilib- for these hazards. As a result of these tests, it
rium flow rate so that the recommended total has been established that design concentra-
quantity will be delivered within the one-min- tions of between 50% and 75% and flooding
ute-after-start of discharge requirement. In factors of between 0.083 and 0.166 are used
other words, delay time and weight of CO2 in calculating the quantity of carbon dioxide
vaporized during initial discharge must be required for each specific hazard listed above.
included in the rate of discharge calculation. Examples: electric equipment and wiring,
5. Time Delay of Vaporization. Using the tables 50% design concentration, 0.083 pounds of
and formulas found in NFPA Standards and CO2 per cubic foot of volume. For storage
Factory Mutual Insurance data sheets, calcu- vaults, 75% design concentration, 0. 166
lations will determine the time delay of vapor- pounds of CO2 per cubic foot of volume.
ization in the piping and weight of CO2 7. Quantity of CO2 To calculate the quantity of
required to overcome the loss through vapor- CO2 required to extinguish a surface fire by
ization in the piping. total flooding in an enclosure, the following
6. Concentration Level for Deep-Seated Fires. In are the volume factors required for a few com-
order to extinguish the deep-seated or smol- mon materials.
dering fire, the total flooding system must pro-
Material Minimum concentration of CO2%
vide a 30% concentration within 2 min from
Benzene 37
start of discharge, and this rate of discharge
Ethyl ether 46
can be computed on the basis of 0.042 pounds/ Gasolene 34
cu. feet. As mentioned previously in the dis- Kerosene 34
cussion of total flooding systems, when the Lube oil 34
required design concentration is reached, sur-
face fires will be extinguished, but with deep- Do not neglect openings in the enclosure that
seated or smoldering fires it is necessary to cannot be automatically closed at the start of dis-
maintain the concentration for an extended charge of the CO2 The loss of CO2 through these
period of time in order to soak the material openings must be included in the total supply
with CO2 until it reaches the deepest penetra- calculations at not less than one pound of carbon
tion of the combustion in the material. Thirty dioxide per square foot of openings. HVAC sys-
Clean Agents-Replacing Halon 175

tems that cannot be shut off automatically at the 9. Where pipe sections can be closed off, pres-
start of discharge of the CO2, or cannot be imme- sure-relief valves shall be installed to vent
diately shut off manually, must be given careful entrapped liquid carbon dioxide.
consideration in computing the CO2 supply. The (a) High pressure systems: pressure relief
volume moved by the operating ventilation, or set to operate at 2400–3000 psi.
HVAC, system during the time span between CO2 (b) Low pressure systems: pressure relief set
initial discharge into the area and mechanical unit to operate at 450 psi.
shut-down should be divided by the flooding fac- (c) Care must be exercised to discharge CO2
tor, and this amount added to the total supply from pressure-relief valves without
requirement. When the design concentration is causing personal injury or mechanical
greater than 34%, this calculated amount must be damage.
multiplied by a conversion factor found in NFPA 10. The area required for venting of exception-
standards. ally tight enclosures can be calculated with
the following formula. This formula is based
8. Unusual Temperature Conditions. An addi- on the assumption that expansion of carbon
tional design consideration is the existence of dioxide is nine cubic feet per pound:
an unusual temperature condition in the enclo-
sure to be flooded. For every 5° above 200 °F X equals Q divided by 1.3 times the square foot
the total calculated quantity of CO2 must be of P.
increased by 1%. When the normal tempera- X = Free venting area in square inches.
ture of the enclosure is below 0 °F, the total Q = Calculated carbon dioxide flow rate in pounds
calculated quantity of CO2 must be increased per minute.
by 1% for every degree below 0 °F. P = Allowable strength of enclosure in pounds
per square foot.

General Design Notes Note: See NFPA 12 for a guide to substituting

a value for P (Strength and allowable pressure for
A few design notes to supplement the general avg. enclosures). These values are based on gen-
discussion of pipe and fittings for high and low eral construction practice parameters.
pressure systems. General: This section has provided an overview of a CO2
system-high vs. low pressure, and local vs. total
1. Pipe and fittings must be suitable for low- flooding applications. This data can be used to gen-
temperature use. erally make a choice between systems, however, in
2. Pipe and fittings must be corrosion resistant choosing the valves, pipes and design details, an
inside and out. appropriate engineer should be consulted.
3. Ferrous metals shall be galvanized.
4. Steel, copper, brass and metals with similar
mechanical and physical properties are Clean Agents-Replacing Halon
acceptable.
5. Copper tubing with approved flared or The Montreal Protocol of 1987 on Substances that
brazed connections is acceptable. Deplete the Ozone Layer resulted in the phase out
6. Malleable or ductile iron fittings are accept- of a number of different chemicals, including
able if they meet ASTM (American Society chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons.
of Testing Material) A395, Grade 60-45-15. The result was a concerted effort to develop
7. Steel pipe that meets ASTM A-53 has excel- halon substitutes. Three common substitutes are
lent low-temperature characteristics. Inergen, FM-200, and Novec, although there are
8. Cast (gray) iron pipe and fittings are not others. These gases are known as clean agents.
acceptable. They do not conduct electricity, vaporize readily
176 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

and theoretically leave no residue. There are two Must be evaluated with respect to health and
basic types -Inert agents and halocarbon clean safety concerns which are primarily related to
agents. oxygen depletion.
It is important to note that by their nature the
Halon substitutes will occupy more occupancy
space than Halon systems.  reenhouse Gases and the Ozone
G
Layer

Types of Clean Agents  zone Depletion Potential

O
The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of several
To paraphrase the SFPE Handbook (Hurley et al. layers. The stratosphere is located 6 miles
2015), halocarbon clean agents are: (10 km) to 31 miles (50 km) above the earth’s
surface. The majority of the ozone layer is located
• All electrically nonconductive. in the stratosphere. Increases in the ozone layer
• They all vaporize readily and leave no near the earth’s surface are the result of pollution
residue. from human activities (smog).
• All are liquefied gases or display similar The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the radia-
behavior. tion from the sun and prevents it from reaching
• All (except FE30) use nitrogen super-pressur- the planet’s surface. Its most important job is to
ization for discharge purposes in most cases. absorb a portion of UV light called UVB, which
• All by chemical composition are LESS effi- has been linked to many harmful effects, includ-
cient extinguishing agents than halon. ing cataracts, skin cancers and harm to some
• All are total flooding gases after discharge. crops and marine life.
• All produce more hydrofloric acid and other Ozone consists of three oxygen molecules
decomposition than Halon 1301. and has the chemical equation O3. When chlo-
• Most have substantial greenhouse warming rine and bromine (which are contained in
characteristics. Halons) come into contact with the strato-
• All have near zero ozone depletion potential. sphere, they react with the O3 molecules,
• All must be evaluated with respect to health destroying them. Hence replacement for the
and safety concerns -primarily cardiac halons was deemed necessary by the Montreal
sensitization. Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer was agreed on September 16, 1987 (EPA,
Inert clean gas agents: OLP 2017).
All are electrically nonconductive.
• All are clean agents; they leave no residue.
• All are stored as compressed gases using low Global Warming Potential
capacity high pressure cylinders (and there-
fore can potentially take up a lot of space) Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the Earth by
• All are less efficient fire extinguishants than absorbing energy and slowing the rate at which
Halon 1301. Therefore storage volumes are the energy escapes to space; they act like a blan-
much greater than Halon 1301 or the halocar- ket insulating the Earth. Different GHGs can
bon agents mentioned previously. have different effects on the Earth’s warming.
• Don’t decompose -that is they do not produce Two key ways in which these gases differ from
HF or other products of decomposition each other are their ability to absorb energy
• Have zero global warming potential. (their “radiative efficiency”), and how long they
• Have zero global ozone depletion potential. stay in the atmosphere (also known as their
“lifetime”).
Clean Agents-Replacing Halon 177

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was tained. A common composition is derived from a
developed to allow comparisons of the global mixture of Nitrogen (52%), Argon (40%), and
warming impacts of different gases. Specifically, Carbon Dioxide (8%). Inergen is suitable for
it is a measure of how much energy the emissions Class A, Class B and Class C fires. It has zero
of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period ozone depletion potential, is electrically non-
of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of car- conductive and is safe for occupied areas. One
bon dioxide (CO2). The larger the GWP, the more drawback is that it generally requires many more
that a given gas warms the Earth compared to cylinders and therefore more space, than the
CO2 over that time period. The time period usu- other ozone friendly gases, since its constituent
ally used for GWPs is 100 years. GWPs provide gases to not lend themselves to compression
a common unit of measure, which allows ana- without refrigeration at sea level.
lysts to add up emissions estimates of different The main life safety concern for inert agents
gases (e.g., to compile a national GHG inven- like Inergen is reduced oxygen concentration.
tory), and allows policymakers to compare emis-
sions reduction opportunities across sectors and
gases (EPA, E 2017) Halocarbon Agents

These agents have a drawback that when used on

Naming Conventions larger design fires, it is possible that Hydrogen
Fluoride - a very strong acid, is produced in the
It should be noted that clean agents are referred area of the fire. This can be mitigated by using spe-
to in abbreviated form in the NFPA 2001 (2015) cial detection systems in the hazards to be pro-
standard. This is shown in Table 12.1. tected, so that smaller fires are detected and initiate
the suppression system (limiting HF production).
Besides the development of HF, cardiac sensi-
Inert Agents tization leading to irregular heartbeat (and possi-
ble heart attack) is a primary toxicity problem for
A common inert gas used to suppress fires is the Halocarbon agents at higher concentrations,
Inergen. It literally inerts an environment -an so much care must be taken when designing these
inert chemical mixture drops the oxygen level to new systems.
a point where combustion can no longer be sus- One halocarbon agent is FM-200. FM-200 is a
carbon/fluorine/hydrogen compound suitable for
Class A, B and C fires. It removes heat so that the
Table 12.1 Trade names, chemical composition, and
NFPA references combustion reaction cannot sustain itself. It also
Chemical
has Zero ozone depletion potential, is electrically
Trade name composition NFPA reference non-conductive and is safe for occupied areas.
Inergen Nitrogen (52%) IG-541 The base chemical in FM-200 is used in medi-
Argon (40%) cal inhalers. While this can provide some relief to
Carbon Dioxide those who experience an accidental discharge it
(8%)
should not necessarily comfort those who are
FM-200 CF3CHFCF3 HFC-227ea
Novec C6F12O FK-5-12 exposed to the gas when it has been broken down
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2001-2018,
at high temperatures.
Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems, Another is Novec. Novec is a suitable for
Copyright © 2017, National Fire Protection Association, Class A, B and C fires. It removes heat so that the
Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is not the complete combustion reaction cannot sustain itself. It also
and official position of the NFPA on the referenced sub-
ject, which is represented only by the standard in its
has a very low ozone depletion potential, is elec-
entirety which may be obtained through the NFPA web- trically non-conductive and is safe for occupied
site at www.nfpa.org areas.
178 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

 OAEL and LOAEL and the Need

N and weights of different types of systems
for Precise Design (Wickham 2003). These are summarized below:

Cylinder # of Total weight

NOAEL is a measure of agent toxicity to humans.
Agent volume (Liters) cylinders (kg)
It is an acronym for No Observed Adverse Effect Halon 1301 246 1 400
Level. LOAEL is also an acronym for Lowest Carbon 68 8 1000
Observable Adverse Effect Level (on test subjects). dioxide
1.5.1.2.1* Unnecessary exposure to halocarbon FM-200 368 1 600
clean agents — including exposure at and below (halocarbon)
the no observable adverse effects level Novec 1230 368 1 600
(NOAEL) — and halocarbon decomposition prod- (halocarbon)
ucts shall be avoided. Means shall be provided to Inergen 82 19 2000
limit exposure to no longer than 5 min. Unprotected (inert gas)
personnel shall not enter a protected space during
or after agent discharge. The following additional The number of cylinders and weights make it
provisions shall apply: clear that Inergen and CO2 may be undesirable
(1) Halocarbon systems for spaces that are nor-
mally occupied and designed to concentrations up from a weight and pure system volume standpoint
to the NOAEL shall be permitted. The maximum depending on the area that is to be protected.
exposure in any case shall not exceed 5 min. For a smaller space, approximately 2500 cubic
NFPA 2001(2015). feet (72.2 m3), an aerosol fire suppression vendor
Needless to say, clean agent designers must made the following comparisons for weights and
use methods to minimize human exposure to the numbers of cylinders: (Stat-X 2005). Aerosol fire
agent. The best way to do this is to make sure that suppression systems are covered under NFPA
exiting from a compartment that utilizes such a 2010. Health issues concerning breathing the
system is well facilitated. Other methods to pro- products of aerosol fire suppression systems and
tect personnel include alarm notification before the obscuration of exits that may occur upon
discharge, locks and other methods to prevent re- deployment mean that they should only be
entry into the room once a system has been employed in conjuction with a where it can be
discharged. assured that no occupants will be present (a 30 s
time delay is required).

Agent # of cylinders Total weight (kg)

Aerosol fire 2 5
Quantities of Clean Agents suppression
Dry chemical 2 22.7
In many applications, the number of cylinders Halocarbon 2 59
and general “footprint” of a system become very Carbon dioxide 4 73
important. In cities where space is at a premium, Inert gas 9 52
or offshore where weight and space may be con-
straints, it is important to have a sense of how Quantities of clean agents can be determined
these factors will influence a design. using the tables provided in NFPA 2001 (2015).
For very large spaces of 17,660 ft3 (500 m3) For examples for Inergen of these tables are pro-
and more, comparisons were made of the sizes vided in Tables 12.2 and 12.3.
Clean Agents-Replacing Halon 179

Table 12.2 Total Flooding Quantity of Inergen

180 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

Table 12.3 Total Flooding Quantity of FM200

Use of Halon 1301 181

Halon Systems and Halon Phase Out tems. Accordingly, when a Halon 1301 system is
authorized, testing of the total flooding system
Halon, like carbon dioxide, is a fire extinguishing becomes a major concern.
gas that is colorless, odorless, and leaves no resi- The testing of total flooding Halon 1301 sys-
due, but there are several important differences tems now consists of pressurizing the enclosure
between halon and carbon dioxide. Carbon diox- to determine the concentration that will be
ide extinguishes combustion by physically suffo- retained for the required time period. This test
cating the fire: replacing the oxygen necessary does not verify that the concentration is within
for combustion with the carbon dioxide gas. the safe 5–7% range, nor does it confirm that the
Halon extinguishes combustion by inhibiting the concentration distribution throughout the enclo-
chemical reaction of fuel and oxygen. The actual sure is constant.
chemical reaction by which halon extinguishes
combustion is not completely known, but this is
one rather generic theory that is used in this text to Use of Halon 1301
describe the basic difference between the extin-
guishing action of carbon dioxide and Halon. Concentrations of Halon 1301 of between 5%
Another important difference between Halon and 7% by volume are levels that can safely be
and carbon dioxide is the effect of the gas on per- inhaled by personnel for 4–5 min without serious
sonnel, and this difference is one that has made cardiac or central nervous system effects. This
halon popular as an extinguishing agent. By replac- means that discharge can commence immediately
ing sufficient oxygen to suffocate combustion, car- upon detection with no pre-discharge alarm time
bon dioxide also replaces sufficient oxygen to delay. Concentrations above 7% can cause slight
suffocate personnel. Since halon does not depend dizziness or a feeling of being mildly intoxicated.
on oxygen replacement to extinguish a fire, the When the concentration passes 10%, mental and
concentration of halon necessary to extinguish physical impairment can occur. Concentrations
most surface fires is generally not harmful to per- above 17% are assumed to cause unconscious-
sonnel, an extremely important advantage, espe- ness and possible death. When it is necessary to
cially in total flooding systems. Recall from the provide protection in an area where personnel
section on carbon dioxide systems that it is neces- cannot cease activity or shut down equipment and
sary to have a pre-discharge alarm with a total evacuate the area immediately upon hearing the
flooding carbon dioxide system. This was to pro- fire alarm, Halon 1301 discharge can commence
vide time between the first alarm and discharge for combustion suppression when manually acti-
personnel in the area to evacuate because once the vated. As a result, total flooding Halon 1301 sys-
discharge commences, the occupants were in dan- tems have found extensive use in areas like airport
ger. With Halon 1301, the most common and pop- control towers and air traffic control centers,
ular halon used today, the total flooding discharge where personnel cannot jump up and run for the
concentration for areas such as a computer room or exit when the fire alarm is activated.
control room is not hazardous to the occupants.
There is a restriction on Halon use, however,
that affects its continued popularity. Halon 1301 Need for Precise Design
is a member of a family of halogenated agents
that has a detrimental effect on the earth’s ozone When Halon 1301 is used as a total flooding sys-
layer, Halon 1301 production has been frozen by tem in areas where personnel are present, and the
international agreement. At the present time, concentration must not exceed 7%, it is absolutely
halon system use is limited, and these systems necessary that the system be designed and calcu-
can now only be used if no other agent can pro- lated with a high degree of precision. Further, the
vide protection. Most government agencies and design of a total flooding Halon 1301 system
environmentally conscious corporations com- must be performed by an experienced profes-
pletely prohibit the installation of new Halon sys- sional because the flow calculations to provide the
182 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

proper discharge at each nozzle with all but the personnel who may need assistance in leaving the
simplest systems is extremely complex and area. Responding firefighters also need this notifi-
sophisticated. These are so complex that they can- cation so they can use self-contained breathing
not be done manually and must be performed by equipment before entering the area.
computer programs (which are checked by
national testing laboratories to assure not only
their accuracy, but also their limitations). Rapid Discharge Rate
The purpose of this section is to acquaint the
reader with the preliminary specification and The total flooding system shall be specified to
design of a system. In no way should a lay person establish the required concentration in the enclosed
attempt to design any of the gaseous systems area within 10 s, and this concentration is to be
described. maintained for a period of 10 min. One reason for
this rapid discharge rate is the fact that Halon 1301
will decompose when exposed to temperatures in
Alarm Systems the 900 °F range, and the decomposition products
not only have an extremely irritating odor but can
Halon 1301 total flooding systems are automati- also be very toxic. By developing the concentra-
cally activated by a detection system, and in order tion very rapidly, the combustion can usually be
to prevent false discharge, the detection system is suppressed and extinguished before materials
usually designed to provide all alarms, automati- exposed to the fire can reach high temperatures.
cally close self-closing doors to the enclosure by Flaming combustion can be quickly suppressed,
releasing magnetic door holders, and shut down thereby reducing the heat of the fire.
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) The extremely rapid rate of discharge of a
when the first detector is activated. Activation of total flooding Halon 1301 system presents a con-
a second detector releases the discharge. dition that must be given careful consideration.
The detection system provides the alarms, but When a Halon 1301 total flooding system is used
since there is provision for manual operation of to protect areas where the velocity of the dis-
the discharge, it is best to always include in the charge could damage delicate material, a very
specifications and cost estimate a pressure switch careful evaluation of the location of the nozzles,
on the halon discharge piping. This switch will the discharge rate, and the type of nozzles must
activate all the alarms and control devices that the receive top priority.
detection system handles if the detection system For example, such a detailed evaluation was not
is bypassed by manual operation. In lieu of mag- developed for the installation of a Halon 1301 total
netic door holders, self-closing doors may be flooding system in an archives storage room of an
held open and automatically closed by using art museum. When the discharge test was con-
pressure trips that are connected by piping to the ducted, the velocity of the discharge blew irre-
discharge piping of the system. When the system placeable artifacts off the shelves and damaged
operates, pressure in the piping activates the pres- them beyond repair. The extremely rapid rate of
sure trip devices and the door closes. (These pres- discharge of a total flooding Halon 1301 system
sure trips can also be used with CO2 systems.) must be given careful consideration.
Whether the alarms are bells, horns, or sirens, it is The velocity of the discharge has been known
important to have a visual signal, such as a strobe to blow ceiling tiles off a suspended ceiling sup-
light, to warn personnel who might not hear the port, and the noise of the discharge can be
alarm or who have a hearing impairment. extremely frightening, if unexpected. To counter
An audible and visual alarm are also necessary this, there is customarily one type of alarm when
immediately outside of the protected area to pro- the first detector is activated, and a different type
vide individuals outside the room with notifica- of alarm when the halon is discharged, although
tion that the halon has discharged. The sign/alarm the alarm in the protected area is quickly drowned
should post notice not to open doors and to rescue out by the noise from the discharge.
Storage of Halon 183

Storage of Halon When an abort switch is installed, it should be

a dead man switch. A dead man switch must be
Halon 1301 is stored in cylinders as a liquid and, held in the operating position by an individual,
to maintain the Halon 1301 in a liquid state and to and once released it will automatically activate the
provide sufficient pressure to transport the liquid halon discharge. If an individual hears the alarm
Halon 1301 through the piping to the discharge when the first detector is activated and does not
nozzles. The pressurization is maintained at see any smoke or fire condition, he or she can hit
360 psi at 70 °F or 600 psi at 70 °F. The 360 psi the abort switch and prevent the halon discharge.
level is usually specified for systems with rela-
tively short piping designs, and the 600 psi sys- A note of caution If some individual hits the
tem is primarily used for complex piping designs abort switch, the only way they can release the
or where there is considerable distance between switch without discharging the halon is to reset
the storage cylinders and the hazard. the panel that controls the system. If they are
If it is not possible to replenish the supply of alone in the area, and it is obvious that a non-fire
Halon 1301 cylinders within a reasonable time condition activated the detector, the abort switch
(usually 24 h) or if the hazard is extremely valu- should be within reach of a telephone or the con-
able to the operation of the facility, or the hazard trol panel.
has the potential for recurring fires, it is neces-
sary to furnish reserve supply cylinders perma- Never use a positive type abort switch similar
nently piped into the system. The operation of a to a toggle switch. There is too much probability
switch will change the system supply from the that the switch would be left in the off position
empty primary cylinders to the reserve cylinders. rendering the system inoperative.
A check valve in each supply from the primary
and reserve cylinders to the system piping will
prevent the charge cylinders from discharging Placement of Halon Cylinders
into the empty cylinders.
Halon 1301 cylinders should be stored outside
the hazard area and secured with brackets
Control Switches for Storage designed to hold the cylinders. The storage cylin-
ders should be safe from mechanical and physical
Manual pull stations are provided to trigger the damage, and placed in an area where the temper-
system manually, and activation of a pull station ature will not exceed 130 °F nor fall below −20 F.
transmits a signal to the cylinder discharge
devices. Activation of a manual pull station will
cause immediate discharge of the halon, and at the Storage Conditions
same time set off all alarms and control devices.
Each system has a control panel that receives Systems with the halon cylinders located outside
signals from the detection system and transmits the hazard area, with the extinguishing agent
signals to the cylinder discharge devices, alarm piped to the discharge nozzles, are referred to as
system, and control systems. engineered systems.
Abort switches may be requested by an owner In other Halon 1301 systems, the individual
to abort, or put on hold, the discharge of the halon cylinders are installed in the hazard area. These
after a detector has activated the alarms. Automatic containers may be either cylindrical or spherical
time delays to delay the discharge of the halon in shape, and can be installed on the wall, above
following activation of the detection system are the suspended ceiling, or below the raised floor.
acceptable, but the use of a device such as an abort Each cylinder is a self-contained system with sup-
switch to prevent halon discharge until a fire situ- ply, cylinder actuator, and discharge nozzle. The
ation is confirmed is not acceptable, and usually requirement for piping from the cylinder to the
not permitted by the insurance carrier. discharge nozzle may consist of a short nipple, or
184 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

the nozzle may be part of the cylinder itself with Loss of gas through these small openings is
no piping involved. Systems with the supply cyl- accented by the tremendous rate of discharge, so
inders located in the hazard area are commonly this 20% safety factor is necessary in figuring the
referred to as modular systems. approximate number of pounds of Halon 1301
required. Large openings that cannot be closed
prior to the discharge must be carefully consid-
Estimating Approximate Amounts ered in the design calculations.
In areas with underfloor spaces, do not attempt
During the design of an engineered Halon 1301 to protect the underfloor space with above floor
system, the questions most frequently asked by system. The underfloor space in usually used as
the architect or the mechanical engineer are: How ventilation for the machines on the raised floor,
many Halon 1301 cylinders? How big are the cyl- and a considerable amount of halon discharged
inders (to allocate storage space)? in the area above the floor will spill into the
Below is a simple method by which to estimate underfloor space, but some of this halon will be
the approximate amount of Halon 1301 required sucked up into the machines and the below floor
to protect the hazard with a 5–7% concentration: concentration will be diluted. If the underfloor
space is to be protected, it is best to install both
1. Calculate the cubic footage of the enclosure. detection and discharge nozzles at the ceiling for
If there is a raised floor, as found in the major- the above floor area, and detection and discharge
ity of computer rooms, use the height of the nozzles below the raised floor. Activation of the
area from the bottom of the suspended ceiling detection either above the floor at the ceiling or
to the floor below the raised floor. The area below the raised floor must activate the entire
above the suspended ceiling does not have to system. The discharge nozzles at the ceiling for
be included in the calculation for total cubic the area above the raised floor, and discharge
footage unless there are combustible materials nozzles below the raised floor, must activate
above the suspended ceiling. simultaneously.
2. Once the cubic footage has been determined, In requesting bids or detailed system installa-
multiply this figure by 0.025, and the answer tion design and calculations, do not neglect any
will be the estimated amount of Halon 1301 in openings in the area that cannot be dampered,
pounds. shut down, or dosed. This includes open drains
3. Consult a halon manufacturers catalog for the and cable shifts. Also, be absolutely certain that
cylinder capacities in pounds, and once the raised floor spaces do not extend beyond the
appropriate cylinder is selected, the size will above floor partitions, as loss of halon into adja-
be indicated. cent unprotected areas or areas beyond the scope
of the system will dilute the concentration below
If the weight of Halon 1301 is considerable, it that required to extinguish the combustion.
will be necessary to divide up the total pounds
required among several cylinders, if reserve sup-
ply is required an equal number of equal size cyl-  artial Total Flooding Halon 1301
P
inders will occupy the storage space. Systems
This formula for estimating the required num-
ber of pounds of Halon 1301 includes about a Halon 1301 is an expensive agent, and when the
20% safety factor to account for normally equipment to be protected is in a room of consid-
encountered loss of halon concentration through erable height, for example 40′, and the equipment
various unsealable openings. This type of unseal- height is only 15′, the total flood of the room can
able opening occurs below doors: exhaust fans be calculated to cover the equipment plus 5′–10′
that are shut down when the detection system is (above). Since Halon 1301 is considerably
activated may continue to rotate, or ducts that heavier than air, it will settle to the lower areas of
have dosed dampers during discharge of the a room. To ensure the accuracy of the calcula-
halon often have a certain amount of leakage. tions, design, and placement of the nozzles, expe-
Dry Chemical Systems 185

rienced Halon 1301 design professionals must used for extinguishment of Class D combusti-
engineer the system. bles are not referred to as a dry chemicals, but
An example of partial total flooding is the pro- as dry powders.
tection of aircraft flight simulators. The area con-
taining these simulators is considerably higher Sodium bicarbonate is basically a Class B
than the simulators. The Halon 1301 is discharged extinguishing agent, but it can handle small Class
to provide a 6% concentration to protect the A fires that are on the surface of the combustible.
sophisticated electronic equipment associated Purple K is primarily a Class B extinguishing
with the simulators, to a height of approximately agent because of its efficiency in fighting flam-
10′ (above the simulators). mable liquid fuel spill fires. Monoammonium
phosphate is a multi-purpose agent because it is
an agent used to extinguish Class A and Class B
Dry Chemical Systems combustibles, and is safe when used on energized
electrical equipment, so it is an A/B/C agent. Dry
Dry chemical is a generic term because it includes chemical systems can be either total flooding or
several different types of dry chemical powders local application type.
in extremely small particles. Dry chemicals have The design criteria for a dry chemical total
been used in hand extinguishers since the 1920s, enflooding system closely follows the require-
but their use in fixed pipe extinguishing systems ments for a carbon dioxide total flood system: (1)
is relatively recent. The original and still most discharge of the agent into an enclosed space, (2)
well known dry chemical is sodium bicarbonate, system activation automatically by a detection
but there are other dry chemicals that have gained system with manual activation potential, (3)
tremendous public acceptance. Potassium bicar- doors, windows, and dampers automatically
bonate, also known as Purple K, is used exten- dosed, and (4) HVAC (heating, ventilating, air-
sively on hydrocarbon fires because it is almost conditioning) system shut down when system is
three times as effective as sodium bicarbonate. activated.
Monoammonium phosphate is an all purpose Here the similarity ceases with a dry chemical
agent, and is used in the majority of home fire total flooding system. With gaseous systems, the
extinguishers. required concentration in the enclosure must be
maintained for a specified time period to prevent
re-ignition of the combustion. Dry chemical con-
Classification of Dry Chemicals centration must be obtained in all sections of the
enclosure within 30 s, but there are no require-
Before proceeding with a discussion of dry ments for maintaining the concentration because
chemicals and dry chemical systems, it is neces- the dry chemical settles quickly. For this reason,
sary to reiterate the lettering system used to iden- when designing a dry chemical system sources of
tify different classes of combustibles: reignition must be evaluated along with the haz-
ard itself and eliminated if at all possible.
Class A combustibles are ordinary combustibles The total flooding concentration for various
such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and some hazards is mandated for gaseous systems, but this
plastics. is not possible with dry chemicals. The quantity
Class B combustibles are flammable liquids, of dry chemical, the rate of flow in the system,
paints, grease, solvents, etc. and the piping configuration for nozzle position-
Class C is not combustible, but indicates that the ing are all dependent on the specific dry chemical
agent is electrically nonconductive, and can used and the hazard being protected. This text
therefore be safely discharged on energized will provide the basic criteria for a total flooding
electrical equipment, devices, and wiring. dry chemical system, but experienced profession-
Class D refers to combustible metals such as als must be consulted once the preliminary plans
magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Agents have been established.
186 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

Safety to Personnel (between the empty piping and the dry chemical
cylinder) also prevents entry of moist air, conden-
Safety to personnel is a high priority concern with sation, and caking of the dry chemical.
dry chemical total flooding systems. The discharge The fluidized mixture is transported through
of dry chemical systems can cause loss of visibil- the empty piping at extremely high velocities,
ity, and produce difficulty in breathing, resulting in upwards of 125 feet per second, at pressures of up
a panic condition. If personnel are present in the to 350 psi. This high velocity and pressure, com-
area protected with a dry chemical total flooding bined with the fact that although the dry chemical
system, a pre-discharge alarm should be provided is technically a powder (in the gas/agent mixture)
to allow evacuation before discharge. when in a solid state, produces a tremendous
thrust and force at elbows and tees. The dry
chemical system must be designed and installed
Dry Chemical System Design with the necessary strength to contain this force.
The fact that the dry chemical is a solid makes it
Most fixed pipe dry chemical total flooding sys- rather easy to visualize how the dry chemical
tems, called engineered systems, are two cylinder powder by centrifugal force separates from the
systems: one cylinder contains the dry chemical, gas at an elbow and follows the curve. With the
and the other contains either nitrogen or carbon dry chemical and gas mixture flowing through the
dioxide. When the detection system is activated, piping at tremendous velocity, and after being
or the system is tripped manually, the nitrogen or thrown against the outside curvature of the elbow
carbon dioxide is automatically discharged into (if the next fitting is a tee), the dry chemical may
the dry chemical cylinder, pressurizing the dry rush past the tee outlet hugging the outside of the
chemical which is then carried through the piping straight part of the tee. To give the dry chemical a
to the discharge nozzles. However, this is not chance to re-mix with the gas before it reaches
quite as simple an operation as it sounds. Before the tee, a straight piece of piping, not less than 20
the dry chemical can be transported through the times the pipe diameter in length, must be
piping in a free flowing manner, the gas/dry installed between the elbow and the tee.
chemical mixture in the cylinder must be in a fluid If space limitations will not allow this length of
state. In this condition, the mixture is said to be pipe, a device called a venturi assembly is installed
fluidized. The dry chemical must not be fluidized between the elbow and the tee. This venturi is
before it can be released to the piping, but also the basically a restricted throat which allows the dry
pressure in the dry chemical cylinder must build chemical to re-mix before entering the tee.
up to the design pressure required to transport the With tees on a straight run of pipe, the dry
fluidized mixture through the piping, arriving at chemical traveling at a high velocity in the
the nozzles at the required pressure. straight pipe can pass over the outlet of the tee.
To equalize the pressure in the dry chemical To overcome this effect, tees are most effective
cylinder, a pressure regulator is usually provided when they are installed bullheaded -discharging
to control the pressure of the nitrogen or carbon into the side of the outlet of the tee.
dioxide into the dry chemical cylinder. To accom-
plish the equalization of the pressure in the dry
chemical cylinder, and to assure the fluidization Tests
of the dry chemical in the cylinder, the dry chem-
ical cylinder has a bursting disc which seals it off The optimum amount of dry chemical and the
from the piping until the calculated pressure is rate of discharge for specific hazard have been
reached. When the predetermined pressure is determined by experiment and test for total flood-
attained in the cylinder, and the dry chemical has ing systems. The quantity of dry chemical, rate of
been fluidized, the disc will rupture and the dry flow, discharge rate, and nozzle placement result-
chemical/gas mixture will enter the piping and ing from these experimental tests are plotted on
flow to the discharge nozzles. The bursting disc graphs.
Dry Chemical Systems 187

The tests that provide information for these located in transformer vaults and exteriors trans-
graphs are based on using different flammable liq- formers. When the system protects a hazard
uid surface fire areas, the amount of dry chemical located outside, additional dry chemicals must be
required to extinguish the combustion, and the included to compensate for loss due to wind cur-
minimum rate of discharge necessary to accom- rents carrying some of the discharge away from
plish the extinguishment. Each manufacturer must the hazard. As with total flooding systems, the
conduct tests since every piece of equipment-noz- design of local application systems depends on
zles, devices, and dry chemical compounds-affect the type of dry chemical, the rate that the dry
the flow rate discharge capability for their specific chemical is discharged, the nozzle type used, and
system. The graphs developed from these tests can the velocity of the dry chemical. All of these
be obtained from the various dry chemical manu- design and calculation factors, including the
facturers for use in specifying and preliminary amount of dry chemical required for the hazard,
design of dry chemical total flooding systems. The are determined by experimental testing by manu-
following formula was developed from the tests facturers and testing laboratories.
conducted by one manufacturer and is offered Local application systems are usually acti-
here to provide the generic concept of testing for vated automatically by a detection system with
total flooding dry chemical systems. It is impera- the provision for manual operation of the system,
tive that this formula be considered as an example and the majority of large systems are supplied
only, and should not be used for all situations, all from the dry chemical cylinder pressurized from
types of dry chemicals, or all manufacturers sys- the nitrogen or carbon dioxide cylinder. The
tems: The weight of dry chemical in pounds for a design of the piping for a local application ­system
total flooding system can be determined by multi- is similar to that described for the dry chemical
plying the cubic feet of the enclosure by 0.0385. total flooding system. Pipe lengths, pipe sizing,
As with all dry chemical total flooding systems, number and size of fittings, type, and placement
this is the gross cubic feet of the enclosure less the of nozzles are critical. The local application sys-
volume of permanent equipment or other perma- tem will experience the same, if not greater,
nent fixtures that occupy a considerable volume in velocities and pressures, requiring application of
the enclosure: This formula is presented for exam- substantial pipe supports and installations to
ple only and should not be used for any prelimi- resist the extremely high thrust conditions.
nary calculations that will become part of a
specification or cost estimate. Each specific total
flooding dry chemical system calculation must be Dry Chemical Hand Hose Systems
based on the manufacturers formulas and graphs
for the particular hazard and enclosure. Where large fuel spill fires are a potential haz-
ard, dry chemical hand hose lines perform as
exceptional firefighting equipment. Hand hose
 ocal Application Dry Chemical
L lines are supplied from a dry chemical storage
Systems cylinder with a separate nitrogen or carbon diox-
ide cylinder to pressurize the dry chemical.
Local application systems are used when there is Pressure forces it through the hose to the dis-
no enclosure around the hazard or when the haz- charge nozzle, and the hose operator has the
ard is located in an area enclosure where total capability of controlling the discharge with an
flooding would be impractical. As with other local on-off nozzle valve.
application systems, the dry chemical discharges Each hose station must have a supply of dry
directly onto the hazard. Dry chemical local appli- chemicals capable of furnishing a discharge for a
cation systems are used extensively to protect sol- minimum of 30 s. The hose stations can be indi-
vent and paint dip tanks, open tanks of flammable vidual, self-contained units with the dry chemical
liquids, gasoline, and flammable liquid racks. Dry supply dedicated to the individual hose station, or
chemical local application systems have also been the hose supply can be furnished from the same
used to protect oil insulated electric transformers dry chemical supply that is furnished for a local
188 12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems

application or total flooding system. The supply tion manual. This manual is an integral part of the
for both the system and the hose stations is UL listing, and the system components listed in
designed using selector valves that direct the dis- the manufacturers manual can be used.
charge through the piping. The selector valve Although pre-engineered dry chemical systems
activation determines which piping system will may be total flooding or local application type, the
receive the dry chemical discharge. most common pre-engineered systems are used
The flow rate of the dry chemical is a function for protecting kitchen hoods and hood exhaust
of the hose size, hose length, and nozzle. The ducts. Kitchen hood systems are automatically
average flow rate is approximately eight pounds activated by a conventional detection system or by
per second for a 1″ hose, 15 pounds per second fusible link (similar to a sprinkler head fusible
through a 1/2″ hose, and three pounds per second link) which releases the actuating device when
through a 3/4″ hose. For example, with 50′ of heat fuses the element and the link separates.
hose and a nozzle, the flow rate is approximately There is always a manual means of discharging
2.7 pounds per second, with a range of about 25, the system, and on some small systems manual
with a 150 pound supply of dry chemicals, which activation is the only means of system activation.
will discharge for approximately 49 s. Kitchen hood pre-engineered dry chemical sys-
The strong cylinders for supplying hose systems, tems must be equipped with an automatic device
and total flooding or local application systems to shut off fuel and power to the cooking appli-
plus hose stations, can range from 125 to 3000 ances when the system is discharged.
pounds of dry chemical. Pre-engineered dry chemical systems are very
effective in protecting laboratory hoods, paint
and solvent dip tanks, and the drain boards for
 re-Engineered Dry Chemical
P dip tanks, to name a few hazards. They are also
Systems an economical means of protection for hazards
that can be protected with one of these UL listed
The discussion of dry chemical system has systems. The sophisticated design, calculations,
presented the many and varied difficulties in and actual fire testing has already been per-
designing and calculating engineered total flood- formed, and if the guidelines, mandates, equip-
ing and local application dry chemical systems. ment, devices, and design included in the UL
Pre-engineered dry chemical systems have listing are used and followed, hazard protection
already been engineered by professionals experi- with dry chemicals is readily available.
enced in the design and calculation of dry chemi-
cal systems. To protect relatively small hazards
that have similar construction configurations, dry References
chemical systems are tested by the manufacturer
using actual fire tests for various hazards. These EPA. “Carbon Dioxide as a Fire Suppressant: Examining
the Risks.” EPA. <https://www.epa.gov/sites/produc-
tests and the test results are confirmed and veri- tion/files/2015-06/documents/CO2report.pdf)>. 2015.
fied by Underwriters Laboratories, a nationally EPA, Emissions. “Understanding Global Warming
recognized testing laboratory. Potentials.” <https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/
The design of the system including the num- understanding-global-warming-potentials>. 2017.
EPA, OLP. “Basic Ozone Layer Science.” <https://www.
ber and type of nozzles, quantity of any chemical, epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/basic-ozone-layer-
type of dry chemical, method of operation, maxi- science>. 2017.
mum and minimum pipe lengths, number and Hurley, Morgan J., Gottuk, Daniel T. et al. SFPE
type of fittings, rate of application, and minimum Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer,
New York. 2015.
effective time of discharge, are all part and parcel Stat-X. “Stat-X Products.” <https://www.statx.com/prod-
of the UL listing given by the Underwriters ucts/>. 2005.
Laboratories. A pre-engineered system must be Wickham, Robert T. “Review of the Use of Carbon
installed within the parameters of the UL listing Dioxide Total Flooding Fire Extinguishing Systems.”
2003.
which are covered in the manufacturers installa-
 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities
and Organizations 13

that even a very tight specification and reference

Regulatory Agencies to compliance with NFPA and/or FM require-
and Authorities ments can be destroyed by making blanket over-
all statements like those mentioned above.
Understanding regulatory agencies and the Today’s economy-mindedness has inevitably
authorities having jurisdiction is key to design- reduced the quality control that existed in the
ing, engineering, specifying, estimating, and past. It was once common practice to submit pre-
installing fire protection systems. liminary fire protection plans and design criteria
A conversational, if not working, knowledge to the authorities, as well as to the insurance
of fire protection systems and the equipment that interests having jurisdiction, for their review,
comprises those systems is important to all con- comments, and approval. Only after these plans
struction and facilities management disciplines. were returned with the comments and stamp of
However, this chapter covers a subject that sepa- approval did the final design begin. Today this
rates the professional and experienced fire pro- process of coordination may be at an opposite
tection engineer from the other disciplines extreme, with design and construction occurring
involved in fire protection projects. simultaneously.
The guides provided by NFPA, Factory
Mutual, and other organizations furnish the spe-
cifics of system design, but almost every one of National Fire Protection Association
these guides makes the statement in so many
words, subject to the approval of the authority The National Fire Protection Association is not
having jurisdiction. Who are the authorities hav- of itself an authority having jurisdiction, because
ing jurisdiction? On some projects they are the NFPA does not approve design plans or con-
clearly identified, but on many others this phrase duct tests or inspections of system installations.
used in a specification indicates the specification The NFPA does not approve or certify equipment
writer’s uncertainty, in which case the project or materials, nor does the NFPA single out or
could be headed for trouble. approve testing laboratories that evaluate equip-
The authority having jurisdiction may be the ment, materials, or systems.
insurance carrier, or the specifications may The authority, or the insurance organization
require that the system be installed in accordance that does have jurisdiction to approve plans and
with state and local codes. These codes may ref- installations may, however, base approval of the
erence ordinances and agencies that can seriously plans and the installation on compliance with
impact a project. Designers should be forewarned NFPA Fire Code requirements. As such, the

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 189

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_13
190 13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations

NFPA is the authority, but only within the Practice and Guide are exactly what the names
­framework of the local code (in 2018 usually a imply, and the word should is used in these docu-
variant of the International Building Code (IBC). ments in lieu of the word shall. Handbooks elaborate
Understanding the origin of the NFPA Fire on the document that they refer to.
Codes is important because it explains the rea- A note of caution: The majority of the NFPA
sons and significance of codes in fire protection Standards have a section at the back of the
today. When automatic sprinklers were first Standard called the Annex: The Annex is offered
developed beyond the experimental stage, and as part of the Standard for information only and
began to be installed in buildings, several pipe is not part of the body of the Standard. The words
sizing methods were in use. Differences in rules should and may appear in the Annex. Since
produced installations of all sizes and configura- Annex items are not part of the body of the
tions. There was no proven way to ascertain the Standard, they are not mandatory requirements,
effectiveness or reliability of these installations, but are for information only, and are used to
since there was no clear track record. explain a section of the Standard.
Insurance companies were providing premium According to the administrative authority of
savings for sprinklered buildings, yet with no NFPA Technical Committees and the Fire Codes,
established standard of installation, they could all Standards, Recommended Practice, or Guides
not establish a foundation of sprinkler installa- must be reviewed, updated, or reaffirmed in their
tion reliability. As a result, a group of representa- present content by the Technical Committee in
tives from insurance carriers met in Boston in charge of the document every five years. In the
1865 to establish a uniform standard for sprinkler past a vertical line beside a Section or paragraph
installations. Their purpose was to obtain the or sentence in a Fire Code, Standard,
installation uniformity, system performance reli- Recommended Practice, or Guide is an indication
ability, and efficiency needed to establish realis- that this is new wording since the publication of
tic sprinkler premium rates. This meeting resulted the last document. New ways of denoting new
in the first standard based on the consensus of content will be appearing soon.
opinions of experienced personnel for the design To this day, even though electronic versions
and installation of automatic sprinkler systems. are readily available, paper versions of the codes
This first consensus led directly to the birth of the and standards are issued as the National Fire
NFPA in 1896. Codes Archive Set. One reason is that the profes-
The small group that established the first tech- sional engineering exams still require the use of
nical committee has grown into over 9000 volun- paper codes in the testing area. The numerous
teer committee members, offering a vast source hard copy volumes of Fire Codes contain all the
of experience required to develop, monitor, and current Standards, Recommended Practices, and
periodically update over 300 codes and stan- Guides, but the date of the current issue of the
dards. These NFPA technical committees have Fire Code volume is not necessarily the latest
jurisdiction over basic NFPA documents: the issue of the particular document being used. For
code, the Standard, the Recommended Practice, example, the 1989 set of National Fire Codes,
the Guide, and the Handbook. with 1989 printed on each volume, may contain
A code is a model, a set of rules that knowl- Standards dated 1988 or 1987, etc.
edgeable people recommend for others to follow. If the Standard, Recommended Practice, or
It is not a law but can be adopted into law. Guide is being referenced by date in the specifica-
A standard tends be a more detailed elabora- tion, be sure to check the date of the specific docu-
tion, the nuts and bolts of meeting a code. ment. This may sound like an unnecessary caution,
NFPA Codes and Standards mandate require- but changes in an updated document, particularly a
ments with the use of the word shall. These require- Code or Standard, can cause serious problems if
ments are, in most cases, detailed and specific design the date used in the specification does not coincide
and installation requirements. NFPAs Recommended with the actual date of the document.
FM Global 191

The NFPA Code requirements effectively insurance coverage and loss prevention. In the
become the jurisdictional authority when they are past the Factory Mutual System consisted of
used as a basis of acceptance or approval of a sys- three insurance firms-Allendale Insurance,
tem design or installation by the proper authority Arkwright Insurance Company, and Protection
or the insurance interest having jurisdiction. Mutual Insurance Company. As of 1999 the
NFPA Codes actually become law when refer- Factory Mutual System is now referred to as FM
enced by number and date of issue in a building Global.
code and can be considered as a law when refer- The Factory Mutual (FM) Research
enced in a specification, by a fire marshal, gov- Corporation conducts research, and out of this
ernment agency, local fire prevention bureau, fire research department have come equipment,
department, health department, or any other simi- devices, and systems that have benefited the
lar authority or insurance carrier having jurisdic- entire fire protection industry and profession.
tion. The NFPA may reference other Standards One function of the FM Research Corporation is
that had some bearing on a particular Standard the testing of equipment, devices, and systems to
under consideration. NFPA references these determine if their reliability and efficiency would
other Standards in the body of their Standard. In warrant the FM Approval label. The indication
such cases, it becomes mandatory to use refer- that a device, piece of equipment, or system is
enced Standards in the design and installation of FM Approved provides the user with the confi-
the system, if applicable to the design and instal- dence that it has been thoroughly tested and
lation of the particular system. found to be worthy of use in a fire protection
design.
The Factory Mutual Approval Guide is a pub-
National Electric Code lication that is constantly updated, and lists all
the products, devices, equipment, and systems
The National Electric Code (NEC) warrants indi- that are FM approved. The Approval Guide not
vidual recognition because this NFPA Fire Code is only lists FM approved items, but also details the
considered to be law throughout the United States. material and installation criteria. In some
The NEC has mandatory requirements that affect instances the detailed specifications outline the
all types of electrical installations, of which fire parameters of usage to remain within the FM
detection and alarm systems are only one facet of Approval.
the diversified code requirements. One section of The Factory Mutual research activities are
the NEC contains the design criteria and material, located on the East coast (Norwood,
equipment, and devices to be used in areas subject Massachusetts), and the facilities are staffed by
to potential flammable liquid vapor or dust explo- experts in many fields. Factory Mutual Research
sions. There is also a section on the location of makes these facilities and laboratories available
explosion-proof devices and equipment relative to a to private companies and organizations on a con-
fueled aircraft in an aircraft hangar. The important tract basis.
feature of the NEC is that it must be considered in Since FM policies can cover a multitude of
the evaluation of every detection and suppression loss coverages, their testing and requirements go
system and every hazard condition or situation. far beyond fire protection. FM requirements
include windstorm and hail, explosions, vandal-
ism, sprinkler leakage, lightning, and loss or dam-
FM Global age from furnace malfunction. FM publishes a
great deal of literature on requirements for pro-
The Factory Mutuals were founded in 1835 based tecting and preventing losses from these hazards.
on the conclusion that large industrial and com- Factory Mutual has always limited their insur-
mercial companies needed to provide mutual fire ance coverage to highly protected risks, and their
192 13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations

requirements reflect this environment. A very cover all aspects of loss prevention construction,
important member of the FM family is the and architects and engineers of all disciplines on
Factory Mutual Engineering Department. These the design team should participate.
departments are staffed by experienced profes- If FM is brought in late in the design process,
sional fire protection engineers who review the the architect and engineer may find that they have
design and installation plans on all FM projects. overdesigned or underdesigned the facility,
NFPA has their Fire Codes, and Factory including the fire protection.
Mutual publishes their requirements in the
Factory Mutual Data Sheets. Make no mistake, if
the project is a Factory Mutual client, use the Building Codes
Factory Mutual Data Sheets to obtain the design
requirements. Some Factory Mutual Data Sheets Building Codes are the product of a jurisdictional
will use an NFPA Standard word-for-word, but authority having the power of the law. This power
FM will always add in bold print any additions is administered by the building code officials of a
to, or changes from, the NFPA requirements. Building Code Department.
In addition, FM has a staff of experienced, Municipal building codes, and those codes
professional, field personnel who conduct the that have been adopted to cover an entire state,
testing of new systems; these field personnel use provide the requirements to establish an occu-
the testing requirements of Factory Mutual. pancy classification, and many of the construc-
When specifying the testing of the systems, be tion features that apply to the various occupancy
sure that the specification section is based on FM classifications.
requirements. This aspect of a project also can The major problem for the architect, engineer,
have a cost impact, because the installation con- and fire protection engineer is that there are many
tractor may be required to furnish additional sources of building codes, and each code has its
labor, material, and equipment to satisfy the test own set of requirements and mandates. Three of
requirements. the many building codes that were most fre-
Architects and engineers who have a client that quently used before they were consolidated into
is, or will be, insured by Factory Mutual should the International Building Code (IBC) by the
always arrange meetings with Factory Mutual International Code Council (ICC) are: The
personnel at the start of the project. Factory Uniform Building Code (UBC), produced by the
Mutual offers the FM Data Sheets to indicate their International Conference of Building Officials
requirements, but every FM project protection (ICBO), the BOCA Building Code (BOCA), pro-
system is tailor-made for the specific hazard and/ duced by the Building Officials and Code
or facility. FM may require other design features Administrators (BOCA), and the Southern
not covered in the Data Sheets. FM fire insurance Building Code (SBC), produced by the Southern
premiums are generally very low because they Building Code Congress.
require the most effective and reliable protection These model codes were finally consolidated
that is available to protect their risk. into the IBC in the year 2000, when it became
In summary, do not try to outguess the protec- clear that three sets of building codes were
tion requirements on an FM insured risk, and do becoming untenable to support, and the discrep-
not look at the Data Sheets as the last word in ancies between the codes were costing builders
requirements for the design. The only sure way to money. After 2000 the other codes were no lon-
provide the client with a Factory Mutual approved ger supported. A copy of the Code, modified for
system is an exchange of communication with New York City, is available online at https://
FM personnel. www1.nyc.gov/site/buildings/codes/2014-con-
These meetings with FM are not being recom- struction-codes.page.
mended just for fire protection discussions. On The NFPA has also put forward a building
new building construction design, they must code, NFPA 5000, however it has not had a high
Building Codes 193

adoption rate in the US. Access is available for If there is some requirement in the code that
free at the NFPA web site (http://www.nfpa.org). presents a tremendous hardship from a design,
The important thing to remember in dealing operational, or cost standpoint, and the architect/
with building codes is the fact that they are writ- engineer feels that there is ample justification to
ten to cover a multitude of different types of seek a variance to the code requirement, the only
facilities and construction types. Every project is recourse is to apply to the building code depart-
different, with different occupancies, and differ- ment for a variance. Application for a variance is
ent types and numbers of occupants. At times it really an appeal to appear before a Board of
becomes extremely difficult to fix an occupancy Appeals, present the justifications, and convince
classification for a particular facility, and interpo- the Board that the variance will not lessen life
lating the various requirements of the code to safety or property protection. This justification
provide compliance with the code requirements may take the form of alternate methods of provid-
for the specific facility may seem like attempting ing an equal measure of life safety and property
to fit a square peg into a round hole. protection-alternate methods that may not comply
It has been said that 80% of building codes with the letter of the code, but do satisfy the intent.
relate to property protection and life safety, and The Board is made up of architects, engineers,
therefore it is important to evaluate the require- and contractors who are not employed by the
ments of the code having jurisdiction prior to a Building Code Department. The Fire Chief and/
determination of how much fire protection and or a Building Code Official will be able to pres-
what type is required. In the majority of building ent their recommendations to the Board, but will
codes, the occupancy classification will deter- not have a voting privilege.
mine whether or not fire protection is required, or It is important to keep in mind that a Board of
what type of protection is required. Appeals does not have the power to change or
An important point in dealing with building delete a code requirement, any more than a
codes is best explained by a simple example: review board of this type has the power to change
or delete a law, regardless of the circumstances.
In evaluating the building code having jurisdiction,
it is determined that based on the occupancy clas- The Board of Appeals only determines the suit-
sification and building configuration, smoke and ability of the alternate methods of construction or
heat venting at the roof elevation is required. In the materials or provides a reasonable interpretation
section of the code pertaining to smoke and heat
of a code requirement.
venting, specific requirements are presented
regarding spacing of the vents and the number of The Building Official has the authorization to
square feet of venting area required. In this case, enforce all the provisions of the code, with the
the building owner attempted to justify the use of power of a law enforcement officer. The Building
power venting to substitute for some of the
mechanical vents. The owner, in effect, asked the Official can and does exercise this power by
Board for permission to provide an equivalent refusing to grant an Occupancy Permit if the
amount of venting by alternate means. facility does not meet the code requirements.
This is why it is so important to design and con-
The fact is, the designer is violating the code and struct a facility that meets all the requirements of
the law if the decision is made to reduce the num- the code, because there is hardly any other cost
ber or increase the spacing of vents, if this will impact that affects a client more severely than to
result in a reduction of the venting area. have his facility completed and not be able to
There have been instances where the authority obtain an occupancy permit after the building
to modify a code requirement consisted of the inspector finds a serious code violation, or a devi-
oral approval of a building inspector, or even a ation from the plans approved by the Building
building official. By accepting this authority, the Code Department.
architect and/or engineer is not only violating the The architect, engineer, and/or client must
law, but opening the door to liability problems. submit plans, specifications, and computations to
194 13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations

the Building Department in order to obtain a per- they should be studied carefully because most
mit. This permit may be for construction of a part building codes state that the sprinkler system
of the structure, or it may be a permit for all the cannot be used to accomplish a construction trade
construction features. The cost of the permit is off if such a system is already required for the
usually based on the overall project cost. project.
From a fire protection standpoint, the occu- Most building codes provide Fire Codes that
pancy classification may or may not determine have the same legal authority as the building code
the fire protection required. Some building con- used by the municipality. The Fire Chief or Fire
figurations mandate a requirement for a suppres- Prevention Bureau of the municipality usually
sion system regardless of the occupancy assumes jurisdiction over the Fire Code. Fire
classification. It becomes necessary to carefully Codes in general cover special hazards such as
evaluate the code requirements relative to the combustible and flammable liquids, combustible
architectural design of the structure. fibers spray finishing, explosives, and gases, but
Understanding occupancy classification is impor- they also encompass fire prevention and a multi-
tant. Take the following example: tude of processes that go beyond the building code
requirements.
A building classified as an office occupancy, and
having the size, height, and building materials The fire department may have the authority to
under this classification did not require the installa- issue permits for especially hazardous processes
tion of a sprinkler system. Once the project was or storage of hazardous materials and may have
well-developed and the budgets established, it was
the power of law when fire inspectors perform
discovered that one section of this same building
code stated that all occupancy classifications with inspections of these facilities.
a basement or story that exceeded 1500 sq. ft that It is always extremely important to conduct a
did not have window openings of a certain size, careful evaluation of the Fire Code as well as the
and spacing, located in walls that were entirely
Building Code. In most cases the Fire Code will
above the ground level, were required to be pro-
tected with automatic sprinklers. follow the requirements of the Building Code,
The facility in the example had a basement that but there are many requirements that may only be
exceeded the 1500 sq. ft, and being below grade, found in the Fire Code, and the architect, engi-
did not have any windows. It was, therefore, neces-
neer, and contractor must, by law, comply with
sary to install a sprinkler system. Windows are
required for access by the fire department to facili- both the Building Code and Fire Code when both
tate firefighting and rescue from the exterior of the have been adopted by the municipality.
building; therefore, where windows are not possi-
ble (below grade), a sprinkler system and detec-
tion/alarm may be deemed necessary.
Types of Buildings: General
It is important to determine the date of the code
being applied. This is especially true when writing The codes have specific names for types of build-
a specification. Some building code departments ings and construction types. However, we can just
may not use the current issue, and also if the proj- think of them mainly as residential and commercial
ect has a lengthy construction period, a new code (office and industrial). There are other specialty
issue may have required changes or additions. buildings such as churches, hospitals, prisons, and
Most building codes have what are commonly sports arenas, all with their own s­ pecial properties,
termed “trade-offs.” These trade-offs involve the and similarities to these structures.
allowance of construction features if a sprinkler
system is installed. In other words, if an occu-
pancy classification and type of construction New Versus Existing Buildings
material limits the allowed square footage or
height, either may be increased if a sprinkler sys- After most fire incidents, it may be stated that
tem is added to the building design. Some of buildings were not “up to code”. The fact is that
these trade-offs can be very cost-effective, but unless there are major modifications made to a
Fire Marshal and Fire Prevention Bureau 195

building, it is only required to be “up to the code” responsible for performing fire prevention
adopted in the year it was constructed. Buildings inspections.
are not reviewed for current code compliance on These duties vary from state to state, but it is
any type of timely basis. This is a very important safe to say that if a project involves a public
fact. building, and especially if the public building is a
Buildings are generally only required to be place of assembly for large numbers of people, or
updated to current codes if there are radical an institutional facility, such as a hospital or nurs-
changes made to the structure. Smaller changes ing home, or for the use or storage of flammable,
can still result in the introduction of plastics and combustible liquids, or explosives, the Fire
other bad actors that may not have been consid- Marshal’s office will be involved. The project
ered when the original building was constructed. approval must include the Fire Marshal’s office
or the agency acting under the jurisdiction of the
Fire Marshal.
 ire Marshal and Fire Prevention
F These state agencies usually have jurisdic-
Bureau tional parameters beyond that of municipal or
county organizations, but the authority to per-
Discussions of the Fire Marshal and the Fire form as agents of the state on a local, municipal,
Prevention Bureau as the authority having juris- or county level can be granted by the state. This
diction must be integrated, because in many cases delegated authority covers specified areas such as
this authority is one and the same. This section inspection, investigations, and enforcement.
follows the dissertation on the Fire Code because On this local level, the municipality or county
the Fire Code is a basic regulatory tool of the Fire can delegate authority, by law, to a Fire Chief, or
Marshal and the Fire Prevention Bureau. in some instances, to the head of the fire depart-
Not every state has a Fire Marshal, but all do ment or fire district. This individual is usually
have an authority with the same responsibilities given the title of Fire Marshal as well as the
and power of law regarding fire protection and authority to delegate the responsibility of carry-
prevention, whether or not this individual carries ing out the mandates regarding fire prevention
the title of Fire Marshal. and protection to an individual (customarily a
In some states the office of the State Fire Fire Chief) or, depending on the size of the fire
Marshal is a separate department of state govern- department, to a division within the fire depart-
ment, while in others, the State Fire Marshal’s ment. Many states with large municipalities or
office is under the supervision of the Department highly organized counties or fire districts within
of Insurance. In another example, the State Fire the state have a state fire marshal or agency with
Marshal’s office is a separate government depart- similar authority, and each large municipality,
ment reporting directly to the Governor. county, or fire district has a local fire marshal
Regardless, it is important to understand that this and/or a Fire Prevention Bureau under the direc-
authority in every state demands the attention of tion of the local fire marshal. For example:
the architect, engineer, and contractor if projects In one state, a fire marshal is responsible for
within the parameters of state jurisdiction for fire enforcing all state laws regarding arson, and for
safety are to be approved by all authorities having providing state regulations and requirements for
jurisdiction. flammable liquid use and storage, as well as for
schools, hospitals, hotels, etc. Two large munici-
The duties and authority of a fire marshal are, palities within the state have local fire marshals
in general, to enforce the law regarding storage, who are in charge of the municipal Fire Prevention
sale and use of combustibles and explosives; the Bureau. A fire protection project in one of these
means and adequacy of egress for institutions and municipalities under the jurisdiction of the local
Fire Marshal (and therefore under the jurisdiction
places of assembly; the investigation of fires as to of the Fire Prevention Bureau) must obtain
their causes, and; the suppression and investiga- approval of plans from this agency. The Fire
tion of arson. In addition, most fire marshals are Prevention Bureau may even take precedence over
196 13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations

the local Building Code plan approval, especially Water Department

if the project falls directly under the guidelines of
the Fire Code requirements.
It may seem strange to include the water depart-
When it comes to fire protection and/or life ment under authorities having jurisdiction, but
safety, the authority and requirements of the local this is an agency that must be given consider-
fire marshal acting as head of the Fire Prevention ation. Two very important items fall under the
Bureau, backed up by the enforcement of law- jurisdiction of the water department, and both
even outside the scope and letter of the Code-take can have a definite cost impact on a project-a
precedence when it comes to plan or installation major cost impact if the project has already been
approval. installed.
The architect, engineer, and contractor are One is metering. Some water departments
advised to become familiar with the state, county, require that fire suppression systems that take
fire district, and local authorities having jurisdic- supply from a city water main have a dedicated
tion within the parameters of the specific project, meter on the supply line. Two major questions
the state, and the local area of the project within must be answered. First, does the water depart-
the state. ment in the area where the project is located
Keep in mind that the fire inspector from the require the metering of fire suppression systems?
Fire Marshal’s office, local or state, or the Fire If the answer is yes, the second question is: do
Prevention Bureau, can cite installation deficien- they only require the metering of small flows, and
cies and violations that do not appear in the Fire not the metering of fire flows when the system is
Code, although these are usually of a minor operating?
nature. If the installation has not deviated from If the requirement is only metering of small
the plans approved by the Building Code flows, the specifications will require a UL-listed
Department and the Fire Prevention Bureau, detector check meter. Small flows are metered
these inspection citations can usually be cor- through a bypass with flow through the check
rected inexpensively and quickly. restricted by a weighted check valve.
In some cases the water department will
require metering of both small flows and fire
 ther Authorities Having
O flows. The specification must now include a full
Jurisdiction flow fire meter. These are large devices, UL-listed,
with an OS&Y valve on either side of the meter
Federal authority having jurisdiction, and the so it can be removed for repair or replacement.
requirements of federal agencies, must be consid- With the detector check valve, the meter is in
ered in a different environment, as the federal a small line bypass around the check valve, and
agencies and organizations have, for the most part, with two shut-off valves on either side of the
their own set of requirements and regulations. meter, the meter can be removed for replacement
Copies of these standards, including the military or repair without shutting down the fire line sup-
standards are available at the Whole Building ply to the suppression system.
Design Guide Site (https://www.wbdg.org/). With the full flow fire meter, the two control
The General Services Administration, the valves are installed so that the entire meter can be
Department of the Interior, and the Department removed for replacement or repair. When this
of Transportation also publish standards that occurs, the fire line supply to the suppression sys-
cover their specific area of jurisdiction and tem is shut down. To avoid losing supply to the
authority. The Environmental Protection Agency suppression system, there is usually a bypass
(EPA) also publishes standards, and the EPA can around the meter with a normally dosed control
greatly impact fire protection projects. valve. If the full flow meter were removed, the
Summary 197

bypass could supply water to the suppression requirements, denied the occupancy permit. It was
then discovered that the water district requirements
systems to keep the fire protection in service. allowed a double check backflow preventer on
Metering, if required, is an important specifi- standard sprinkler systems, but the requirements
cation item, and a quite expensive equipment and mandated a reduced pressure backflow preventer
installation item, especially if it involves the full when the sprinkler system was supplied through a
fire pump, and this particular project sprinkler sys-
flow fire meter. It is well worth the time and effort tem had a fire pump. The cost impact, and the legal
to establish definite design requirements with the problems concerning who was to pay for the
water department. change, were overshadowed by the delay the client
The second area where the water department suffered because he was denied an occupancy per-
mit for several weeks.
is the authority having jurisdiction is backflow
prevention. Most U.S. cities are now requiring
backflow prevention on fire suppression systems
that take supply from a potable water supply. Summary
Similar to the metering requirements of the
water department, each water department that The purpose of this chapter has been to impress
requires backflow preventer devices has specific upon the architect, engineer, specification writer,
requirements for a double check backflow pre- and estimator the critical importance of defining
venter or a reduced pressure backflow preventer. who is really the authority having jurisdiction
Always determine if backflow prevention is over the project, and not leaving a specification
required in the water district or water department with generic wording encompassing a multitude
where the project is located. It is then extremely of authorities so no one will be missed. Defining
important to verify which type of backflow pre- exactly what agency, individual, organization, or
venter is required. The following is an actual insurance carrier is the authority having jurisdic-
example of the problems that can occur when all tion on a specific project may require a time-con-
of the information is not obtained. suming evaluation, but in the final analysis, it will
It was learned that the water district where the prove to be worth every effort and every hour.
project was located required backflow prevention Many projects have suffered a severe cost
on automatic sprinkler systems taking supply from impact, time lost, and schedule destroyed impact,
a city water main, but no one had obtained all of not to mention damaged public relations as a
the water district requirements.
The specification writer specified a double result of a quick and dirty specification, where
check backflow preventer, and the designer of the every conceivable authority having jurisdiction is
preliminary plans for bidding designed around a listed without having determined if some on the
double check backflow preventer. The successful list could come back to haunt the project, or
bidder included the cost of a double check back-
flow preventer in his estimate and proceeded to someone was omitted from the list who will
install his device. After the installation was com- appear later on to devastate the installation
plete and ready for inspection, the code depart- approval.
ment, which was fully aware of the water district
 Fire Suppression System
Specifications 14

Fire protection contractors may sometimes

Construction Specification question why a certain product was specified,
Standards when an alternative would reduce costs. Fire pro-
tection contractors may also criticize specifica-
Fire protection specifications are extremely tions with the attitude that the designer is not so
important documents-from the standpoint of both knowledgeable about specifying a fire protection
project performance and quality assurance. The system. In fact, many fire protection contractors
fire protection specification tells the contractor do not realize or understand the engineer’s role in
exactly what the designer wants in the way of preparing the specification and have the attitude
equipment, material, installation, and overall that the specification was written at the last min-
project quality. ute based on the first time the engineer had a
According to the American Institute of chance to look at the project. These contractors
Architects (AIA) Document A201–2007, the do not realize the hours spent at meetings, con-
Contract Documents for a construction project ducting project research, coordinating the work
consist of “the Agreement, Conditions of the with the other disciplines, and making calcula-
Contract, Drawing, Specifications, Addenda…”, tions and evaluations-all of which went into the
as well as other miscellaneous documents associ- reasons for specifying exactly what is in the
ated with the contract between the project Owner specification.
and the Contractor hired to complete the work. On the other side of the coin, most fire protec-
Construction specifications become a part of the tion contractors are professionals in what they
legal documents of the agreement and form a cor- do, and are, of course, in business to make a
nerstone of the project design. In fact, in most profit. The engineer who writes the specification
cases, the construction specifications override the does not always realize that he or she prepares
project drawings in the event of conflicting the specification in an entirely different environ-
information. ment from that of the contractor.
The purpose of construction specifications is When the fire protection contractor receives
to delineate the requirements regarding the mate- the project specification, he must take this docu-
rials, products, installation procedures and qual- ment written by a professional stranger with
ity aspects involved with execution of the work unknown fire protection expertise and convert it
and fulfillment of the contract. Specifications can into a bid that will obtain the contract for his
be divided into three primary categories: perfor- company, while complying with the specifica-
mance, prescriptive and proprietary, which are tion, and with the codes and standards that he
described below (Noll). knows and works with on a day to day basis.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 199

R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_14
200 14 Fire Suppression System Specifications

This is not an easy task in a competitive mar- 1. Performance Specifications – Tells the con-
ketplace: To come up with a low bid and still give tractor what the final installed product should
the client a quality installation. It becomes very be able to do.
evident to the professional fire contractor when 2. Prescriptive Specifications – Detailed expla-
he reads the specification whether or not the engi- nation of the materials the contractor must
neer has done a thorough job of investigating all use, and the means of installing those
aspects of the project. If there are concerns, he materials
may feel compelled to add in a cost allowance for 3. Proprietary Specifications – In this case a sin-
extras. Engineers who prepare fire protection gle approved product is specified for a particu-
specifications would benefit if they spend a mini- lar installation. This may be due to the fact that
mum of six months as a specification apprentice the owner wants to maintain consistency of
working with a fire protection contractor. This is materials or may simply prefers a specific type
one way to discover the cost impacts of potential of product. Also, in some highly complex
plan revisions. This is not a criticism of the engi- installations where there is only one specific
neers who prepare fire protection specifications piece of equipment that will accomplish a
or the fire protection contractor. The point is that specified task, a proprietary specification may
each side should understand the others concerns be required, for example a specific water pump
and objectives. The engineer who writes the for use with a particular water mist system.
specification should realize how the fire protec-
tion contractor uses it, and vice versa.
The design engineers specification is more References
than an exercise in demonstrating his knowledge
of fire protection systems; It is a real-life docu- Under References, be sure to give the contractor
ment that should both provide the client with a the specific information he or she needs. Is the
quality project and give the installing contractor client insured by an entity other than Factory
the opportunity to be successful. One thing for an Mutual? If so, list UL and the National Fire
engineer to remember: You cannot fool a profes- Protection Association. The statement, authori-
sional fire protection contractor. These profes- ties having jurisdiction, does not tell the contrac-
sionals know by reading the first paragraph of a tor what specific requirements will apply. If the
specification whether or not the preparer knows client is insured by Factory Mutual, so state in the
fire protection systems and understands what fire specification, but don’t add NFPA. The Factory
protection contracting is all about. The fire pro- Mutual Data Sheets that are equivalent to NFPA
tection specification writer, cannot con an experi- Fire Codes will provide the necessary require-
enced fire protection contractor with pretended ments, and the FM Data Sheets do not always
expertise in the specification or with cover all agree with NFPA Fire Codes in all areas. FM has
statements. Designers should always keep in some specific requirements and exceptions in
mind when preparing the specification that some- their Data Sheets even when they use an NFPA
one is going to read it who has a great deal more Fire Code word for word.
hands-on knowledge of fire protection systems,
regardless of whether you have a P. E. after your
name or other prestigious college degree hanging Applicable Standards
on the wall. This thought should keep fire protec-
tion specification writers honest, humble, and Here again, many specifications will list the
precise. gamut of standards that are to be applied to the
Specifications can be divided into three pri- project. These usually include Underwriters
mary categories: performance, prescriptive and Laboratories, Factory Mutual, and the National
proprietary, which are described below: Fire Protection Association.
Design Criteria 201

If this is a Factory Mutual insured client, list NFPA provides several means for the supervision
Factory Mutual Data Sheets and the Factory of control valves, and Factory Mutual usually has
Mutual Approval Guide. The Factory Mutual very specific requirements. Some specifications
Guide is equivalent to the publication that lists include the statement that the requirements of the
UL equipment, but it indicates only the products public health authority having jurisdiction shall
and systems that have the Factory Mutual be determined and complied with regarding pub-
approval. There are some products, systems, lic water contamination. The fact is that the engi-
equipment, and devices that are FM Approved, neer must determine what is required or not
but not UL listed. By indicating both of these required. When it is determined that back-flow
approval bodies, the specification is allowing the prevention is required, state in the specification
contractor to use any item that is FM approved or which type of backflow preventer is required.
UL listed on a Factory Mutual project. It is true This should not be left up to the contractor, espe-
that Factory Mutual will accept some items that cially during the bidding period, and it is not a
FM does not include in their Approval Guide but requirement to be determined by the estimator.
are UL listed, but when this discrepancy becomes Some specifications use the statement:
apparent on a project, it should be handled item- Cathodic protection is required. The engineer is
by-item with approval from the designing engi- the only qualified person to determine this
neer and Factory Mutual. Make this list of requirement. If it is required, so specify; if not, so
Applicable Standards specific to the project. specify. The responsibility is in the hands of the
specification writer.
Metering is another item that is the engineer’s
Design Criteria responsibility to determine. If metering is not
required, so specify, but if it is required (based on
If the engineer has prepared a preliminary layout investigation) specify which type of metering is
and sized the piping on this preliminary layout by required. Some specifications will include a sec-
hydraulic calculations, the specification should tion covering design of the hose stations. If the
not lock the contractor into using this layout or engineer has determined that hose stations are
the pipe sizing per se. required, he should specify exactly what equip-
Sometimes it is necessary for the engineer to ment shall be used, and how the hose stations are
prepare a preliminary layout and to size the pip- to be supplied. Are they to be small hose supplied
ing by hydraulic calculations so that the estima- from wet pipe sprinkler systems, or hose stations
tor can have a base to work from, or so that the supplied from a standpipe that is also supplying
structural engineers have an idea of piping sprinkler systems? Hose type and quality, type of
weight. Nevertheless, the contractor should be nozzle, rack or reel, and hanging arrangements
given the option to redesign and recalculate the should all be stated. There are times when hose
system subject to the approval of the engineer stations are not required. If this is the case, do not
and in strict compliance with the specifications. plug in a section in the specification covering
This flexibility may result in a more efficient hose stations if required state that no hose sta-
and, for the client, less expensive system, because tions are required.
every contractor will be making an effort to com- When the system is a dry pipe system, do not
ply with the specification, while providing a sys- specify a quick opening device if required. The
tem that will make the bid competitive. As quoted engineer should know approximately the volume
previously, the old saying applies as well: “Give of the dry pipe system, and whether or not the
a plan to five sprinkler contractors, and you will exhauster or quick opening device is required.
get five different approved layouts.” The engineer has to know the approximate vol-
Should all control valves be supervised? If so, ume of the dry system in order to determine if
make this statement, but follow it by specifying one system will accommodate the project.
how the control valves are to be supervised.
202 14 Fire Suppression System Specifications

Always specify that the shop drawings, or carrier on the project. If the specification is going
installation plans, shall indicate the dry pipe sys- to restrict the calculations to a specific velocity,
tem capacity. This is very important when the be absolutely sure that the velocity restriction so
shop drawings are submitted for approval. specified will meet the approval of the insurance
carrier, and that the specified velocity has not
defeated the calculation results relative to supply
Hydraulic Calculation Specifications vs. demand.
Do not specify that velocity shall be in accor-
As previously mentioned, design criteria must be dance with NFPA requirements, because NFPA
determined by the engineer and clearly stated in does not provide requirements relative to veloc-
the specification. If several areas of the project ity. Nor shall the specification writer state that
facility will have different design criteria require- velocity will comply with the insurance interest
ments, they can be indicated on the plans, and the having jurisdiction. The engineer/spec writer
specification can read: “Design criteria relative to must make this professional determination and so
water density and area of operation shall be as specify.
indicated on the plans.” It is always good practice to include in the
An important point, often left out of a specifi- specification some wording that the installing
cation for a dry pipe system, is the 30% increase contractor shall not add heads or institute pipe
in area of operation that may be required when changes in direction or size without submitting
hydraulically calculating a dry pipe system. If the revised calculations. This is a statement that will
specification reads simply so many gpm per prevent the installing crew from changing piping
square foot over so many square feet of opera- layout in the field to avoid an obstruction, with-
tion, the contractor is not sure if the 30% is out realizing that these changes can affect the
included or if he is to add it. This will make a big hydraulic calculations.
difference on his estimate sheet.
Velocity pressure is sometimes excluded by
the specification, stating that velocity pressure Acceptable Manufacturers
shall not be used in the hydraulic calculations.
Whether or not to allow the contractor to use Specifications usually include a statement refer-
velocity pressure in his calculations is sometimes ring to all those manufacturers listed in the UL
a judgment call by the engineer, and sometimes a publications, and all those listed in the Factory
requirement of the insurance interest having Mutual Approval Guide. Some manufacturers
jurisdiction. It is a good idea to verify the insur- products that are listed in the UL publication are
ance carrier’s requirements on this issue before it not listed in the FM Approval Guide. One exam-
is written into or left out of the specification. ple is a commonly used valve in fire protection
If velocity pressure is strictly a judgment call systems. It is UL listed, but is not FM approved.
by the engineer, that judgment will have to be If the project is FM insured, this specification
based on the project conditions, and whether or gives the contractor the option to use either
not this safety factor can be eliminated in the cal- valve, which may lead to a denial of FM approval
culations. Water supply is a big factor and some of the system. If the project is FM insured, use
water supplies, coupled with the specified sys- the Factory Mutual Approval Guide. If the proj-
tem, will not be capable of satisfying the design ect is not an FM risk, use the UL publications.
requirements without using velocity pressure. As mentioned before, on an FM project the con-
This discussion on velocity pressure also tractor can usually get FM to approve the use of
applies to velocity of the water in the piping. The a UL listed product if for some reason the FM
velocity (feet per second) of water in the piping approved product is not available, but the con-
can also be left to the judgment of the engineer or tractor should not be given an open choice on an
can be a specific requirement of the insurance FM project.
Sprinkler Heads 203

Equipment and Material If the system design calls for a vane-type

water flow switch, be absolutely sure to specify
Here again, specifications usually include the that the flow switch shall be the instantly recy-
statement that all equipment, devices, and acces- cling type, so that flows that do not activate the
sories shall be either UL listed or FM approved. device (because they occur within the retard time
Determine which is applicable and so specify. It frame) are not cumulative. The water flow switch
is good practice to limit the contractor to the use should have a field adjustable retard, but it is the
of products from a single manufacturer when two responsibility of the engineer preparing the spec-
or more products of the same type are required by ification to determine to the best of his ability the
the system or systems. Do not allow the contrac- retard time. Make sure by specification and/or
tor to mix and match with products he might have plan detail that the required pressure gauge and
on the shelf. This does not produce a quality main drain are included in the water flow detector
installation, and when replacement parts or units riser.
are required, it can cause additional problems.
Most specifications will leave the galvanizing
or corrosion protection of piping up to the con- Sprinkler Heads
tractor by stating that the piping shall be pro-
tected in areas that require it. It would be a much The usual statement in specifications that all
better and more professional practice for the sprinklers shall be UL listed or FM approved, a
engineer to determine where these areas exist, blanket statement, is not so problematic when
and then either indicate them on the plan or iden- referencing sprinkler heads used on standard
tify them in the specification. This is really the sprinkler systems, but problems do arise when
responsibility of the engineer who should be the system involves a newly developed head that
quite familiar with the entire project and project may have a UL listing, but has not yet been
occupancy. The desired trim and accessories approved by Factory Mutual. Also, in some sys-
should be specified for valves, alarm valves, dry tems, foam systems for example, sprinkler heads
pipe valves, and deluge valves. This applies not have FM approval, but no UL listing. To be more
only to the standard trim that comes with the professional, and subject to fewer conflicts, the
complete valve, but anything that might be con- engineer writing the specification should be sure
sidered extra to the standard trim. For example, a the heads on his or her project carry both the UL
retard chamber, a pressure switch, a pressure listing and FM approval.
switch with two sets of contacts, a water motor If there are suspended ceilings with concealed
alarm, an electric alarm, etc. This is good prac- piping and pendent heads, and the heads are to be
tice, because it requires the estimator to include a special type, it may be necessary to specify a
all these items in his estimate. If a dry pipe valve manufacturers model number or engineer
house is required, it should not be included in the approved equal. This is because a pendent head
fire protection contractors specification unless it specified as a flush head does not necessarily
is intended that he include the construction in his mean that the specifier will get the type of flush
bid. Usually this house will be designed by an head expected. There are several types and pat-
architect and should be specified in the general terns of flush heads, and several that are referred
construction specification. This is mentioned to as flush heads that are really not what one
because some specifications will state that the might expect.
dry pipe valve shall be installed in a dry pipe The decision to require corrosion-proof heads
valve house, and the fire protection contractor is should be the responsibility of the engineer. He
not sure whether he should include this in his bid, or she has lived with the project since its concep-
or at least the equipment that must be installed in tion and should know where these corrosive
the valve house, such as the thermostatically con- problem areas exist. The contractor should then
trolled heater and low temperature alarm. be informed by specification and/or plan
204 14 Fire Suppression System Specifications

n­ otations. When the shop drawings are received Drains and test connections are not a major
for review, or when the installation is inspected specification problem, but if the specification
for final approval and certain areas are recom- states that the drain shall discharge to the closest
mended to have corrosion-proof heads, a specifi- drain outlet, and the engineer knows that the clos-
cation item will eliminate any discussion. If the est drain outlet is a floor drain, be sure to specify
as required was the specification item, the engi- that the drain line be carried to within, say 6" of
neer could be faced with a difference of opinion the floor drain. Otherwise, some drain discharge
with the contractor. lines will spill out on the floor far from the floor
Make sure the specification for spare heads drain, and result in water damage, or at least an
includes the requirement that spare heads of unnecessary mess. The sprinkler engineer should
every type used on the project be included in the always inform the plumbing engineer of this
spare head cabinet, and that a sprinkler wrench drain discharge and the amount of water antici-
specifically adapted to removal and replacement pated, so the floor drain can accept the volume
of every type of head used on the project be without causing an overflow.
included in the spare head cabinet. Drains tend to be bypassed on plans and in
Temperature rating of sprinkler heads can be a specifications. There is a sort of a leave-it-up-to-
tough call in a specification. The engineer should the-contractor attitude. This is definitely wrong
know which areas will require high temperature because unless the contractor is extremely con-
heads and should specify these areas or indicate scientious, he will be inclined to arrange the drain
them on the plans. One situation that does not discharge in the least expensive manner. Specify
require a judgment call is when the insurance car- exactly where the drain should be located, and
rier mandates the temperature rating of the heads; where it should discharge.
this should definitely be specified. In new build- Under the category of control valves, there are
ings, the engineer should have a fairly good idea one or two cautions. When specifying wall post
of where unusual heat conditions will exist, or indicator valves, be sure to specify the specific
where heat producing equipment will be located. type. There are recessed, fully recessed, and
This information should be included in the speci- totally exposed wall post indicators. Depending
fication or so noted on the plan. Unless the insur- on which type is desired, the engineer must coor-
ance carrier requires a specific temperature rating, dinate the design and specification provisions
NFPA and FM offer excellent guidelines relative with the architect, and possibly the structural
to head versus ambient temperature conditions. engineer, depending on the type of wall structure
If there is no way to determine the maximum involved.
temperature of an area, it is a good idea to have When a wall post indicator is to be used on a
the contractor furnish and install a recording project, always specify, or better yet detail on the
thermometer. The resulting temperature readings plan, the location of the flange and spigot piece
will determine the proper head temperature. This off the wall. Each type of wall post indicator
may require a return trip to the job by the contrac- requires a certain distance off the wall to facili-
tor, with ladders and a crew if the installation is tate installation.
complete before the temperature determination is And speaking of the flange and spigot piece,
made. This extra expense should be discussed specify that the flange shall be located 6"–8"
and agreed upon by all parties concerned, since it above the finished floor. Having the flange of the
could have been avoided if the engineer had flange-and-spigot piece a foot or so above the fin-
determined the heat conditions and head temper- ished floor is not acceptable.
ature rating when the specification was prepared All control valves on the site of a facility should
during design. open in the same direction. If the i­nstallation is an
Be sure that the specification for the type of addition to a sprinklered facility, determine which
heads does not conflict with NFPA, FM, or the way the existing valves open, and specify that the
insurance interest having jurisdiction. new valves open in the same direction. This is
Reference 205

extremely important for outside control valves may witness the test. This notice should also be
installed on the underground. If a valve is turned in issued several days before the flushing of the
the wrong direction to open, it can be seriously underground, so that this operation can also be
damaged, and may become inoperable. witnessed by all concerned parties.
Pipe supports and attachments must be UL Specify that following the testing of a system,
listed or FM approved. Approved standard hanger the system shall be returned to a functional and
requirements are adequately covered by NFPA operational condition at no extra cost to the
and FM publications. There must not be any con- owner. Any retesting that is required because of
flict in the specification between a listed or failure of any test shall be specified to be con-
approved fire protection pipe support and a ducted at no additional cost to the owner, and
hanger designed by an engineer who has used his any corrections or repairs to the system to permit
hanger arrangement on process piping. The hang- retesting shall also be performed at no cost to the
ers for fire protection must be UL listed or FM owner. Unless the specification is complete, spe-
approved, including rod size, or the system will cific, and tight, the engineer will not have a leg to
not comply with NFPA or FM requirements. stand on if there is a dispute with the contractor
The engineer should recommend in the specifi- and/or client when the shop or installation plans
cation that no sprinkler piping be supported from are reviewed for engineer approval, or when the
the bottom chord of bar joists, because too much installation is complete. Field supervisory per-
weight on the bottom chord of the bar joist can sonnel need a good, well prepared, specification
turn the bar joist out of the vertical position. in order to make sure the contractor is complying
Always include an earthquake zone hanger with the specifications. A specification that
requirement, and when a fire department connec- merely states that the system shall be installed in
tion is specified, always include the statement that accordance with NFPA could be in for a lot of
the hose threads shall comply with the specifica- problems and cost impacts. The problem is not
tions of the local fire department. Or obtain from that NFPA is not an effective guide, but rather
the local fire department their hose thread specifi- that there are many areas where a contractor can
cations and include those in the specification. take advantage of a less expensive arrangement
Know your project thoroughly before you specify that meets NFPA requirements, but definitely
the fire department connection, and then specify does not meet the client’s desires.
exactly what is needed on the specific project.
Always specify that the ball drip drain valve be
installed to maintain the fire department connec- Summary
tion in a dry state. Be aware that this automatic
ball drip drain will, at times, discharge a small The fire protection specifier must be made aware
amount of water and provide for this occurrence. of the serious problems that can be caused by
blanket statements in a specification. This indi-
vidual must not only thoroughly understand, but
Testing also convey, an understanding of the project
requirements and authorities having jurisdiction,
Specify that all tests shall be conducted by the and of exactly what is required on the project.
installing contractor and specify who shall pro-
vide all labor and equipment to conduct these
tests. Always specify that the contractor shall Reference
notify all concerned parties (owner, engineer,
insurance carrier, fire marshal) five days or more Noll, Michael. “Types of Construction Specifications.”
3/13/18 <https://www.archtoolbox.com/representa-
in advance that the tests will be conducted. If the tion/specifications/types-of-construction-specifica-
situation requires more advance notice, inform tions.html>.
all concerned parties accordingly so that they