Exercise Physiology - PPECPA

Unit II
The Cardiovascular
System
Unit

2 Structure and
Cardiovascular
functions
System
of
-
Pulmonary and Systematic
Circulations – Blood Vessels –
Mechanism of Breathing – Types of
Nervous System – Effects of
exercise on cardiorespiratory and
Nervous system.
 Major Cardiovascular Functions

• Delivery
• Removal
• Transport
• Thermoregulation
• Immune function

Functions of the Blood

• Transports gas, nutrients, and wastes
• Regulates temperature
• Buffers and balances acids and bases
 The Cardiovascular System

• A closed system of the heart and blood

vessels
• The heart pumps blood
• Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all
parts of the body
• The function of the cardiovascular
system is to deliver oxygen and
nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide
and other waste products
 The Heart

• Location
• Thorax between the lungs
• Pointed apex directed toward left hip
• About the size of your fist
• Less than 1 lb.
The Heart
 The Heart: Coverings

• Pericardium – a double serous

membrane
• Visceral pericardium
• Next to heart
• Parietal pericardium
• Outside layer
• Serous fluid fills the space between the
layers of pericardium
 The Heart: Heart Wall
• Three layers
• Epicardium
• Outside layer
• This layer is the parietal pericardium
• Connective tissue layer
• Myocardium
• Middle layer
• Mostly cardiac muscle
• Endocardium
• Inner layer
• Endothelium
External Heart Anatomy
 The Heart: Chambers
• Right and left side act as separate pumps
• Four chambers
• Atria
• Receiving chambers
• Right atrium
• Left atrium
• Ventricles
• Discharging chambers
• Right ventricle
• Left ventricle
Blood Circulation

Figure 11.3
 The Heart: Valves
• Allow blood to flow in only one direction
• Four valves
• Atrioventricular valves – between atria and
ventricles
• Bicuspid valve (left)
• Tricuspid valve (right)
• Semilunar valves between ventricle and
artery
• Pulmonary semilunar valve
• Aortic semilunar valve
 The Heart: Valves

• Valves open as blood is pumped

through
• Held in place by chordae tendineae
(“heart strings”)
• Close to prevent backflow
Operation of Heart Valves
The Heart: Associated Great Vessels
• Aorta
• Leaves left ventricle
• Pulmonary arteries
• Leave right ventricle
• Vena cava
• Enters right atrium
• Pulmonary veins (four)
• Enter left atrium
 Coronary Circulation

• Blood in the heart chambers does not

nourish the myocardium
• The heart has its own nourishing
circulatory system
• Coronary arteries
• Cardiac veins
• Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
 Heart Contractions

Figure 11.5

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 The Heart: Cardiac Cycle

• Atria contract simultaneously

• Atria relax, then ventricles contract
• Systole = contraction
• Diastole = relaxation
Filling of Heart Chambers –
the Cardiac Cycle
 The Heart: Cardiac Output

• Cardiac output (CO)

• Amount of blood pumped by each side of
the heart in one minute
• CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume
[SV])
• Stroke volume
• Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle
in one contraction
 Cardiac output, cont.
• CO = HR x SV
• 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
• Norm = 5000 ml/min
• Entire blood supply passes through body
once per minute.
• CO varies with demands of the body.
Cardiac Output Regulation
 Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System

• Taking blood to the tissues and back

• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries
• Venules
• Veins
 Cardiac Cycle
• Defined as events that occur between two
consecutive heartbeats (systole to systole).
• Diastole is the relaxation phase during which the
chambers fill with blood (T waves to QRS).
• Systole is the contraction phase during which the
chambers expel blood (QRS to T wave).
 Cardiac Cycle - Mechanical Events
START
1 Late diastole: both sets of
chambers are relaxed and
ventricles fill passively.

Isovolumic ventricular
5 relaxation: as ventricles
relax, pressure in ventricles Atrial systole: atrial contraction
falls, blood flows back into 2 forces a small amount of
cups of semilunar valves additional blood into ventricles.
and snaps them closed.

Ventricular ejection:
4 as ventricular pressure Isovolumic ventricular
rises and exceeds contraction: first phase of
3 ventricular contraction pushes
pressure in the arteries,
the semilunar valves AV valves closed but does not
open and blood is create enough pressure to open
ejected. semilunar valves.

Figure 14-25: Mechanical events of the cardiac cy

Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output
Stroke Volume (SV)
• Volume of blood pumped per contraction
• End-diastolic volume (EDV)—volume of blood in
ventricle before contraction
• End-systolic volume (ESV)—volume of blood in
ventricle after contraction
• SV = EDV – ESV.
Cardiac Output (Q)
• Total volume of blood pumped by the ventricle per
minute
.
• Q = HR  SV
 Blood Pressure

• Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is the average pressure

exerted by the blood as it travels through arteries.
• MAP = DBP + [0.333  (SBP) – (DBP)]
• Blood vessel constriction increases blood pressure;
dilation reduces blood pressure.
Graphic Illustration of the Various Phases
of the Resting Electrocardiogram
 Cardiac Arrhythmias
Bradycardia is a resting heart rate below 60 bpm.
Tachycardia is a resting heart rate above 100 bpm.
Premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) feel like
skipped or extra beats.
Ventricular tachycardia involves three or more
consecutive PVCs that can lead to ventricular fibrillation
in which contraction of the ventricular tissue is
uncoordinated.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Central Nervous System
Brain
• Cerebrum is the site of the mind and intellect.
• Diencephalon is the site of sensory integration and
regulation of homeostasis.
• Cerebellum plays a crucial role in coordinating
movement.
• Brain stem connects brain to spinal cord; contains
regulators of respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
 Peripheral Nervous System

Spinal Cord
• 12 cranial nerves connected with the brain.
• 31 spinal nerves connected with the spinal cord.
• Sensory division carries sensory info from body via
afferent fibers to the CNS.
• Motor division transmits information from CNS via
afferent fibers to target organs.
• Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary internal
functions.
Four Major Regions of the Brain and Four
Outer Lobes of the Cerebrum
Nervous Systems
 Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight-or-flight prepares you for acute stress or
physical activity.
It facilitates your motor response with increases in
• heart rate and strength of heart contraction,
• blood supply to the heart and active muscles,
• metabolic rate and release of glucose by the liver,
• blood pressure,
• rate of gas exchange between lungs and blood, and
• mental activity and quickness of response.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Housekeeping: digestion, urination, glandular
secretion, and energy conservation
Actions oppose those of the sympathetic system:
• Decreases heart rate
• Constricts coronary vessels
• Constricts tissues in the lungs
 Key Points
Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system contains 43 pairs of
nerves and is divided into sensory and motor
divisions.
• The sensory division carries information from the
sensory receptors to the CNS.
• The motor division includes the autonomic nervous
system.
• The motor division carries impulses from the CNS to
the muscles or target organs.

(continued)
 Key Points (continued)
Peripheral Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system includes the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body
for an acute response.
• The parasympathetic nervous system carries out
processes such as digestion and urination.
• The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are
opposing systems that function together.
SENSORY-MOTOR INTEGRATION
MUSCLE BODY, MUSCLE SPINDLE,
AND GTO
 EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
❖ Systematic and
❖ Muscle Fiber Splitting
parasympathetic nervous
(Hyperplasia)
system
❖ Muscle Size (Hypertrophy)
❖ Requirement of motor units
❖ Availability of metabolites to
the muscle ❖ Glycogen supply
❖ Better Safety Mechanism ❖ Screening and facilitation
❖ Muscular Tone process
❖ Oxygen Supply to the Muscles ❖ Decision making process
❖ Posture
❖ Pain tolerance
❖ Body Coordination
❖ Safety mechanism
 Cardiovascular Response to
Acute Exercise
• Heart
. rate (HR), stroke volume (SV), and cardiac output
(Q) increase.
• Blood flow and blood pressure change.
• All result in allowing the body to efficiently meet the
increased demands placed on it.
• Averages 60 to 80 beats per minute (bpm); can range from 28 bpm to
above 100 bpm
• Tends to decrease with age and with increased cardiovascular fitness
• Is affected by environmental conditions such as altitude and temperature
Cardiovascular Response to Exercise
• As exercise intensity increases, heart rate, stroke volume,
and cardiac output increase to get more blood to the tissues.
• More blood forced out of the heart during exercise allows for
more oxygen and nutrients to get to the muscles and for
waste to be removed more quickly.
• Blood flow distribution changes from rest to exercise as
blood is redirected to the muscles and systems that need it.
• Cardiovascular drift is the result of decreased stroke volume,
increased heart rate, and decreased systemic and pulmonary
arterial pressure due to prolonged steady-state exercise or
exercise in the heat.
• Systolic blood pressure increases directly with increased
exercise intensity while diastolic blood pressure remains
constant.
• Blood pressure tends to increase during high-intensity
resistance training, due in part to the Valsalva maneuver.
Blood Changes During Exercise
• The (a-v)O2 difference increases as venous oxygen
-
concentration decreases during exercise due to the
body extracting oxygen from the blood.
• Plasma volume decreases during exercise due to
water being drawn from the blood plasma and out
of the body as sweat.
• Hemoconcentration occurs. Plasma fluid is lost,
resulting in a higher concentration of red blood
cells per unit of blood and, thus, increased oxygen-
carrying capacity.
• Blood pH decreases due to increased blood lactate
accumulation with increasing exercise intensity.
 Respiratory Responses During Exercise
• The respiratory centers in the brain stem set the rate and depth of
breathing.
• Chemoreceptors respond to increases in CO2 and H+ concentrations
or to decreases in blood oxygen levels by increasing respiration.
• Ventilation increases upon exercise due to inspiratory stimulation
from muscle activity, which causes an increase in muscle
temperature and chemical changes in the arterial blood (which
further increase ventilation).
• Breathing problems associated with exercise include dyspnea,
hyperventilation, and the Valsalva maneuver.
• During mild, steady-state exercise, ventilation parallels oxygen
uptake.
• The ventilatory breakpoint is the point at which ventilation increases
though oxygen consumption does not.
• Anaerobic threshold is identified as the point at which VE/VO2 shows
a sudden increase, while VE/VCO2 stays stable. It generally reflects
lactate threshold.