BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

FINISHES
These include floor finishes, wall finishes and ceiling finishes.
2.1 Floor Finishes
This is the general term for a permanent covering to a floor. These are applied on floors for a
number of reasons such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, etc.
Factors affecting the choice of a given floor finish include:
 Type of background.
 Purpose of the building.
 Degree of comfort required (sound control, warmth, etc.).
 Degree of maintenance to be encountered (clearing, repairing).
 Cost.
 Appearance.
 Safety (fire resistance, etc.).
 Individual preference.
 Cleaning effort.
 Durability requirements.

Operations carried out before taking up flooring work

 Laying of all services like cables, pipes, conduits should be completed.
 Plastering works should be completed.
 Fixing of door and window frame should be completed.
 Heavy work in the room where flooring is to be done should be completed.
 Marking of outlets and points of level wherever the slopes in the floors required.

Floor finishes can be considered under three main headings, these include:
Soft coverings, Wood flooring and Hard flooring.

o Soft coverings
A Carpet is a floor covering woven or felted from natural or man-made fibers. A fitted carpet is
attached to the floor structure, extends wall-to-wall, and cannot be moved from place to place.
An underlay will extend the carpet life and improve comfort.
Rugs are also woven or felted from fibers, but are smaller than the room in which they are
located, have a finished edge, and usually lie over another finished floor such as wood flooring.
Rugs may either be temporarily attached to the flooring below by adhesive tape or other
methods to prevent creep, or may be loose-laid.

o Wood flooring
Many different species of wood are fabricated into wood flooring in two primary forms which
include plank and parquet. Hardwoods are typically much more durable than softwoods.

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Fig 2.1: Parquet floor chevron

Laminate is a floor covering (finish) that appears similar to hardwood but is made with
plywood or medium density fiberboard ("MDF") core with a plastic laminate top layer or HDF
(high density fiberboard) laminate which is topped by one or more layers of decorative paper
and a transparent protective layer. Laminate may be more durable than hardwood, but cannot
be refinished like hardwood. Laminate flooring is available in many different patterns which
can resemble different woods or even ceramic tile. It usually locks or taps together. Laminate
or hardwood should be avoided where there may be moisture or condensation.

Fig 2.2: Laminate floor

Bamboo flooring is a floor manufactured from the bamboo plant and is a type of hardwood
flooring, though technically not a wood. Bamboo is known to be durable and environmentally
friendly. It is available in many different patterns, colors, and textures.
Cork flooring is a natural flooring material that comes from the bark of the cork oak tree. Cork
floors are considered to be eco-friendly since the cork oak tree bark is stripped every nine to ten
years and doesn't damage the tree. It is most commonly available in tiles. These are cut from
blocks of granulated cork that has been compressed with binders.

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Fig 2.3: Cork floor

o Hard flooring
Hard flooring is a family of flooring materials that includes concrete/cement, ceramic tiles,
glass tiles, and natural stone products.
Ceramic tiles are clay products which are formed into thin tiles and fired. Ceramic tiles are set
in beds of mortar or mastic with the joints between tiles grouted. The joints in tiles are provided
with the help of tile spacers. Laying a cement/sand bed/screed to a concrete floor is a normal
screed mix of 1:3 (cement: sand mortar). A normal screed thickness is 12mm to 19mm. Tiles
are very highly resistant to chemicals, harder and more resistance to corrosion. They come in
standard sizes of 150mmx150mm, 200mmx200mm, 300mmx300mm with a thickness of
8.5mm to 13mm. Varieties of ceramic tiles include quarry tile, porcelain, terracotta.
Natural stones: Many different natural stones are cut into a variety of sizes, shapes, and
thicknesses for use as flooring. Stone flooring uses a similar installation method to ceramic
tile. Slate, granite and marble are popular types of stone flooring that require polishing and
sealing. Stone aggregates, like Terrazzo, can also be used instead of raw cut stone and are
available as either preformed tiles or are constructed in-situ.

Terrazzo finish is desirable where there is high traffic due to its durability. It is also water proof
so it can be used in wet areas and it‟s easy to clean. It can also be laid out doors. Once the
concrete floor is laid, a 25mm thick layer of concrete is laid, and then patterns are created using
plastic dividing strips embedded on top of the wet concrete surface. A final layer of marble-
chips of various colors mixed with cement is laid within each panel in the dividing strip then a
roller is rolled on the surface. When the terrazzo is completely dry, it‟s grinded and polished
using a special machine. It can also be premade and is available in slabs or tiles. It is very hard
wearing, if it is polished or wet, it is very slippery. It is a suitable product to be used as an
under floor heating.

Granite is a form of Igneous rock, created by the cooling of molten magma. It is made up of
feldspar, quartz and mica. It is a luxury floor covering and one that needs careful consideration
before specification, as it is an expensive product, very heavy. Once laid, it will last for a very
long time, as it is hardwearing and resistant to chemicals. It has a timeless look. If highly
polished it is slippery, but a honed finish provides a more manageable finish. It comes in
limited colors of black, red, green, grey, blue, pink. It is supplied in a slab form and is cold and

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noisy underfoot. But it looks great. It comes in sizes of 2.4m x 1.2m which can be cut into
smaller size tiles as desired. It‟s also commonly used to make kitchen top surfaces.

Marble is a metamorphic rock made from the joining of calcite [limestone] rock at high
temperatures and pressure. Marble comes in various colors shades according to the region that
it is mined from. It is mined, polished and cut to the desired sizes. It‟s available in slab sizes of
2.4meters x 1.2meters. This is a very beautiful floor finish and very expensive. Since it‟s very
expensive to finish complete floor areas with marble, it‟s usually placed in specific areas such
as the entrance foyer (lobby) where it‟s most visible.

Fig 2.4: Polishing machine

2.2 Wall Finishes

These are finishes applied on walls.

Type of wall finishes

Plastering/rendering
Painting
Tiling
Wall paper

Factors affecting the choice of a wall finish

o Purpose of the room.
o Degree of comfort required (Sound, thermal insulation)
o Frequency of maintenance (clearing, repairing)
o Cost.

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o Suitability of decoration.
o Degree of fire protection required.
o Type of background.

 Plastering/rendering
Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceilings. The term plastering is used as
a coating for internal walls while rendering is used for external walls. The main difference
between these two is that render is generally richer in cement than plaster because it has to be
weather resistant due to its exposure.
Plaster is manufactured as dry powder and is mixed with water to form a paste when used. The
reaction with water liberates heat (heat of hydration) and the hydrated plaster then hardens.
Plaster can be relatively easily worked with using metal tools or even sandpaper. These
characteristics make plaster a suitable finish, rather than a load-bearing material. Plaster gives a
joint less, hygienic, easily decorated and usually a smooth surface to the background which
becomes easy to clean and free from insect hiding places.
Render protects the wall from inclement weather especially if concrete blocks are used. When
these blocks are exposed to moisture for long periods, they gradually become soft, expand and
finally crumble.

Application Techniques
Plaster application can be done with one or two coats. One coat is mainly used unless if there
are irregularities in the wall and one coat of plaster would be too thick to account for and or this
matter, two coats are adopted.
Sometimes a spatter dash coat is applied to the wall before plastering in order to provide an
adequate key to the plaster.

Types of plaster
1. Gypsum plaster (also known as Plaster of Paris).
2. Lime plaster.
3. Cement plaster.

Gypsum plaster
Gypsum plaster is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F (150 °C).
CaSO4·2H2O + heat → CaSO4·0.5H2O + 1.5H2O (released as steam).
When dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of
unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes;
but not fully set for 72 hours. If plaster or gypsum is heated above 392°F (200°C), anhydrite is
formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water.
A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led "calcined gypsum" (roasted gypsum or
gypsum plaster) to be commonly known as "plaster of Paris".
Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal in
the construction industry. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a

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sculpting material called modroc. It is used similarly to clay, as it is easily shaped when wet,
yet sets into a resilient and lightweight structure. This is the material that was (and sometimes
still is) used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, the
medical use having been partly inspired by the artistic use.

Fig 2.1: Gypsum plaster used for molding (modroc)

Lime plaster
Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium
carbonate (limestone).
To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated to produce quicklime (calcium
oxide). Water is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as wet
putty or a white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may
be stored in airtight containers. When exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide very
slowly turns back into calcium carbonate through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide,
causing the plaster to increase in strength.
Lime plaster was a common building material for wall surfaces in a process known as lath and
plaster, whereby a series of wooden strips on a studwork frame was covered with a semi-dry
plaster that hardened into a surface. The plaster used in most lath and plaster construction was
mainly lime plaster, with a cure time of about a month. To stabilize the lime plaster during
curing, small amounts of plaster of Paris were incorporated into the mix. Because plaster of
Paris sets quickly, "retarders" were used to slow the setting time enough to allow workers to
mix large working quantities of lime putty plaster. A modern form of this method uses
expanded metal mesh over wood or metal structures, which allows a great freedom of design as
it is adaptable to both simple and compound curves. Today this building method has been
partly replaced with drywall, also composed mostly of gypsum plaster. In both these methods a
primary advantage of the material is that it is resistant to a fire within a room and so can assist
in reducing or eliminating structural damage or destruction provided the fire is promptly
extinguished.

Cement plaster
Cement plaster is a mixture of suitable plaster, sand, Portland cement and water which is
normally applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior
surfaces sometimes receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with local
bricks are normally plastered while face brick walls are not plastered.

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Cement plaster was first introduced in America around 1909 and was often called by the
generic name adamant plaster after a prominent manufacturer of the time. The advantages of
cement plaster noted at that time were its strength, hardness, quick setting time and durability.

Heat resistant plaster

Heat resistant plaster is a building material used for coating walls and chimney breasts. Its
purpose is to replace conventional gypsum plasters in cases where the temperature can get too
high for gypsum plaster to stay on the wall. Heat resistant plaster should be used in cases where
the wall is likely to exceed temperatures of 50°C.

Types of background for plastering work

Clay bricks, blockwork, concrete, boards.
The mixture of plaster should be clean, plastic, properly graded and use of clean water is
encouraged.
Common mixes used for plastering works is 1:1:6(cement: lime: sand) or 1:3 (cement: sand).
Normal thickness of plastering ranges from 12mm-16mm.

Preparation of a straight wall for plastering

o Raking out
As the wall is being built up, the first thing to be considered is the preparation of the wall for
plastering. Mortar joints should be raked to a depth of approximately 1.5cm when the mortar is
still wet. This is done after the completion of each course. This raking out of joints helps to
create a proper bond of either the plaster or render onto the wall.

Fig 2.2: Typical masonry joint types

o Plumbness
Before the plaster or render is applied, the wall should be thoroughly checked to make sure
that it is on plumb and its surface is flat. Holes and hollow parts should be filled and single
projecting blocks must be chiseled off.
o Cleaning the wall

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Before application of any plaster or render, the wall must be brushed to remove any
collected dust and dirt which would weaken the bonding of mortar by creating a barrier
between the two surfaces.
o Hydration of the wall
The masonry wall must be thoroughly watered especially during dry seasons. This reduces
suction of water by the bricks from the mortar so that the mortar gains its sufficient strength
in due time.
o Place boards against the foot of the wall to collect dropped mortar.
o Make a scaffold as a working platform, if needed.
o Insert gauges or nails, one at each corner of the wall.
o Fix string lines around the four corners and across the diagonals.
o The surface contained by the nail heads or gauges and string lines must be flat and on
plumb. This can be confirmed with the help of a plumb bob and a straight edge. If they
are not on plumb, knock the nails or gauges until they are in the same plane. This will
be the surface of the final plaster layer.
o When the four corners of the wall have been adjusted, insert more nails along the string
lines. The heads of the nails should flash with the string line. It is to be noted that the
distance between the nails or gauges should not be more than the length the strike board
can cover.
o Fix the edge boards. The edge board at the top of the can be held in place with the help
of blocks placed on top of it. These edge boards should project by the same amount the
nails which is the thickness of the future plaster.
o Mix the mortar according to the required proportions. Ensure that there are no stones in
the plaster. Make up a dry mixture first and add water to this as required. Avoid mixing
too much at once and keep the mortar covered to keep out the sun and wind.
o Sprinkle the wall once again.
o Build up screeds (guiding strips) by throwing mortar against the wall in vertical strips.
The mortar should cover the nails completely.
o Use strike boards to smooth off the screed flush with the heads of nails. Return any
mortar which drops down onto the boards to the mixing pan. Give the strike board an

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upward and downward movement as you move it across the screed to obtain a level
surface.
o Let the screeds set for a while until they are hard enough so that no mortar will fall off
when the strike board is applied during the preceding steps. When the screeds are
sufficiently hard, sprinkle the wall again.
o Fill the gaps between the screeds with mortar.
o Press the strike board against the screeds and move it up the wall, holding it
horizontally. The striking board should remove the excess mortar so that the surface of
the mortar flushes with the screeds. Return all the surplus mortar into the mixing pan. It
is not necessary to fill up the whole space between the screeds before you start to
smooth the plaster. Fill the plaster as high as you can comfortably reach, then smooth
this and fill the rest with the help of a scaffold so that you can reach the top of the wall.
Smooth up to the top of the wall. However, you should never leave any section half way
finished because it will not join properly when you continue next time.
o When the whole wall has been levelled off, the nails/ gauges should be removed and the
last finish can now begin.
 Painting
This refers to the application of pigmented liquids or semi liquids to surfaces which
subsequently harden.
Paint comprises a primer, undercoats and finishing coats.
Paint preserves, protects, decorates surfaces and enables them to be cleaned easily.

Composition of Paint
Paint is composed of pigment(s) suspended in a liquid. Pigment gives color and opacity. The
liquid (known as a medium or vehicle) is composed mainly of a binder and a thinner.
Binders fix the pigment to the surface being painted and are responsible for the gloss and water
proofing properties. Thinners reduce the viscosity of the paint and aid its penetration.
A drier is included into the medium to facilitate drying.
Natural pigments include: iron oxide, ochres, umbers etc.
Artificial pigments include chromes, Prussian blue, zinc oxide, etc.
Mediums include oils, varnishes, resins, bitumen, and cellulose derivatives. The most common
thinner or solvent used is turpentine, also white spirit can be used as a substitute.

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The most common paint finishes applied on walls or wood include:

1. Oil-based paint(Alkyd Paint )
2. Water Based Paints (Latex Paint)
3. Varnish
Paint manufacturers have formulated new products that cut down on VOCs (volatile organic
compounds), which the Environmental Protection Agency warns may have adverse health
effects. Traditionally, homeowners had a choice between water-based and oil-based paints, but
because they tend to have higher VOC levels, it's important to consider if oil-based paints are
for you.

Advantages of Water-based Paints

 Low VOCs.
 Easy cleanup with water.
 Quick drying.
 An elastic, flexible finish resistant to cracking.
 Stable color over time, without yellowing.

Advantages of Oil-based Paints

 Attractive gloss.
 Good “leveling” (brush strokes fill themselves in to create a smooth finish).
 Hard, durable finish.
 Easy to clean.

The majority of wall paint sold today is water-based, but oil-based paint remains popular for
glossy woodwork, doors, and furniture, as well as demanding surfaces such as floors. The
technology of acrylics has almost surpassed that of oils. For those instances when an oil-based
paint would traditionally be preferable, but you desire a water-based product, a number of
companies have recently introduced “waterborne enamels” or “waterborne alkyds.” These
paints look and behave much like oil-based options, because they have good leveling qualities
for a smooth finish and deliver improved environmental performance.

Be cautious when switching to a water-based paint if the surface has previously been coated
with an oil-based product, as the new paint may not stick. In this situation, washing the surface

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and then roughening it all over with a medium to smooth grit sand paper making it clean, dry,
and dull in order to prevent peeling of the new coat is recommended.

Oil Paint
o The traditional type of oil paint has a vegetable oil base (linseed oil) and a pigment
which gives it color.
o They have synthetic additives e.g. resins, polyethylene, etc.
o Mainly used on finishing coats since they tend to have a gloss finish.
o Mainly restricted to timber and metal work.
o They tend to have a better resistance to wear, water and alkaline.
o They tend to peel off surfaces.
NB: - Additives like bitumen, asphalt are used to protect steel work from corrosion. These have
a good adherence, resistant to moisture but are highly affected by heat.This is sometimes
referred to as bituminous paint and should not be used in conjunction other types of oil based
paint.
Oil paint is usually applied in three coats. Each coat is of a different composition and they
cannot be mixed.
1. Priming coat
o This is the first coat of the paint to seal the surface and provide a "tooth or key" for
the finish coat.
o It must suit the background; adhere to it and compatible with subsequent layers.
o It must penetrate porous surfaces e.g. wood and plaster.
o Inhibit corrosion e.g. ferrous metals.
o Seal chemically active surfaces e.g. new lime plaster and cement thus preventing
them from disrupting subsequent layers.
o Should be heat resistant.
o It protects the surface against damp air by sealing up the pores.
o They adhere to the surface even if they are very hot or even on metals.
o Primers/sealers ensure longer lasting paint work as the resins in the finish paints
stay on the surface creating the "wear layer" as they are designed to do. Peeling and
premature failure is eliminated and this is by far the most important part in getting a
long lasting, durable finish.

2. Undercoat
o Used to build up a protective coating to the priming coat as the second coat.
o Bonds the priming coat to subsequent layers.

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o They contain a greater pigment than the finishing coat.

o Applied as sooner as the primer coat is dry.
o Should adhere well to the primer.
o The last color of the under coat should be close to that of the finishing coat, hence
advise from the manufacturer is recommended.
3. Finishing coat
o This is the final protective coat against weather, chemical and mechanical damage.
o It determines the texture and color of the final surface. These can be matt, semi-matt,
egg shell, semi-gloss and gloss (i.e. increasing order of smoothness). Gloss paint
reflects light directly hence an irregular surface will be quite distinct.

Application of oil based paints

o Ventilation is required to facilitate drying and removal of poisonous fumes (VOCs-
Volatile Organic Chemicals).
o Surfaces to be painted should be warm, not in direct sunlight or dusty conditions.
o Should not be applied in wet or damp weather. Trapped moisture can reduce adhesion
and brings about corrosion.
Water Based Paints (Latex Paint)
o It has a latex (rubber) base and a pigment for coloring. They use water as a mixing
agent if required thus providing an excellent finish, while being an easier paint to use.
o They clean up with soap and water, dry quickly, has less odor, non-flammable, they
remain more flexible, and are permeable to moisture thus reducing blistering, cracking
and peeling and hence can be applied on a damp surface.
o The water medium has additives e.g. PVA (polyvinyl acetate), alkyd resins, which are
resistant to alkaline.
o Used for all applications i.e. primer, undercoat and finishing coat except for iron work.
o Less durable than other types of paints, especially non-emulsion paints.
o Cheap in terms of cost and application.
o Sometimes used as a primer/ undercoat to oil based paint finish but alkali resistant
primer/sealer is required since they are porous.
Inexpensive latex paints use softer vinyl resins (binders) and more water in the formulation
while more durable latex paints use 100% acrylic resins and less water, ( you only get what you

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pay for). The term "Enamel" is normally associated with paints that have some gloss to the
finish. Enamels are formulated with higher concentrations of resin as they are intended to be
subjected to more wear and tear.

Levels of gloss:
The sheen of paint is the amount of light reflected by the surface of a paint finish. There are
four basic sheens: flat, satin, semi-gloss and gloss.

Flat Paints exhibit non-reflective properties providing a matt finish. This finish helps hide
surface imperfections, and is normally used for ceilings and walls in areas not subjected to a lot
of wear and tear, dining rooms, living rooms and bedrooms not used by small children.

Satin Finish also known as eggshell finish, provides a soft sheen similar to that of an eggshell.
A satin finish provides a harder surface finish which is more durable and more stain resistant
than a flat finish. This durability makes satin paint a good choice for walls in children's rooms,
hallways, stairways and family rooms.

Semi-gloss Paints are very durable, they are easier to clean, and are more stain resistant than
satin finish paints. Semi-gloss paints are most often used on heavy wear surfaces or areas that
are frequently cleaned such as kitchens and bathrooms.

Gloss Paint is a harder, more durable, more stain resistant paint finish. It is easier to clean than
all the other paint finishes. Gloss finishes generally make surface imperfections more
noticeable. Gloss finishes are the best choice for heavy wear areas like kitchens, bathrooms,
furniture and cabinets, floors, stairs, handrails, high traffic doors, etc.

Which type of paint should you use?

Two things you need to consider:

How much wear and tear is the surface going to experience?
Is the sheen or gloss to the finish going conflict with your decorating scheme?

If you are painting a storage room or another area which will be subjected to hard use and
frequent washings, go with the highest gloss you can as these paints are designed for just that.
If the "feel" of the room is important such as a living room or bedroom, choose the lower gloss
finishes for a calm soothing feel.
Varnish
o These are used to protect wood.

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o Two kinds of varnish are used .i.e. oil or spirit. Oil varnish can be used for external
works. If necessary, it can be diluted with turpentine.
o Spirit varnish is used only on internal works such as furniture. It is not very strong or
water resistant. Spirit varnish can be diluted with commercial alcohol.

Application of paint
o The surface to be painted should be dry, free from dirt, oil, grease, old loose paint, etc.
All cracks shall be raked out and stopped.
o Painting work should be done by the skilled worker.
o Make sure the rooms are in good ventilation and dry.
o Application may be by brush, roller or sprays.
Different ways of applying paint
Brushing
o Desirable in priming coats.
o Brush marks should be avoided.
o Used to paint internal angles and to finish a line.
Rollers
o Hold more paint since they have wider brushes hence require less recharging and time
involved in painting large surface areas.
o Rollers enable an average unskilled person to produce an excellent coating much faster
and easier than by brush application.
o Use a roller with a short nap cover; 1/4" - 1/2" for smooth surfaces and a longer 3/4" -
1" for rough surfaces. Select a quality cover, lambskin is best.
o Roll off excess paint on the roller grid to get rid of excess paint and also distribute the
paint evenly.
o Lift the roller at the end of each stroke to produce a uniform coating.
o Always roll from an unpainted area into a painted one, finish off in the direction into an
opening from the entry point into the room.
o Apply less pressure on the roller when it is first dipped in the paint and more pressure as
the paint is being transferred to the surface.
o Don't spin the roller at the end of a stroke otherwise the paint will be sprayed in all
directions.
o Roll in a straight line. If you twist the roller, it will produce lines "roller tracks" which
must be re-rolled.

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o Don't roll too fast. This will result in air entrapment which will produce bubbling of the
paint and flip the paint all over. If the paint is bubbling, roll slower - or add a thinner -
or use a shorter nap roller cover.
o Don't try to spread the paint too thin, or after it dries another coat may be required.

Spraying
o It is the fastest application method.
o Good for painting irregular surfaces.
o Spraying equipment is costly.
o Some paints are a health hazard and so should not be sprayed.
o Economical for large areas and quick drying paints.
o Not recommended for primers (except cellulose primers) because priming by a brush
gives better penetration and adhesion.
o It requires the use of a mask or other protecting material to protect surfaces from paint
which are adjacent to those being decorated.
The amount of paint delivered is determined by the size of the tip used and by the amount of
pressure used. Tips normally are numbered in thousands of an inch. For example: a 0.019 tip
indicates a somewhat large tip suitable for most latex paint, a 0.015 tip would be ideal for oil
base paints, enamels and varnish coatings.
Dipping
o Fast and economical.
o Quality control of the paint is almost impossible.
Painting preserves building materials from rot, rust, etc. Timber usually requires some finishing
treatment whether it is to be used internally or outside the building. Paint helps to keep the
wood from swelling or warping. The type of finish to be used depends on whether the wood
will be used outside or inside and on the purpose of the timber.
Protective finishes such as oil paints or varnish cover the wood with a protective skin. In order
to being effective, this skin must be undamaged and so we have to repair and maintain these
finishes regularly.
The choice of the colors to be used either inside or outside the building is an important factor
because it affects the temperature and appearance of the building. Light colors keep the
building cool and bright since they are good light reflectors.
Preparation of surfaces for painting

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o Surfaces to be painted should be dry and clean, free from mud, dust, dirt, and grease,
rust and old scaly paint.
o All boring, cutting, and shaping should be finished before the paint is applied.
o Timber should be well seasoned to prevent cracking. Painting cracked timber is worse
than no protection at all since water can find its way through the cracks but it cannot
evaporate off through the skin of the paint thus causing it to rot.
o If cracks appear in painted wood, sand paper the wood before you apply a new paint to
prevent cracks from resurfacing. When you cut painted wood, don‟t forget to repaint the
ends.
Conditions favorable for painting
o Paint in a favorable weather good enough for the paint too dry with little or no dust in
the air. For new buildings, first ensure that that they are not damp. Wood should not be
painted when damp or in wet weather.
o Mix the paint thoroughly before it is applied.
o Painting is done with a brush where a brush is dipped into the paint up to 1/3rd of the
bristle length and then excess paint is removed. Never dip the whole brush into the paint
because excessive paint will drip out and be wasted.
o Use long sweeping strokes and brush the paint well to form an even coating.
o Start at the top of one edge of the surface then work across and down.
o Try to finish each day‟s work at the corner of the building or at the opening. If you stop
in the middle of the wall a mark will be seen where you will resume painting the
following day.
o All new work rather wood or masonry requires three coats of paint. Surfaces which
have been painted before only require two coats.
o Before you apply a new coat, the previous coat has to be thoroughly dry. With most
paints, the first two coats may be diluted with a thinner to allow for a better distribution
and penetration. Only the final coat must be undiluted.
o If wood is unprotected from sunshine and rain, it may require repeated application of
the finishing coat from time to time. It is to be noted that the end grain absorbs as much
paint as possible.
o Never allow the brush to rest upright on its bristles. If you stop work for a few minutes,
remove the excess paint form the brush by wiping it on the edge of the tin, then lay it
flat across the top of the tin or on a smooth clean surface.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

o If the work is stopped for a long time (over night or a few days), put the brush in a tin of
kerosene if you are using oil based paint.
Backgrounds
1. Plastered walls
These are painted to provide color, surface texture, water proof, reflect or absorb light and
facilitate cleaning but paints have to be protected against dampness if possible.
Newly constructed walls often take a long time to dry. A new plastered surface shall be allowed
to dry completely.
They shall be clean and free from dust, dirt, plaster.
The cleaned surface shall be applied with one coat of alkali resisting primer sealer. Presence of
salts or alkalizes in plaster can create a lot of problems.
This is followed with two coats of emulsion paint or oil paint.
Painting of dry plastered surfaces does not present any problems and the ordinary sequence as
for woodwork can be adopted. The time taken for a plastered wall to dry depends on the period
of the year and the internal heat from the building.

2. Existing plastered surface

If the existing paintwork is still intact, the surface shall be washed down, allowed to dry and
applied with two coats of paint.
If the existing paintwork is loose or chalky, the paint shall be removed by scraping and the
surface shall be washed. The cleaned surface shall be applied with one coat of approved alkali
resisting primer sealer and two coat of paint.

3. Concrete surfaces
These are alkaline, therefore oil paints cannot be used on such surfaces if they are damp and an
alkaline resisting primer should be used.
4. Brickwork
A bricks has a hard outer layer, also known as the „fire skin,‟ that protects it from moisture
penetration and deterioration in harsh weather.
Painting traditional bricks will obscure and may destroy their original character.
Painting brickwork can trap moisture that would otherwise naturally evaporate through the
wall, not allowing it to breathe and thus causing extensive damage over time.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Painting is not a desired finish for brickwork however it is sometimes used to improve on
waterproofing or reflection of light. They are mainly attacked by sulphates and alkalize. Also
an adequate drying out period is necessary before painting.
5. Iron and steel
It is economical to first galvanize these materials before painting so as to avoid corrosion. As
with all surfaces, adequate preparation is an important prerequisite for the case of ferrous
metals which include removal of mill scale, rust, dirt, oil, grease, dust.
Workshop preparation may include pickling in hot dilute hydrochloric acid to remove scale and
rust and phosphating where a phosphate dip provides good resistance to rusting.
On site a wire brush can be used to remove rust and an organic solvent will remove the grease.
Ferrous metals should be primed before being delivered on site. A red lead linseed primer gives
an adequate foundation, chromate and zinc primers are also used. The primer can be followed
by good undercoats and oil or alkyd resin finishing coats.
Non-ferrous metals mostly have shinny smooth surfaces which have to first be roughened
before priming. A good key for the paint is essential and can be obtained by itching primers or
phosphating.

6. Timber surface
All knots shall be covered with knotting.
All nail holes, cracks shall be stopped with putty.
The surface shall be primed with aluminium wood primer.
The prepared surface shall be painted with one undercoat.
Then finish with two coats of gloss enamel paint.
Each coat shall be allowed to dry and rubbed lightly with sand paper and cleaned before
applying the next coats.

Paints Defects:
Cissing: This refers to the shrinkage of the paint film usually in quite small but sometimes
large, areas. It is often due to greasy undercoat or lack of key between coats. Repainting is the
solution.

Blistering: This is the common failure caused by poor adhesion or by resin or moisture
pushing off the paint. It is prevented by having a dry background, proper priming and removal
of very resinous knots.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Flaking or peeling: This is due to poor adhesion or presence of moisture during painting or the
ingress of moisture at timber joists or brittleness in the paint film or inadequate cleaning and
preparation. The defective areas must be redone.

Pin holes: These are caused by air bubbles when paint covers small cavities. The bubbles burst
to leave small holes. The surface should be levelled to prevent this defect.

Cracking, Crazing: This is due lack of elasticity of the finishing coat (brittleness) or unequal
elasticity between coats of a paint containing excessive driers or use of a hard drying paint on
softer undercoat or insufficient drying time between coats of paint.

Chalking: This refers to the powdering of a paint film usually on exposed outside surfaces. It
is a sign that repainting is necessary and may be due to poor quality paint.

This is when oil paint is destroyed by chemical or physical changes.

Saponification: This is the formation of soap caused by damp alkalis in a wall attacking the
paint; the paint is destroyed and a sticky brown liquid appears.

Grinning: This is the insufficient obscuration of an undercoat by a finishing coat. It may be

due to lack of opacity (body) in the finishing coat or an incorrect undercoat color.

Crinkling, curtaining or sagging: This is due to incorrect application and excessive paint
which forms on the surface. The remedy is to rub down and repaint.

Brush marks: This may be due to the paint being too stiff, or by poor workmanship or by
brushing over paint which is partially set. The remedy is rubbing down with waterproof
abrasive followed by repainting.

 Tiling
Basically wall tiling works is same to the floor tiling works.

 Wall paper
Wall paper is a kind of material used to cover and decorate the interior walls of homes, offices,
cafes, government buildings, museums, post offices, and other buildings; it is one aspect of
interior decoration. It is usually sold in rolls and is put onto a wall using wall paper paste. Wall
papers can come plain as "lining paper" (so that it can be painted or used to help cover uneven
surfaces and minor wall defects thus giving a better surface), textured, with a regular repeating

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

pattern design, or, much less commonly today, with a single non-repeating large design carried
over a set of sheets.
2.3 Ceiling Finishes
These are overhead interior surfaces of a room, often concealing underside of the floor or roof
above. The finish can be constructed either below a pitched or flat roof and is either laid
horizontally or follows the pitch of the roof.
There are 3 systems of ceiling finishes that can be constructed:
Exposed ceiling, Fixed ceiling and Suspended ceiling.
o Exposed Ceiling
This is a simple ceiling finish construction, no ceiling sheet required, apply plastering and
painting to the exposed surface of a floor structure or a flat roof.

o Fixed Ceiling
Can be constructed either horizontally or follow the pitch of the roof, fixed to ceiling joist and
ceiling spacer (noggings), the joint between the ceiling panels are covered and finished with
timber beading or aluminium strips. The construction of the ceiling structure is similar to the
floor structure. The normal size of the joist is 100mm x 50mm at 1200mm or 600mm center to
center spacing. The normal size of the spacers is 50mm x 50mm at 600mm center to center
spacing.

o Suspended Ceiling
Ceilings are fixed to a framework suspended from the main structure thus forming a void
between the two components. A system comprised of galvanized steel/aluminium structure or
frame is suspended with wire hanger to the floor or roof structure above it. The main joist is
fixed to adjustable hangers which are nailed or screwed to the suspended concrete floor (max
distance: 600mm). Cross joist are fixed across the main joist. The spacing of the ceiling
frame/structure depends on the size of the ceiling panel. Ceiling panels are screwed to the
ceiling frame.

Basic functional requirements of a suspended ceiling

o Easy to construct, repair, maintain and clean.
o Access to hidden services and ducts in the ceiling void.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

o Weight reduction.
o Provision of sound and thermal insulation.
o Aesthetics in terms of color, texture, shape, etc.

Factors to be considered in the selection of a ceiling system

o Type of floor structure.
o Appearance.
o Durability requirements.
o Safety to occupants.
o Location of mechanical services/equipment.
o Degree of fire resistance required.
o Economy.
o Life span expected.
o Purpose of the building.
o Need for acoustic (sound) elements.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

4.0 Roofs
The primary purpose of a roof is to protect a building‟s interior, but it may also be used to
contribute to a building‟s exterior appearance.
The completed roof consists of several components, including the roof frame, roof deck, vapour
barrier, insulation, water proof roofing material, flashing and drains, construction and control
joints
In the design of a roof, a number of factors are considered .e.g.: weather, appearance, height,
area, and style of the frame.
A roof may be constructed as a flat roof from a timber, metal or concrete framed platform
which is either horizontal or inclined up to 10degrees to the horizontal, or as a pitched roof with
one or more slopes pitched at more than 10 degrees to the horizontal. Some of the examples of
pitched roofs are: Symmetrical pitch, asymmetrical pitch, mono-pitch with trussed rafters, and
mono-pitch with slopping soffit, butterfly roof, and lean to roof.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

lean-to
asymmetrical pitch symmetrical pitch

mono-pitch with sloping soffit butterfly roof

mono-pitch with trussed rafters

Figure 1 Sketches of the different pitched roofs

4.1. The functional requirements of a roof are:
Stability
Strength
Exclusion of wind and rain
Durability
Fire resistance
Thermal properties

Stability
A roof is constructed to support the dead load of the roof structure and its covering, insulation
and internal finishes, snow loads and pressure or suction due wind without undue deflection or
distortion. The dead load can be calculated from unit weight of materials set out in BS 648.
Snow loads are assumed from average snow falls. The pressure of wind on a roof will depend
on the exposure, height and shape of the roof and the surrounding buildings. Wind blowing
across a roof will tend to cause pressure on the wind ward side and suction on the opposite side
of the building.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The stability of a flat roof depends on the adequate support from walls or beams and sufficient
depth or thickness of timber joist or concrete relative to spans, and the assumed loads to avoid
gross deflection under load.

Strength: The strength of a roof depends on the characteristics of the materials from which it is
constructed and the way in which they are put together in the form of a platform or some form
of triangulated frame.

Exclusion of wind and rain: A roof excludes rain through the material with which it is
covered; varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt covering that can be laid
horizontal to exclude rain, to the small units of clay tiles that are laid overlapping down slopes
so that rain runs rapidly to the eaves. In general the smaller the units of roof covering, such as
tiles or slate, the greater the pitch or slope to exclude rain that runs down in the joints between
the tiles onto the back of another tile or slate lapped under and so on down the roof.
Impermeable materials such as asphalt and bitumen that are laid without joints can be laid flat
and sheet metals such as lead and copper that are joined with welts can be laid with a very
shallow fall.

Durability: This depends largely on the ability of the roof covering to exclude rain. Persistent
penetration of water into the roof structure may cause decay of timber, corrosion of steel or
disintegration of concrete

Fire resistance: A roof and its covering should have adequate resistance to damage by fire, and
against spread of flame for escape in fire, for the periods of from thirty minutes to six hours.
Thermal properties: The materials of roof structures and roof coverings are generally poor
insulators against transfer of heat and it is usually necessary to use some material which is a
good insulator, such as light weight boards, quilts or loose fill to provide insulation against
excessive loss or gain of heat.
Insulating materials may be applied to the underside or the top of flat roofs or between the
joists of timber flat roofs. Rigid materials such as wood wool, that serves as roof deck and
insulation are laid on top of the roof and non-structural materials at ceiling level or on top

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

below some form of decking. It is of good practice to fix insulating materials at ceiling level in
timber flat roofs, so that there can be cross ventilation between the joists from permanent vents,
to limit condensation risks as required by building Regulations 1981.
Vapour barrier: Insulating materials are effective against transfer of heat to the extent that
they retain still air between fibres, in granules or in minute spaces. When this light weight
materials absorb water they lose their insulating properties as water enters the air spaces, and
water is not a good insulator. Precaution must be taken, therefore, to prevent moisture or water
saturating the insulation either through the roof covering or from humid warm air from inside
the buildings. As a barrier to humid warm air from inside the building, an impermeable vapour
barrier should be fixed between the warm air side and the insulation. This vapour barrier takes
the form of a sheet of bitumen, polythene, or aluminium that is impermeable to moisture.

4.2. FLAT ROOFS

A flat roof by definition is any roof with a slope of less than ten degrees.
The simplest roof to construct is a flat roof, framed in wood, steel, or reinforced concrete.
Factors considered in the choice of material to use for structural frame work.
 Cost
 Size (span)
 Availability of materials and equipment
 Working Space

4.2. 1Timber flat roof construction:

Timber flat roofs consists of soft wood timber joist of 38 to 50 thick and from 75 to 225 deep
placed on edges from 400 to 600 apart with the ends of the joists built into or onto or against
brick walls and partitions.
Strutting between joists: Solid or herringbone strutting should be fixed between the roof
joists. When timber is seasoned it shrinks, and timber such as roof joists, which is not cut on
the radius of the circle of the log does not shrink uniformly. The shrinkage will tend to make
the floor joists twists, or wind, and to prevent this

25
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

solid strutting

75 - 225

100 x 75 wall plates

400
-600

Roof joists

Figure 2
timber strutting is used. Herringbone strutting consists of short lengths of 50 x 38 softwood
timber nailed between the joists as shown in the illustration below. The other method of
strutting termed solid strutting consists of short length of timber of the same section as the
joists which are nailed between the joists in a line or staggered as in the figure below. This is
not usually so effective a system of strutting as the herringbone system, because unless the
short solid lengths are cut very accurately to fit to the sides of the joists they do not firmly strut
between the joists.
Note: Ceiling noggings can also be used in place of strutting.
Usually one set of struts is used for joists spanning up to 3.6 and two for joists spanning more
than 3.6. A single set of struts is fixed across the roof at mid span.

Roof deck/boards: Boards which are left rough surfaced from the saw are usually employed to
board timber flat roofs and is called rough boarding and are usually 19 thick cut with square.
For good work tongued and grooved boards are often used as the plain edged boarding may
shrink and twist out of level as they dry. Chip boards may also be used in lieu of them to
maintain a level roof deck
End support of joists: Roof joists are normally supported on timber or metal wall plates. Wall
plates serve to distribute the roof loads uniformly over the walls and Provides a level bed for
the roof joists.

26
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Where there is a parapet wall, the end of the joists can rest on the inner walls of cavity walls or
on metal hangers.
19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75 wall plate or

metal plates

Figure 3

19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75wall plate on

brick corbel

Figure 4

wall plate resting on the inner wall of a cavity wall construction

The ends of roof joists are sometimes carried on brick corbel courses, timber plate and corbel
brackets or on hangers.

27
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75 wall plate on

steel corbel brackets
built in at 750 centresl

Figure 5. Timber joists on wall plates supported by steel corbel brackets

The ends of roof joists built into solid brick walls should be given some protection from
dampness by treating them with a preservative. Timber joist may be built into a solid external
wall if the wall is thick enough to prevent penetration of moisture to the joist ends and where
the wall is protected externally with slate or tile hanging.

cavity insulation carried

bituminus felt on boards
upto joint roof insulation
on insulation

timber joists

100 x 75 wall plate

cavity
wall

Figure 6. joists end on cavity walls

Timber firring: Flat roofs are usually constructed so that the surface has a slight slope or fall
towards rainwater outlets. This slope could be achieved by fixing the joists to a slight slope but
the ceiling below the roof would then also be sloping. It is usual to provide a sloping surface to
the roof by means of firring pieces. These consist of either tapered lengths of softwood nailed

28
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

across the joists or varying depth lengths of softwood nailed across the joists. Tapered firring is
used for roofs covered with chipboard or wood wool slabs and the varying depth firring for
boards laid parallel to the slope of the roof so that variations in the level of the boards do not
impede the flow of rainwater down the shallow slope. As an alternative to firring, some
insulating boards are cut or made to a slight wedge section to provide the necessary fall to a
roof.

varying height
firring pieces nailed
across joists

tapered firing piece nailed

to top of joists

75 - 225

joists
100 x 75wall plates
400
-600

Roof joists

Figure 7. Timber firring

Thermal insulation: A timber flat roof provides poor insulation against loss or gain of heat as
most of the materials used are poor insulators.
Any material that is to be a good thermal insulator must have a great number of tiny air spaces
in it as it is the air trapped in these spaces that acts as the thermal insulator.
Insulating materials are manufactured in the form of boards, slabs, quilts or loose fill and when
used with timber roofs the boards and slabs are fixed on the joists under the boarding or on the
underside of the joists. Quilted materials are usually laid between or over the joists and dry fill
between the joists.
4.2.2. Reinforced concrete roofs
Reinforced concrete roofs have a better resistance to damage by fire and can safely support self
weight, wind/rain pressure. The resistance to fire required by building regulations for most
offices, large blocks of flats, factories and public buildings is greater than can be obtained with
a timber roof.
A reinforced concrete roof will usually span the least width between the external or external
walls and internal load bearing walls and will be supported on walls and partitions.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Monolithic Reinforced concrete roof

The word monolithic means one stone and is used in buildings to described one unbroken mass
of any material. A monolithic concrete roof is one unbroken solid mass of concrete cast-in-situ
and reinforced with mild steel reinforcing bars. To support the concrete while it is still wet and
plastic, and for seven days after it has been placed, a temporary centering has to be used (form
work). This takes the form of rough timer boarding or steel sheets, supported on timber or steel
beams and post. The steel reinforcement is laid out on top of the centering and raised 15 above
the centering by means of small blocks of fine concrete (spacers) which are tied to the
reinforcement bars with wires. The wet concrete is then placed and spread on the centering, and
is compacted and leveled off. It is usual to design the roof to span the least width of the
building and two opposite sides of the concrete are build into walls incase of parapet walls.

asphalt on screed

concrete roof

insulating lining fixed to

cavity sofit of roof and inside of
wall wall for intermittent heating

Figure 8. Reinforced concrete roof

Centering: The temporary timber board or sheet steel support for monolithic concrete floor or
roof is termed centering.
Reinforcement of concrete: The steel reinforcing bars are cast into the under side of the roof
with 15 of concrete cover below them to prevent the steel rusting and to give it some protection
incase of fire. The thicker the concrete cover to the reinforcement the greater the resistance of
the roof to fire.

30
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The duty of determining the amount of reinforcement to use in a concrete roof is done by
Engineers usually Structural or Civil Engineers. When the engineer designs a reinforced
concrete roof, he usually calculates the amount of steel reinforcement required for an imaginary
strip of roof 300 wide spanning between the walls, as though the roof were made up of strips of
300 wide concrete beams placed side by side.
Because the centering required to give temporary support to a monolithic concrete roof tends to
obstruct and delay building operation below the roof, the most common concrete roof used
today are the “self centering” concrete.
Self-centering concrete roofs:
These are constructed with precast reinforced concrete slabs which are cast in the
manufacturer‟s yard and are delivered to the building site where they are hoisted to the level of
the roof and placed in position. Once in their positions they require no support other than the
bearing of their ends on beams or walls.
Advantages of self centering concrete roofs:
 Concrete has good quality since it is done under strict specialized supervision
 It is faster to complete roofing as the roof slabs can be ordered for in advance.
 There is no much interference of the activities below the roof.

Disadvantages:
Difficulty in hoisting where there is no enough space
The joints sometimes leak when not well finished

Thermal insulation: A reinforced concrete roof provides poor insulation against loss or gain of
heat and some material which is a good thermal insulator should be incorporated in the
construction of the roof or a light weight concrete slab be used. One way of doing this is to
used light weight aggregate instead of sand when screeding. It is the screed which provides the
slope for the rain water to run off the roof. The light weight aggregate in common use are
foamed slag, pumice and vermiculite. These materials are porous and it is the air trapped in the
minute pores of the material which at once make them light in weight and good thermal
insulator.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Foam slag: This is formed by spraying water on molten slag which is poured off molten iron in
blast-furnaces. The water causes the slag to expand into a porous light weight mass. The slag is
crushed into small particles used for screed which greatly improves on the thermal properties of
the concrete roof. The thickness of the screed is usually 25mm. This is a cheap material to use.
Pumice: This is a rock of volcanic origin which is usually porous, light weight, and a good
thermal insulator. It is crushed into small particles and used for screeding though usually
expensive and hence not commonly used.
Vermiculite: This is a micaceous mineral which consists of fine layers of materials closely
packed. When it is heated the fine layers open out and gases are trapped in the many spaces
between the expanded layers. It is very light in weight and most commonly used today because
of its effectiveness in thermal insulation.
Any of the rigid, light weight insulating boards may be used to improve the thermal insulation
of a concrete roof fixed either on top or below the concrete roof. The most convenient place for
the insulating board is on top of the concrete roof, under the roof covering. By insulating the
concrete roof from out side air, concrete roof can act to store heat in continuously heated
buildings (winter).

4.3. FLAT ROOF COVERINGS:

The materials used to cover flat roofs are: Built-up bitumen felt, mastic asphalt and the non
ferrous sheet metals, lead, copper, zinc and aluminium.

4.3.1 Built-up bitumen felt:

This is one of the cheapest and most commonly used roof coverings for flat and shallow roof
slopes. The roof is built with three layers of bitumen roof felt.
The three types of base materials used for bitumen roofing are: fibre, asbestos and glass fibre,
the material of the base being felted and impregnated with bitumen. The surface of the under
layer is finished with fine mineral granules so that the bitumen does not bond in rolls and the
exposed layers are finished with a mineral particle finish. The method of fixing is based on the
nature of the roof surface to which it is being applied. The felt is laid across the roof with 50
side lap and 75 end laps between sheets.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Glass fibre based felts have excellent dimensional stability, are non-absorbent and will not rot.
Normally used for very good quality works
Asbestos based felts have good resistance to damage by fire, good dimensional stability and are
used as a base layer for fire resistance and for good quality work for both under layers and
exposed layers.

Timber boarded roofs: On a timber board or chip board roof surface with the insulation either
under the boards or at or over the ceiling level, the first under layer of felt is nailed to the
boards either at 150 centres both across and along the roof, or at 50 centres along the laps of
sheets and 150 centres elsewhere. The wider centre of nailing is considered adequate for fixing.
The second underlayer is then bonded to the first in hot bitumen spread by mop or brush on the
first underlayer, and the top, or exposed layer, likewise bonded to the second underlayer with
the joints between sheets in each layer breaking joint.

Dry insulation boards: Rigid preformed insulation boards may be used as insulation and the
surface for bitumen felt roofing on a timber board or chipboard covered roof and on metal and
timber roof decking. Many of the rigid, dry insulation boards, except expanded polystyrene, are
suitable for the direct application of bitumen felt roofing. The insulation boards are laid on an
underlay of self finished roofing felt that serves as a barrier against warm air from the room
below. The underlayer of felt may be nailed, or partially or fully bonded on hot bitumen to the
boards. The insulation board is then partially or fully bonded to the felt underlay and the roof
finish of three layers of glass fibre, asbestos or asbestos first layer and felt fibre layers is then
fully bonded to the insulation.
Concrete screed finish: Cement screeds and particularly light weight aggregate screeds on
concrete roofs take time to thoroughly dry out and may absorb rain water so that it is likely that
some water will be trapped in the screed once bitumen felt covering has been applied. The heat
of the sun will then cause this water to vaporize and the vapour pressure will cause the felt
roofing to blister, crack and let in water. To relieve this water vapour pressure, it is practice to
use a venting layer of felt on wet screeded roofs. This perforated layer of felt is laid dry on the
screed and the three layers of felt are then bonded to it. The venting layer allows water vapour
to be released through vapour pressure releases at abutments and verges of the roof.

33
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Parapet walls and abutments: The bitumen felt roofing should be turned up 150 against
parapet and abutting walls, over an angle fillet as shown in the sketch below and either the
damp-proof course turned down over the upstand of the felt roofing or a separate flashing
dressed over the upstand.

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

copping with a dpc under dressed over upstand of
roofing felt

3-layers of roofing felt

bitumen felt dpc

angle fillet
timber boards
on isulation board &
vapour pressure barrier

Figure 9. Parapet wall

Eaves and Verges: Either the bitumen felt roofing may be dressed over gutters with a welt or a
separate non-ferrous drip may be used. Similarly, either the felt or a separate flashing may be
used at verges.

3-layers of bitumen
roofing felt on top of 25 screed
felt turned over verge fillet
and nailed to fascia

concrete roof

cavity
wall filled up to
roof level with insulation

Figure 9. Treatment at eaves and verges

Mastic asphalt: This is a mixture of naturally occurring material which is soft, has a low
melting point and is an effective barrier to penetration of water.
Asphalt is manufactured either by crushing natural rock asphalt and mixing it with natural lake
asphalt, or by crushing natural limestone and mixing it with bitumen whilst the two materials

34
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

are sufficiently hot to run together. The heated asphalt is run into moulds in which it solidifies
as it cools.
Solid blocks of asphalt are heated on the building g sites and the hot plastic material is spread
over the surface of the roof in two layers breaking joint to a finished thickness of 20mm. as it
cools it hardens and forms a continuous, hard water proof surface.
Parapet walls: External walls of buildings are raised above the level of the roof as a parapet
wall for the sake of the appearance of the building as a whole.
Parapet walls should not be built above the roof level higher than six times the least thickness
of the parapet wall for the sake of stability as they are free standing. To prevent rain water from
saturating parapet walls, it is essential that it should be covered or capped with some non-
absorbent material. Natural stone, concrete, and bricks are some of the materials used for
capping.
Parapet wall d.p.c: It is good practice to build a continuous horizontal d.p.c into brick parapet
wall at the junction of the roof covering, upstand or skirting with the wall. In stone capping
similarly rain water usually penetrate through the cracks and saturate the wall below. If frost
occurs the parapet wall may be damaged, therefore it is good practice to build in a continuous
layer of dpc of bituminous felt, copper or lead below the stone.
Parapet to cavity walls: The construction of a parapet built on a cavity wall is usually
somewhat different from that built on a solid wall. An external wall built with a cavity to
prevent rain penetrating the wall and it is logical to continue the cavity to at least the top of the
roof, so that the cavity protects roof timber or concrete built into or against the wall. The cavity
should always be continued to the level of the asphalt skirting.

35
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

copping with a dpc under dressed over upstand of
roofing felt

3-layers of roofing felt

weep holes
Cavity gutter of
felt or metal

angle fillet

flat roof

Figure 10
Thermal insulation: For effectiveness the thermal insulation of a wall must be continuous for
the height of the wall upto the insulation in the roof. Where a cavity lining or fill is used in a
cavity wall it must be carried up atleast to the roof insulation.
Sheet metal roof coverings
Sheet metal is used as a covering because it gives excellent protection against wind and rain; it
is durable and lighter in weight than asphalt, tiles or slates. The four common sheet forms used
are; lead, copper, zinc and aluminium.
Properties of metals which make them to be used as either a flat roof or pitched roof covering
are:
Lead: This is a heavy, comparatively soft metal with poor resistance to tearing and crushing
hence has to be used in thick sheets as a roof covering. It is malleable and can easily be bent
and beaten into quite complicated shapes without damage to the sheets. Lead is quite resistant
to all weathering and can last upto 100 years.
Copper: This is a heavy metal with good mechanical strength and malleable. Because of its
mechanical strength this metal can be used in quite thin sheets as a roof covering. Like lead,
copper can be beaten and bent into complicated shapes.
On exposure to atmosphere a thin layer of copper oxide forms which is tenacious, non-
absorbent and prevents further oxidation of the copper below. Copper is quite weather resistant
and last as long as lead.

36
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Zinc: It is one of the lighter metals with good mechanical strength but not so malleable and
normally brittle. Zinc sheet is liable to damage in very heavily polluted industrial atmospheres
and should not be used there. The useful life of zinc as a roof covering is between 20 to 40
years.
Aluminium: This is one of the lightest metals with moderate mechanical strength and is as
malleable as copper. It is resistant to all weathering agents. On exposure to atmosphere a film
of aluminium oxide forms which is dense and tenacious and prevents further corrosion.
Aluminium as a roof covering has a useful life intermediate between zinc and lead. Bitumen
and asphalt have replaced the above metal roof covering because of their low initial cost,
although metal roof covering is becoming more common because of their use for low pitched
roofs, architectural designs (fashion).
Joint sheets:
The sheets of metals have to be fixed to the roof and jointed to allow for expansion and
contraction without tearing. Three types of jointing have been developed which successfully
joints the sheets, keeps out water and allows for expansion and contraction.
All metal sheets are laid to a fall or slope on roofs so that water runs off. The longitudinal joints
are usually in form of a roll. Rounded timber battens some 50 square are nailed to the roof and
the edges of the sheets are either overlapped or covered at these timber rolls. The joints across
or transverse to the fall of the roof are always formed as a small step called a drip. The purpose
of the drip is to accelerate the flow of rain water running down the shallow slope of the roof
Upstand and apron: Where there is a parapet wall around the roof or where the roof is built up
against a wall, the sheets are turned up against the wall about 150 as an upstand. The top of
these upstands are not fixed in any way so that the sheets can expand without restrain. To cover
the gap between the upstand and the wall strips of sheets, the sheets are tucked into a horizontal
brick joint, wedged in place and then dressed down over the upstand as an apron flashing.
Rain water gutters: If the flat roof is surrounded on all sides by parapet walls it is necessary to
collect the rain water falling off at the lowest point of the roof. A shallow timber framed gutter
is constructed and is lined with sheets. The gutter is constructed to slope or fall towards one or
more rain water outlets. The gutter is usually made 300 wide and is formed between one roof
joist, spaced 300 from a wall, and the wall itself.
Sketch how it is done.

37
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Eaves gutter: Where the roof has no parapet walls as for copper roof covering where the
beauty of the roof covering is of importance, the run off rain water is discharged into an eaves
gutter as in the sketch.
It is practice to drain the water from the gutters into down pipes which discharges the water
into reserve tanks or into storm water channels
Draw the sketch
Sheet metal covering to concrete roofs: Bitumen and asphalt have been the cheapest roof
coverings on concrete roofs but they have a useful life of some twenty years only as a result
sheet metals are sometime preferred. The sheet metal is jointed and fixed to a concrete roof in
the same way as a timber roof. The wood rolls are secured to the concrete by screwing them to
splayed timber battens set into the screed on the concrete or by securing them with bolts set in
sand and cement in holes punched in the screed as shown below.

Roofing felt: It is essential that sheet metal be laid on a continuous layer of roofing felt laid on
the surface of the concrete roof. The felt enables the metal to contract and expand freely and
prevents it tearing on any sharp projections in the surface of the concrete roof.

38
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

PITCHED ROOFS
A pitch roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slope of more than 100 to the horizontal.
The most common roof shape is the symmetrical pitch roof pitched to a central ridge with equal
slopes.

Ridge
Hip
Verge board

Hipped end Gable end

with a vent

Eaves

Figu
re 11. Illustration of a pitched roof with a hip and a gabled end
The traditional roofing materials like slate and tiles can only be successfully fixed on to a
surface inclined at atleast 25degrees to the horizontal.
The construction method is to slope the surfaces by pitching the rafters on either sides of the
ridge piece with the rafters bearing on the wall plate. This is the simplest roof because each pair
of rafters acts like two arms pinned at the top and is called a couple. Precautions should be

39
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

taken on the span as the weight of the roof tends to spread the rafters of a couple roof and over
turn the supporting walls.
In the traditional pitched roof form, timber ties are nailed to the foot of pairs of rafters to
prevent them spreading under the load of the roof. The ties may also serve to support the
ceiling frame. The other approach is to use timber ties nailed to the foot of pairs of rafters to
prevent them spreading under the load of the roof and is termed a closed couple roof
A modification of the close couple roof is the collar roof, where the ties are fixed between pairs
of rafters one third the height of the roof up from the wall plate.
The advantage here is that the roof may extend up into the part of the
roof

3.5max 4.5max 5.5max

couple roof collar roof closed couple roof

Fig
ure 12.
Trussed rafters
A trussed rafter is a triangular roof frame of rafters, ceiling joists and internal webs joined with
spiked connector plates and assembled in a factory. A trussed rafter uses upto 60% less timber
than a comparable traditional pitched roof and requires less on site labour as most of the
members are brought to the site and assembled or to be assembled only. Timber- framed
pitched roofs are usually constructed with trussed rafters and are the most economical and
convenient way of framing pitched roofs.
Trussed rafters are fabricated from stress graded timbers, accurately cut to shape and assembled
and joined with steel connector plates. Much of the preparation and fabrication of these trussed
rafters is mechanized, resulting in accurately cut and finished trusses that are delivered to site
ready to be lifted and fixed as a roof frame. The connector plates are made from carbon steel
which is stamped out so that the teeth protrude. The connector- plates are machine pressed to
form strong rigid joints and is used where the joints are butt joints. If the members overlap one
another, split rings and bolts are used to connect them. The split rings are set in circular

40
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

grooves cut in the meeting places and a bolt through the assembly holds the two together
tightly.
Trussed rafters are erected and nailed to a timber wall plate, bedded on the external walls, at
centres to suit the roof covering.
200 x 32-50 ridge board Collarpiece

100 x50 ties and struts

100-150 rafters on
wall plates

150 x 50 tie beams

at 400-600 centres
100 x 75 wall plate
fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter

A typical trussed rafter

Figure 13 Trussed rafters
Size of roof timbers
Rafters are usually 38 – 50 thick and 100 – 150 deep and are spaced at from 400 to 600 centres.
The depth of rafters and the centres at which they are fixed depends on the type and weight of
the roof covering they have to support and their unsupported length. In addition to the dead
weight of the roof covering, such as tiles or slates, the rafters have to be able to resist the
pressure of wind. Collars are usually 44 thick and are usually as deep as the roof rafters. The
ridge board is usually 25 – 38 thick and so deep that the whole depth of the splay cut ends of
rafters bear on it.
Eaves: This is a general term used to describe the lowest courses of the slates or tiles and the
timber supporting them. The eaves of most pitched roofs are made to project some 150 to 300
beyond the external face of walls and in Uganda they are as wide as 600. This gives some
protection to walls and enhances the appearance of buildings. Eaves can also be finished flush
with the wall. The roof coverings drains into an eaves gutter fixed to the fascia boards. The
soffit of projecting eaves can be finished closed with boards, sheets or plastered ceiling or it
can also be left open.

41
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

125x50 rafters

50x25 bracket nailed to rafter

to support soffit 125x50 tie beam
or ceiling joists

225x25 fascia

19 soffit board
making a closed eaves

FIGURE 14 DETAIL OF CLOSED EAVES CONSTRUCTION

Purlin or double roof: A purlin is a continuous timber fixed horizontally under the roof rafters
to give the support between the ridge and the wall plate. The purlin is in turn supported by
means of timber struts which bear onto a load bearing partition or fixed onto the tie beams
resting on the wall plates. It will be seen that the purlins support the rafters mid-way between
the ridge and the eaves and are supported by struts at intervals of about 1.8 along their lengths.
Where the roof slope is long, more than a line of purlin should be provided corresponding to
the struts. Collars fixed every fourth rafter serve to brace the roof and provide a secure fixing
for the purlins which bear on them. The size of the purlins depends on the weight of the roof
and their unsupported length between the struts. With struts not more than 1.8 apart a 125 x 50
purlin is used for most rafters.
Collars of the same section as the roof rafters are fixed to every third or fourth rafter. Struts are
usually 75 square in section. The foot of the strut is fixed to a timber wall plate bedded in
mortar on the load bearing partition. Incase of terrace buildings the purlins can be made to rest
on the diving walls, this also helps to prevent the spread of fire from one house to the other. In
this Case the diving wall should be taken up to the under side of the roof covering or even
through to form a parapet wall.
Timber trusses
A strongly constructed purlin roof depends for support on the load bearing partitions
conveniently placed and these partitions often restrict freedom in planning the rooms of the
building. A method of constructing pitched roofs so as to avoid the use of struts to support the
purlins, and load bearing partitions to support the struts, is to use timber trusses. The word truss

42
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

means tied together and a timber roof truss is a triangular frame of light section timbers fixed
together. The timber trusses span between external walls and are spaced about 1.8m apart and
they serve to support the purlins which in turn support the roof rafters. The timbers of the truss
are bolted together and to make the connections rigid galvanized iron timber connectors are
bolted between each two timbers at connections. The strength of the trusses derives mainly
from the rigidity of the connections.
To reduce the quantity of timbers used, the ceiling rafters are given support by means of
hangers and binders. The hangers are nailed to the purlins and to these are nailed horizontal
binders to which the ceiling joists are nailed or secured with metal plates.
The timber connectors have opposed teeth which when firmly bolted between the timbers
prevents any scissor movement between them. Timber trusses have largely been superseded by
trussed rafters for most domestic buildings.

43
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

200 x 32-50 ridge board

100-150 rafters on
wall plates
150x50 purlin
125 x50 collar & 75 x 75 strut
150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling
to every 3rd or 4th rafter
joists at 400-600 centres

100 x 75 wall plate

fitting into the bird mouth
Load bearing partition on the rafter

FIGURE 15: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 7.5

44
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

200 x 32-50 ridge board

all joints in truss bolted through
timber connectors
75x38 tie
75 x 50 hangers
100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c
150x50 purlin

150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling

joists at 400-600 centres
75x50 strut

125x50 ceiling
binders

100 x 75 wall plate

fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter

FIGURE 16: A typical trussed rafter for span

upto 8.0

45
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

galvanised steel gang-nail

connector plates at all joints
75x38 tie

100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c

150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling

joists at 400-600 centres
75x50 strut

Figure 17: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 12.0 and pitch
from 15 to 40 deg.

46
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Hipped roofs
The most economical way of constructing a pitched roof is to form it with two slopes with
gable ends. But a simple gable end roof sometimes looks clumsy due to the great area of tile or
slate covering and this can be avoided by forming hipped ends to the roof.
The hipped ends are pitched at the same slope as the main part of the roof and the rafters in the
triangle of the hipped end are pitched up to a hip rafter. The hip rafters carry the ends of the cut
rafters in the hipped ends and those of the main roof slopes. The hip rafter is usually 38-50
thick and 200 to 250 deep. The cut „jack rafter‟ are nailed each side of the hip rafter. Because
the hip rafter carries the ends of several jack rafters it tends to over turn the walls at the corner
of the building where it bears on the wall plates and to resist this, angle tie should always be
fixed across the angle of the roof. The angle ties are usually 100 x 75 timber and are either
firmly bolted to or dovetail housed into the top of the wall plates some 600 from the corner of
the building.

200x 38 ridge board

end of hipped rafters

cut & nailed to ridge board

200x50 hip rafter bearing 125x50jack rafters

on the wall plate

125 x 50 ceiling joists

100x75 wall plate

load bearing wall

Figure 18: hipped roof construction

Roof Ventilation
The limited capacity of air to hold moisture in the form of water vapour increases with
temperature. When the temperature of air falls, so does its capacity to hold moisture and the
surplus moisture is given up in the form of condensation. The air inside heated buildings
usually contains more water vapour than outside air and so has a higher vapour pressure which
creates a vapour drive from the area of high pressure inside the building to the out side through

47
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

the material of the roofs, so that warm moist air will penetrate the ceiling and insulation of
roofs and condense on cold surfaces inside the roof space due to condensation which will cause
corrosion of fixings and decay of timber.
To prevent an excessive built-up of moisture from condensation inside roofs, a cross ventilation
of roof spaces by vents not less than 0.3% of the roof plan area is required. This is done by
fixing ventilators either in the soffit of overhanging eaves incases of hipped roofs or on the
gable ends incase of gabled ends

Lamella Roof construction

A lamella roof is a curved roof similar in shape to one formed by the use of bowstring trusses,
but without the use of frame work of webs and lower chords found in truss roof. It does
however; provide clear spans of great width. It is formed by framing together a series of
intersecting arches made up of relatively short members called lamellas. They are made of 50-
100 material (steel or concrete), 3.6m to 4.9m long, beveled, bored with two holes at each end,
and bolted together.
A reinforced concrete lamella roof may be erected over a curved form made the width of the
building and the depth of one bay carried over movable scaffolds. The erection of the formwork
is begun from both sides at the sill and completed at the centre. The horizontal thrust developed
in this roof must be taken care of by tie rods, wooden ties, buttressed walls or wall columns.
The usual length of individual members is 3.6, 4.2 or 4.9 with arch spacing of approximately
1.2, 1.36 or 1.5 respectively. The angles between the intersecting lamellas should not exceed
450 and should preferably be between 380 and 400
Decking must be applied directly over the framework of the roof.
Folded plate roofs: A folded roof is another roof in which the roof slab has been formed in
thin, self supporting structure, usually made either of wood or concrete.
A concrete roof of this type can be made with precast panels or may be cast-in-situ. The rest of
the construction is like for flat roofs except in this case they are pitched and folded.

48
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Lamella roof

lag screw
plate tie rod
bolt

Lamella joint
Figure 19: construction of a lamella roof.

Figure 20: Folded plate roof construction

Pitched Roof Coverings

The traditional covering for pitched roofs, plain clay tiles and natural slates, are much less used
than they were because they are comparatively expensive and the majority of pitched roofs of
new buildings are covered with single lap concrete tiles and mangalore tiles.
The small unit pitched roof coverings are single lap tiles, plain tiles and slates.
Single lap tiles
These are so shaped that they overlap the edges of adjacent tiles in each course. The overlap
prevents water entering the roof between adjacent tiles and in consequence the tiles can be laid
with a single end lap. The advantage of single lap tiling is that its weight per unit area is up to
40% less than that of plain tiling.
Plain tiles: These are flat rectangular roofing units of size 265 by 165 with holes for nailing
and nibs for hanging to batten. These tiles are laid double lap down the slope of the roof
because water running between the open joints between adjacent tiles runs on to the back of a

49
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

tile double lapped under the joint. A plain tile roof is generally heavier than a comparable
single lap tile roof.
Concrete roofing tiles: These are extensively used today as a substitute for good quality clay
tiles. They are manufactured from a mixture of carefully graded sand, and Portland cement
which is compressed in a mould and painted in different colours.
Clay roofing tiles: Clay can be excavated, moulded and burned without any expensive or
elaborate machinery and for years clay roofing tiles have been used in Uganda. There are hand
made clay tiles and machine pressed clay roofing tiles. Hands made roofing tiles are not so
good and usually have a lot of defects.
Mangalore clay roofing tiles (Uganda clay roofing tiles)
These are the single lap clay tiles. They differ from ordinary single lap tiles in that one or more
grooves exist in the vertical edges of the tiles. The tiles are machine pressed during the
manufacturing. They are hung on softwood battens of 50x38 and weighs 40kg per unit roof
area. Each unit has a weight of 2.5kg and there are 15 pieces in a square metre. The side laps
are usually 50 and the end laps are adjustable with a minimum of 62. Mangalore tiles are of
size 400x230.
In Uganda roofing timber is supplied in sizes of 150x50, 100x50, 100x 75, 75x50 and 250x 25
and 4.2m long.
Roof trusses.
The trusses for mangalore roofing tiles consists of principal rafters of double pieces of 100x50
at 1.8m centres with common rafters of the same size to that of the principal rafters in between
at a spacing of 600 centres. The main tie/ tie beams or ceiling joists are of 150 x 50 and the
purlins of the same size are used to transfer the loads from the common rafters to the principal
rafters. The tie beams are fixed to the legs of the principal rafters at the same centering. Struts
and ties are from 100 x50 timbers and the struts serves to transmit the load from the purlins to
the tie beams and onto the wall plates which are of size 100x75

50
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

38x200 ridge piece

100x50 tie

100x50 principal rafters at

1.8m c/c made of 2pcs of
rafters
150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling
joists at 1.8m centres
100x50 strut

100x75 wall plate

Figure 21: A typical principal trussed rafter

100x50principal rafter

8
-33
312
38x50 timber battens
laid over plain sheets 150x50tie beam

100x75 wall plate

plain galv. sheet

metal

Figure 22: Detail of laying mangalore roofing tiles

Traditionally battens were laid on polythene supported by chicken wire mesh due high cost of
metal sheets. This was meant to prevent water escaping through the numerous joints to the
inside of the roof. Today the cost of galvanized plain sheets of lower gauges have come down
and with the coming up of many industries they are readily available in the local markets and as
a result most roofs in Uganda are now covered with plain iron sheets underneath the battens to
receive tiles. Battens of usually size 50x38 are fixed using wire nails at a margin of 312 to 338.

51
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The tiles ate then hooked on the battens starting from down the eaves moving up the slope of
the roof to the ridge piece.
Ridge: Any one of the four standard sections of clay ridges may be used to cover the ridge.
Ridges are usually laid using mortar. It is economical to first pack the broken pieces of the tiles
around the ridge piece before applying the mortar.
Hips: Hips are laid the same way like the ridges. However to prevent the tiles from slipping
down the hip a galvanized iron or wrought-iron hip iron is fixed to the hip or fascia.

Read about:
Roofing slates, Pan Tiles, Spanish tiles, and Italian tiles especially the laying.

Timber Pitched Roofs in Sheet Metal Coverings

Various methods are used to make roofing sheets, two basic types are generally made:
corrugated and flat. Galvanized steel, aluminium and galbestos are all used to make corrugated
roofing sheets of varying width, depth and pattern of corrugation and allowable span,
depending on the gauge and material used.
Corrugated sheet metal roofing sheets are normally supported on wood or steel purlins properly
spaced according to the gauge of the metal and the roof load involved. Manufactures normally
give tables of unsupported length of the sheets depending on the gauges to guide roofers in
spacing the purlins.
There are two common laying orders for roofing sheets. Laying should start at the leeward end
of the building so that side laps will have better protection from wind driven rain. The top
edges of eave sheets should extend atleast 38 beyond the back of steel purlin and 75 beyond the
centre line of timber purlins. At side laps where edge corrugation of adjacent sheets is opposite
in direction, the under lapping side should finish with an upturn edge and overlapping side with
a down turned edge.
Sheets should extend atleast one corrugation over the gable and there should be 75 of over hang
at the eaves. End laps between sheets should generally be 150 and side laps of 1.5corrugations
but they may be increased to 225 and two corrugations for extreme conditions
Special nails with a ring or screw-type shank should be used for fastening corrugated sheets to
wood purlin. Nails should be driven at the top of corrugations, but care must be taken not to

52
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

drive them so far as to flatten the corrugation, thus preventing the next sheet from fitting
properly. Sheets are fastened to steel purlins with stain less self-tapping screws and aluminium
washers.
Steel Roof Trusses
Mild steel is much stronger than timber, it is more fire resisting and its sections can be readily
assembled to for comparatively simple connections. It is principally for these reasons that mild
steel is now employed extensively for roof trusses of small and medium spans and its supersede
of timber as a material for trusses of large span.
Steel for trusses of open (unceiled) roofs of certain buildings, well designed for large spans
with light weight members and satisfactory appearance, chiefly because of the small size of the
members and the simple joints are commonly in use. Mild steel trusses must be painted
periodically to prevent rusting.
A steel truss like the built-up truss is a triangulated structure. The principle rafters are
prevented from spreading by connecting their lower ends by a tie and strut and ties are provided
at intermediate points to afford adequate bracing. The struts should be kept as short as possible.
The centre line principle is adopted through out and thus the point of attachment of each purlin
coincides with the intersection of the axes of truss members. Secondary stresses such as
bending moments in the rafters are thereby avoided.
All the members of a modern metal roof truss are mild steel, and most, if not all should be of
angles. Angles effectively resist both compression and tension stresses; they can be
conveniently attached and the manufacturing process is more economical. Struts consist of
either single or double angles and the main consist of either one or two angles placed back to
back. Until comparatively recently, it was a common practice to use single or double flat bars
for the main tie, as they were suitable for resisting tension stresses, however, owing to wind
pressure and the abnormal strain imposed during the transportation and the erection of trusses,
members may be subjected to changes of stresses and flats will not resist compression. Flat
main therefore tend to become buckled. .if a ceiling is to be provided, ceiling joints can readily
be fixed to a main tie of double angles and this is an additional reason why they should be used
instead of flats.

53
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Connections
The members of a truss are connected together normally by means of:
a. Bolts and thin plates called gussets
b. welding
c. rivets ( not in common use)
The pitch of rivets is the distance between their centres and should not be less than 2.5
times the diametre of the bolts. The maximum pitch should not exceed 32t or 300mm. the
size of the bolts depends upon that of the members to be connected, thus 16mm diametre
bolts are commonly employed for angles and flats up to 60mm wide and 20mm diametre
bolts for larger members. When making a joint, a number, even if subjected to a small
stress, should be connected to a gusset by at least two bolts. If a member consists of double
angles, gussets are always placed between them.

Support to the trusses

Sound concrete pads of sufficient thickness and area must be provided to give reliable and level
bearing for the end of the truss and to receive the steel fixing bolts. The bolts are called ragged
bolts or ragged lewis bolts.

Fixing the roof coverings

Purlins are laid across the rafters to support the sheeting or tiles/slates (battens). The purlins can
be from timber members or metal angles or zed sections. The spacing of the purlins will depend
on the roof loading, the type of roof covering used and the spacing of the mild steel roof
trusses. Manufactures will recommend maximum centres appropriate to the roof coverings.
Traditionally a hook bolt was used to fix the sheeting, but this presented problems with water
proofing at the top of the bolts. Today an Oakley clip is fixed and adjusted inside the roof and
ensures a satisfactory water seal.

54
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

100x50 timber purlin

1
80x80x6 rafter L

1
65 x 50 x 6 strut L
1
65 x 50 x 6 ties L

1
65 x 50 x 6main tie L
6mm gusset
shoe

Figure 24: Typical trusses of upto 6m span and upto 3.7 c/c

175x100 purlin

1
80x80x6L.rafter
12mmdia.coach bolt
14
0 150x 150x10L.cleat 150long
rafter 1
65x60x6.L. Tie
80X80X10 150 X140X328Pad stone
L.cleats welded
to bearing plates
0
20

strut

Figure (a)section thru the strut Figure (b)section thru the pad stone

55
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

150x 150x10L.cleat 150long

oakley clip
150

twin angle rafter Zed purlin

14
0

0
20
strut

Figure 26: showing the fixing of the roof covering on the zed purlin
Figure 25: details of
a steel truss connection to the strut and a section thru the pad stone.

56
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Windows and Doors

5.1 Windows
A Window is an opening formed in a wall or roof to admit daylight through some transparent
or translucent material fixed in the opening. The primary function of a window is served by a
sheet of glass fixed in a frame in the widow opening. This is a simple widow and is termed a
dead light window because no part can be opened.
As the window is part of the wall, it should serve the functional requirements of a wall like
exclusion of wind and rain, act as a barrier to excessive transfer of heat and sound and should
be fire resistant in the same way just like the surrounding wall and roof.
The function material of a window, glass, is efficient in admitting day light and excluding wind
and rain but is a poor barrier to the transfer of heat, sound and the spread of fire.
The traditional window is usually designed to ventilate rooms through one or more parts that
open to encourage an exchange of air between inside and outside. It is important to separate
windows from ventilations so that the window may be made more effectively wind and weather
tight and ventilation can be more accurately controlled.
Functional requirements
The primary function of a window is: admission of light. The secondary functions are: a view
and ventilation.
The functional requirements of a window as a component part of a wall or roof are:
 Strength and stiffness.
 Exclusion of wind and rain
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation
 Fire resistance

Strength and stiffness

A window should be strong enough when closed to resist the likely pressures and suctions due
to wind, and when open be strong and stiff enough to resist the effect of gale force winds on
opening lights. A window should be sufficiently strong and stiff against pressures and knocks
due to normal use and appear to be safe, particularly to occupants in high buildings. A window

57
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

should be securely fixed in the wall opening for security, weather tightness and the strength and
stiffness given by fixings.
Exclusion of wind and rain
Air tightness: to conserve heat and avoid cold draught it is good practice to design windows so
that there is little unnecessary leakage of air. Air movement through closed windows may occur
between the window frame and the surrounding wall, through cracks between glass and the
framing, through glazing joints and more particularly through clearance gaps between opening
lights and the window frame. Leakage around window frames, around glass and through
glazing joints can be avoided by care in design, construction and maintenance. The flow of air
through windows is caused by changes in pressure and suction caused by wind and may cause
draughts of in ward flowing cold air and loss of heat by excessive inflow of cold and outflow of
warm air. It is to control this air movement that systems checks rebates and weather stripping
are used in windows.
Exclusion of rain: Penetration of rain through cracks around opening lights, frames or glass
occurs when rain is driven on to vertical windows by wind so that the more the window is
exposed to driving rain, the greater the likely wood of Rain penetration. The performance of
windows in excluding rain is tested in the laboratory by throwing water in droplets, from
horizontally mounted jets, in a band some 50 deep at the head of the test window so that water
runs down the window face.
To minimize the penetration of driven rain through vertical windows the followings should be
done:
 Set the face of the window back from the wall face so that the projecting head and jamb
will to some extent give protection by dispersing rain
 Ensure that external horizontal surfaces below openings are as few and as narrow as
practicable to avoid water being driven into the gaps.
 Ensure that there are no open gaps around opening lights by the use of lapped and
rebated joints and that where there are narrow joints that may act as capillary paths
there may be capillary grooves.
 Restrict air penetration by means of weather stripping on the room side of the window
so that the pressure inside the joint is the same as that outside; a pressure difference
would drive water into the joint

58
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

 Ensure that any water entering the joints be drained to the outside by open drainage
channels that run to the outside.

Weather stripping: In modern window design weather stripping used depends on the opening
movement of the windows, compression strips being used for hinged and pivoted opening
lights and wiping sliding seals for sliding windows. The material used is resilient rubber
compounds in the form of compression strips and seals or nylon pile strip.
Thermal insulation
Unlike the wall around it a window, which is a component part of a wall, will affect internal
thermal comfort in two ways: by its transmittance of heat and through the penetration of the
radiant heat of the sun that causes solar heat gain.
Heat is transferred through a wall or window by conduction, convection and radiation.
Sound insulation
There is a considerable variation in the level and type of noise that different people can tolerate
without discomfort. In order to establish an acceptable noise level it is necessary to assume a
measure of sound level that corresponds to subjective judgment of noise.
The audible frequencies of sound are from about 20Hz to 20000Hz, where Hz represents the
unit hertz where one hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
Noise is the general term used for the subjective judgement of level of sound that is distracting
or uncomfortable and therefore unacceptable. Tolerable sound level depends on the activities of
those inside particular rooms and the general background level of sound within the room.
The transmission of sound through materials depends on their mass, the more dense or heavier
the material the more effective it is in reducing transmission of sound. The reduction of sound
transmission is termed sound insulation. Because of the thin material with which they are
glazed and the necessary clearance gaps around opening lights, windows afford poor insulation
against external noise. Open windows, as well as providing an obstructed path for intrusive
sound, may often serve to reflect external sounds into rooms. Insulation of a glass can be done
by use of thicker glass or doubling the glass. Doubling the glass by sealed double glazing is not
so effective. It is advisable to use double windows with two separate sheets 200 to 300 apart.
Fire resistance
Ordinary glass cracks and breaks within a few minutes when subjected to the heat generated by
fire. To limit the spread of fire, regulations require fire breaks to windows to limit the spread of

59
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

fire to adjacent buildings. Fire breaks are solid incombustible upstands or projections to
windows that serve as a barrier to the spread of fire. Wired glass also limits the spread of fire as
the broken glass will be held in place.
Day light
The prime function of a window is to admit daylight for day time activities in sufficient
quantity for efficient performance. The quantity of light admitted depends in general terms on
the size of the window or windows in relation to the area of the room lit and the depth inside
the room to which useful light will penetrate depends on the area of the window and the height
of the head of the window above floor level. Good sense dictates taking the maximum
advantage of this free source of illumination. The accepted minimum level of day light for
performance of various activities varies from ½ for bedrooms, 1 for living rooms to 6 for
drawing rooms, the figures given being the day light factor which is the percentage of day light
admitted through a window from the hemisphere of unobstructed sky. In a room with windows
on one long side with no external obstructions and a room surface reflectance of 40%, where
the glass area is 1/5th 0r 20% of the floor area, the average day light factor will be 4 and the
minimum half of 4.

Example: Determine the size of a window in a room measuring 4x3 with a daylight factor of 6.
Solution: Floor area…………………………………..12m 2
The average day light factor in side –lit rooms is roughly equal to 1/5th of the percentage
ratio of glass to floor area.
Conversely required glass area = ………………………...6x12x5/100
………………………………. = 3.6 m 2
Window sizes say 2.4x1.5 or two windows of 1.2x1.5
Ventilation
For the comfort and well being of people it is necessary to ventilate rooms by allowing a
natural change of air between inside and outside and outside or to cause a change by
mechanical means. The necessary rate of change will depend on the activities and numbers of
those in the room. The total area of ventilation for any habitable room can be calculated as
1/20th of the floor area. The size of a ventilating opening, by itself, gives no clear indication of
the likely air change as the ventilating effect of an opening depends on air pressure difference

60
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

between inside and outside and the size of opening or openings through which air will be
evacuated to cause air flow.
Materials used for windows
The common materials for making windows are: Wood, steel, Stainless steel, aluminium,
bronze, and plastics
Wood: The traditional material used for making windows is wood, which is easy to work by
hand or machine, can readily be shaped for rebates, drips, grooves and mouldings, has a
favorable strength to weight ratio, and with good thermal properties.
The disadvantages of wood are the considerable moisture movement that occurs across the
grain with moderate moisture changes and liability to rot. The dimensional changes can make
the joints to open and admit water that increases the moisture content that can lead to rot.
Where windows are made of soft wood timber it should regularly be painted besides treatment
with preservatives. This is to avoid rot.

Steel
Steel section windows have been in use for quite a long time and it is gaining popularity over
timber windows. Steel windows often rust, and corrode there fore care must be taken by use of
zinc coating or regular painting. The advantage it has is the slender sections for both frame and
opening lights that are possible due to inherent strength and rigidity of the material. The
disadvantages are high thermal conductivity that makes the window framing act as a cold
bridge to the transfer of heat and the very necessary regular painting required to protect the
steel from rusting.
Aluminum
Aluminum windows are made from aluminum alloy of magnesium and silicon that is extruded
in channel and box sections with flanges and grooves for rebates and weather stripping.
Aluminum windows have adequate strength and stiffness with good resistance to corrosion and
can also be readily welded and brazed.
The advantages of aluminum windows are the variety of sections available for the production
of a wide range of window types, and the freedom from destructive corrosion.
The disadvantage is however the high thermal conductivity of the material which acts as a cold
bridge to heat transfer and aluminum window is relatively very expensive.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Stainless steel: It is made from an alloy of steel and chromium making it corrosion-resistant
and expensive. Because of its cost it is used in windows as a thin surface coating to other
materials such a wood and aluminum for its appearance and freedom from corrosion.
Bronze: Manganese brass is the material commonly used for bronze windows. The material is
rolled or extruded to form window sections. It has advantages of freedom from corrosion, high
strength to weight ratio, and attractive colour and texture of the material.
Plastics: This is the latest material to be used as windows with a particular advantage of being
maintenance free. The disadvantage of plastic is that it is less rigid than the wood or steel and
does not resist heat and fire.

Window types
Fixed light: A fixed light or dead light is a window opening in which one square, pane or sheet
of glass is fixed either directly to the wall structure or more usually to a frame which is in turn
fixed to the wall so that no part of the window will open.
Opening light: An opening light is the whole or part of parts of a window that can be opened
by being hinged or pivoted to the frame or can slide open inside the frame. Windows with
opening lights are classified in accordance with the manner in which the opening lights open
inside the frame as below
 Pivoted
 Hinged
 Sliding and
 Composite action
And as a broad classification as:
 Side hung, Top hung and Bottom hung
 Horizontally pivoted and vertically pivoted
 Vertically siding and horizontally sliding and sliding folding

62
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

side hung top hung bottom hung

horrizontally pivoted vert. pivoted

louvre

horrizontally sliding
vert sliding

Side hung: The traditional casement consists of a square or rectangular window frame of wood
with the opening light or casement hinged at one side of the frame to open in or out. The side
hung opening part of the window is termed the casement and it consist of glass surrounded and
supported by a wooden frame as below with a simple one light casement, opening out.

head

hinge
window frame
frame of casement
or sash glass

sill
post

casement hinged at
side to open out

Side hung casement window

The traditional casement is hinged to open outward. An outward opening casement can more
readily be made to exclude wind and rain than the one opening in as the casement is forced in
to the outward-facing rebate in the frame by wind pressure and the outward facing rebate is
more effective than the inward facing rebate.
Because casement is hinged on one side, its other side tends to sink, due to the weight of the
casement when it is open. If any appreciable sinking occurs the casement will bind in the

63
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

window frame and in time may be impossible to open. The wider the casement the greater its
weight and the more likely it is to sink. It is considered wise to construct casement of widths of
not more than 600. Where a window is wider than 600, you design more than one casement.
A window of two casements can be designed with the casements hinged so that when closed
they meet in the middle of the window. It is usually considered better to construct the window
frame with vertical wood members, called mullions, to which each casement closes to avoid
jamming of casements where they meet in the middle.
Because a casement does not provide close control of ventilation it is common to provide small
opening lights, called vent lights, which are usually hinged at the top to open out

head

head ventlight open

transom
hinge
hinge
frame of casement
or sash glass
mullion
glass glass
sill mullion
sill glass

casement hinged at
side to open out casement hinged at
side to open out
casements close to mullion
casements close to mullion
with ventlights

Casement windows with vent lights are usually designed so that the transom is above the
average eye level of people using the room (2.1m) for obvious reasons. The disadvantage of
casement window is that the casements, ventlights, mullions, and transoms reduce the possible
unobstructed area of glass and therefore day light through a window of any size and the many
clearances gaps around opening casements and ventlights and frame members emphasize the
problem of making the window weather tight.
Wood casement windows
For years wood casement windows have been the traditional windows for small buildings. To
provide adequate strength and stiffness in the frame, casements and ventlights of casement
windows and to accommodate rebates for casements and ventlights and for glazing, timber of
adequate section has to be used and joined. The traditional joint used is the mortice and tenon

64
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

joint in which a protruding tenon, cut on the end of one section fits into a matching mortice on
the other, the joint being made secure with glue and wedges as below:

head

tenon

dead light
hinge

glass
mullion
sill mortice

wedge

casement hinged at
side to open out

casements with a dead light on one side style

and open ventlights

Where mass production of wood windows is expected, combed joints are used. This involves
interlocking tongues cut on the ends of members which are put together, glued and pinned.
A casement window frame consists of a head, two posts (jambs) and a sill joined with mortice
and tenon depending on the number of casements and ventlights.

Wood members
The members of a wood window frame are cut from 100x75 or 75x50 sawn timbers for the
head, posts and mullion and from 150x75 or 100x63 for sill and transom. Similarly the rails and
stiles of casements and ventlights are cut from 50x50 or 50x44 sawn timbers which are planed
(wrought) and whose finished sizes are about 45x45 or 39. The sawn timbers are planed smooth
(wrought) and this reduces their sizes by about 5mm on both sides.
Window frames
The members of the frame are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints. The posts of the
frames are tenoned to the head and sill with the ends of the sill and head projecting some 40mm
or more each side of the frame as horns. These projecting horns can be built into the wall in the
jambs of openings or they may be cut off on sites if the frame is built in flush with the outside

65
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

of the wall. The reason for using a haunced tenon joint between posts and head is so that when
the horn is cut off there will be a complete mortice and tenon left.
Fixing windows
Wood window frames are usually built in to solid walls as the walls are raised. The other
method is to fix the window in position after the wall is built. Wood window frames are
secured in position in solid walls by means of galvanized steel cramps or lugs that are screwed
to the back of the frame and built into horizontal brick or block work as the wall is raised. The
spacing is the cramps should be between 300 and 450. The other approach is to do the finishing
according to the sizes of the frames and use raw bolts to fix them.
Casement: The four members of the casement are two stiles, top rail and bottom rail. The stiles
and top rail are cut from 50x44 timbers and the bottom rail from 75x44 timbers. The stiles and
rails are rebated fro glass and rounded or moulded on their inside edges for appearance sake.
The rails are tenoned to mortices in the stiles and put together in glue, cramped up and wedged
Ventlights: The four members are cut from the same timbers as the stiles of the casement and
are rebated, moulded and joined in the same way as for the casement.
Some standard wood casement sizes.
Heights Widths
900 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2400
1050
1200
1500

The manufactures of standard windows produce a range of standard windows. The advantage
of having standard windows is in the economy of mass production. In line with the move to
dimensionally co-ordinate building components and assemblies the standard range of windows
may fit with such allowances for tolerances and joints as appropriate. The purpose of
dimensional co-ordination is to rationalize the production of building components and
assemblies through the standardization of sizes within a frame work of basic spaces into which
the standard components and assemblies may fit.

66
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Hinges and fasteners

Wood casements and ventlights are hung on standard steel butt hinges or on metal offset
hinges. The offset hinge is designed with the pin offset outside the window so that when the
casement is open there is a gap between the hinged edge of the casement and the frame wide
enough for access for cleaning the outside of glass from within the building.
Steel windows:
Steel casement windows are made either from standard Z-sections or the universal sections.
Steel casements are assembled by welding the joints.
Standard steel casements are made from the hot rolled steel Z-sections which are used both for
the frame, casement and ventlights. The section is cut to length and mitred and welded at the
corners. The assembled and cleaned parts of the window are then rust proofed by the hot dip,
galvanizing process in which the window parts are dipped in a bath of molten zinc.
Hinges and fasteners: Steel casement windows are fitted with steel butt or offset hinges and
lever catches and stay similar to those used for wood windows, the fittings being welded to
frame and casement.
Fixing steel windows
Standard steel windows are usually built in to openings in solid walls and secured with
building-in lugs or ties that are bolted to the back of the frames through a slot that allow
adjustment for building into horizontal brick or block courses.
Window sills
It is good practice to set the outside face of widows back from the outside face of the wall in
which they are set so that the reveals of the opening give some protection against driving rain.
Wind driven rain which will run down the impermeable surface of the window glass to the
bottom of the window should be run out from the window by some form of sill. The function of
an external sill is to conduct the water that runs down from windows, away from the window
and to cover the wall below the window and exclude rain from the window. The material from
which the sills are made should be sufficiently impermeable and durable to perform its function
during the life of the building. External sills are formed either as an integral part of the window
frame, as an attachment to the under side of the window or as a sub-sill, which is in effect a part
of the wall designed to serve as a sill.

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The materials used for the construction of window sills are: natural stone, cast stone, concrete,
slates, tiles and bricks.

weathered window
sill with
a throat below

Section through a window

Glass and Glazing

Glass is made by heating soda, lime and sand to a temperature at which they melt and fuse.
Molten glass is drawn, cast, rolled or run onto a bed of molten tin to form flat glass. The
followings types of glass are in use in buildings:
Float glass, patterned glass, wired glass, toughened glass, clear sheet glass, polished plate glass,
double glazing units. Glass are manufactured in thicknesses of 3 to 19mm
Wind loading
Glass should be sufficiently thick in relation to its area to safely withstand wind pressure and
suction. The likely wind pressure depends on the exposure of the building and three grades of
exposure are defined as sheltered, moderate and severe
Glazing
The operation of fixing glass in windows, doors and openings is termed glazing. Glass must be
accurately cut to size to provide an edge clearance between the edges of the glass and the bed
of the rebate to allow for variations in the sash or frame and of the glass and to facilitate setting
the glass in position. An edge clearance of 2mm for putty glazing and 3 for other methods of

68
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

glazing for glass upto 6 thick and upto 5 for thicker glass must be made. To secure glass in the
glazing rebates with the requisite edge clearance all round, setting locks are placed below the
glass. The setting glass are made of pvc, hammered lead, hard nylon or hard wood from 25 to
150 long and of the same thickness as the edge clearance. The two common methods of glazing
are putty and bead glazing
5.20 DOORS
A door is a solid barrier to a doorway or opening that can be opened for access and closed to
deny access for privacy and security and serves as a thermal, acoustic and fire barrier as part of
an external wall.
A doorway is an opening in a wall or partition for access and a door frame or lining is the
timber or metallic or plastic frame or lining fixed in the doorway or opening to which the door
closes on hinges, pivots or runners

69
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

5.2 DOORS
Functional requirements
The primary function of a door is to provide access.
The secondary functions as a components part of a wall or partition are:
 Strength
 Shape stability
 Privacy
 Security
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation
 Fire resistance
 Exclusion of wind and rain as a part of an external wall.
Means of access
The operating characteristics of a door to serve this function depend on the weight of the door
itself and the hardware such as hinges and locks and fitments such as door closers fixed to the
door and frame and draught stripping which cause operating difficulties.
Door(s) leaf
The traditional domestic door is of one leaf which is hinged on one side to open in one
direction for the convenient entry or exit of people. Double-leaf, double swing, sliding, and
sliding and folding doors are also used for both domestic and other purposes. The word leaf
refers to the opening part of a door.
Doors are made of timber, aluminium, steel and plastics just like the windows

STANDARD DOORS
The standard size of door leaf are weight 2040, width 526, 626, 726, 826 and 926 for internal
doors and height 1994, width 806 and 906 for external doors and thickness 40 or 44. A door
set is a standard combination of door leaf with frame or lining and hinges and furniture packed
as a unit ready for fix.

Wood Doors:
Wood doors may be classified as:-

70
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

(i) Flush doors

(ii) Panelled doors
(iii) Match boarded doors.

top rail

brace
stile

middle rail

panel

bottom rail

panelled door matchboarded door flush door

Flush Doors
The fashion in buildings has been for plain surfaces devoid of decorative mouldings that will
collect dust. Hence the use of flush doors which are surfaced with sheets of hardboard or
plywood fixed either to a cellular skeleton or solid core.

Cellular core flush doors:

These doors are made with cellular, fibreboard or paper core in a light softwood frame with
lockage blocks covered with plywood or hardboard both sides.
Skeleton frame flush doors:
In skeleton core flushed doors, a small section in timbers is constructed as illustrated above.
The main members of this structural core are stiles and rails, with intermediate rails.

71
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

soft wood frame core strips glued together

lock block lock block

ply wood or hardboard ply wood or hardboard

facing glued to frame facing glued to frame
& cellular core & cellular core

Cellular core flush Skeleton frame Solid core Flush

door flush door door

Solid core flush doors:

Plywood and hardboard facings bonded to cellular or skeleton flush doors do not always remain
flat and waves on their surface may be apparent particularly if the door is painted with gloss
paint. A flush door with a solid core of timber, clipboard, flax board or compressed fibreboard
can be used for public buildings and other buildings with high levels of use externally and as
fire door. It has better thermal and acoustic properties than cellular core or skeleton core flush
doors.

Fire doors:
The term fire is used as a general description of all doors that serve to control the spread of fire
or the smoke and gases resulting from the fires in buildings. The term fire resisting is used
more specifically to describe a door, together with its frame, that has resistance to collapse,
flame penetration and excessive temperature rise for a stated period of time during fires.
Fire check door:
This most accurately describes the function of a fire door in checking the spread of fire for a
stated period of time.
Smoke control doors:
This accurately describes the purpose of fitting a door solely to check the spread of smoke:

Function
Most fires in buildings from small sources which develop quantities of smoke and other
combustion products in the early stage of the fire. Pressure differences may force smoke

72
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

through gaps around the door. As the fire develops and the temperatures rises on the effect of
the heat of the fire without collapsing and be capable of serving as a barrier to the spread of
excessive quantities of heat and hot gases

Construction
A range of wood doors has been tested to give fire resistance from 30 to 60 minutes. These
include skeleton-core flush with a plasterboard core and solid-core flush door with solid timber,
compressed, straw, chipboard, flax board or compressed fibre board strips. The resistance of a
door set to the spread of smoke and fire depends on the door frame and the door and its fittings.
Use of Intumescent Strip:
This is a material that swells when heated by foaming and expanding. The material is used
with aluminium or PVC cover strips fixed in rebates to the edges of the door or frames so that
in fires the Intumescent material expands and seals the gaps between the door and frame as a
barrier to the spread of smoke and fire. The seals incorporate a neoprene draught strip that
serves as a smoke seal in the early stages of a fire and Intumescent material acts as a seal
against the spread of fire in the later stages.
Hinges, locks and door closers:
For a door to be effective as a barrier to smoke and frame, it must be held securely in position
on its hinges and firmly on the closed position by the latch and be self closing for the period of
minutes specified for stability and integrity. The purpose three steel hinges are generally
recommended. The latch must be strong and engage the latch plate at least 10 to maintain the
door in the closed position.

Panelled Doors
Panelled doors are framed with stiles and rails around a panel or panels of wood or plywood.
The stiles and rails are cut from timbers of the same thickness and some of the more usual sizes
of timber used are; stiles and top rails 10038 or 10050; middle rail 17538 or 17550,
bottom rail 20038 or 20050. Because the door is hinged on one side to open, it tends to sink
on the lock stile. The stiles and rails have to be joined to resist the tendency of the door to sink
and the two types of joint used are a mortice and tenon joint or a dovetail joint.
Mortice and tenon joint:

73
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

This is the strongest type of joint used to frame members at right angles in joinery work. The
panels are usually jilted into stiles, rails and cramped after gluing and wedging around the
panels. For economy and mass production dowel joints should always be used.

Panels:
Timber panels, more than 250 wide are made up from boards 150 wide that are tongued
together. The term tongued describes the operation of jointing boards by cutting grooves in
their edges into which a thin tongue or feather of wood is cramped and glued.
Plywood:
This is made from three, five, seven or nine piles or thin layers of wood firmly glued together,
so that the long grain of one ply is at right angles to the grain of the plies to which it is boarded.
The most pronounced shrinkage in wood occurs at right angles to the long grain of the wood
and any shrinkage of the centre ply is resisted by the outer plies, hence the odd number of plies
used. Plywood does not shrink appreciably and because of the opposed long grains, it does not
warp or twist. The three plywood 5 or 6.5 mm thick is generally used for door panels.
Fixing panels:
This is done by fixing panel in the grooves cut in the edges of the stiles and rails. If any
shrinkage of the members of the door occurs, gaps will not appear around the panels. A panel
set in grooves to stiles and rails with square edges may leave an unfinished look which can be
modified by cutting mouldings on the edges of the members. An inferior method of fixing
panels is to plat nail timber beads each side of the panel.
Double swing doors
Doors are hunged to swing both ways to provide ready access to and from parts of buildings
used in common by the occupants and users at points where it is convenient to provide an
opening barrier, for example from halls to corridors, to provide some separation of the public
and the more private parts of the building. These doors, which are liable to heavy use, are
usually constructed as panelled doors with a glazed panel at eye level to prevent accidents due
to simultaneous use for each side. The door leaf is hung either on double action hinges or
pivoted on a double-action floor spring and top pivot
Sliding and sliding folding doors

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Sliding doors are designed for intermittent use to provide either a clear opening or a barrier
between adjacent rooms or spaces to accommodate change use or function, and in narrow
spaces to avoid the obstruction caused by hinged leaf. They are also designed for intermittent
use to provide a larger opening than is practical with sliding doors, and to divide large spaces
into smaller by closing back to one by opening.
Matchboarded doors
Matchboarded doors are made with a facing of tongued, grooved and V-jointed boards fixe3d
vertically to either ledges and braces or a frame. These doors are used for cellars, sheds and
stores where the appearance of the door is not important.
Ledged Matchboarded door. Matchboarding is nailed to horizontal ledges directly. The direct
nailing does not strongly frame the door which is liable to sinking and losing shape.
Ledged and braced Matchboarded: This type of door is strengthened against sinking with
braces between the rails and is fixed at an angle to resist sinking on the lock edge. The braces
are nailed to the boarding
Framed and braced Matchboarded door: the match boarding is fixed to a frame of stiles and
rails that are framed with mortice and tenon joints with braces to strengthen the door against
sinkin

matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint

both sides matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint
both sides
150
ledge 100x32 ledge 150x25

matchboarding
nailed to ledges sitle 100x50
ledge 150x25

brace 100x25

ledge 150x32 ledge 150x25

ledge 150x32

Ledged martchboarded door Ledged & braced martchboarded door Framed, braced & martchboarded door

Hardware for doors

Hardware is the general term for the hinges, locks latches and handles for a door. Ironmongery
was a term used when most of these were made of steel or iron.
Examples of hinges are; pressed steel butt hinges, cast iron butt hinges, brass butt hinges, steel
skew butt hinges, hook and band hinges. Read about them

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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Latches and locks

The word latch is used to describe any wood or metal device which is attached to a door or
window to keep it closed and which can be opened by the movement of the latch operated by a
handle, lever or bar, a lock is any device of wood or metal attached to a door which can be used
to keep it closed by application of a loose key. Examples of locks are mortice locks, rim lock
and mortice dead lock.
Door frames and linings
A door frame is a surround in a door way or opening, to which the door is hung and to which it
closes, which sufficient strength in itself to support the weight of the door. A door lining is a
surround inside a door way or opening , as wide as the reveal of the opening, to which the door
is hung and closes, which is not in itself strong enough to support the weight of the door
without support from the surrounding wall or partition. Door frames and linings maybe made of
wood, metal or plastic.
Wood door frames
A door frame consists of three or four members which are either rebated 13mm deep for the
door or a wood stop 13mm is planted to the frame. A frame consists of two posts and a head
member and may also have the fourth member, a threshold or sill to assist in weather exclusion.
head 100 x 75

Ends of head project 100 as horns for

building in the wall
100

posts of frame 100 x 75 rebate

for door
50
13

40/44

section through the post

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Dowels
Door frames that do not have a threshold or sill are often secured to the floor by a mild steel
dowel, 12mm diametre and 50 long that is driven into the foot of the posts and set the concrete
floor.
Fixing door frames
Door frames are usually built in, which describes the operation of building walls or partitions
around the frame. The frame is secured onto the walls with L-shaped galvanized steel building-
in lugs which are screwed to the back of the frames. Frames are also fixed in by screwing in
through to wood plugs fitted in the walls during finishing

Threshold or sill
A wood sill to an external door is usually of some wood, such as oak, and the sill is joined to
the posts of the frame with haunced mortice and tenon joints. The sill is usually wider than the
frame and is rebated for the door 13 deep for an outward opening door and grooved for water
bar for an inward opening door and weathered and throated.
Standard wood door frames and door sets
There are no generally available standard wood door frames and linings for standard doors.
Manufacturers offer standard frames for standard doors of sections from ex. 104x64 to ex
89x64, rebated for doors with co-ordinating dimensions of frame, 900, 1000, 1200, 1500, 1800,
2100 wide and 2100 high.
Metal door frames
These are manufactured from mild steel strip pressed into one of the three standard profiles.
The same profile is used for head and jambs of the frame. The three pressed steel members are
welded together at angles. Two loose pin butt hinges are welded to one jamb of the frame and
an adjustable lock strike plate to the other. Two rubber buffers are fitted into the rebate of the
jambs to which the door closes to cushion the impact sound of the door closing. Metal door
frames are built in and secured with adjustable metal building in lugs. The frames may be used
externally or internally.

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