Linear Motion

Introduction
The study of motion is divided into two areas namely kinematics and dynamics.
Kinematics deals with the motion aspect only while dynamics deals with the motion and the
forces associated with it.

There are three common types of motion:

- Linear or translational motion.
- Circular or rotational motion.
- Oscillatory or vibrational motion.
In this topic, we concentrate on linear motion.
Note that all motion is relative i.e the state of a body; at rest or in motion, is ONLY true with
respect to the observer’s position.

Terms Associated with Linear Motion

Distance is the length of the path covered by a body. It only gives the magnitude but no
direction i.e it is a scalar quantity.
Displacement is the distance through which a body travels in a specified direction. It is a vector
quantity. Both distance and displacement are measured in metres.
Speed is the distance covered per unit time.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Velocity = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
It is a vector quantity.
When the rate of change of displacement is non-uniform, we talk about average velocity;
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Average velocity= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Both speed and velocity are expressed in metres per second (m/s).

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢
Thus, Acceleration 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Acceleration is measured in metre per square second (m/s2 ).
If the velocity of a body decreases with time, its acceleration becomes negative.
A negative acceleration is referred to as deceleration or retardation
Example 1.1
1. A body covers a distance of 2m in 4 seconds, rests for 2 seconds and finally covers a
distance of 90m in 6 seconds. Calculate its average speed.
Solution
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 90𝑚 +2
Average speed = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 4 + 2+ 6
92/12 = 7.67 ms-1

2. A body moves 30m due east in 2 seconds, then 40m due north in 4 seconds. Determine its:
a. Average speed.
Solution
Average speed = (30 + 40)/(2 +4) = 70/6 = 11.67 ms-1

b. Average velocity

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Average velocity = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Displacement = 900 + 1600 = 50 m

Average velocity = 50/6 = 8.33ms-1

Now try these:

3. A body is made to change its velocity from 20m/s to 36 m/s in 0.1s. What is the acceleration
produced?
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
36 - 20 = 16m/s
16/0.1 = 160ms-2✔

4. A particle moving with a velocity of 200m/s is brought to rest in 0.02s. What is the
acceleration of the particle?
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 0 − 200
Acceleration = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 0.02
= -200/0.2
-2
= -1000ms ✔
Motion Graphs.
There are two categories; displacement-time graphs and velocity time graphs.
Displacement-time Graphs
The slope of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity of the body.
The various displacement-time graphs are as illustrated below:
Graph A: the body is at rest i.e there is no change in
displacement as time changes. The slope of the graph and
hence the velocity is zero.
Graph B: the body moves with a uniform or constant
velocity.
Graph C: the graph becomes steeper with time. The
steeper the slope, the higher the velocity. Thus velocity of
the body increases with time. The body is therefore
accelerating.
Graph D: the graph becomes less and less steep with time
i.e the body has a higher velocity at the beginning and
decreases with time. Therefore, the body is said to be decelerating.

Velocity-time Graphs
The slope of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of the body.
Note that the area under a velocity-time graph gives the distance covered by the body.
The diagram below shows the possible velocity-time graphs

Graph A: the velocity remains constant/uniform as time

increases. The slope of the graph and hence the acceleration
of the body is zero.
Graph B: the velocity changes uniformly with time. The body
moves with a uniform/constant acceleration.
Graph C: the acceleration is lower where the graph is gentle
and higher where the graph is steeper. Hence the
acceleration of the body increases with time.
Graph D: in this case, the graph is steeper at the beginning
and becomes gentle with time. Hence the acceleration of the
body decreases with time.
Determination of Velocity and Acceleration
Two methods are applicable here:
Method 1: Using appropriate instruments e.g a tape measure and a stopwatch to measure the
displacement of a body and the duration then applying the formula;
Velocity = total displacement/time taken.
Method 2: Using a ticker-timer.
It is used to measure velocity of a body specifically over short distances.
It consists of an electronic vibrator which makes dots on a moving paper tape attached to
the object whose velocity is being measured.
The dots are made at a certain set frequency. For instance, a ticker-timer whose frequency
50Hz makes dots at intervals of 0.02s.
The time interval between successive dots is referred to as a tick .
The spacing between the dots depends on the manner in which the body is moving i.e moving
at constant velocity or with increasing velocity or decreasing velocity.
Generally, the dots are close together when the velocity is low and wide apart when the
velocity is high. There are three possible patterns that can be obtained by a ticker-timer as
illustrated below:
a. Moving at constant velocity.
The dots are equally or evenly spaced.

b. Moving with increasing velocity (accelerating).

The spacing between the dots is initially small but increases away.

c. Moving with decreasing velocity (decelerating).

The spacing between the dots is initially large but decreases away
Example 1.2
1. A paper tape was attached to a moving trolley and allowed to run through a ticker-timer. The
figure below shows a section of the tape

If the frequency of the ticker-timer is 20Hz, determine:

a. The velocity between AB and CD.
Solution
1 tick = 1/20 s = 0.05
VAB = 15 cm/0.05 = 300 cms-1
VCD = 30cm/0.05 = 600 cms-1

b. The acceleration of the trolley.

Solution
Solution
Note that the velocities calculated in (a) above are average velocities and as such are
taken to be the velocities at the midpoints of AB and CD respectively. Hence, the time
taken for the change in velocity is the time between the midpoints of AB and CD.
Acceleration = VCD - VAB/t = (600 - 300)/0.1 = 3000 cms-2

Now try this one:

2. The figure below represents part of a tape pulled through a ticker-timer by a trolley moving
down an inclined plane. If the frequency of the ticker-timer is 50Hz, calculate the acceleration of
the trolley.

The initial velocity the final velocity

1 tick = 1/50 s = 0.02 5.5/0.02 = 275cms-1✔
0.5/0.02 = 25 cms-1✔
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
275 − 25
0.02
= 250/0.02= 12500cms-2
Questions
1. The diagram below shows part of the motion of a tennis ball, which is projected vertically
upwards from the ground and allowed to bounce on the ground. Use this information to answer
questions that follow

a. Describe the motion of the ball relating it to different positions of the ball along the following
AB, BC, CDE.
Point A => starting point
B ⇒ the point 2 on the horizontal axis
C ⇒ the lowest point downwards
D ⇒ the next point pont on the time axis
E ⇒ the next highest point vertically

In point AB there is increase in time as the ball moves to the ground as the displacement
decreases
In point BC
b. From the graph, calculate the acceleration due to gravity.

c. How high does the ball rise initially?

d. Explain why E is not at the same level as A.

2. Sketch a velocity- time graph showing the motion of a ball vertically upwards with an initial
velocity of u.

3. Calculate the acceleration shown by the tickers-tape that was made using a ticker timer
vibrating at 50Hz
4. What is the difference between speed and velocity?speed is the time rate at which an object
is moving along a path while velocity is the rate and direction of the object’s movement

5. An object is projected vertically upwards at a speed of 15m/s. How long will it take to return to
the same level of projection?

6. A block slides off a horizontal table 4 metres high with a velocity of 12-m/s. Find:
a. The horizontal distance from the table at which the block hits the floor.

b. The horizontal and vertical components of the velocity when it reaches the floor.

Equations of Linear Motion

There are three equations governing linear motion. Consider a body moving in a straight line
from an initial velocity u to a final velocity v(u, v≠0) within a time t as represented on the graph
below:
The slope of the graph represents the acceleration of
𝑣−𝑢
the body; Acceleration, a= 𝑡
Therefore, v=u+at…………………………………. (i).
This is the first equation of linear motion.
The area under the graph (area of a trapezium) gives
the displacement of the body.
Hence, displacement s= ½(sum of // sides) ×
perpendicular height between them.
s= ½(u+v)t. But v=u+at,
Therefore, s=½(u+(u+at)t s=½(2u+at)t Hence,
s=ut+½at2 ……………. (ii).
This is the second equation of linear motion

𝑣−𝑢
Also, rearranging equation (i), v=u+at we have t= 𝑎
substituting this in equation (ii), we obtain;

Hence, v2 =u2 + 2as ……………………………….. (iii).

This is the third equation of linear motion.
The three equations hold for any body moving with uniform acceleration.
Note that for a body which is retarding, the acceleration a is given a negative sign.
Example 1.3
1. A particle travelling in a straight line at 2m/s is uniformly accelerated at 5m/s 2 for 8 seconds.
Calculate the displacement of the particle.
Solution
s=ut + ½at2 = (2 × 8)+(½ × 5 × 82 )
=176m.
2. An object accelerates uniformly at 3ms -2. It attains a velocity of 4m/s in 5 seconds.
a. What was its initial velocity?
Solution
V = u + at; ⇒ u = v -at ; ⇒ u = 4 - 3x5 = 4-15 = -11ms-`

b. How far does it travel during this period?

s=ut + ½at2 ⇒ s = -11x5 + ½ x 3 x 52 = -55 + 37.5 = -17.5 m

3. A car travelling at 20m/s decelerates uniformly at 4m/s 2. In what time will it come to rest?
Solution
u = 20ms-1 a = -4ms-2 t = ? v = 0ms-1
𝑣−𝑢
t= 𝑎
0 − 20 −20
t= −4
= −4
= 5s

Motions Under the Influence of Gravity

These include free fall, vertical projection and horizontal projection.
The three equations of linear motion hold for motions under the influence of gravity.

Free fall
A body falling freely in a vacuum starts from an initial velocity zero and accelerates at
approximately 9.8ms-2 towards the centre of the earth.
This is called the acceleration due to gravity g .
In this case, the air resistance is assumed to be negligible.
Note that in a vacuum, a feather and a stone released from the same height will take the
same amount of time to reach the surface of the earth.
Therefore, in the three equations of linear motion u=0m/s, s=h and a=g. thus the three
equations become:
v=gt, (from v=u+gt)

h=½gt2 , (from s=ut+½gt2 )

v2 =2gh, (from v2 =u2 +2gs)

Example 1.4
1. A hammer falls from the top of a building 5m high.
a. How long does it take to reach the ground? Take g=10ms-2.
Solution
h = ½ gt2
5 = ½ x 10 x t2
5 = 5t2
t2 = 1
t = 1 sec

b. With what velocity does it strike the ground?

v =gt
v = 10 x 1
v = 10m/s

Vertical Projection
When a body is projected vertically upwards, it decelerates uniformly due to gravity until its
velocity reduces to zero at maximum height.
After attaining the maximum height, the body then falls back with an increasing velocity.
The body must be given an initial velocity and attains a final velocity of zero at its maximum
height

height.
Note that the sign of ‘g’ is negative for a vertical projection. This is because the body moves
against gravity.
Hence the three equations of linear motion become:
v=u − gt, (from v = u + at)
h=ut − ½gt2 , (from s = ut +½at2 )
v2 =u2−2gh, (from v2 =u2 − 2as)
But at maximum height h max , v=0.
Thus, the three equations reduce to:
i. gt=u,
ii. h=ut − ½gt2
iii. u2 =2gh.
From equation (i), the time taken to attain the maximum height is given by;
𝑣−𝑢
t=u/g. (t = 𝑎
)
Similarly, the initial velocity u and the maximum height attained by the body h max can be
expressed as:
Practise Questions
1. a. A body accelerates uniformly from initial velocity, U to the final velocity V, in time t, the
distance travelled during this time interval is S. If the acceleration is shown by the letter
a, show that;
i. v = u + at
ii. s = ut + ½at2
iii. v2 = u2 + 2as
b. A body initially moving at 50m/s decelerates uniformly at 2m/s until it come to rest.
What distance does it cover from the time it started to decelerate?

2. An object dropped from a height h attains a velocity of 6m/s just before hitting the
ground, find the value of h.

3. a. A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the edge of a platform eventually the stone
lands without bouncing on the ground below the platform. Taking the upward velocity to
be positive, sketch the velocity-time graph of the motion of the stone.

b A car can be brought to rest from a speed of 200m/s in a time of 2s.

i. Calculate the average deceleration

ii. If the driver reaction time is 0.2s, Determine the shortest stopping distance.

4. The figure shows a speed-time graph for part of the journey of a motorcar.

Determine the distance the car travels in the first 40 seconds