2nd Semester

(12 ABM, HUMSS and GAS)

Prepared by:
Sherine L. Chavaria Jonathan Jose O. Dautong
Subject Teacher

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 Table of Contents
Quarter 1 Page Number

Module 1 - Formation of Elements Found in the Universe 1–7

Module 2 - The Idea of the Atom 8 - 15

Module 3 - Chemical Structures, Properties and Uses of Matter 16 - 26

Quarter 2

Module 4 - Chemical Changes 27 - 35

Module 5 - Different Sources of Energy and Consumer Products 36 - 43

Module 6 - Earth is not the Center of Universe After All 44 - 48

 References 49

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 Learning Module 1 - Formation of Elements Found in the
Universe
Introduction
Have you ever wondered how the universe was created? You are not different at all
from the people of the ancient world who speculated about the beginning of the universe.
They were the philosophers and theologians who had no experimental evidence that would
provide a basis for a scientific theory. In this chapter, you will learn about the beginning of
the universe.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements based on the big
bang theory
2. give evidence for and describe the formation of the heavier elements during star
formation and evolution
3. write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the
formation of new elements

Pre – Activity
Objective: To make a model of an expanding universe
Procedure:
1. Prepare the following materials.
1 balloon (not red or black)
2 marker pens (1 red, 1 black)
1 tape measure
2. Make a data table with 5 columns and 10 rows like the one shown below.
Data and Observations:

Dots Distance from the dot Distance from the Distance from the Factor by which
at the center dot at the center dot at the center distances change
(I) (II) (II - I) (II ÷ I)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

3. Ask your siblings to blow the balloon with air until it is stretched tight and hold it closed.
4. Using a tape measure, measure its diameter.

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5. Draw red dots on the surface of the balloon about two centimeters apart (see the
illustration below).
6. Locate a central dot and encircle it with a black marker.
7. Choose 10 dots – some far and some near the central dot. Label these dots A to I.
8. Measure the distances of dots A and I from the central dot. Record these distances in
column 2 on your data table.
9. Blow the balloon again and this time, measure the distance of dots A and I from the
central dot. Record the distances in column 3 of the data table.
10. Subtract the data in column 2 from the corresponding data in column 3. Record the
resulting data in column 4.
11. divide the data in column 3 by corresponding data in column 2. Record your answers in
column 5.
Questions and Problems
1. What does blowing the balloon represent?

2. Compare the data in column 2 with the data in column 4. Explain your answer.

3. Compare the set of data in column 2 with the set of data in column 5. Explain your answer.

4. What conclusion can be drawn about the universe based on the activity?

The expanding balloon in the activity is a model of an expanding universe. The dots
represent the galaxies. In this model of the universe, the galaxies are moving away from one
another. Astronomers and thinkers in the ancient world thought that all the matter in the
galaxies were once packed together in a very dense mass. They thought that this mass
exploded 15 billion years ago in a big bang where a center cannot be determined since it
occurred everywhere in space at the same time. They were just like the dots in the balloon
that you blew up. The dots moved away little by little form one another similar to the
galaxies in an expanding universe.

Lesson 1.1 – The Big Bang Theory

Questions regarding the beginning of the universe started to have answers when, in
the early 20th century, scientists and astronomers were puzzled by the fuzzy patches in the
telescope photographs of a distant universe. They started to find an explanation to their
puzzlement. Most of them thought that these were clouds scattered among visible stars.
Some even proposed that these were “nebulae”. They thought that these nebulae were
gravitationally bound containing billions of stars and their distances from one another were
unimaginable.

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 These issues were finally resolved when in 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble proved,
using the 2.5 – m telescope at California’s Mt. Wilson Observatory, that the nebulae were
distant galaxies containing 109 to 1013 stars. This discovery led Hubble to catalogue the
distances of galaxies from one another and observe their spectra. He deduced that galaxies
are continuously moving away from one another. At the time, Hubble concluded that the
universe is expanding and that the distance between galaxies is continuously growing all the
time.
Scientists and astronomers continued to find answers as to how the universe came
into being. In 1948, the Russian – American physicist George Gamow, together with his
student Ralph Alpher, and the nuclear scientist Hans Bethe, put forward a paper
hypothesizing that the universe burst into being in a gigantic explosion, the universe
occupied a very tiny volume and was unimaginably hot. This burning fireball of radiation
mixed with minute particles of matter gradually cooled which allowed for the formation of
atoms. These atoms clumped together due to the influence of gravity to form billions of
galaxies. One of them is our Milky Way galaxy.
The idea of Gamow was so interesting and exciting it led other scientist to test it
experimentally. The following pieces of evidence were found to support Gamow’s
hypothesis:
1. Measurements showed that the universe is expanding and that galaxies are moving
away from one another at high speeds. This fact is consistent with the explosion that
gave birth to the universe. If the explosion were to be run backward like a movie, the
universe could be deduced to have been born about 13 billion years ago.
2. A cosmic background radiation was detected. A blistering hot universe, over
billions of years, has cooled down to a very low 3K (or -270⃘⃘0C). Most energy, in this
temperature, is in the microwave region. The big bang could have occurred
simultaneously in the entire tiny volume of the beginning universe, the radiation it
generated must have filled the entire universe. The radiation observed was the same
in all directions and found by astronomers to be independent of direction.
3. The discovery of the primordial helium is consistent with the belief of scientists
that the lightest elements, helium, and hydrogen, were the first elements to be
formed in the early stages of the evolution of the universe. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
and other heavier elements were thought to have been formed later through nuclear
reactions that involved helium and hydrogen in the center of the stars. In the early
moments of the universe, a diffuse gas of hydrogen and helium was spread
throughout before many of the galaxies were formed.
In 1995, astronomers analyzed the ultraviolet light coming from a quasar and found
that helium atoms absorbed this light in its path approaching Earth. Since this particular
quasar is more than 10 billion light years away from Earth, the light reaching Earth shows
events that happened 10 billion years ago. A more abundant hydrogen atom was not
detected because it has only one electron which can be stripped off easily by the light from a
quasar through a process known as ionization. An ionized hydrogen atom cannot absorb any
of the light coming from a quasar. On the other hand, since helium atom has two electrons,
radiation may strip off one electron from a helium atom but not always both. Ionized helium
atom with one electron can still absorb light which is the reason why they can be detected.
There are several theories about the origin of the universe. The widely accepted is
the big bang theory, which was first proposed in 1920 by Belgian astronomer Georges

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Lemaitre (1894 – 1966) as the “primeval atom” theory. In 1922, Russian mathematician
Aleksandr Friedmann formulated the governing equation of the theory that paved the way
for its recognition as the “big bang” in 1940.
According to the big bang theory, about 13.7 billion years ago, all matter and energy
in the universe existed in a compact point called singularity. Then, an imbalance in the
compact point caused it to expand. This event is referred to as the big bang, which hurled
matter and energy in all directions.
Table 1
The Big Bang Timeline
Time Era Temperature Characteristics of the Universe
 Infinitely small, infinitely dense
primeval fireball.
0 to 10-43 s Big Bang Infinite  Super unified force (gravity, strong
force, electromagnetic force, and
weak force were unified)
 Earliest known time that can be
described by modern physics.
10-43 s Planck time 1032 K  Gravity separated from super
unified force. Strong,
electromagnetic, and weak forces
were referred to as unified force
(grand unified theory, GUT).
 Strong force separated. Unified
force consisted of electromagnetic
10-35 s End of GUT 1027 K and weak forces.
 Quarks and leptons formed, along
with their antiparticles.
10-35 s to 10-33 Inflation 10 K
27
 The size of the universe drastically
s increased by a factor of 1030 to 1040.
 Electromagnetic and weak nuclear
forces separated; none of the
10-12 s End of unified 10 K
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unified forces existed.
forces  Protons and neutrons started
forming from quarks.

10-7 s Heavy particle 1014 K  Proton and neutron production in

full swing.
10-4 s Light particle 1012 K  Formation of electrons and
positrons.
100 s Nucleosynthesi 109 – 107 K  Formation of helium, deuterium,
(a few s and a few other elements.
minutes)
380 000 Recombination 3000 K  Matter and radiation separated.
years  End of radiation domination and
the start of matter domination in
the universe.
500 million Galaxy 10 K  Galaxies and other large structures
years formation formed in the universe.

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Evidence of the Big Bang Theory
What are the evidence of the big bang theory? As with any other theory, the big bang
theory is supported by evidence, which include the following:

 Redshift. American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889 – 1953) proved that, as observed
from Earth, the light emitted by faraway galaxies shifted down toward the red end of
the spectrum. This essentially means that the galaxies are moving away from Earth.
This finding supported the earlier discovery of American astronomer Vesto Slipher
(1875 – 1969) on the Doppler shift in the spectra of galaxies. Hubble explained that
the shift was caused by the expansion and movement of the galaxies away from
Earth.
 Presence of microwave radiation in the entire universe. Also known as the cosmic
background radiation (CMB), this radiation is the thermal leftover of the transition
phase that occurred when the hot early universe cooled enough for atoms to
combine. The CMB was discovered by Robert Wilson (1936 -) and Arno Penzias (1933
– 1978) and for which they earned a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978. The two scientists
a measurable degree of inconsistencies on the CMB in the different regions in the
universe – an evidence that contradicted the steady state theory, which stated that
everything in the universe is constant and uniform.
 Abundances 0f the light elements in the universe. The actual abundances of hydrogen
and helium deduced from the spectra of the oldest stars and gas clouds matched
with what were expected from the big bang reactions. These findings agree with the
hypothesis of the big bang theory.

Formation of Heavier Elements in the Evolution of the Universe

Just a few seconds after the big explosion or the big bang, an unimaginably high-
density matter and radiant energy filled the entire universe. As the universe expanded,
matter and radiation cooled. Radiation cooled. Radiation filled the entire universe, and it
continues to fill the entire universe in its expansion.
In this lesson, you will learn about how light and heavier elements in the universe
were formed.

How were the elements in the universe formed?

A few seconds after the big bang, protons, neutrons, and electrons consisted of the
universe. At present, the universe consists of mostly hydrogen and helium. The elements of
the present universe were formed in a process known as nucleosynthesis.
The first step in the big bang nucleosynthesis involved the building up of complex
atoms through the formation of deuterium nuclei or deuterons. Deuterons are a
combination of a proton and a neutron. This combination can be represented by the
following equation:
n+ p d+γ
deuteron has a binding energy of 2.2 MeV. This is the amount of energy of a gamma
ray given off during its formation. To break up a deuteron nucleus apart into its components
– proton and neutron; the reverse reaction process must occur. This is represented by the
following equation:
d+γn+p

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 The two reactions will take place at the same rate if the universe were filled with
energetic photons, which means that the deuterium will dissociate as quickly as it is formed.
But if the universe were adequately old enough, the energy of the photons will not be
sufficient to accomplish the dissociation reaction and the deuterium will start to build up.
At this stage, however, the universe was 6 s old and its mean energy of radiation was
about 0.5 MeV. This is less than the amount of energy needed to keep deuterium from
forming. The radiation, however, has a Planck distribution of energies and there may be 10 9
photons for every proton and neutron, which means that there will always be photons with
energy above 2.2 MeV that can break apart deuterium nuclei. Given that the average number
of energetic photons is less than that of the number of protons and neutr0ns, deuterium will
start to build up.
At this point in the evolution of the universe, the ratio of neutron to proton was
about 0.2 or 109 photons per nucleon, so the ratio of the neutron and photon was about 0.2
x 10-9. At this state, there would be less than one energetic photon per neutron, and
deuterium formation could proceed.
The fraction of photons of energy greater than 2.2 MeV will be less than 0.2 x 10 -9
when the temperature has fallen to 9 x 10 8 K which occurs about 250 s at a time when the
formation of deuterium nuclei begins. Since deuterons are less abundant than protons and
neutrons, deuterons will readily react with them according to the following reactions
equations:
d + n  3H + γ and d + p  3He + γ
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H and 3He will also react with p and n as in the following equations:
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H + p  4He + γ and 3He + n  4He + γ
In all four reactions, the binding energy of the final particles is greater than that of
the deuteron. It can be therefore be assumed that all the deuterons were eventually
converted to 4He.
The last step in the formation of matter in the big bang, was the production of
neutral atoms of H and He. This happened when proton and 4He nuclei combined with
electrons. With the formation of neutral atoms, there were essentially no free charged
particles left in the universe. At this point, radiation traveled long distances without
interacting with matter.

Formation of Heavier Elements after the Big Bang

After the decoupling of matter and radiation, matter was subject only to gravitational
force. Matter consists of hydrogen and helium.
The distribution of matter during the decoupling time was a little bit non – uniform.
Higher density regions began to condense into clouds of ever-increasing density, contracted
under their own gravity, rose in temperature until they became hot enough to initiate fusion
reactions leading to the formation of first generation stars.
In this simple helium fusion reaction, 4He + 4He  8Be
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Be is unstable and breaks apart as rapidly as it forms. A third 4He is required to
participate in the reaction. The following equation shows the net reaction.
He + 4He + 4He  12C + γ
4

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 After the formation of 12C, additional reactions follow.
C + 4He  16O + γ
12

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O + 4He  20Ne + γ
20
Ne + 4He  24Mg + γ and so on.
When the fuel is exhausted, contraction sets in again increasing the temperature so
that other reactions can occur, such as carbon burning.
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C + 12C  24Mg + γ
The elements beyond A = 56 cannot be produced through fusion. These are produced
through a process called the neutron – capture process.
Neutrons are captured by the nucleus in the interior of a star until the amount of
neutron excess in sufficient to convert extra neutron to a proton in a beta decay:
np+e+γ
the increases the number of protons by one. Sample of the processes are shown
below:
56
Fe + n  57Fe + γ
57
Fe + n  58Fe + γ
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Fe + n  59Fe + γ
Fe and 57Fe are stable, but 59Fe is not – it is radioactive. It undergoes beta decay,
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with a half- life of 45 days, to 59Co. 59Co can capture a neutron to become 60Co, which is
radioactive and beta decays to 60Ni. It continues this way, and all the heavier elements were
formed through the neutron capture which is a beta decay process.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
 The universe started 15 billion years ago in an explosion called the big bang.
 After the big bang the universe started to expand and continues to expand and
continues to expand since then.
 In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble proved that the “nebulae” were distant galaxies
containing 109 to 1013 stars.
 Hubble deduced that galaxies have been moving away from one another since the
big bang. This shows that the universe is expanding.
 There are pieces of evidence that support the big bang theory of Gamow.
o Measurements showed that the universe is expanding and that galaxies are
moving away from one another.
o A cosmic background radiation was detected.
o Primordial helium was detected.
 Seconds after the big bang, light elements formed. Protons, neutrons, and electrons
consisted of the universe. At present, the universe consists mostly of hydrogen and
helium.
 Heavier elements were formed in a process called nucleosynthesis.

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 Learning Module 2 - The Idea of the Atom
Introduction
For more than 2000 years, scientists and philosophers tried to find answers to the
question regarding the composition of matter. Using a variety of experiments, observations,
and indirect evidence, after 2400 years, they were able to find a solution to the problem of
what composed matter.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe the circumstances that led to the development of the model of an atom;
2. explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in
the laboratory;
3. cite the contribution of John Dalton toward the understanding of the concept of
the chemical elements;
4. develop keenness in observing everything around us and express gratitude for
both small and big blessings.

Pre – activity – Finding Indirect Evidence in Solving a Problem

To have a firsthand experience of looking for indirect evidence in finding an answer
to a problem, kindly perform the simple activity below and take a video of yourself while
doing this activity and send it to me via messenger. This will serve as one of your
performance tasks this quarter in my subject.
*Please answer this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to the worksheet.
Do not pass the entire module.
Objective: To find indirect evidence for an object without actually seeing the object
Procedure:
1. Prepare the following materials: 2 glasses, water, soap, and flashlight.
2. Fill two glasses with water. They must be completely full.
3. Set aside one glass of water and leave it alone.
4. To the other glass of water, put a pea-size piece of soap. Stir the water to dissolve
the soap.
5. Turn off all the lights in the room. Make sure that the room is in complete darkness.
6. Shine a flashlight beam horizontally on the side of the soapy water just below the
level of the surface of water.
7. Repeat the procedure this time with the glass of plain water.
8. Observe and record the effect of light beam on each glass of water.
Data and Observations

Questions and Problems

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1. Compare the effects of light on the plain water and on the soapy water.

2. What is the reason for the effect of light on the soapy water?

3. What is the reason for the effect of light on a glass of plain water?

Conclusion:
What can you conclude from this activity?

Atoms from the Eyes of Philosophers and Scientists

According to the fundamental Greek theory of matter originated by the philosopher

Empedocles, there were only four elements – fire, air, water, and earth – that make up
matter. Empedocles asserted that the properties of materials are imparted by the different
proportions of the “four elements” that comprise them. For example, the hardness and
dryness of a stone are attributed to its high composition of the element earth. The softness
and the life of animals come from their high water and fire compositions. Aristotle
supported this idea, and added a fifth element, which he called aether or ether. His ideas
greatly influenced the alchemists during 300 BC until the end of the seventeenth century.
The alchemists intertwined chemical questions with mythical and spiritual concepts to
transmute base metals into gold, discover a universal cure for diseases, and discover a
means of prolonging life. However, none of these aims succeeded. Nevertheless, alchemy
had still contributed numerous techniques and concepts to chemistry such as the systematic
logical approaches, the knowledge of medicinal chemistry, and the development of
industrial chemistry. Practical and simple small-scale processes, such as soap – making, glass
manufacturing, charcoal production, and pigment and dye manufacturing, have all
originated during the period of alchemy.

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 As early as 400 BC, some Greek philosophers, including Democritus, supported the
idea of matter based on the particle theory. They believed that all types of matter are
composed of very small particles called atoms, a term that came from the Greek word
atomos, which means “indivisible” or “uncuttable”. Aristotle, however, did not believe in
the existence of atoms. He asserted that all matter was continuous, an idea that was
accepted for almost 2000 years. But both theories were not supported by experimental
studies therefore remained as speculations until 1800. Aristotle’s four – element theory and
the practice of alchemy came to an end when The Sceptical Chymist by Robert Boyle was
published in 1661. It was then that scientists came up with experimental results that led to
what we now know as the atomic theory of matter.

Table 1.1
A Timeline on the Brief History on Matter and Atoms
Year Event
450 BC Empedocles asserted that all things are composed of four primal elements:
earth, air, fire, and water.
400 BC Democritus proposed that all matter is made up of very small particles
called atoms, which cannot be divided into smaller units.
380 – 320 BC Aristotle proposed that all matter was continuous and can be further
divided infinitely into smaller pieces.
1799 Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions which states that all
the samples of a chemical compound contain all the elements in the same
proportion.
1808 John Dalton formulated the atomic theory and proposed the law of
multiple proportions which states that the elements in a compound have a
proportion of those chemical compounds that can be expressed in a small, whole-
number ratio.
1869 Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the known elements in a periodic table based
on their atomic mass.
1890s Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie observed that radioactivity causes some
atoms to break down spontaneously.
1895 Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays.
1897 Joseph John Thomson discovered electrons.
1904 Joseph John Thomson suggested the plum pudding model of atom
(negative electrons dispersed in a positive structure).
1908 – 1917 Robert Millikan found that the charge of an electron is equal to – 1.6022 x
10-19 C.
1910 – 1911 Ernest Rutherford observed that atoms are mostly empty space.
Neils Bohr proposed an atomic model that shows electrons move in
1913 concentric orbits around the nucleus.
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Mosely used X-ray spectra to study atomic structure.
1919 Ernest Rutherford discovered protons.
1932 James Chadwick discovered neutrons.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton came up with a theory that marked the beginning of the modern era of
chemistry. His postulates may be summed up to what is known as Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
1. Elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. In any given pure element, the mass and other properties of all the atoms are
the same. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.

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 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. The
constituent atoms in a given compound are present in a consistent or
constant whole number ratio.
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They simply
combine, separate, or rearrange.
John Dalton’s experiments eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of the atom.
In 1803, he proposed an atomic theory that says:
1. Atoms are indivisible particles, and all elements are composed of atoms.
2. Same elements have exactly alike atoms.
3. While atoms of same elements are the same, atoms of different elements are
different.
4. Two or more atoms of elements can be combined to form compounds. They
combine in fixed ratios of whole numbers forming particles of molecules.
5. Atoms are units of chemical change which involves combinations or
rearrangements of atoms where they are not created, destroyed, or changed.
The atomic theory offers an acceptable explanation of the laws of chemical change
where atoms merely rearrange, so that the number of atoms of each element in the
reactant is equal to the number of atoms in the products. The mass of the chemically
reacting system remains constant.
Atomic Models
In 1808, John Dalton described the atom as an indivisible solid particle. He thought
that each element has its own kind of atom. In the early 1900s several scientists made
experiment investigations that reshaped Dalton’s idea of atom.

 Dalton's model of the atom

John Dalton proposed that all matter is composed of very
small things which he called atoms. This was not a completely
new concept as the ancient Greeks (notably Democritus) had
proposed that all matter is composed of small, indivisible (cannot
be divided) objects. When Dalton proposed his model electrons,
and the nucleus were unknown.

The atom according to Dalton.

 Thomson's model of the atom

After the electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897, people realized that
atoms were made up of even smaller particles than they had previously thought. However,
the atomic nucleus had not been discovered yet
and so the “plum pudding model” was put forward
in 1904. In this model, the atom is made up of
negative electrons that float in a “soup” of
positive charge, much like plums in a pudding or
raisins in a fruit cake. In 1906, Thomson was
awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in this field.
However, even with the Plum Pudding Model,
there was still no understanding of how these
electrons in the atom were arranged.

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 The atom according to the Plum Pudding
model.

 Rutherford's model of the atom

Rutherford carried out some experiments which led to a change in ideas around the
atom. His new model described the atom as a tiny,
dense, positively charged core called a nucleus
surrounded by lighter, negatively charged
electrons. Another way of thinking about this
model was that the atom was seen to be like a mini
solar system where the electrons orbit the nucleus
like planets orbiting around the sun. A simplified
picture of this is shown alongside. This model is
sometimes known as the planetary model of the
atom.
Rutherford's model of the atom.

 James Chadwick
Rutherford predicted (in 1920) that another kind of particle must be present in the
nucleus along with the proton. He predicted this because if there were only positively charged
protons in the nucleus, then it should break into bits because of the repulsive forces between the
like-charged protons! To make sure that the atom stays electrically neutral, this particle would
have to be neutral itself. In 1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron and measured its mass.

Structure of the Atom

The Atomic Structure
The Atom
An atom is a small, indivisible particle considered to be the basic unit of matter. An
atom consists of three main subatomic particles,
namely, protons, neutrons, and electrons.

An atom contains a nucleus which is located at

its center. The nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons. On the other hand, the electrons are
located outside the nucleus. Electrons are much
smaller than neutrons and protons.

The Atomic Structure

https://cdn.leverageedu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/27192222/structure-of-atom-800x500.png

The Subatomic Particles

Electrons are small, negatively charged particles that spin around the nucleus,
staying in their orbits (also called the shells or energy levels). The shells are numbered
depending on how close they are to the nucleus. The level closest to the nucleus is
numbered 1; the next level farther from the nucleus is 2, and so on. Electrons in the
lowest energy level are the ones most tightly bound and, therefore, hardest to expel. In

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 theory, there is an infinite number of levels, but only the lowest seven are usually
mentioned.

Protons were discovered by Eugene Goldstein using Crookes tube, with holes in the
cathode. He observed that there is another kind of ray originating from the anode,
passing through the holes in the cathode. The charge to mass ratio was much smaller
than that of electrons, and it varies with the kind of gas used in the tube. The charge of
this particle was shown to be positive in later experiments.

Neutrons are found in the nucleus. James Chadwick showed that uncharged particles
are emitted when atoms of beryllium and other elements are bombarded with high –
velocity helium particles (α particles). A neutron has no charge.

Comparison of the different subatomic particles

Subatomic Symbol Mass Charge Location
Particle (a.m.u.)
Proton P +
1.0073 +1 Inside the nucleus
Neutron n 0
1.007 0 Inside the nucleus
Electron e- 0.00055 -1 Outside the
nucleus

Representing an Atom

Atoms of an element can be easily identified and represented because each

atom has characteristics that are different from other atoms. One way to represent
an atom of an element is by knowing its atomic number, mass number, and its
isotopes.

Atomic Number (Z) is equal to the number of

protons inside the nucleus. Since the atom is
Nucleon is the collective electrically neutral before chemical reaction, it is also
term for protons and equal to the number of electrons outside the nucleus.
neutrons. Nucleons are
the particles found in the Mass Number (A) is the sum of the number of
nucleus of atoms
protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
the mass number is simply an approximation of the
atomic mass since the masses of the nucleons are very
close to 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u) each, and the electron is considered to be of
negligible mass.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. In other words, the isotopes of an element have the same

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atomic number (Z) but different mass number. An example of an element with three
isotopes is hydrogen. These are protium, deuterium and tritium.

Protium, an isotope of hydrogen, has one proton but no neutron. Since it has only
one proton, its atomic number is 1, written at the bottom left part of the
element symbol. Its mass number is equal to 1 because it has no neutron.
The mass number is written at the top left part of the element symbol.
Protium is the most common isotope of hydrogen and also the most
abundant in nature. It is usually involved in the hydrogenation of
materials. Hydrogenation is the process where molecular hydrogen is
added to react with another compound (usually organic compound) to
treat substances.

Deuterium has 1 proton and 1 neutron. Like protium, its atomic

number is also equal to 1. Its mass number is equal to 2 because of
the presence of 1 neutron. Deuterium is sometimes called heavy
hydrogen because it is more massive than protium. It can be used to
form “heavy water”, which is denser than ordinary water. It is also
involved in some nuclear reactions.

Tritium 1 has proton and 2 neutrons. like protium and deuterium, the
atomic number of tritium is one, because different isotopes of an element
all have the same number of protons. What differs is the number of
neutrons. The mass number of tritium is equal to 3 due to the presence of 2
neutrons. Tritium can be present in nuclear reactions as waste product. It is
a radioactive isotope, meaning, it is unstable. It can be used as fuel in some
nuclear fusion reactions.

Other Common Isotopes and their Uses

1. Carbon – 12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and is considered as the reference isotope for measuring
the atomic weights of all other element’s masses.

2. Carbon – 13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons and is commonly used in studying the structure of
organic compounds using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

3. Carbon – 14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons and is a radioactive isotope used in carbon dating to
determine the age of materials like historical artifacts.

14
 Unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes or radionuclides. They emit radiation, causing the
nucleus to change into the nucleus of a different element which is more stable. Such atoms are
described as radioactive and the process of emission of radiation is called radioactive decay.

Radioactive substances are widely used in biochemistry and medicine. In biochemistry, they
are used as radiotracers. These are radionuclides that can be introduced into organisms through
food or drugs, and whose pathways can be monitored. They provide sensitive and noninvasive
methods for elucidation of pathways and structure, detection of diseases, and monitoring the action
and effectiveness of drugs. Some of these radionuclides, like C - 14 which is already mentioned, are:

P – 32 which is incorporated into nutrients giving information on metabolic pathways and

used for detecting of skin cancer.
I – 131 which is used in medical diagnostic tests and treatment of illness of the thyroid gland;
Cu – 64 which is used in studying brain tumors;
Fe – 55 which is used as an X-ray source for different methods of scientific analysis;
Na – 24 which is used f0r detecting blood clots and tumors; and
Co – 60 and Cs – 137 which are used for the radiation therapy of cancer.

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15
 Learning Module 3 - Chemical Structures, Properties and Uses
of Matter
Introduction
In this chapter, you will study the different types of chemical bonds and how they
affect the structures, properties, and uses of materials. You will also learn how technology
enhances the properties of materials or creates new materials with specific and/or improved
applications.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based from its given structure
2. relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties
3. describe the general types of intermolecular forces
4. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances
5. display scientific values and attitudes and process skills

Pre – activity
You learned about chemical bonding in your junior high science. Let us find out what
you still remember by recalling some ideas or concepts related to chemical bonding. Write
these inside the circles.

Concept – Connect!

Relate two or more ideas or concepts

in a sentence. Write three sentences below.

1.

2.

3.

16
 Revisiting Chemical Bonding and Polarity
Why and how do atoms chemically bond or combined? The nature of atoms
determines the type of chemical bond that can exist between them. Commonly referred to
as intramolecular forces of attraction, these types may be ionic, covalent, or metallic bond.

Ionic and Covalent Bond

Atoms combine to assume the stable configuration of a noble gas following the duet
or octet rule. When a metal atom and a nonmetal atom combine, the metal atom loses 0ne
or more electrons, which is/ are gained by the nonmetal atom. In the process, the metal
atom becomes a positively charged particle called cation; the nonmetal atom becomes a
negatively charged particle called anion. These steps are illustrated in the formation of
sodium chloride (NaCl).
-1 e-
lose e- : Na Na+
-
-1 e
gain e- : Cl Cl –
formation of
ionic bond: Na+ + Cl- NaCl
cation anion

Since Na+ and Cl – are oppositely charged particles, they will attract one another and
form a chemical bond. The bond is electrostatic in nature and is called an ionic bond.
The ratio of atoms that combine with each other to form an ionic compound is
definite for each compound. It is determined by the charge carried by each particle. Since a
compound is electrically neutral, the total number of positive charges must be equal to the
number of negative charges. As an example, two chlorine anions, each with a – 1 charge, are
needed to balance the +2 charge of one magnesium cation to form a formula unit of
magnesium chloride (MgCl2). Try to analyze the formation of aluminum oxide (Al 2O3).
Mg2+ + 2Cl  MgCl2
2Al3+ + 3O2-  Al2O3
Compounds formed by ionic bonding are called ionic compounds, which have the
characteristic properties.

 Ionic compounds are arranged in a crystal lattice.

 They have high melting and boiling points. A high amount of energy is required to
break the strong ionic bond that holds the ions in the lattice.
 As solids, they are nonconductors of electricity because ions are tightly packed in the
crystal lattice.
 When molten or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions
dissociate in water and are free to move around. Such is the case for sodium chloride
(NaCl).

NaCl(s) H2O Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

A covalent bond exists between two nonmetal atoms that share electrons to assume
a stable configuration of noble gases such as helium (2 electrons) and neon (8 electrons).
Since electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom can be represented as dots around

17
the element symbol, a covalent bond between two atoms can be depicted as adjacent dots
or lines. A covalent bond can be single (---), doubled (=), triple (=) bond. The single covalent
bond is illustrated for H2 and F2 molecules.

or H – H

The resulting compound of covalent bonding is called covalent compounds, which

have characteristic properties.

 They have low melting and boiling points. Unlike in ionic compounds where
the ionic bond must be broken to disarray the orderly structure of the solid,
covalent compound change its phase or state without breaking the covalent
bonds. Covalent molecules remain intact. Melting merely involve the
separation of the m0lecules. This process involves the breaking of
intermolecular forces that are generally weak.
 They generally do not conduct electricity in solution or aqueous form.

Bond Polarity and Molecular Polarity

The degree of covalent or ionic character of a chemical bond between two atoms
may be predicted using the concept of electronegativity. Electronegativity (EN) is the ability
of an atom in a compound to attract electrons toward itself. The higher the EN value, the
greater is the attraction for the electrons.

Electronegativities of some elements. The values listed are based on Pauling’s

electronegativity scale.
Between two atoms with different electronegativities, the chemical bond at the
more electronegative atom becomes partially negative (δ - ), and the other side becomes
partially positive (δ + ). This condition results in a dipole represented as , with the
arrow pointing to the more electronegative atom. In such case, the chemical bond is
described as polar.
Two atoms with similar electronegativities create an even distribution of electrons in
a chemical bond and thus make the bond nonpolar.

18
 Electronegativity difference can help determine if the bond is ionic, polar covalent, or
nonpolar covalent.
Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond
0.0 Nonpolar Covalent
0 – 1.8 Polar covalent
≥1.8 Ionic

Examples:
Predict whether the bond type between the following pairs of atoms will be ionic,
polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent.
1. C and Cl 3. H and Cl
2. Mg and O 4. N and N
Solution:
1. C = 2.5 Cl = 3.0 ∆EN = 3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5 polar covalent
2. Mg = 1.2 O = 3.5 ∆EN = 3.5 – 1.2 = 2.3 ionic
3. H = 2.1 Cl = 3.0 ∆EN = 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 polar covalent
4. N = 3.0 N = 3.0 ∆EN = 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 nonpolar covalent

Predict if each pair of atoms will form an ionic bond, a polar covalent bond, or a
nonpolar covalent bond.
1. K and F = __________________________4. C and O = ________________________
2. Cl and Br = ________________________ 5. Al and S = ________________________
3. Ca and O = _____________________________

You can now predict the polarity of a bond between atoms. But how do you know if
the whole molecule is polar or nonpolar? It is easy to determine the polarity of a molecule if
it has only two atoms. Simply determine their electronegativity difference.
For molecules consisting of more than two atoms like CO 2, H2O and NH3, find out first
if the bonds are polar. Then, determine the molecular geometry. For a molecule to be polar,
it must possess polar bonds that are arranged in a way that there is an asymmetrical
distribution of charge.

19
 The polarity of a substance influences its solubility, which is the ability of the
substance to dissolve in each solvent. In determining the solubility of a substance, the
principle “like dissolves like” holds. This means that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents
and not in nonpolar ones. Furthermore, nonpolar solutes can only dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

20
Metallic Bond
The bonding of metal atoms is depicted in the electron sea model, which accounts for
some of the properties exhibited by metals. This model pictures a metal as consisting of a
network of positive metal ion core (nucleus plus inner electrons) immersed in a “sea of
electrons”. Each atom contributes one electron to the “sea”. The metallic bond is the
electrical attraction between outer electron and the positive metal ion core. The electrons in
the bond are “delocalized”; meaning, they move freely throughout the piece of metal.

Metallic Properties and Explanations of these Properties

Properties Explanation
Metals are dense The particles present in metals are tightly packed in a lattice
(3D structure). Greater atomic attraction in metals leads to
higher density, since more particles occupy a small volume.
Metals have high melting Strong forces of attraction exist between particles. A large
and boiling points amount of thermal energy is required to overcome this
attraction between the positive ions and delocalized
electrons. These forces operate throughout the lattice.
Tungsten has one of the highest melting points of 3380ºC;
and iron, 1535ºC.
Metals are good Delocalized electrons transmit the energy of vibrations of a
conductors of heat. positive ion to its neighbors.
Metals are good Electrons are delocalized within the lattice. Electrons flow
conductors of electricity from one end to the other end.
Metals are malleable and The distortion (caused by reshaping the metal) does not
ductile. disrupt metallic bonding.
Metals are lustrous The presence of free electrons causes most metals to reflect
light. (Nonmetals are transparent.)

Intermolecular Forces and Their Application

Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion which act between
neighboring particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). These forces are weak compared to the
intramolecular forces, such as the covalent or ionic bonds between atoms in a molecule. For
example, the covalent bond present within a hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule is much
stronger than any bonds it may form with neighboring molecules.

Types of Attractive Intermolecular Forces

21
 1. Dipole-dipole forces are the forces attractions of the bond dipoles in different
molecules. Bond dipoles arise from the unequal sharing of electrons by covalently
bonded atoms. The tendency of dipoles to be perfectly oriented with respect to one
another is observed to be effective at reasonably larger distances than van der Waals
forces.
The following are illustrations of how dipole-dipole forces act. These examples
explain the attraction between the positive and negative charges of atoms and in the
case of HCl, the hydrogen atom consists only of one electron and the chlorine has 7
electrons resulting them to share their electrons to make themselves stable and this
type of forces, is weaker compared to others.

Dipole-dipole Attraction HCl Dipoles

Another representation of dipole-dipole interaction between HCl molecules is
δ+
H – Cl δ- … δ+ H – Cl δ-… δ+ H – Cl δ-… δ+ H – Cl δ-
(The solid lines represent covalent bonds; the dotted lines are dipole-dipole forces.)
For water molecules, the dipole – dipole interaction is represented as:

In which hydrogens form the + end and the O forms the – end of the water dipole.
2. Ion-dipole forces exist when polar molecules are attracted to ions. The positive pole
is attracted to negative ion (anion), while negative
pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).
Ion – dipole interactions are involved in solution
processes like in the case of sodium chloride dissolving
in water. When, for example, sodium chloride crystal is
placed in water, the polar ends of the water, molecules exert attractive forces on the
surface ions of the crystal (O δ- ends attracts Na+ ions as shown in the figure A; H δ+ end
attracts Cl – ions as shown in the figure B and pull them away from each other,
preventing them from rejoining as each ion id surrounded by water molecules.

δ+
H δ+ O δ- Na+ O δ- H δ+ O H - H δ+
Cl O

H δ+ H δ+ H δ+ H δ+
Figure A Figure B
3. Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces or London dispersion forces: forces
caused by correlated movements of the electrons in interacting molecules, which are
the weakest of intermolecular forces and are categorized as van der Waals forces.

22
 Dispersion forces increase with increasing molecular mass and decrease with
increasing distances between the molecules. These London dispersion forces are
often found in the halogens (e.g., F 2 and I2), the noble gases (e.g., Ne and Ar), and in
other non-polar molecules, such as carbon dioxide and methane. London dispersion
forces are part of the van der Waals forces, or weak intermolecular attractions.

4. Hydrogen Bond or Hydrogen Bridge

The hydrogen bond is weak bond formed when a hydrogen with partial
positive charge (a hydrogen bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom) is close
to an atom in a molecule with lone pairs of electrons or with excess electronic charge
(negative). It is formed because of weak electrostatic interaction between the
partially positive hydrogen and negative group
of lone pair of electrons.
It is a weak type of electrostatic
attraction (2 to 10 kcal/mol). The strength of
the H bond is influenced by the
electronegativity of the atom to which it is
bonded.
The H bond can be looked upon as a
bridge between two highly electronegative
atoms, either F, O, or N, with the latter being
covalently bonded to other hydrogens.

These intermolecular forces are weaker

than either ionic or covalent bonds, but their
importance cannot be underestimated. They
are responsible for determining whether a
molecular compound is a gas, a liquid, or a
solid at a given temperature. They also
account for the differences in some physical
properties of matter in the different phases. Hydrogen bonding in water: This is a
space-filling ball diagram of the
interactions between separate water
molecules.
5. Charge – Induced Dipole Forces
A charged species (ions or dipoles) can induce the distortion of the electron
cloud of a nonpolar molecule. This distortion results in an induced dipole. The
attraction existing between the charges species and the induced dipole is called
charged – induced dipole force, which may be classified further as ion – induced dipole
or dipole – induced dipole depending on the nature of the charged species.
The two types of forces are dispersion and dipole – dipole, are collectively
known as van der Waals forces proposed by Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der
Waals.

23
 Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Substances
The intermolecular forces influence the physical properties of the three basic phases
of matter: gas, liquid, and solid.

Gases
Gases have negligible intermolecular forces existing between their molecules. The
predominant intermolecular forces in nonpolar gases (e.g., N 2, O2, CO2, H2), and the noble
gases are dispersion forces. The weak intermolecular forces explain why gases diffuse easily
and have no definite shape and volume.

Liquids
The type of intermolecular forces that exists between molecules in the liquid state
depends on the nature of the substances. The interplay of the motions of molecules and the
presence of weak intermolecular forces explains the characteristic properties of liquids.

Fluidity and Viscosity

Like gases, liquids are referred to as fluids which can flow and take the shape of their
container. Weak attractive forces hold the liquid molecules together yet allow them to move
and slide past one another. This explains why liquids have no definite shape.
Liquids also exhibit viscosity, which is defined as the resistance of a liquid to flow.
Syrup and oil flow more slowly than water and are thus described as more viscous. The
viscosity of a liquid depends on their intermolecular attractions. The stronger the
intermolecular force, the higher is the liquid’s viscosity.

Diffusion
The weak intermolecular forces in liquids allow the molecules to move around each
other. This explains the diffusion in liquids. If you drop a small amount of dye in a glass of
water, you will see the dye’s color slowly spreading in the water after a few seconds.

Definite Volume
The forces of attraction between molecules of a liquid hold them together to occupy
a fixed space; that is assume a definite volume.

Surface Tension
Water striders can walk on water, this is possible because of surface tension. Surface
tension is defined as the force on the surface of a liquid that makes the surface area as small
as possible. Surface tension allows needles and paper clips to float in water if placed
carefully on the surface. It also explains why drops of water are spherical in shape.

Capillary Action
If you place a capillary tube (a narrow tube) into a beaker with water, you will notice
that the liquid flows up through the tube against gravity. This phenomenon is referred to as
capillary action.
Capillary action results from the competition between cohesive forces (intermolecular
forces within the liquid) and adhesive forces (forces between different substances). The
relative strengths of the adhesive forces and cohesive forces explain why a meniscus curves

24
up (e.g., in water) or curves down (e.g., in mercury). A meniscus is the convex or concave
surface of a column of liquid. Capillary action also explains the absorbing property of paper
towels and cotton.

Solids
The particles of a solid are held together by strong forces of attraction and are thus
closely packed.
Solids are nearly incompressible because the strong attractive forces that hold the
particles together make the structure rigid and compact.
Unlike liquid particles, solid particles only vibrate at fixed positions. They do not slip
and slide with one another to fill the container; hence, they do not flow.
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
Crystalline solids have a well – defined shape. Their particles (i.e., atoms, molecules,
or ions) exist in a highly ordered arrangement. Solids whose particles are organized in
random patterns are referred to as amorphous solids. Examples of amorphous solids are
charcoal, rubber, and glass.
Liquid Crystals
Liquid crystal is a phase of matter whose order of particles is intermediate between
that of a liquid and that of a crystalline solid. In a crystalline solid state, the arrangement of
molecules in a liquid state move in random motion without a pattern or orientation. In liquid
crystals, the molecular arrangement is random in some directions and ordered in others.
Liquid crystals consist of individual molecules. These molecules are long and
cylindrical in shape. The structure allows for intermolecular attractions (dispersion, dipole –
dipole, or H – bonding) but inhibits crystalline packing.
There are three different types of liquid crystal phases: namely, nematic, cholesteric,
and smectic.

 Nematic phase. The molecules lie in the same direction, but their ends are not
aligned. This phase is the least ordered type of liquid crystal.
 Cholesteric phase. The molecules in cholesteric phase have a similar arrangement to
those in nematic phase. However, each layer is rotated at a fixed angle with respect
to the next layer. The arrangement can be described as twisted nematic phase.
 Smectic phase. This phase closely resembles the solid phase. The liquid crystals are
ordered between layers but can float around freely.

25
 The type of liquid crystal phases

The ability of molecules in liquid crystals to reorient all0ws the scientists to produce
materials of great strength and unique optical ability. These properties account for the
superior quality of liquid crystal polymers used in sports equipment and aircraft parts. Liquid
crystal displays (LCDs) are also used in watches, calculators, and computer monitors.
Liquid crystals are temperature – sensitive, they turn solid at low temperatures, and
turn liquid at high temperatures. Cholesteric crystals are employed in applications where
color changes with temperature such as liquid crystal thermometers and mood rings.

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Learning Module 4 - Chemical Changes

Introduction
Chemical changes are ordinary occurrences in the surroundings. Iron objects become
rusty when exposed to oxygen and water in air. Silver jewelry turns from shiny to dull gray.
When you drop an antacid tablet in a glass of water, you see bubbles as gas is released.
Gasoline reacts with oxygen and burns producing CO 2, H2O, and energy to make your car
move. In all these, chemical change occurs.

Learning Objectives:

26
 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature, and
particle size on the rate of reaction
2. define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate
3. determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product
formed
4. realize the importance of being a wise consumer especially in choosing the
products used at home

Before engaging to the next topic about chemical change, answer the activity
below to help you recap about the two types of changes – physical and chemical change.
This activity will lead you to the world of changes that never stops from happening.

Pre – activity
identify if the following changes is physical or chemical change. Copy and answer it
on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to the worksheets and do not pass the entire
module.
1. chopping a piece of tomato -
2. developing a camera film -
3. inflating a balloon -
4. burning of match -
5. breaking of chocolate bar -
6. breaking a pandesal -
7. melting of ice -
8. chewing a cake -
9. burning of log -
10. evaporating alcohol -

Rate of Reaction
Rate of reaction in chemical kinetics is studied to see how fast reactions take place.
Many familiar reactions happen almost instantaneously like photosynthesis. Other chemical
reactions are very slow in coming like rusting of iron or the production of wine.
Knowledge of chemical kinetics is important in industrial processing. Industrial
chemist usually work to increase the rate of reaction rather than find a new process or
increase the yield. In this lesson, you will learn about the factors responsible for increasing
the rate of reaction.

Collision Theory of Chemical Reaction

reactant 27product
 The general equation represents a chemical reaction. In
this equation reactants are used up to form products. But how do these reactions happen?
Chemical reactions happen when reactants collide with one another. The frequency
of collision among reactants determines the rate of reaction between the molecules of the
reactants. According to the collision theory of chemical kinetics, the greater the frequency
of collisions, the higher the rate of reaction. This means that reaction rate is directly
proportional to the number of molecular collisions per second.
number of collisions
rate of reaction
8 second
Consider that X and Y are reactants to form some products. A product molecule is
formed by combining molecule X and molecule Y. If X is doubled, the rate of collision with Y
will also double. If on the other hand Y is doubled, the rate of collision with X will also
double.
This is a simplified view of the collision theory although not all collisions result in a
reaction and the formation of a product. Collisions resulting in a reaction to form a product
is called effective collision. Molecules are always in motion. They possess kinetic energy. The
faster they move, the greater the kinetic energy they possess. When molecules collide, some
of their kinetic energy is converted to vibrational energy. The larger their K.E., the stronger
their vibrational energy. When K.E. is small, the molecules will just bounce off and no
reaction will occur. A minimum amount of energy called activation energy will initiate a
chemical reaction.
Having sufficient K.E is not the only requirement in initiating a reaction. It is also
necessary that the molecules are oriented in a way that will favor a reaction. Other factors to
be considered in increasing the rate of reaction of the reactants are the following:
a. reactant concentration
b. increase in temperature
c. increase in the surface area of a solid reactant, and
d. properly oriented molecules at collision.
All these factors contribute to effective collisions which eventually increase reaction rates.

Reactant Concentration
The concentration of reactants affects the rate of reaction. At a higher concentration,
the molecules collide more often. This results in an increase in the number of effective
collisions thereby resulting in increase in reaction rates. The figure below illustrates the
process.

a. lower concentration b. higher concentration

In higher concentration, molecules collide more often.

28
Increase in Temperature
When the temperature becomes higher,
molecules of the reactants move faster. This causes
more frequent collision. It also results in greater
energy at impact. These factors increase the number
of effective collisions and an increase in the rate of
reaction.

Increase in the Surface Area of the

Solid Reactants
The surface area of solid reactants can
affect the rate of reaction of the reactants. With
greater surface area, the molecules of the
reactants can collide more frequently, thereby
resulting in the number of effective collisions and
an increase in reaction rates. So, given a solid
reactant, their effective collisions can be increased a. small surface a. larger surface
if the solid is finely divided to obtain more surface In a solid reactant increasing the
area. surface area leads to more effective
collisions
Properly Oriented Molecules
For collision of reactants to be
effective, the reactants must be properly
oriented. Molecules must be oriented such
that it favors reaction. If, for example, the
reactants are Cl and NOCl, collision between
the two molecules will be more effective
when the Cl atom collides with the Cl atom
of NOCl molecule. The formation of the
products Cl2 and NO will occur only if the
collision is effective. Otherwise, the
reactants will only bounce off with one another.
Properly oriented molecules lead to more effective collisions

The Role of Catalysts in Reaction Rates

What is a catalyst? Why is it important in a reaction rate? In the decomposition of H 2O2
(hydrogen peroxide), the reaction rate depends upon the concentration of iodide ions
added to the reaction. However, the iodide ions do not appear in the decomposition
equation. I- or iodide, in this case, acts as a catalyst for the reaction. It is added to the
reactant to facilitate its decomposition. A catalyst is a substance that increase the rate of
reaction without itself being consumed.
The overall reaction for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is
2 H2O2(aqueous) 2H2O + O2(g)

29
 The reaction rate to decompose H 2O2 depends on the concentration of I - ion even if it
does not appear in the equation. The catalyst may react to form an intermediate substance
with the reactant but is regenerated in the subsequent step so it is not consumed in the
reaction.
The types of catalysis are the following:
1. Heterogenous catalysis
The reactants and the catalyst are in different phases. The catalyst is usually a solid
and the reactant is either a liquid or a gas. This is most important in industrial chemistry. It is
also used in catalytic inverter in automobiles.
2. Homogenous catalysis
Reactants and the catalyst are dispersed in a single phase, usually a liquid. Acid and
base catalysis are the most important types of homogenous catalysis in liquid solution.
3. Biological catalysis
Enzymes are biological catalysts. Enzyme catalysis is usually homogenous because
the substrate and enzyme are present in aqueous solution.

Chemical Equations
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS USE CHEMICAL SYMBOLS TO SHOW WHAT HAPPENS DUING
CHEMICAL REACTION.
A chemical reaction is a process in which a substance or substances are changed into
another one or more substances. We observe chemical reactions as fruits ripen and change
colors. There is chemical reaction when we mix vinegar with baking soda and bubbles form.
There is chemical reaction, too, when fireworks light up in the sky. Color change, the forming
of bubbles and flame, and the emission of light are signs of chemical reactions taking place.
Other examples of chemical reactions include the production of food by plants through
photosynthesis, and digestion of food inside our body.
Stoichiometry is the area of study involved in determining quantitative relationships
in chemical reactions. Writing chemical equations are important aspect of stoichiometric
calculations. Scientists use chemical equations to gather quantitative information necessary
for different applications such as environmental monitoring where pollutants in bodies of
water and in the air are measured, food and paint manufacture, in developing medicines,
and other industrial processes.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

One of the skills needed in performing stoichiometric calculations is writing a
balanced equation where the same number of atoms of each element appear on the left
and right sides of equation. The simplest method for balancing an equation is by inspection.
In this method, coefficients are placed before the chemical formula.
In writing chemical equations, always remember the following:
 The initial substances reacting is called reactants and are written on the left side of equation.
 The substances that result from the reaction are called products and are indicated on the
right side of the equation.
 An arrow pointing downwards ( ) means formation of precipitate.
 An arrow pointing upward ( ) means a gas evolved.

30
  The delta sign ∆ in an equation means heating the reaction mixture.
 Heat written on the reactant side of the equation means heat is absorbed and the reaction is
endothermic.
 Heat written on the product side of the equation means heat is released, and the reaction is
exothermic.
 An irreversible reaction is represented by a single arrow pointing from reactants to products.
A reversible reaction is represented by double arrows.
 All coefficients needed to balance the equation must be reduced to lowest terms.

Example 1:

Take the following equation as an example:

MgO + HBr MgBr2 + H2O

By inspecting the number of atoms of each element, the balancing coefficients of 1,2,1,1 can
be arrived at. Therefore, the balanced equation is

MgO + 2HBr MgBr2 + H2O

To check: reactants products

Mg 1 1

O 1 1

H 2 2

Br 2 2

Example 2:

Na2O2 + heat Na2O + O2

The balanced equation is

2Na2O2 + heat 2Na2O + O2

Unless instructed to the contrary, coefficients of one needed not to be indicated.

The physical states of the reactants are often denoted by letters g (gas), l (liquid), and s
(solid). For instance, when sodium chloride (NaCl), a solid, is dissolved in water, the symbol aq
(aqueous) is added to the product to indicate that NaCl is in an aqueous solution in which water is
the solvent.

NaCl(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O(l)

Mole Relationships in Chemical Equations

Equations are balanced in terms of the number of atoms and molecules in the reaction.
However, in everyday life, one works with samples measured in grams and kilograms.

The law of conservation of mass states that matter can be neither created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction. Thus, in any reaction, the amount of matter in the reactants is equal to the
amount of matter in the products.

If you follow the law of conservation of matter, in any reaction, the total amount of
matter in the reactants must be equal to the total amount of matter in the products.
Remember the example on cooking of rice. In cooking rice, you mix 1 cup of uncooked rice
with 1 cup of water. After cooking the rice, you obtained the product which is boiled rice.
The conservation of mass principle is shown below:

31
 250 g rice + 250 g water 500 g of boiled rice
Conservation of mass:
Mass of reactants = mass of product
500 g = 500 g
Using the same method, you can compare the total mass of the reactants and
products. For example, you have hydrogen gas reacting with nitrogen gas to obtain the
product ammonia (NH3). Writing the equation, you get:
H2 + N2 NH3
This equation is not balanced yet. To balanced it:
3H2 + N2 2NH3
3 moles H2 + 1 mole N2 forms 2 moles of NH3

2 gH2 28 g N 2 17 g NH 3
In molar mass you get
mole H 2 mole N 2 mole NH 3

So, the total mass 6 g H2 28gN2 34g NH3

Total mass: 6g + 28g = 34 g
34 g = 34 g
reactants = products
Example:
1. Ag (silver) reacts with S(sulfur) to form Ag2S (silver sulfide)
Solution: Ag + S Ag2S (not balanced)
2 Ag + S Ag2S (balanced)
molar mass
: 47 g Ag 16 g S 110g Ag2S
moles of molecules
The total mass : 94 g Ag 16 g S 110 g Ag2S
Total mass : 110 g = 110 g

Limiting Reactants
It is ideal for reactions to produce the maximum quantity of a compound from the
starting materials. One reactant is supplied in excess such that the more expensive reactant
is converted completely to the desired product. A small amount of the reactant will be left at
the end of the reaction. The limiting reagent is the reactant that is first used up. After the
reactant has been completely used up, no more products will be formed. On the other hand,
excess reagents are the reactants present in quantities greater than necessary to react with
the quantity of the limiting reagent.
All chemical reactions are limited by the amount of reactants used. When one of the
reactants is completely consumed, the reaction stops.

32
 Consider the preparation of kebabs as an example. Suppose that you have to prepare
kebabs, and each kebab should have 2 pieces of cubed ham and 3 pieces of pineapple
chunks. There are 4 barbeque sticks, 15 pineapple chunks, and 8 pieces of cubed ham.

Illustrating limiting reactants through kebab preparations

Note that the number of cubed ham pieces limits the number of kebabs that can be
assembled, while the pineapple chunks are in excess.
Another example is given in the reaction of NH3 with O2
4NH3 + 3O2 + 2N2 + 6H2O
According to the balanced equation, 4 moles of NH 3 reacts with 3 moles of O2 to form
2 moles of N2 and 6 moles of H2O. If 2 moles of NH3 is reacted with 3 moles of O 2, the amount
of NH3 is obviously lacking, and it is called limiting reagent. The other reagent, in this case,
O2, is in excess.
Sample problem: Determine the amount of NH 3 that forms in this reaction when 84.06 g of
N2 and 22.18 g H2 react. Here are the steps in solving the problem.
H2 + N2 NH3
1. Convert to moles the amount in grams of the reactants:
84.06 g N 2
N2: = 3 moles
28.02 g /mole N 2
22.18 g H 2
H2: = 11.002 moles
2.016 g /mole N 2

2. In balanced equation:
1 mole N2 react with 3 moles of H2 to produce 2 moles NH3. Therefore 3 moles N2 will
react with 9 moles H2 to form 6 moles NH 3. H2 is excess reagent by 2.002 moles. N 2 is the
limiting reagent.
Sample problem: Acetylene, C2H2, is completely burned in a welder’s torch given by the
following equation
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O
If 78 g C2H2 and 288g O2 are mixed, which is the limiting reagent?
(Atomic mass: C = 12 amu, H = 1 amu, O = 16 amu)
Step 1:
Calculate the number of moles of C2H2 and O2.

33
 Moles of C2H2 = 78 g / (26g/mol) = 3 mol of C2H2
Grams of O2 = 288 g / (32 g/mol) = 9 mol of O2
Step 2.
Calculate the number of moles O2 needed by 3 moles of C2H2.
3 (5/2) = 7.5 moles O2 needed for 3 moles of C2H2.
Therefore, O2 is in excess and limiting reagent is C2H2.
Reaction Yields
Theoretical yield is the quantity of product formed when all of the limiting reactant is
consumed. On the other hand, actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained. The
actual yield is always less than the theoretical yield. To measure the efficiency of the reaction
under certain conditions, percent yield should be calculated. Precent yield can be calculated
as follows:
actual yield
% yield = x 100%
theoretical yield
The factors that could affect percent yield of the reaction are (1) incomplete reaction,
(2) impure reactants, (3) competing side reactions, and (4) loss of product during filtration in
transferring between containers.
The percent yield is a measure of the efficiency of a reaction carried out in the
laboratory. Factors that could affect percent yield of a reaction are:
1. incomplete reaction
2. impure reactants
3. competing side reactions and
4. loss of product during filtration in transferring between containers
Sample problem:
Calcium carbonate is decomposed by heating. The balanced equation for this reaction is
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) + heat
What is the theoretical yield of CaO if 24.8 g CaCO 3 is heated? How much is the % yield
in the reaction if 12 grams of CaO is obtained?
Solution:
1. Analyze: List the knowns and unknowns.
Mass of CaCO3 = 24.8 g
Theoretical yield of CaO = ?
2. Calculate: Solve for the unknown.
1 mole CaCO3 1 mole CaO + 1 mole CO2
24.8 g
Number of moles of CaCO3 = = 0.248 moles of CaCO3
100 g /mole CaCO 3

34
 1mole CaCO 3 0.248 moles Ca CO3
=
1 mole CaO X moles CaO
X = 0.248 moles CaO
Theoretical yield of CaO = 0.248 moles CaO (56g/mole CaO) = 13.888 g CaO
12 g CaO
% yield of CaO = x 100% = 86%
13.888 g CaO

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Learning Module 5 - Different Sources of Energy and Consumer

Products
Introduction
In the previous module, you learned about chemical changes and in line with that,
you were able also to understand the rate of every chemical reaction by means of solving
problems related to it. Upon knowing them, this time you’ll be introduced to the next topic
that we must be aware of not because it is prerequisite of this subject but because it has a
wide impact in our daily lives.
For this chapter, you will have a short review of how the energy is harnessed from
different sources and learn t0 become a wise consumer of different products that we use at
home to make our lives easier.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe how energy is harnessed from different sources
2. use the product labels to identify the active ingredients of cleaning products
used at home
3. make either a flyer, or a brochure on a product (such as fuels, household, or
personal care products) indicating its uses, properties, mode of action and
precautions
4. realize the importance of being a wise consumer especially in choosing the
products used at home

Pre – activity

35
Look at your surroundings and list down at least 10 different household products that you
see and identify their uses.

Household Products Uses

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Different Energy Sources

There are 10 main different alternative sources of energy that are used in the world to
generate power. While other sources are being discovered all the time, none of them has
reached the stage where they can be used to provide the power to help modern life
function.
These can be broken down into renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

Renewable Energy Source

A renewable energy source is any natural resource that can replace it quickly and
dependably. These energy sources are plentiful, sustainable, naturally replenished, and
good to the environment.
The major types or sources of renewable energy are:
o Solar energy from the sun

- The primary source of energy is the sun. Solar power harvests the energy of the sun
by using collector panels to create conditions that can then be turned into a kind of
power.
o Wind energy
- Wind energy is harnessed by using large turbines to take available wind as the
power to turn, the turbine can then turn a generator to produce electricity.
o Geothermal energy from the heat inside the earth
- Geothermal energy is produced from beneath the earth. It is clean, sustainable, and
environmentally friendly. High temperatures are produced continuously inside the
earth’s crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles. Hot rocks present below the

36
 earth heats up the water that produces steam. The steam is then captured, which
helps to move turbines. The rotating turbines then power the generators.
o Hydropower from flowing water
- Hydrogen is available with water (H2O) and is the most common element available
on earth. Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination
with other elements. Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating
electricity. Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source
of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries, and rockets. It is completely
renewable, can be produced on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in
the atmosphere.
o Ocean energy in the form of wave, tidal, current energy and ocean thermal energy.
- Tidal energy uses the rise and fall of tides to convert the kinetic energy of incoming
and outgoing tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal
power is most prevalent in coastal areas. Tidal energy is one of the renewable
sources of energy and produces large energy even when the tides are at low speed.
- Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans. As the
ocean is ruled by the moon’s gravity, it makes harnessing its power an attractive
option. Different techniques for transforming wave energy to electric power have
been studied with dam-like structures or ocean floor–anchored devices on or just
below the water’s surface. It can be harnessed along coastal regions of many
countries and can help a country to reduce its dependence on foreign countries for
fuel.
o Biomass from plants
- Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used
throughout the world. Chlorophyll present in plants captures the sun’s energy by
converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into
carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. When the plants are burned,
the water and carbon dioxide are again released back into the atmosphere.
- However, the collection of fuel involved drudgery. This type of energy produces a
large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In the absence of sufficient
ventilation, while cooking indoor, fuels such as dung cause air pollution, which is a
serious health hazard. Moreover, unsustainable, and inefficient use of biomass
leads to the destruction of vegetation and hence degradation of the environment.

Non – Renewable Energy

A non-renewable energy source is a source with a limited supply that we can mine or
extract from the earth, and it’ll eventually run out.
These are formed over thousands of years from the buried remains of ancient sea
plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Most of these energy sources are
“dirty” fossil fuels, which are generally bad for the environment.
The major types or sources of non-renewable energy are:
o Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas)
- Fossil fuels provide power for most of the world, primarily using coal and oil. Oil is
converted into many products, the most used of which is gasoline. Natural gas is
starting to become more common but is used mostly for heating applications,
37
 although there are more and more natural gas-powered vehicles appearing on the
streets.
o Nuclear energy
- The energy is created through a specific nuclear reaction, which is then collected
and used to power generators.
- Nuclear energy is produced from uranium, a non-renewable energy source whose
atoms are split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and,
eventually, electricity. Scientists think uranium was created billions of years ago
when stars formed. Uranium is found throughout the earth’s crust, but most of it is
too difficult or too expensive to mine and process into fuel for nuclear power
plants.

Consumer Products
Do you know what substances constitute the cosmetics and cleaning materials you
use? Are you sure they are safe for you and the environment?
Knowledge of substances and their properties, including how they react and what
products these reactions produced are studied in consumer chemistry. Consumer chemistry
is a branch of chemistry that studies the processes, effects, and impacts of consumer
products such as food, household and personal care products, medicine, and cosmetics,
among others. It helps industries choose appropriate materials and / or ingredients to use in
creating products that are safe, beneficial, cheaper, and of good quality. It also guides
consumers in making intelligent decisions when buying commercial products.

Concept Map

Household Cleaning Products

Cleaning products such as soaps, detergents, acid cleaners, and alkaline cleaners are
essential in maintaining an attractive and healthful environment. These products contain
active and inactive ingredients. Active ingredients are substances that provide the desired
and specified effect of the product, while inactive ingredients are those added to the
product but do not interfere with the function of the active ingredient. Examples of inactive
substances are dyes, binding materials (e.g., starch), preservatives, and scents.
o Soap and Synthetic Detergents

38
 In the early days, clothes were cleaned near rivers by beating them with rocks. When
soap was discovered, cleaning clothes, particularly removing stains, became much easier
and more efficient.
According to history, soap was accidentally discovered when people in Sapo Hill,
Rome, offered burnt animals as sacrifice to their gods. The fats from the burnt animals
dripped into wood ashes, which then flowed into the Tiber River. People found out later that
the Tiber River had a remarkable cleaning power.
Based on the process in the story, soap is prepared by reacting animal or vegetable
fat with a strong base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), producing soap and glycerol. This
process is called saponification.
A soap molecule is described to have an amphiphilic nature. This means that one end
of the molecule is polar (hydrophilic or water – loving), and the other end is nonpolar
(hydrophobic or water repelling).

How does soap work? Most dirt on clothes and other surfaces are combined with oil.
Oil is insoluble in water because of their differing polarities. Oil is nonpolar, while water is
polar. The amphiphilic nature of soap molecules allows the oil to attach to the molecule and
get rinsed by water. Figure 5-2 illustrates how dirt is removed from clothes.

The cleaning action of soap can be hampered by two factors – the presence of acids
on the materials being cleaned and the use of hard water (i.e., water containing Ca 2+ and
Mg2+). Acids on dirty surfaces react with the polar end of the soap, making both ends of the
soap molecule nonpolar and thereby leaving no portion to dissolve in water. The reaction
also produces an undesirable, insoluble product commonly known as scum.
Due to scum problems, synthetic detergents (also called syndets) were developed.
The term detergent refers to any substance used as cleaning agent.

39
 Surfactants are substances used to remove dirt by breaking down the interface or
boundary between water and oil or dirt and thus hinder the formation of scum. Surfactants
include foaming agents, emulsifiers, and dispersants.
Soaps for hands and body are specifically called bath soaps. Bath soaps and laundry
soaps have similar formulation except for the additives used. Additives enhance the function
or effect of the products and make them more convenient to use. Bath soaps have more
skin – sensitive formulation than laundry soaps. The common additives in soaps are dyes,
scents, moisturizer, and bactericide. Natural ingredients such as plant extracts are
sometimes added to make the products more environment – friendly. Most laundry
detergents also contain these additives. Their other additives are the following:
 Suspending or thickening agents are substances that prevent the dirt from sticking
back to the clothes.

 Optical brighteners (also known as fluorescent dyes). Most used dyes are blue. When
sunlight strikes white clothes, some of the light is reflected as a faint blue color.
People then see the clothes whiter and cleaner.

 Bleaches are compounds that act as oxidizing agents. They change the colored
molecules of a stain to colorless products that are washable with water.

 Enzymes facilitate faster breakdown and removal of food stains on clothes.

 Borax is a substance that removes the undesirable odor in clothes.

 Phosphates enhance the cleansing power of detergents. Phosphate is a basic anion

(like borax) and combines with Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions to prevent scum formation.

o Acid Cleaners
Acid cleaners are used to remove tarnish, discolorations due to alkaline substances and
corrosions of metals, and some of water – insoluble deposits. They can be classified as either
mild or strong acid cleaners.
Mild acid cleaners like citric acid (obtained from citrus fruits) and acetic acid (acid
found in vinegar) are used to dissolve hard water deposits in bathroom tiles and shower
doors. They are also used to remove mild rust stains and tarnish on surfaces made of brass
and copper.
Strong acid cleaners include oxalic acid (H2C2O4), dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl,
commonly called muriatic acid), dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and sodium bisulfate (NaHSO4).
o Alkaline Cleaners
Alkaline cleaners have pH values greater than 7. Like acid cleaners are classified as mild
(pH = 10.9 and above). Ammonia (pH = 11) and bleach (pH = 12) are commonly used alkaline
cleaners.
Combining detergents and strong bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide) produces an alkaline solution that has a strong cleaning power and can inhibit
the growth of undesirable microorganisms. This type of cleaners can easily dissolve dirt
deposits composed of grease, oils, fats, and proteins. They are usually used in cleaning
cooking stoves, pots, and pans. They also contain substances called chelates that remove

40
rust on metal parts. They are also used to clean metallic parts of cars that get smudged with
oil or grease.

Skin Care Products

o Hand and Body Lotions
Hand and body lotions are used to moisturize,
soften, whiten, and tone the skin. The two basic
moisturizing ingredients in lotions are water and oil. In
lotion formulations, emulsifiers such as cetearyl alcohol
or polysorbate 20 are added to make oil and water
combine, keeping the lotion smooth and
homogenously mixed. In addition to moisturizers,
petroleum jelly serves as skin softening agent in lotions.
o Facial Creams
Facial creams are oil – in – water emulsions. An
emulsion is a mixture of two liquids that would ordinarily not
mix without an emulsifier. One of the most used oils in
preparing facial creams is lanolin, which is obtained from
sheep’s wool. Surfactants are also added in facial cream to
stabilize the emulsion.

o Shaving Creams
Shaving Creams are products intended to be used
by both women and men for an effective shave. These
products are usually dispensed as an aerosol foam or
gel that produces a lather when rubbed on the skin.
Shaving Creams typically contain ingredients that help
lubricate the skin so that the razor can work
effectively.

o Perfumes
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aromatic compounds, solvents, and
other ingredients that emit a pleasant smell. The raw materials in the production of
perfume include natural ingredients
like plants (flowers, leaves, wood,
and roots), animals (skin and
excretions), and other resources
such as resins, gums, balsam, alcohol,
petrochemicals, and coal. Some of
the ingredients added in perfumes
are fixatives. A fixative is a liquid
substance that prevents the rapid
evaporation of the essential oils from

41
 the product. Synthetic chemicals are also used to produce scents of natural materials that
do not give essential oils.

Personal Hygiene Products

o Deodorant is used to prevent body odor. The

sweat in our body does not really have a smell. It
becomes stinky when bacteria gather on the
sweaty part of the skin. Deodorant contains an
aluminum compound that clogs the sweat glands
to temporarily stop the secretion of sweat. On the
bad side, the aluminum compound in deodorants
can cause skin irritation and other allergic
reactions.

o Toothpaste is a gel, or a paste used to clean

teeth and make them stronger. We brush our
teeth with toothpaste three times a day. This
prevents us from having bad breath and other
mouth problems like tooth decay, plaque, and
gum diseases.

Consumer Act of the Philippines

Republic Act 7394, also known as the Consumer Act of the Philippines, took effect 0n
July 15, 1992. It is the law that protects the interest 0f the consumers, promotes their
general welfare, and establishes the standards of conduct for business and industry. The act
aims to:

 Protect consumers against hazards to health and safety.

 Protect consumers against deceptive, unfair, and unconscionable sales acts and
practices.
 Provide information and education to facilitate sound choice and the proper exercise
of rights by the consumer.
 Provide adequate rights and means of redress (to remedy an undesirable situation).
 Involve consumer representatives in the formulation of social and economic policies.
Article 77 of the act (Chapter IV) requires all consumer products sold whether
manufactured locally or imported to indicate the following information in their respective
labels of packaging.

 Correct and registered trade name or brand name

 Duly registered business name
 Duly registered business name
 Address of the manufacturer, importer, and repacker of the consumer product in the
Philippines

42
  Active ingredient(s) of the product
 Net quality of contents in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count rounded off to
at least the nearest tenths in the metric system
 Country of manufacture, if imported
 If a consumer product is manufactured, refilled, or repacked under license from a
principal, the label should indicate the fact.

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Learning Module 6 - Earth is not the Center of Universe After

All
Introduction
The view of the physical world by the ancient Greeks began with a picture in mind
speculated outward. It was not a naturalistic view but instead a humanistic one. For Plato,
ideal forms consist true knowledge. The data derived from the senses are just
manifestations of the ideal forms and not the forms themselves. Pure speculations will never
be matched by experimentation as a channel toward truth. On the other hand, Aristotle, a
student of Plato, was quite interested in the world of nature. He was careful observer of his
surroundings.
The two philosophers were largely subjective and idealistic. They began with
premises and reached conclusions which might or might not match the perceived world.
Observation of the movements of the planets, stars, and other celestial objects for
thousands of years led early scientists and speculators to regard the Earth as the center of
the universe.
The early Greeks believed that Earth was the center of the universe. This geocentric
(geo is the Greek word for Earth) model of the universe was formalized and elaborated by
the Greek astronomer Ptolemy in the second century and was accepted for the next 1400
years. Then Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) suggested that Earth and the other planets
revolved in circular orbits around the sun.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical
2. cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the
advent of
telescopes

43
 3. explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in observational
astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of planetary motion

The Greeks’ Three Types of Terrestrial Motions

Observation and description of motions of different objects on Earth, in the sky, in
the atmosphere, and in the universe preoccupied early people. They noticed the movements
of the Moon, the Sun, and various objects in the sky. The following motions described below
are their conclusions based on their observation.

1) Diurnal motion was the apparent daily motion of the sky from east to west. This
apparent movement of heavens saw celestial objects seeming to rise from the east
and set in the west. These phenomena resulted from Earth’s rotation from the east
to west. The axis of this apparent motion coincides with Earth’s axis of rotation. This
was an everyday recurrence so it was called diurnal motion which means daily
motion.
2) Annual motion referred to the events or phenomena that came annually or once a
year. Specifically, it refers to the motion of Earth in its orbit around the sun because it
takes a year to complete one revolution. The changing of the seasons was attributed
to the revolution of Earth around the sun.
3) Precessions of equinoxes refer to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth’s
axis of rotation. This is just like a wobbling top tracing out a pair of cones joined at
their apices in a cycle of approximately 26 000 years. Earth’s precession is called
precession of the equinoxes.

Concept of the Spherical Earth

The concept of the spherical Earth dates back to around the 6 th century B.C. in
ancient Indian philosophy and ancient Mediterranean thought. Aristotle supported the idea
of a spherical Earth. He provided physical and observational arguments regarding this
matter. He observed that every portion of Earth tends toward the center until, by
convergence or compression, they form a sphere. He noticed that travelers going south see
southern constellations rise higher above the horizon and the shadow of Earth on the moon
during lunar eclipse is round. Stars seen in Egypt and Cyprus were not seen in the northerly
regions and this could only happen in a curved surface. This led the ancient Greeks to believe
that earth is sphere.

Developments in Ancient Astronomy

Major developments in ancient astronomy started with the Greeks from 600 BCE to
400 CE. The methods employed by Greek astronomers were quite different from those used
by astronomers in earlier civilizations. Those earlier civilizations used numerological
approach, which includes drawing inferences from numerical patterns, while Greek
astronomers employed geometric and schematic methods, which include using diagrams
through geometric figures. The Greek astronomers who made major contributions in
astronomy were the following:
1) Plato (428 – 348 BCE)
An ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician was a student of Socrates and
teacher of Aristotle. He believed that the universe is perfect and unchanging. It was not
created; it already existed from the beginning. This belief about the universe was known as

44
the theory of forms (or ideas). He further described the stars embedded in the outer space
as eternal and divine. Stars are regarded as heavenly and, therefore, must be perfect. The
celestial motion was circular or spherical, uniform, and constantly regular.
2) Eudoxus of Cnidus (390 – 337 BCE)
Eudoxus was the first Greek astronomer who properly applied mathematics in
astronomy. His works include his schematic description of the constellations, the phases of
the fixed stars when they are visible, and the weather associated with different phases.
Eudoxus was also the first astronomer to present a geometrical model of universe.
His model was based on the following principles:
a) Earth is the center of the universe.
b) All celestial motions are circular and regular.
c) The center of the path of any celestial motion is the same as the center of its
motion.

3) Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)

Aristotle was a student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle viewed
Earth as stationary and the center of the universe. He also believed the Earth was round.
He thought Earth was the center of the universe and that the Sun, Moon, planets, and all
the fixed stars revolved around it. Aristotle's ideas were widely accepted by the Greeks of
his time.
It was also during the time of Aristotle when Greek philosophers believed that all
objects on Earth were combinations of four primordial elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
Each of these elements was thought to have a natural place in the terrestrial region. Fire
occupied the highest position; beneath fire was air; then water. Earth was in the lowest
position.
According to Aristotle, there are two types of motion: celestial motion and terrestrial
motion. The motion of heavenly bodies such as the sun, the moon, the stars, and the planets
is called celestial motion. The motion of objects composed of the four elements (earth,
water, air, and fire) is called terrestrial motion.
Terrestrial motion is classified into natural, violent, or alteration. Natural motion
refers to an object’s movement toward its natural place. Any object, like a stone, that is
thrown upward falls down because it seeks its natural place – the ground. Smoke rises
because, like air, its natural place is above the ground.
Unlike natural motion, violent motion does not occur spontaneously. A falling object
is in natural motion, and an object thrown upward is in violent motion. Aristotle generalized
that an object cannot undergo violent motion without a force that causes it to move. For
example, a ball thrown upward is in violent motion because a force pushed it upward.
Motion relating to quality is called alteration. It describes a change in the quality of a
material. Examples of alteration are melting of butter when it absorbs heat, erosion of soil,
and rusting of iron.
4) Aristarchus of Samos (310 – 230 BCE)
Aristarchus was a famous Ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer. He was the
first to conceive the idea that the sun, not Earth, was the center with the planets rotating in
circular orbits around it. The stars are also stationary, just like the sun, but they seem to be
rotating because Earth rotates on its own axis. It was this theory that had him ridiculed
during his lifetime. The Earth – centered view dominated the western thought for almost
2000 years because of very strong influence of Aristotle. However, Aristarchus’ model
gained importance when his works inspired the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
5) Ptolemy (90 – 168 CE)

45
 Ptolemy was a Greek – Roman citizen who supported Aristotle’s idea of Earth as the
center of the universe with the planets moving in perfect circles around it in a continuous
and uniform motion. Based also on Aristotle’s philosophy, Ptolemy’s ideas about the
universe include the following:
 Earth is a spherical object that is freely suspended at the center of the universe.
 The stars are fixed bodies attached to a solid spherical exterior part of the universe.

6) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543)

He proposed the heliocentric or sun – centered model of universe. This was one of
the events that led astronomy to the state of modern science. Although this theory is
different from that of Ptolemy’s geocentric model, Copernicus retained some of Ptolemy’s
ideas on circular orbits, epicycles, and uniform speeds. Copernicus improved the model by
introducing the following:
 Earth is considered as only one of the planets that move around the sun in perfect
circular orbits.
 Earth rotates on its axis daily and revolves around the sun once a year.
 Earth experiences an annual tilting of its axis.
 The retrograde motion of the planets is explained by Earth’s motion.
 The distance from earth to the sun is small compared to earth’s distance from the
stars.
Although the Copernican theory provided advanced understanding of the planetary
motion, the heliocentric model progressed slowly at that time. Its assumption that the
planets move around the sun in perfect circular orbits does not agree with the observations
made by some astronomers. The idea of a stationary sun and moving Earth in the
heliocentric model had also encountered problems with some religious groups like the
Protestants and the Catholics.
The Copernican theory was not completely correct, but it provided a strong
foundation for other astronomers to establish more accurate ideas about the motion of the
heavenly bodies.
7) Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601)
Tycho Brahe was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive
observations of the universe even before the invention of the telescope. His studies
focused on the positions and motions of the planets and other celestial bodies.
With the ascension of a new king in 1588, Brahe decided to move from Denmark to
Prague where he continued his astronomical studies and had Johannes Kepler as his
assistant.
Brahe made the following important contributions to modern astronomy during his
time:
 He designed and built huge instruments used to make precise measurements of the
positions of the planets and accurate observations of the planetary motions.
 He modified the geocentric model of the universe. In his model, the moon and the sun
move around Earth, while Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn move around the
sun.
 He discovered a supernova in the constellation of Cassiopeia in 1572.
 He made careful observations of a comet in 1577 and showed that the comet was
further away from Earth than the moon from Earth.
 He made observations of planetary motions that are important to the development of
Kepler’s laws and other models of the solar system.

8) Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)

46
 Galileo Galilei built his own comprehensive astronomical telescope to explore the
heavens. Among the significant observations Galileo made using his telescope were the
following:
 He discovered the sunspots and the rough (uneven and mountainous) surface of the
moon, which contradicted the Aristotelian idea that celestial bodies are perfect. Many
people found in difficult to accept these findings because the presence of sunspots and
uneven surface of the moon would mean that the heavens are imperfect.
 He discovered the four moons of Jupiter and observed that these moons move along
with the planet. This means that as Jupiter rotates, the four moons also change positions
with each other. This was the first time that an idea of objects orbiting a planet came
about. The discovery of Jupiter’s moons and their motion served as evidence that not all
celestial bodies move around Earth.
 He discovered that Venus has phases like the moon. The Ptolemaic model cannot provide
an explanation for this observation. According to Galileo, this can only occur if Venus is
revolving around the sun, not Earth.
When Galileo died, that was also the time the Catholic Church was beginning to accept
the ideas on the heliocentric theory. In fact, in 1758, the ban on most works that support the
Copernican theory was lifted.
9) Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)
Johannes Kepler discovered that the planets orbit about the Sun in an elliptical and not
circular motion, and so proposed his three laws of planetary motion.
Earth’s orbit appears nearly circular because of its two closely spaced foci. By studying
Brahe’s data, Kepler developed his laws of planetary motion.
 The First Law of Planetary Motion states that the orbits of the planets are ellipses,
with the sun at one focus.
 The Second Law of Planetary Motion states that an imaginary line drawn from the
sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. Kepler also found
out that a planet moves faster when closer to the sun and slower when farther
from the sun.
 The Third Law of Planetary Motion states that the ratio of the square of the period
to the cube of the radius is the same for all the planets. This can be expressed
mathematically as
T2/R3 = K or T2 = kR3 where k is the constant of proportionality.
The relationship applies to all planets.
The mathematical expression can be used to find the period of any planet or its
mean distance from the sun if one of them is known. To find the value of k for the
sun, the known value of Earth’s orbit could be used (T Earth = 365.24 days, REarth = 92
million miles).
Sample problem: The period of a planet is 200 days. Find its mean distance from the sun.
Given: T = 200 days
Required to find: R planet
Solution: Using the third law of planetary motion, we find

2
(200 days ) (365.24 days)2
=
(R Planet )3❑ ( 92 million)3❑

RPlanet = 62 million miles

Checked:mpbsayson-04202021

47
 checked mrbo 041721

References
Books
 You and The Natural World Physical Science for Senior High School. Teresita F.
Religioso.
 Physical Science. Helen E. Caintic, Ph.D.
 General Chemistry 1 for Senior High School. Zenaida T. Nucum.2017
 General Chemistry 1, Philippine Edition, 2011
 General Chemistry 1 for senior high school. Aristea V. Bayquen, et.al.
 Physical Science, Terisita F. Religioso and Delia Cordero – Navaza.
 Exploring Life Through Science Series, Physical Science, Karen Santiago and Angelina A.
Silverio.
 An Introduction to Physical Science, 14th edition, James T. Shipman, et. al.
 Physical Science, Helen E. Caintic, Ph. D.

Online resources
 https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_general-chemistry-principles-patterns-and-
applications-v1.0/section_15/56e7602109166a73ea3872d43494e37f.jpg
 https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10/the-atom/04-the-atom-02
 https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/family-survive-two-weeks-without-
power.php
 https://cleanet.org/clean/literacy/energy4.html
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-geologic-
materials-as-energy-sources/
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q=tbn:ANd9GcTkWIcOEOs9NiaYmKn2v33WfH3T6K8fM8CO-g&usqp=CAU

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