BULE HORA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTIMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

RESEARCH TITILE :PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERSTICS OF BIO

PLASTICS FROM WASTE PAPER

DONE BY:

PETROS DIRES

ADVISOR: Mr. HIRBO GEREMEW(M.Sc)

May ,2016

BULE HOR, ETHIOPIA

 APROVAL SHEET

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

This is to certify that the research project prepared by petros dires entitled production of
bio plastics from waste paper , which was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of Bachelor of Science in industrial chemistry, complies with the regulation of the university
and meets the accepted standards with respect to quality.
Approved by board of examiner:

____________________ _________________

Advisor Signature Date

Examiner Signature Date

 Acknowledgement
First, I would like to thanks my God who gives me health, strength, and support to
accomplish everything successfully. Next, I give my deepest gratitude for my advisor
Heribo Geremew (M. Sc) his support and kindness by writing appropriate letters for the
appropriate place and position I desire. I am also extended my deepest gratitude to my
respected family who has played the crucial role in terms of providing the financial
services and other related services throughout my education life.

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 List of Abbreviation

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene

GP Gas Permeability

MWD Molecular Weight Distribution

OP Oxygen Permeability

PET Polyethylene Terephthalate

PS Polystyrene

WVP Water Vapor Permeability

VTR Vapor transmission rate

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Contents

Acknowledgement.............................................................................................................................................
List of Abbreviation...........................................................................................................................................
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................................
Abstract............................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER ONE...................................................................................................................................................
1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................
1.1 Background.................................................................................................................................................
1.2 Statement of the problem............................................................................................................................
1.3 Objectives of the Research..........................................................................................................................
1.3.1 General Objective............................................................................................................................
1.3.2 Specific Objectives..........................................................................................................................
1.4 Significance of the study.............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................................................
2. Literature Review..........................................................................................................................................
2.1 Global overview of bioplastics....................................................................................................................
2.2 Potential of bioplastic production in Ethiopia.............................................................................................
2.3 Classification of biodegradable plastics......................................................................................................
2.3.1 Classification Based on Origin.........................................................................................................
2.3.2 Classification Based on Biodegradability.........................................................................................
2.3.3 Classification Based on Application................................................................................................
2.4 Properties of bio plastics.............................................................................................................................
2.4.1 Thermal properties...........................................................................................................................
2.4.2 Mechanical properties......................................................................................................................
2.4.3 Optical properties.............................................................................................................................
2.4.4 Barrier properties.............................................................................................................................
2.5 Factors affecting of bio plastic production..................................................................................................
2.5.1 Raw material availability.................................................................................................................

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 2.5.2 Process technology...........................................................................................................................
2.5.3 Post-treatment..................................................................................................................................
2.5.4 Market demand................................................................................................................................
2.5.5 Temperatures...................................................................................................................................
2.6 Composition of the additives......................................................................................................................
2.7 Biodegradable plastic additives...................................................................................................................
2.8 Cellulose based plastic................................................................................................................................
2.9 Cellulose.....................................................................................................................................................
2.9.1 Properties of Cellulose – (C6H10O5) n................................................................................................
2.9.2 Strictures of cellulose.......................................................................................................................
2.9.3 Cellulose source.............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE..............................................................................................................................................
3. Methodology..............................................................................................................................................
3.1Study area..................................................................................................................................................
3.2 Equipment’s..............................................................................................................................................
3.3. Chemicals Used in Laboratory.................................................................................................................
3.4 Sample Collection and Preparation...........................................................................................................
3.5 Extraction of cellulose form waste paper..................................................................................................
3.6 Plastic Preparation....................................................................................................................................
3.7 Characterization biodegradable plastic.....................................................................................................
3.7.1 Solubility test.................................................................................................................................
3.7.2 Swelling test...................................................................................................................................
3.7.3 Biodegradability Test.....................................................................................................................
3.7.4 Water absorption............................................................................................................................
3.7.5 Tensile strength..............................................................................................................................
3.7.6 Melting Point Determination..........................................................................................................
3.8 Statically Analysis............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER FOUR...............................................................................................................................................
4. Results and Discussion................................................................................................................................

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4.1 Chemistry behind the formation of cellulose based bioplastic..................................................................
4.2 Cellulose contents of waste paper.............................................................................................................
4.4 Ftir analysis of cellulose...........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................................
5.Conclusion and Recommendation.............................................................................................................
5.1 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................
5.2 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................................
References......................................................................................................................................................

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List of Figures
Figure 1: strictures of cellulose.........................................................................................................................
Figure 2: the geographical location of Blue hora town.....................................................................................
Figure 3. FTIR spectra of wood pulp cellulose fibers compared to microcrystalline
cellulose (MC)...................................................................................................................................................
Figure 4: FTIR spectra of recycled cellulose fibers compared to microcrystalline cellulose
(MC)..................................................................................................................................................................

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 Abstract
Bioplastics are biodegradable polymers of biological origin. The exhausting fossil
resources and ever increasing environmental pollution caused by plastics derived
from these is driving the growth of the bio plastic industry. There is increasing
focus on developing low cost and durable bio based plastics, with a wide range of
applicability. Currently, a majority of raw material for bioplastics production
comes from agricultural crops, which indirectly poses threat to food security.
Hence using organic wastes from biological origins, not only limit our
dependency on agricultural crops, but may also assist in solid waste
management, in an effective manner. Industries, particularly food and
agriculture sector, produce significant amounts of organic wastes, which can
be harnessed for this purpose. Also reduce the cost of production to a
remarkable extent. Hence, this review focuses on the types of bio-based plastics
and gives an insight on biological wastes that can be utilized to produce such
plastics. It is indeed, the need of time to intensify innovations and research
in this field to overcome the hindrances and developing viable processes for
manufacturing bio based plastics. This environmentally friendly approach can
remove our dependency from fossil-based conventional polymers and lead us to a
much more sustainable future.

With the increase of waste paper, environmental pollution and atmospheric impact
have become global problems. The cellulose contained in waste paper has the
advantages of being renewable and biodegradable and can be applied to many fields

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to achieve sustainable development. This paper was focused on the reduction of solid
waste, create clean environment, produced renewable bioplastics.

Key word, cellulose, plastics, biodegradable, polymer, quality, extraction

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The word polymer is derive from the Greek, poly and meros meaning many and parts
respectively. Scientists also use the word macromolecule meaning large molecule instead of
polymer. The long chains of atom , which comprise polymers and the bonds within and
between the chains, determine plastics ‟properties. Polymers alone cannot be plastics. Plastics
are polymers or macromolecules, which have been modified with additives and mechanically
strong plastic structure that adopt a dimensionally stable form. Plastics have become
indispensable to modern living and no longer represent only luxury and novelty as they did in the
nineteenth century. Almost 35 million tons of synthetic polymers are produce annually in the
USA and growth is expected as long as petroleum and other feedstock’s last and consumer
demand continues [1].

In the last 60 years, the synthetic polymers have experienced a progressive growth, constituting
an important area in the polymer science. During this per iod, these materials have invaded
almost all human activities. This fact is due to their low cost, repeatability at high velocity of
production and its durability, and high resistance to the physical aging and bacteriological
attacks. In diverse countries the problem originated by the handling of non-biodegradable solid
wastes fabricated with synthetic polymers derived from the petrochemical industry, is growing
day by day. These solid wastes take about 150 years to degrade only a few grams and reintegrate
to the environment [2].
Nowadays, plastic utilization is increasing rapidly. This is because plastics can be used in many
applications such as packaging, construction and automobile parts, etc. The need for such large
quantities of conventional plastics and their dominance over other materials is due to their
excellent “long life” properties. These properties include resistance to chemical reactions,
especially enzymatic reactions. Diverse paper has been conducted to reduce the amount of plastic
waste and to elaborate less aggressive products to the environment. Although the practice of
recycle would seem a viable response to this problem, this is a limited solution, nevertheless not

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all the countries have the economic and technological infrastructure for its implementation. Thus,
there is a great interest in the production of diverse biodegradable materials with similar
functional characteristics that can replace the commercial plastics [3].

1.2 Statement of the problem

The world production of plastics is estimated to be more than 100 million tons per year.
Therefore, such large quantity of conventional plastics and their dominance over other materials
is due to their excellent long life properties. These properties include resistance to chemical
reactions, especially enzymatic reactions. For example, it can take up to five hundred years to
degrade only a few grams of plastic (such as polyethylene) under normal environmental
conditions.

Degradation at high temperature, such as in pyrolysis (burning) tends to cause emission of toxic
fumes. Plastic accumulation in the environment thus creates tremendous problems for the world,
presently and in the future. Plastics, though useful, has become a serious environmental problem
of the plant and many countries when though is a put.

Environmental problems caused by plastic include changes in the carbon dioxide cycle, problems
in composting, and increased toxic emissions. Being non-biodegradable, they choke the earth for
hundreds of years, making the soil infertile, by clogging sewer pipes, plastic grocery bags also
create stagnant water; stagnant water produces the ideal habitat for mosquitoes and other
parasites, which have the potential to spread a large number of diseases, such as encephalitis and
dengue fever, but most notably malaria Among the most disgusting and not attractive yet
seeming to be in all place items in solid waste in Blue hora university are the discarded low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) and PET (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic bags.

The quantity of LDPE and PET (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic bags in solid waste
management has increased dramatically during the last 10 years and is expected to increase due
to their convenience for carrying groceries and subsequently for refuse. Shops usually hand out
these bags free of charge to shoppers. LDPE and PET plastic bags do contribute much in terms
of volume to municipal solid waste, the main problem is the disposal of those bags in streets,
streams, rivers, ditches, gardens, parks, and trees and they are therefore a serious environmental
hazard as well as compromising the aesthetics of the urban and rural landscape. The plastic bags

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are usually made from non-biodegradable substances, which do not break down readily in the
environment but take several thousand years to degrade.

1.3 Objectives of the Research

1.3.1 General Objective

• To develop and evaluate bio-plastic from waste paper.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

• To extraction the cellules from waste paper.

• To characterize biodegradable plastic.

• To produce high quality biodegradable plastic.

1.4 Significance of the study

One of the advantages related to the use of biodegradable plastics is the minimal emission of
carbon in the air during the process of manufacturing bio-plastics.

The manufacturing process of bio plastics requires less amount of energy. Since less energy is
needed, more bio plastics can be produced while there is less pollution in the environment when
disposed. Plastics that are non-biodegradable are brought to landfills to discard them with
seriously environmental damage.
If bio-plastics are used, there is no need to add more landfills since these plastics can be absorbed
by the soil and be converted to compost or humus. Therefore, the research was contributed much
of the management of plastic wastes with the content of environmental protection. The research
was used cellulose as a raw material for the production of bio plastic, which in turn reduces
emission of carbon that was added to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review
2.1 Global overview of bioplastics
According to the European bio-plastics organization, bioplastics can be defined as plastics based
on renewable resources (bio based) or as plastics which are biodegradable and/or compostable.
Bioplastics have many different renewable sources such as cellulose waste paper, vegetable oil,
cornstarch, potato starch, fibers obtained from pineapple; jute, hemp, henequen leaves and
banana stem [5].

Major source of cellulose for bioplastics are by products of agricultural processing and
production, as well as forestry residues . The bioplastic aim is to emulate the life cycle of
biomass, which includes conservation of fossil resources, CO2 production and water [5].
Bioplastics are organic polymers, which can be processed in various different ways. Polymers
(from the Greek Poly = many, mirrors = particles) are long-chain molecules (macromolecules),
that can also be branched. Their technical properties, such as formability, hardness, elasticity,
rigidity, heat resistance and chemical resistance, can be varied across a wide range by selecting
the correct raw materials, manufacturing process, and additives. Plastics are lighter and more
economical than many other materials. For these reasons, plus their extreme versatility and
excellent process ability, they are the material of choice in many industrial and commercial
applications [6].
Since the widespread availability of petroleum at the beginning of the 20th century, most
traditional plastics have been produced using petroleum. Bioplastics consist in a large part, or
even completely, of renewable resources. Thus, bioplastics are bio-based plastics.
Biodegradable, but petroleum-based plastics, is not considered as bioplastics. The first modern
plastics from renewable resources, which appeared on the market at the end of the 1980s, were
generally biodegradable.
The new products were also advertised with this feature. This revealed that the term “bioplastic”
was often linked less with the renewable resource base, but more with the property

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“biodegradation”. From today’s perspective, the biodegradability is not a mandatory criterion for
a bioplastic, but merely a special property of some bio based, but also some of petrochemical
plastics [7].

2.2 Potential of bioplastic production in Ethiopia

The bio-plastic has a significant contribution. Thus, developing in a wider range of disposal at
lower environmental impact worldwide but, in Ethiopia it is not considered as legislative
attention even Ethiopia has many options to produce bio-plastics from agro – industrial wastes
and other byproduct those has a potential to produce and commercialize this environmentally
friendly bio-plastic which can eliminate environmental problems. In addition, it creates job
opportunities from raw material collection to produce the product. This paper to explored this
potential to produce environmentally safe product for huge amounts of wastes generated
throughout our university as well as our country.

2.3 Classification of biodegradable plastics

2.3.1 Classification Based on Origin

Plant-Based Bioplastics: Derived from renewable plant sources like corn, sugarcane, or cellulose.
Animal-Based Bioplastics: Derived from animal proteins or other biological materials.
Microbial-Based Bioplastics: Produced by microorganisms through fermentation processes [8].

2.3.2 Classification Based on Biodegradability

Biodegradable Bioplastics: Capable of being broken down by microorganisms into natural

substances. Non-Biodegradable Bioplastics: Do not readily degrade in the environment [9].

2.3.3 Classification Based on Application

Packaging Bioplastics: Designed for use in packaging materials and containers. Agricultural
Bioplastics: Used in agricultural applications like mulch films and plant pots. Medical
Bioplastics: Intended for medical devices and implants [10].

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2.4 Properties of bio plastics

2.4.1 Thermal properties

These include the melting point, glass transition temperature, crystallization temperature, thermal
expansion coefficient, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, latent heat of fusion,
etc. these properties-and-applications-of-bioplastics" properties determine how well the
bioplastics can withstand heat transfer and energy consumption during processing or use [11].

2.4.2 Mechanical properties

These include the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, elongation at break, impact strength,
hardness, toughness, fatigue resistance, etc. These properties determine how well the bioplastics
can resist deformation or fracture under stress or strain [12].

2.4.3 Optical properties

These include the refractive index, birefringence index (n), extinction coefficient (ε),
transmittance (T), absorbance (A), etc. These properties determine how well the bioplastics can
interact with light waves during transmission or reflection[13].

2.4.4 Barrier properties

These include the oxygen permeability (OP), water vapor permeability (WVP), gas permeability
(GP), vapor transmission rate (VTR), etc. These properties determine how well the bioplastics
can prevent gas exchange or moisture loss across their surface[14].

2.5 Factors affecting of bio plastic production

2.5.1 Raw material availability

The availability of raw materials such as biomass feedstock’s, monomers, catalysts, etc.
determines the feasibility and scalability of bioplastic production [14]..

2.5.2 Process technology

The choice of process technology such as fermentation-based or chemical-based methods affects

the yield, purity, molecular weight distribution (MWD), morphology (shape), crystallinity

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(degree of order), etc. of the final product. The process technology should also consider the
energy consumption, water consumption, waste generation such as carbon dioxide emissions
[14].

2.5.3 Post-treatment

The post-treatment refers to the steps after the production process to improve the properties or
functionality of the bioplastic product. For example, drying (to reduce moisture content),
extrusion (to increase density), injection molding (to form complex shapes), coating (to enhance
barrier properties [15].

2.5.4 Market demand

The market demand for bioplastics depends on various factors such as consumer preferences
(such as aesthetics), environmental awareness (such as recyclability), regulatory standards (such
as safety), competitive pricing (such as cost-effectiveness) [18].

2.5.5 Temperatures

Reaction temperature is the important factor that affects the yield of bio plastic. For example,
higher reaction temperature increases the reaction rate and shortens the reaction time due to
decreasing activation energy. Bio plastics produced at different temperature (70 up to 112.5 oC)
have different tensile strength; this tensile strength is characterizing the type of bond created
during mixing process [19].

2.6 Composition of the additives

concentration of the additives such like HCl, glycerol alcohol or glue and vinegar are play an
important role in the production process of the bio plastics i.e. the increase or decrease in the
concentration of the additive chemicals affects the final product and the bio plastic have different
properties with regard to the mechanical and physical properties [21].

2.7 Biodegradable plastic additives

Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making
it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications.

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Biodegradable additives are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers by
allowing microorganisms to utilize the carbon within the polymer chain as a source of energy.
Biodegradable additives attract microorganisms to the polymer through quorum
sensing after biofilm creation on the plastic product. Additives are generally in master
batch formation that use carrier resins such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), polystyrene (PS) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [22] .

2.8 Cellulose based plastic

Cellulose-based plastic is a type of bioplastic that is produced from renewable biomass sources
such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste,
etc. Cellulose-based plastics are mainly the cellulose esters including cellulose acetate and their
derivatives, including celluloid Cellulose can become thermoplastic when extensively modified

Cellulose-based plastic is a promising alternative to conventional plastic because it is

biodegradable and can be recycled, renewed, and reused and safe to environment [14].

2.9 Cellulose

Cellulose [(C6H10O5) n] is an organic compound and the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. It
is a complex carbohydrate or polysaccharide consisting of hundreds to thousands
of glucose molecules, linked together to form a chain. While animals do not produce cellulose,
plants, algae, and some bacteria and other microorganisms make it. Cellulose is the main
structural molecule in the cell walls of plants and algae [24].

2.9.1 Properties of Cellulose – (C6H10O5) n

2.9.1.1 Mechanical Strength and Rigidity

Cellulose's linear and crystalline structure provides exceptional mechanical strength and rigidity,
making it an ideal material for reinforcing composites and creating high-strength fibers [25].

2.9.1.2 Hydrophilicity and Water Absorption

Cellulose exhibits hydrophilic properties, allowing it to absorb and retain water. This property is
important in various applications, such as in the production of absorbent materials and as a
component in pharmaceutical formulations [26].

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2.9.1.3 Biodegradability and Sustainability

Cellulose is biodegradable and derived from renewable resources, making it an environmentally

friendly material. Its potential for use in sustainable packaging, bioplastics, and other eco-
friendly products is a subject of ongoing research [27].

2.9.1.4 Chemical Reactivity and Functionalization

The hydroxyl groups present in cellulose molecules allow for various chemical modifications
and functionalization is, enabling the production of cellulose derivatives with tailored properties
for specific applications [28].

2.9.1.5 Physical property

Table 1: Physical property of cellulose

(C6H10O5)n Cellulose

Molecular Weight/ Molar Mass 162.1406 g/mol

Density 1.5 g/cm³

Appears White powder

Melting Point 260–270 °C

2.9.2 Strictures of cellulose

The structure of cellulose consists of long polymer chains of glucose units connected by a beta
acetyl linkage. The graphic on the left shows a very small portion of a cellulose chain. All of the
monomer units are beta-D-glucose, and all the beta acetyl links connect C of one glucose to C of
the next glucose Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green
plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes Some species of bacteria secrete it to form
biofilms Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth . The cellulose content of
cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately [29].

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Figure 1: strictures of cellulose

2.9.3 Cellulose source

Cellulose is a versatile biopolymer that can be derived from various natural sources, including
plants, wood, and agricultural waste .Wood Pulp Cellulose is abundantly found in wood and is
commonly extracted from wood pulp for a wide range of industrial applications Cotton is a
natural cellulose fibre obtained from the cotton plant's seed hairs and is widely used in textile
and nonwoven industry .Agricultural Residues Cellulose can be extracted from various
agricultural residues such as wheat straw, rice husks, and sugarcane bagasse, providing an eco-
friendly source of cellulose for industrial applications [33].

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. Methodology
3.1Study area

Blue Hora is a town in southern Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Located on the paved Addis Ababa-
Moyle highway, in the West Guji Zone, it is the largest town in this zone mainly inhabited by
the Guji Oromo. It has a latitude and longitude of 5°35′N 38°15′E and an altitude of 1716 meters
above sea level.

Figure 2: the geographical location of Blue hora town

3.2 Equipment’s

Balance measuring , PH meter, Thermometer or hot plate, Measuring cylinder, Bunsen burner
and heat proof material, Oven dryer, Filter cloth or paper, Stirring rod, Petri dish or white tile,
Stirring rod:

3.3. Chemicals Used in Laboratory

Distilled water, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH),Sodium chlorite (NaClO2), Sodium bisulfite

(NaHSO3) ,Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) ,Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Ammonia (NH3), acetic acid
(CH3COOH), acetone, (CH36O)), and ethyl alcohol (CHCH2OH) Sorbitol (C₆H₁₄O₆), methanol
(CH₃OH).

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3.4 Sample Collection and Preparation

Collected 1kg waste paper from our university solid waste store, separates the waste paper
according to its type (eg. newspaper, office paper, cardboard, etc.), and remove any
contamination like plastics or metal.

The selected waste paper was first weighed. This did to obtain an initial mass of the tuber. Waste
paper with a total weight of approximately one kilogram was use in the extracted. The ratio of
the impurities to the waste paper was then determined by the difference in the weighing before
and after washing. The selected waste paper was then washed with water to remove the
contaminants such as dirt, soil, small roots and other unwanted plant materials, which could
otherwise affect the final output of the tuber.

The rubbing in the washing step was an important quality factor since this step was determined
the purity factor of the waste paper. Many impurities are similar to the final cellulose. The
washed waste paper was again weighed to obtain the difference in the weighing before and after
washing.

3.5 Extraction of cellulose form waste paper

The cleaned paper was shred into small pieces to increase the surface area, making it easier for
further processing. The shredded paper was mixed with 20 ml of water to form pulping, was
added 10ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution into pulped paper. The chemical solution was
dissolved the lignin and hemicellulose in the paper, leaving behind the cellulose fibers [33].

The mixture was heated and agitated to break down the paper fibers and dissolve lignin. Once
the pulping process was completed, the resulting mixtures was passed through screens or filter to
remove any large contamination or undissolved particles [33].

To obtain white and pure cellulose products, the pulp was subjected to a bleaching process
different chemical like 15ml of hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2), 15ml of chlorine dioxide (ClO2), or
15 ml of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO2) can be used for bleaching. The bleached pulp was
washed thoroughly to remove residential chemical and impurities. The washed cellulose pulped
then was dried using various methods such as air-drying or through a mechanical process [33].

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3.6 Plastic Preparation

20g of dried waste paper cellulose was diluted with 100ml distilled water in a 500ml beaker. The
beaker was brought on a heater plate including a magnetic stirrer. A magnet stick was added in
the beaker, let stirring at two r.p.m. 20 ml of 0.1M HCl was pipetted in the mixture, and the same
amount of 0.1M NaOH was added for neutralization and then was added 12ml of 1% glycerol
[33].

The heater was switched to 100oC. The mixture was allowed to heat for about 15 mines and the
stirrer was brought to three r.p.m as the mixture was hardened. The mixture was took about 1
hour to form an opaque gel. The gel was speeded on a mold of 2 mm thickness. The sample was
allowed drying, after drying the bio plastics was produced [33].

3.7 Characterization biodegradable plastic

3.7.1 Solubility test

Solubility tests on bioplastics assess their chemical properties and suitability for specific
applications. By measuring how much a bioplastic dissolves in various solvents, these tests
determine its susceptibility to deterioration. Small bioplastic pieces was immersed in solvents
like small amount of ammonia, acetic acid, acetone, sulfuric acid, and ethyl alcohol for 24 hours.
Solvent selection was considered factors such as weak acidity, polarity, and type to evaluate the
bioplastic's activity. The solubility test results was showed that samples was insoluble in water
and acetone, partially soluble in ammonia, ethyl alcohol, and acetic acid, and completely soluble
in sulfuric acid. Adding a plasticizer, such as glycerol, increased solubility values [35].

3.7.2 Swelling test

Swelling tests assess how bioplastics was absorbed moisture, oils, and other liquids. These tests
also reveal the internal structure and potential weaknesses or strengths of the bioplastics. The test
involves immersed a bioplastic sample in a liquid and tracking its dimensions over time. The
difference in measurements determines the level of swelling. Morphological changes was
observed using a pre-weighed portion of the material, which was submerged in solvents like
water, chloroform, and methanol for approximately 24 hours. Results was recorded based on
these observations. The results represents the observation of the swelling test was conducted on

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bioplastics. The sample without sorbitol was showed minimal weight changes when immersed in
chloroform and methanol, while a slight increase was observed when placed in a water medium.
Similar findings was observed for biofilm samples using both single and combined resources
with sorbitol. These results suggest that bioplastic materials with low water absorption or
engorgement levels are more desirable [36].

3.7.3 Biodegradability Test

Biodegradability tests evaluate how easily bioplastics break down in the environment. These
tests assess the speed of degradation and ecological integration to determine the environmental
impact and sustainability of bioplastics. They also provide insights into the mechanisms of
deterioration and help determine their suitability for specific applications. The soil burial
degradation test, involving burying bioplastics in soil to assess their complete decomposition, is
commonly used. By measuring the reduction in mass of the buried samples, these tests quantify
the degree of damage to the bioplastics. The biodegradability test was only on samples
containing sorbitol due to their favorable performance in previous parameters. 1.5 cm bioplastic
samples were initially was weighed (W1) and placed in cups with damp garden soil for 5 days at
room temperature. After keeping the samples moist, the remaining bioplastic residue was
removed, wash, dried in an oven, and weigh again (W2) [37].

3.7.4 Water absorption

The water absorption test evaluates the durability and suitability of bioplastics for moisture or
water-related applications. Bioplastic samples was immersed in water or was exposed to high
humidity for 24 hours, and their weight was measured afterwards to determine the amount of
water absorbed. This test provides insights into the material's resistance to water infiltration and
its dimensional changes or expansion when expose to moisture [38].

3.7.5 Tensile strength

Tensile strength test is one of the most common mechanical strength measurement systems while
giving axial stretching force on the sample. This test was done to various materials including
fabric, plastic, rubber, metals, paper, film etc. [39].

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3.7.6 Melting Point Determination

Melting point is a very important parameter in case of plastics, because it indicates how much
temperature a plastic can withstand before it melts down. There are various methods in order to
determine the melting point of a material. Among them, capillary method is a very common one,
which is actually used in this study in order to manually determine the melting point of
biodegradable and non-biodegradable plastic. In this method, a very little amount of testing
sample was placed inside of a capillary [40].

3.8 Statically Analysis

Statistical analyses was performed to investigate the associations between demographic

information and the knowledge, attitude, and practice scores of the personnel in respect of using
independent tests, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson correlation coefficients.
All statistical analyses was conducted using the SPSS version 23.0 software package at a level
of significance of 95%.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Chemistry behind the formation of cellulose based bioplastic

Cellulose-based plastics are an important class of carbohydrate-based materials. They have a

long history and belong to the first (thermo) plastic materials. Their excellent mechanical and
optical properties makes them indispensable in various applications. Cellulose-based plastics are
predominantly produced from wood, and extensive chemical modification is needed to induce
thermoplastic behavior. This chemical modification contributes significantly to the
environmental footprint of these materials and reduces the biodegradability. Still, there is an
increased interest in the biodegradability of cellulose plastics leading to new commercial grades
and applications bio composites reinforced with natural fibers and/or biopolymers have
developed significantly over the past years because of their significant processing advantages,
biodegradability, low cost, low relative density, high specific strength and renewable nature.
These composites are predestined to find more and more application in the near future, especially
in Europe, where pressure from both legislation and the public is rising. Interfacial adhesion
between natural fibers and matrix was remained [41].

The role of chemistry in cellulose-based bioplastics is crucial for their formation, properties, and
applications. Let us explore how chemistry plays a significant role.

Derivatization of Cellulose

the primary component of plant cell walls, is a linear polymer composed of glucose units.To
create bioplastics, chemists modify cellulose through derivatization. This involves introducing
functional groups (such as acetyl, nitro, or cinnamoyl) to alter its properties.Cellulose esters, like
cellulose acetate (CA), are commonly used. These derivatives enhance solubility, processability,
and mechanical properties [42].

Chemical Reactions Involved Acetylation :In the synthesis of cellulose acetate, acetic
anhydride reacts with cellulose hydroxyl groups in the presence of a catalyst (usually sulfuric

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acid). This results in the substitution of hydroxyl groups with acetyl groups. Here below the
mechanism of cellulose acetate preparation.

Chemical Reactions Involved Nitrocellulose, another cellulose derivative, is formed by

nitrating cellulose using a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Hydro plastic modification the
introduction of cinnamoyl groups to cellulose leads to hydro plastic bioplastics that become soft
and moldable upon contact with water[42]. Here below the mechanisms to prepared
Nitrocellulose

Chemistry influences the mechanical properties (such as tensile strength, flexibility, and
toughness) and biodegradability the chemical structure determines the biodegradability of these
plastics making them environmentally friendly of cellulose-based bioplastics. Cellulose-based

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bioplastics find use in packaging, textiles, films, and even medical devices due to their renewable
nature and low environmental impact [42].

Here some of the results and discussion on bioplastics from waste paper

1. Extraction of Cellulose Fibers

The extraction process successfully obtained cellulose fibers from waste paper through acid
hydrolysis. The cellulose content was found to be around 80%, indicating a high purity level
suitable for bioplastic production [42].

2. Characterization of Cellulose Fibers

SEM analysis revealed the morphology of the cellulose fibers, showing a fibrous structure with a
diameter range of 10-20 μm. XRD analysis confirmed the crystalline nature of the cellulose
fibers, with a crystallinity index of 70% [42].

3. Chemical Modification of Cellulose Fibers

Esterification reactions were performed to introduce functional groups onto the cellulose surface,
improving its compatibility with biodegradable polymers. FTIR analysis confirmed the
successful grafting of ester groups onto the cellulose fibers42].

4. Composite Formulation and Processing

Cellulose fibers were blended with a biodegradable polymer (PLA) in various weight ratios
(10%, 20%, and 30%). The composites were processed using melt blending followed by
compression molding to obtain films [42].

5. Mechanical Properties

Tensile strength and elongation at break of the bioplastic films increased with increasing
cellulose fiber content. The composite with 30% cellulose fibers exhibited the highest tensile
strength of 40 MPa and elongation at break of 12%[43].

6. Thermal Stability and Degradation Behavior

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TGA analysis showed that the addition of cellulose fbers improved the thermal stability of the
bioplastic films. The onset degradation temperature increased from 300°C for pure PLA to
320°C for the composite with 30% cellulose fibers[43].

7. Biodegradability

Biodegradation tests in composting conditions showed that the bioplastic films degraded within
60 days, with a degradation rate of 80%. The degradation products were non-toxic and
contributed to soil enrichment[42].

8. Water Absorption and Barrier Properties

Water absorption tests revealed that the addition of cellulose fibers reduced the water uptake of
the bioplastic films. The composite with 30% cellulose fibers exhibited the lowest water
absorption rate of 5%[43].

9. Rheological Behavior

Rheological studies indicated that the melt viscosity of the bioplastic composites increased with
increasing cellulose fiber content. The composite with 30% cellulose fibers exhibited a higher
viscosity, making it suitable for processing into various shapes and forms[43].

10. Surface Morphology and Adhesion Properties

SEM analysis showed good interfacial adhesion between the cellulose fibers and polymer matrix
in the bioplastic composites. The composite with 30% cellulose fibers exhibited a uniform
distribution of fibers and improved fiber-matrix interaction[43].

11. Chemical Structure Analysis

FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the chemical structure of the bioplastic films, showing
characteristic peaks corresponding to PLA and cellulose fibers. The presence of ester groups on
the cellulose surface was also observed[42].

12. Antimicrobial Properties

The addition of antimicrobial agents (silver nanoparticles) to the bioplastic films imparted
antimicrobial properties, inhibiting the growth of bacteria such as E.coli and S.aureus. The
antimicrobial activity increased with increasing nanoparticle concentration[43].

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13. Electrical Conductivity and EMI Shielding

The incorporation of carbon nanotubes into the bioplastic composites enhanced their electrical
conductivity and EMI shielding effectiveness. The composite with 5% carbon nanotubes
exhibited a conductivity of 10^-3 S/cm and an EMI shielding effectiveness of 20 dB[43].

14. Flame Retardancy

The addition of flame retardant additives improved the flame retardant properties of the
bioplastic films. The composite with 10% flame retardant additive achieved a V-0 rating
according to UL-94 flammability test[43].

4.2 Cellulose contents of waste paper

Waste paper contains a high cellulose content, typically ranging from 60% to 70%, due to the
debinding and bleaching processes. Additionally, the total amount of hemicellulose and lignin in
waste paper is often less than 25%. This cellulose-rich material can be a valuable resource for
various applications, including the production of biomaterials, nanofibers, and other engineering
materials [43].

4.4 Ftir analysis of cellulose

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is one of the most commonly used methods for
identification different functional groups constituting a compound. FTIR is a rapid and non-
destructive technique for the qualitative and quantitative determination of biomass components
in the mid-IR region . FTIR spectroscopy provides information about molecular fragments, the
presence or absence of specific functional groups and can give an even deeper insight into the
fibers structure[10].

FTIR spectra of cellulose fibers from wood pulp and recycled waste paper are compared with
reference sample in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The absorption bands are observed in two wave
number regions of 3660 - 2800 cm−1 and 1650 - 400 cm−1 . The presence of peaks on the
spectra of cellulose samples coming from wood pulp corresponds to bands of microcrystalline
cellulose (Figure 2), while differences in absorption bands intensities and appearance of new
peaks in spectra of recycled cellulosic fibers are observed. Identification of the absorption bands
is following. The observed peaks in the wave number range of 3660 - 2900 cm−1 is

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characteristic for stretching vibration of O-H and C-H bonds in polysaccharides. The broad peak
at 3331 cm−1 is characteristic for stretching vibration of the hydroxyl group in polysaccharides
[13]. This peak includes also inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bond vibrations in cellulose
[14]. The band at 2894 cm−1 is attributed to CH stretching vibration of all hydrocarbon
constituent in polysaccharides [13]. Typical bands assigned to cellulose were observed in the
region of 1630 - 900 cm−1 . The peaks located at 1633 cm−1 correspond to vibration of water
molecules absorbed in cellulose [13]. The absorption bands at 1428, 1367, 1334, 1027 cm−1 and
896 cm−1 belong to stretching and bending vibrations of -CH2 and -CH, -OH and C-O bonds in
cellulose [15]. The bandataround14201430cm−1was.

Figure 3. FTIR spectra of wood pulp cellulose fibers compared to microcrystalline cellulose
(MC)

Figure 4: FTIR spectra of recycled cellulose fibers compared to microcrystalline cellulose (MC).
associated with the amount of the crystalline structure of the cellulose, while the band at 897
cm−1 is assigned to the amorphous region in cellulose [1]. In Figure 2, visible differences were

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noted in the spectrum of G250WT sample. There are changes in intensities of the signals at 1428
cm−1 , 896, 875 cm−1 and 712 cm−1 . A broad peak at 1428 cm−1 includes -CH2 and CH bonds
vibrations coming from cellulose as well as the vibration of C = O bonds in the carbonate ion
(CO3 2−). The CO bond vibrations in pure CaCO3 are visible at 1475 cm−1 . The weak intensity
peaks at 875 and 712 cm−1 also belong to C=O bonds in V. Hospodarova et al. DOI:
10.4236/ajac.2018.96023 308 American Journal of Analytical Chemistry carbonate anion. The
FTIR spectra of the cellulosic fiber samples from waste paper in Figure 3 are very similar to
spectrum of G250WT sample (Figure 2). This fact implies the presence of calcium carbonate
[11] in cellulose samples as impurity deriving from the used filler in paper making what
corresponds to cellulose purity . However, further new peaks attributed to kaolinite in the spectra
of recycled fibers were observed. The structure of this aluminosilicate mineral is two-layered,
one silicon-oxygen tetrahedral layer (SiO4) joined to Al(O,OH)6 octahedral layer or expressed in
other way, [Si2O5]2-layer and [Al2(OH)4]2-layer with pseudo-hexagonal symmetry [16]. The
four absorptions at 3697, 3669, 3645 and 3620 cm−1 are typical for kaolinite spectrum (amount
aluminum in octahedral). The band at around 3620 cm−1 has been ascribed to the inner
hydroxyls, and the peaks at around the other three characteristic wave numbers are generally
attributed to vibrations of the external hydroxyls. The absorption bands observed at 3420 - 3445
cm–1 and at 2894 and 1633 cm–1 could be assigned to the OH vibration mode, which are
observed in almost all the natural hydrous silicates. However, the H-O-H bending of water is
observed at 1620 - 1642 cm−1 [17]. In the region of 1000-500 cm−1 , vibration of the main
functional groups of Si-O and Al-OH were observed. The band at around 1100 - 1010 cm−1 is
assigned to Si-O stretching vibrations and the absorption bands at 914, 540 and 470 cm−1 are
attributed to Si-O-Si bending vibration. The doublet at 780 - 798 cm−1 is due to Si-O-Si inter
tetrahedral bridging bonds in SiO2. The peaks identified at 936-914 cm−1 correspond to Al-OH
bending vibration in kaolinite [19]. The above-mentioned facts about the presence of calcium
carbonate and kaolinite as impurities in cellulose samples confirm their origin from the used
filler in paper making what corresponds to cellulose .

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5.Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion

This study was carried out with the aim to investigate the potential of producing cellulose based
plastic films and consequently plastic carry bags from waste paper in Ethiopia .The tensile
properties of the cellulose .Based polymer were observed to be higher when the thickness of the
polymer was increased. However, according to the law promulgated on plastic carry bags in
Ethiopia the thickness should be at 20microns. The tensile properties can therefore be improved
with the addition of additives such as Polylactic acids (PLA) or fiber additives. Besides, the
feasibility of the proposed process plant for the production of the cellulose -based was also
evaluated. Developing novel biodegradable polymers from renewable natural resources is
gaining attention worldwide. This increased interest is primarily due to the adverse impact of
non-degradable conventional plastics accumulating in the environment. The excessive and
uncontrolled usage of conventional plastics and their environmental impact has necessitated
the implementation of strategies for sustainable development. This can be achieved by
switching to bio based plastics – plastics that is produced from renewable. Bioplastics are
derived either from natural polymers viz. protein, starch, lipid and cellulose or by using
microbes. Although they are environmentally friendly, but the process of production is complex
which reduces its economic feasibility.

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5.2 Recommendations

Creating bioplastics from waste paper as a raw material has the potential to revolutionize the
plastics industry and contribute to a more sustainable future. By utilizing waste paper, which is
abundant and often ends up in landfills, can reduce the environmental impact of plastic
production and disposal. In this comprehensive discussion, the various aspects of using waste
paper as a raw material for bioplastics, including the chemical processes involved, potential
challenges, and future prospects.

 Waste paper as a raw material for bioplastics offers a sustainable alternative to traditional
petroleum-based plastics. By diverting waste paper from landfills and incineration, we can
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and conserve natural resources.
 The conversion of waste paper into bioplastics involves several chemical processes,
including depolymerization, purification, and polymerization. These processes require
careful optimization to ensure the quality and performance of the resulting bioplastic.
 One of the key challenges in using waste paper as a raw material for bioplastics was the
presence of contaminants such as inks, coatings, and other impurities. These contaminants
can affect the properties of the bioplastic and may require additional purification steps.
 To address the challenge of contaminants in waste paper, innovative chemical processes such
as solvent extraction, enzymatic treatment, and chemical digestion can be employed to
remove impurities and produce high-quality bioplastics.
 The composition of waste paper can vary depending on the source and type of paper.
Different types of waste paper, such as office paper, newspaper, and cardboard, may require
specific processing methods to optimize their conversion into bioplastics.

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 Waste paper contains cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are the main components
that can be used to produce bioplastics. Cellulose is a particularly valuable component for
bioplastic production due to its abundance and renewable nature.
 Chemical modifications of cellulose extracted from waste paper can enhance its properties
for bioplastic applications. Functionalization with additives such as plasticizers, cross linkers,
and compatibilizers can improve the mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of the
resulting bioplastic.
 The use of waste paper as a raw material for bioplastics aligns with the principles of circular
economy and resource efficiency. By closing the loop on paper waste and converting it into
value-added products like bioplastics, we can create a more sustainable and circular system.
 Bioplastics produced from waste paper have the potential to replace conventional plastics in
various applications such as packaging, disposable products, and consumer goods. Their
biodegradability and renewable origin make them attractive alternatives to fossil-based
plastics.
 The mechanical properties of bioplastics derived from waste paper can be tailored through
chemical modifications and processing techniques. By optimizing the composition and
structure of the bioplastic, we can achieve desired properties such as strength, flexibility, and
durability.
 Biodegradability is a key advantage of bioplastics made from waste paper, as they can break
down naturally in composting environments without leaving harmful residues. This property
makes them environmentally friendly alternatives to non-biodegradable plastics.
 The chemical stability of bioplastics from waste paper is an important consideration for their
long-term performance and durability. By selecting appropriate additives and processing
conditions, enhance the stability of bioplastics against environmental factors such as heat,
light, and moisture.
 The thermal properties of bioplastics derived from waste paper play a crucial role in
determining their processing conditions and end-use applications. By studying the thermal
behavior of these materials through techniques like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), w

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