17

Engineering Materials
Chapter Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn about:

 Introduction to engineering materials  Other important engineering materials
 Mechanical properties of materials such as timber, abrasive material, silica,
ceramics, glass, graphite, diamond, plas-
 Ferrous materials
tic, polymer, and composite material
 Nonferrous materials

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering materials play a vital role in this modern age of science and technology. Various kinds
of materials are used in industry to meet the requirements of human beings. The selection of a
specific material for a particular use is a very complex process. However, one can simplify the
choice if the details about use parameters, manufacturing processes, functional requirements, and
cost considerations are known. While selecting materials for engineering purposes, properties such
as impact strength, tensile strength, and hardness indicate the suitability for selection but the design
engineer will have to make sure that the radiography and other properties of the material are as per
the specifications.
In recent years, polymeric materials or plastics have gained considerable popularity as engineer-
ing materials. Though inferior to most metallic materials in strength and temperature resistance,
these are being used not only in corrosive environment but also in places where minimum wear
is required, e.g., small gear wheels, originally produced from hardened steels, are now manufac-
tured from nylon or teflon. These materials perform satisfactorily, are quiet, and do not require
lubrication.

17.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The important mechanical properties are listed below:
 Tensile strength: This enables the material to resist the application of a tensile force. The internal
structure of the material provides the internal resistance to withstand the tensile force. Ultimate
 Engineering Materials 413

strength is the unit stress, measured in kg per square millimetre, developed in the material by
the maximum slowly applied load that material can withstand without rupturing in a tensile test.
 Shear strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the shear force applied on the material.
 Compressive strength: It is the ability of a material to withstand pressures acting on a given plane.
 Elasticity: It is the property of material due to which it returns to its original shape and size after
releasing the load. Any material that is subjected to an external load is distorted or strained.
Elastically stressed materials return to their original dimensions when the load is released.
 Hardness: It is the degree of resistance to indentation, scratching, abrasion, and wear. Alloying
techniques and heat treatment help to achieve the same.
 Ductility: This is the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires or elon-
gated before rupture takes place. It depends upon the grain size of the metal crystals.
 Malleability: It is the property of a metal to be deformed or compressed permanently into the sheet
without fracture. It shows the ability of the material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets.
 Impact strength: It is the energy required per unit cross-sectional area to fracture a specimen, i.e.,
it is a measure of the response of a material to shock loading.
 Toughness: It is ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture or rupture. It may be pre-
sented as impact strength of the material.
 Brittleness: The term ‘brittleness’ implies sudden failure. It is the property of breaking without
warning, i.e., without visible permanent deformation.
 Wear resistance: The ability of a material to resist friction wear under particular conditions, i.e.,
to maintain its physical dimensions when in sliding or rolling contact with a second member.
 Corrosion resistance: Those metals and alloys which can withstand the corrosive action
of a medium, i.e., corrosion processes precede in them at a relatively low rate are termed
corrosion-resistant.
 Density: This is an important factor of a material where weight and thus the mass is critical, i.e.,
aircraft components.

17.3 MECHANICAL TESTING OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

17.3.1 Tensile Test
Hook’s law: Hook’s law states that stress and strain are proportional to each other under elastic
limit. Originally, Hooke’s law specified that stress was proportional to strain but Thomas Young
introduced a constant of proportionality which is known as Young’s modulus. Further, this name was
superseded by modulus of elasticity.
σ
E=
∈

where E is modulus of elasticity, s is stress, and ∈ is strain.

Stress–Strain Diagram
Stress–strain diagram can be drawn with the help of Universal Testing Machine (UTM). To draw
stress–strain diagram a specimen is fixed in the jaws of UTM. Gauge length of the specimen is fixed
according to its diameter. Now, gradually increasing tensile load is applied on the specimen and
extension is recorded by extensometer corresponding to the load shown by dial. Two types of curve
414 Basic Mechanical Engineering

are plotted. Solid line shows engineering stress–strain diagram and dotted line shows true stress–
strain diagram as shown in Figure 17.1.
A stress–strain diagram is a graph that represents how a part behaves under an increasing load
and is often used by engineers when selecting materials for specific designs. A stress–strain diagram
generally contains three parts:

1. Elastic deformation: The elastic deformation portion of the stress-strain diagram is generally
represented as a linear relationship between stress and strain. If the load is released while the
specimen is in the elastic deformation zone, it will return to its original dimensions.
2. Plastic deformation: In the plastic deformation portion of the stress-strain diagram, the speci-
men begins to yield. The maximum strength of the specimen occurs in this zone, and the
carried load begins to drop off as the deformation increases. The specimen endures some
permanent deformation that remains after the load is released.
3. Rupture: The point at which a specimen breaks into two parts.

Stress–strain diagrams are generated experimentally through the performance of controlled ten-
sile tests using precisely fabricated test specimens. The applied load and displacement are monitored
during the test and are used to calculate stress and strain, respectively.

Proportional Limit (Hooke’s Law): From the origin O to proportional limit, the stress–strain curve
is linear in nature. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force was first noticed by
Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke’s Law that within the proportional limit, the stress
is directly proportional to strain or s ∝ ∈ or s = k ∈. The constant of proportionality is called the
Modulus of Elasticity, E or Young’s Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress–strain diagram
from O to P, i.e., s = E ∈.

Actual rupture strength

x
U – Ultimate strength
x

xx
x R – Rupture strength
Stress, s

Y – Yield point

E – Elastic limit

P – Proportional limit

O Strain, e
Figure 17.1 Stress-strain Diagram for Medium Carbon Steel
 Engineering Materials 415

Elastic Limit: The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress under which there is no perma-
nent or residual deformation after removal of this load.
Elastic and Plastic Ranges: The region in stress–strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic
range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point: Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength: The maximum ordinate in the stress–strain diagram is the ultimate strength or
tensile strength. Necking starts from this point.
Rapture Strength: Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture point. This is also
known as the breaking strength.
Modulus of Resilience: Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from O to P, in N m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the
stress–strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The
resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness: Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from O to R, in N m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the
entire stress–strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy
without causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety: Working stress is defined as the actual
stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is
termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding
the proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately,
the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of
safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the
factor of safety.
The relationship between gauge length and cross-sectional area of the tensile test specimen can
be given as Lgauge = 5.65 A , where A is area of cross section.

17.3.2 Hardness
Hardness means as the resistance to penetration. Testing for hardness can be divided into three
categories:
1. Scratch tests.
2. Rebound tests.
3. Indentation tests.
Scratch tests involve comparatively scratching progressively harder materials. Mohs hardness
scale is used for the test. Diamond, the hardest material, is assigned a value of 10. Decreasing values
are assigned to other minerals, down to 1 for the soft mineral, such as talc. Decimal fractions are
used for materials intermediate between the standard ones where a material lies on the Mohs scale is
416 Basic Mechanical Engineering

determined by a simple manual scratch test. If two materials are compared, the harder one is capable
of scratching the softer one, but not vice versa. This allows materials to be ranked as to hardness, and
decimal values between the standard ones are assigned as a matter of judgment.
Rebound test employs techniques to assess the resilience of material by measuring changes in
potential energy. For example, the Scleroscope hardness test employs a hammer with a rounded
diamond tip. This hammer is dropped from a fixed height onto the surface of the material being
tested. The hardness number is proportional to the height of rebound of the hammer with the scale
for metals being set so that fully hardened tool steel has a value of 100. A modified version is also
used for polymers.
Indentation tests produce a permanent impression on the surface of the material. The force and
size of the impression can be related to a quantity (hardness) which can be related to the resistance
of the material to permanent penetration. Because the hardness is a function of the force and size of
the impression, the pressure (stress) used to create the impression can be related to both the yield
and ultimate strengths of materials. Several different types of hardness tests have evolved over the
years. These include macrohardness test such as Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell and microhardness
tests such as Knoop and Tukon.

Brinell Hardness Test: In this test, a steel ball is used with a P = 3,000 kg
relatively large force. The force is usually varied for different or 500 kg
materials. The Brinell hardness number is obtained by divid-
ing the applied force, P, in kg, by the actual surface area of the
Steel ball D = 10 mm
indentation which is a segment of a sphere.
t
P 2P
BHN = = d
(
π Dt π D − D 2 − d 2
) Side view

where D is diameter of the ball in mm, d is diameter of the indentation at the surface in mm, and t is
the depth of the indentation from the surface.
Brinell hardness is good for averaging heterogeneities over a relatively large area, thus lessen-
ing the influence of scratches or surface roughness. However, the large ball size precludes the use
of Brinell hardness for small objects or critical components where large indentations may promote
failure. Another limitation of the Brinell hardness test is that because of the spherical shape of the
indenter ball, the BHN for the same material will not be the same for different loads if the same size
ball is used. Thus, geometric similitude must be imposed by maintaining the ratio of the indentation
load and indenter.
P1 P P
= 2 = 3
D1 D2 D3

The load on the ball depends on its diameter. The ratio of load and square of ball diameter
P P
varies for different materials, for example, for steel 2 = 30, for copper 2 = 10, and for alu-
D D
minium P2 = 5.
D
Vickers Hardness Test: In Vickers hardness test, the principle of operation is same as in Brinell
hardness test. However, a four-sided diamond pyramid is implied as an indenter rather than a ball
 Engineering Materials 417

a = 136°
A d h

Figure 17.2 Vickers Hardness Test

to promote geometric similarity of indentation regardless of indentation load (Figure 17.2). The
included angle between the faces of the pyramid is 136°. The resulting Vickers indentation has a
depth (h) equal to 1/7 of the indentation size (L) measured on the diagonal. The Vickers hardness is
obtained by dividing the applied force by the surface area of the impression.

2P α
VHN = sin
L2 2

where P is the indentation load which typically ranges from 0.1 to 1 kg but may be as high as 120 kg,
L is the diagonal of the indentation in mm, and a is the included angle of 136°. The main advantage
of the Vickers hardness is that the result is independent of load. However, disadvantage is that it is
somewhat slow since careful surface preparation is required. In addition, the result may be prone to
personal error in measuring the diagonal length along with interpretation.
Rockwell Hardness Test: The Rockwell test is the most commonly used hardness test. In this test,
penetration depth is measured, with the hardness reported as the inverse of the penetration depth.
A two-step procedure is used. The first step ‘sets’ the indenter in the material and the second steps the
actual indentation test. The conical diamond or spherical indenter tips produce indentation depths,
the inverse of which are used to display hardness on the test machine directly. The reported hardness
is in arbitrary units, but the Rockwell scale which identifies the indentation load and indenter tip
must be reported with the hardness number. Rockwell scales include those in Table 17.1.

17.4 IMPACT TEST

The behaviour of a material is also dependent on the rate at which the load is applied. For example,
low-carbon steel shows a considerable increase in yield strength with increasing rate of strain. In
addition, increased work hardening occurs at high strain rates. This results in reduced local neck-
ing, hence, a greater overall material ductility occurs. In design applications, impact situations
418 Basic Mechanical Engineering

Table 17.1 Rockwell Scale and Major Loads

Rockwell scale Indenter Major load
A Brale 60
B 1/16” ball 100
C Brale 150
D Brale 100
E 1/8” ball 100
F 1/16” ball 60
M ¼1/4” ball 100

are frequently encountered, such as cylinder head bolts, in which it is necessary for the part to
absorb a certain amount of energy without failure. In the static test, this energy absorption ability is
called ‘toughness’ and is indicated by the modulus of rupture. A similar ‘toughness’ measurement is
required for dynamic loadings; this measurement is made with a standard impact test known as the
Izod or Charpy test. When using one of these impact tests, a small notched specimen is broken in
fixture by a single blow from a swinging pendulum. With the Charpy test, the specimen is supported
as a simple beam, while in the Izod it is held as a cantilever. Figure 17.3 shows standard configura-
tions for Izod and Charpy impact tests.
A standard Charpy impact test machine consists essentially of a rigid specimen holder and a
swinging pendulum hammer for striking the impact blow. Impact energy is simply the difference in
potential energies of the pendulum before and after striking the specimen. The machine is calibrated
to read the fracture energy in N m or J directly from a pointer which indicates the angular rotation of
the pendulum after the specimen has been fractured. Similarly, Izod test is performed but the speci-
men is kept in the cantilever position.

10 mm 0.25 mm
45° radius
Striking edge
2 mm
2 mm
Impact
Specimen
Striking edge 22 mm
40 mm
Impact

Figure 17.3 (a) Charpy Test and (b) Izod Test

 Engineering Materials 419

17.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Common engineering materials may be classified into one of the following seven groups:
1. Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
2. Ceramics
3. Organic polymers
4. Composites
5. Semiconductors
6. Biomaterials
7. Advanced materials
Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds—ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Ferrous materials
are those in which iron (Fe) is the principal constituent. All other materials are categorized as non-
ferrous materials.

17.5.1 Ferrous Metals

In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C). Depending on the amount of carbon
present, alloys will have different properties, especially when the carbon content is either less/higher
than 1.5%. This amount of carbon is specific as below this amount of carbon, material undergoes
eutectoid transformation, while above that limit ferrous materials undergo eutectic transformation.
Thus, the ferrous alloys with less than 1.5% C are termed as steels and the ferrous alloys with higher
than 1.5% (2–4%) C are termed as cast irons.
On the basis of the percentage of carbon and their alloying elements present, these can be classi-
fied into the following groups.
Mild Steels: The percentage of carbon in iron ranges from 0.15% to 0.25%. These are moderately
strong and have good weldability. The production cost of these materials is also low.
Medium Carbon Steels: These contain carbon between 0.3% and 0.6%. The strength of these mate-
rials is high but their weldability is comparatively less.
High Carbon Steels: These contain carbon varying from 0.65% to 1.5%. These materials get hard
and tough by heat treatment and their weldability is poor. The steel formed in which carbon content
is up to 1.5%, silica up to 0.5%, and manganese up to 1.5% along with traces of other elements is
called plain carbon steel.
Cast Irons: The carbon content in these substances varies between 2% and 4%. The cost of produc-
tion of these substances is quite low and these are used as ferrous casting alloys.
Grey Cast Iron: These alloys consist of carbon in the form of graphite flakes, which are surrounded
by either ferrite or pearlite. Because of the presence of graphite, fractured surface of these alloys
looks greyish, and so is the name for them. Alloying addition of Si (1–3 wt.%) is responsible for
decomposition of cementite, and also high fluidity. Thus, castings of intricate shapes can be eas-
ily made. Due to graphite flakes, grey cast irons are weak and brittle. However, they possess good
damping properties, and thus typical applications include base structures, bed for heavy machines,
etc.; they also show high resistance to wear.
White Cast Iron: When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates, there is
no time left for cementite to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle cementite retains. Because of
presence of cementite, fractured surface appears white, hence the name. They are very brittle and
420 Basic Mechanical Engineering

extremely difficult to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear resistant applications such as roll-
ers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated to produce malleable iron.
Nodular (or Ductile) Cast Iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these
materials. Small additions of Mg/Cr to the grey cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite
to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or
pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than grey cast irons. Typical
applications include pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive components, etc.
Malleable Cast Iron: These are formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve
heating the material up to 800–900°C, and keep it for long hours, before cooling it to room tem-
perature. High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose and form ferrite and graphite.
Thus, these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility. Typical applications include
railroad, connecting rods, marine, and other heavy-duty services.

17.5.2 Non-ferrous Metals

These substances are composed of metals other than iron. However, these may contain iron in small
proportion. Six non-ferrous materials are available in sufficient quantity reasonably at low cost and
used as common engineering metals. These are aluminium, tin, copper, nickel, zinc, and magnesium.
Some other non-ferrous metals, about 14 in number, are produced in relatively small quantities
but these are of vital importance in modern industry. These include chromium, mercury, cobalt,
tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, antimony, cadmium, zirconium, beryllium, niobium, titanium,
tantalum, and manganese.
Aluminium Alloys: Aluminium alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivities, and good
corrosion resistant characteristics. As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at
low temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great limitation of these alloys is their
low melting point (660°C), which restricts their use at elevated temperatures. Strength of these
alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment—based on these alloys are designated
into two groups: cast and wrought. Chief alloying elements include Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently,
alloys of Al and other low-density metals like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention as there is much
concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al–Li alloys draw much more attention of metallurgy
especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace industries. Common applications of Al
alloys include beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft structures, etc. Some of the Al
alloys are capable of strengthening by precipitation, while others have to be strengthened by cold
work or solid solution methods.
Copper Alloys: As history goes by, bronze has been used for thousands of years. It is actually an
alloy of Cu and Sn. Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile, thus hard to machine, and has virtually unlimited
capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys is their corrosion resistant in
diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either cold work or solid solution
method. Common Cu alloys are: brass, alloys of Cu and Zn where Zn is substitutional addition
(e.g., yellow brass, cartridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal); bronze, alloys of Cu and other
alloying additions like Sn, Al, Si, and Ni. Bronzes are stronger and more corrosion resistant than
brasses. Mention has to be made about beryllium coppers which possess combination of relatively
high strength, excellent electrical and corrosion properties, wear resistance, can be cast, hot worked,
and cold worked. Applications of Cu alloys include costume jewellery, coins, musical instruments,
electronics, springs, bushes, surgical and dental instruments, radiators, etc.
 Engineering Materials 421

Magnesium Alloys: The most sticking property of Mg is its low density among all structural metals.
Mg has HCP structure, thus Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures. Hence Mg alloys
are usually fabricated by casting or hot working. As in case of Al, alloys are cast or wrought type,
and some of them are heat treatable. Major alloying additions are Al, Zn, Mn, and rare earths.
Common applications of Mg alloys include hand-held devices like saws, tools, automotive parts like
steering wheels, seat frames, electronics like casing for laptops, camcoders, cell phones, etc.
Titanium Alloys: Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength, and have very high
melting point. At the same time they are easy to machine and forge. However, the major limitation is
Ti’s chemical reactivity at high temperatures, which necessitated special techniques to extract. Thus,
these alloys are expensive. They also possess excellent corrosion resistance in diverse atmospheres,
and wear properties. Common applications include space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical
implants, and petroleum and chemical industries.
Refractory Metals: These are metals of very high melting points. For example, Nb, Mo, W, and
Ta. They also possess high strength and high elastic modulus. Common applications include space
vehicles, X-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a need for corrosion resistance.

17.5.3 Plastics
Common organic materials are plastics and synthetic rubbers which are termed as organic polymers.
Other examples of organic materials are wood, many types of waxes and petroleum derivatives.
Organic polymers are prepared by polymerization reactions, in which simple molecules are chemi-
cally combined into long chain molecules or three-dimensional structures. Organic polymers are sol-
ids composed of long molecular chains. These materials have low specific gravity and good strength.
The two important classes of organic polymers are as follows:
1. Thermoplastics: On heating, these materials become soft and hardened again upon cooling,
e.g., nylon, polythene, etc.
2. Thermosetting plastics: These materials cannot be resoftened after polymerization, e.g.,
urea-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde, etc. Due to cross-linking, these materials are hard,
tough, non-swelling, and brittle. These materials are ideal for moulding and casting into com-
ponents. They have good corrosion resistance. The excellent resistance to corrosion, ease
of fabrication into desired shape and size, fine lustre, light weight, strength, and rigidity
have established the polymeric materials and these materials are fast replacing many metallic
components. PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and polycarbonate polymers are widely used for glaz-
ing, roofing, and cladding of buildings. Plastics are also used for reducing weight of mobile
objects, e.g., cars, aircraft, and rockets. Polypropylene and polyethylene are used in pipes and
manufacturing of tanks.
Thermo-plastic films are widely used as lining to avoid seepage of water in canals and lagoons.
To protect metal structure from corrosion, plastics are used as surface coatings. Plastics are also
used as main ingredients of adhesives. The lower hardness of plastic materials compared with other
materials makes them subjective to attack by insects and rodents. Because of the presence of carbon,
plastics are combustible. The maximum service temperature is of the order of 100°C. These materi-
als are used as thermal insulators because of lower thermal conductivity. Plastic materials have low
modulus of rigidity, which can be improved by addition of filters, e.g., glass fibres. Natural rubber,
which is an organic material of biological origin, is a thermoplastic material. It is prepared from a
422 Basic Mechanical Engineering

fluid, provided by the rubber trees. Rubber materials are widely used for tyres of automobiles, insu-
lation of metal components, toys, and other rubber products.
Timber: Timber is general name of wood. It is composite of cellulose and lignin. Cellulose fibres are
strong in tension and are flexible. Lignin works as a binding material to bind the fibres and give them
stiffness. It has applications in many engineering works and has been used as common construction
materials. It has advantages over other engineering materials as easily available, strongest among
cellular materials, easy processing, light weight, good surface finish, and inexpensive.

17.5.4 Abrasive Materials

Abrasives are hard, non-metallic, sharp edged, and irregular shaped materials used to remove small
amount of materials by cutting action. It may be used in bonded form or as free particles. It is
employed in grinding, polishing, super finishing, buffing, and honing operations. Commonly used
abrasives are alumina (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron nitride (CBN), and diamond.

17.5.5 Ceramics
Ceramics are compound of metallic and non-metallic materials. It has properties of high compres-
sive strength, low thermal expansion, high elasticity, high hardness, high wear resistance, and low
electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are used for tiles, pottery, and sanitary wares (porce-
lain). The raw materials used for ceramics are clay having fine sheet like structure, kaolin (silicate
of aluminium) used as clay, flint, and feldspar.

17.5.6 Silica
It is available in abundance in nature in the form of quartz. Most of the glasses contain more than 50%
of silica. It is also used in electric materials to increase the magnetic permeability of the materials.
It may be used in the form of silicates of various materials such as clay, asbestos, mica, glasses, etc.

17.5.7 Glasses
It is a super cooled amorphous material. It consists of more than 50% silica and other additives such
as oxides of aluminium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, titanium, lithium, lead, and potassium. It has
applications in windows, containers, lighting instruments, cookware, etc. The availability of various
types of glasses is soda-lime glass, lead-alkali glass, borosilicate glass, etc.

SUMMARY
The chapter can be summarized as follows:
 Tensile strength enables the material to resist the application of a tensile force.
 Shear strength is the ability of a material to resist the shear force applied on the material.
 Compressive strength is the ability of a material to withstand pressures acting on a given plane.
 Elasticity is the property of material due to which it returns to its original shape and size after releasing the load.
 Hardness is the degree of resistance to indentation, scratching, abrasion and wear. Alloying techniques and
heat treatment help to achieve the same.
 Engineering Materials 423

 Ductility is the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires or elongated before rupture
takes place. It depends upon the grain size of the metal crystals.
 Malleability is the property of a metal to be deformed or compressed permanently into the sheet without
fracture. It shows the ability of the material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets.
 Impact strength is the energy required per unit cross-sectional area to fracture a specimen, i.e., it is a measure
of the response of a material to shock loading.
 Toughness is ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture or rupture. It may be presented as impact
strength of the material.
 Brittleness implies sudden failure. It is the property of breaking without warning i.e., without visible per-
manent deformation.
 Wear resistance is the ability of a material to resist friction wear under particular conditions, i.e., to maintain
its physical dimensions when in sliding or rolling contact with a second member.
 Hook’s law states that stress and strain are perpendicular to each other under elastic limit.
 Originally, Hooke’s law specified that stress was proportional to strain but Thomas Young introduction con-
stant of proportionality which is known as.
 Further, Young’s modulus this name was superseded by modules of elasticity.
 In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C). Depending on the amount of carbon present,
these alloys will have different properties, especially when the carbon content is either less/higher than 1.5%.
 Gray cast iron alloys consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by either ferrite or
pearlite.
 The carbon content in cast iron varies between 2% to 4%.
 Organic polymers are prepared by polymerization reactions, in which simple molecules are chemically
combined into long chain molecules or three-dimensional structures.
 On heating, thermoplastics become soft and hardened again upon cooling, e.g., nylon, polythene, etc.
 Thermosetting plastics cannot be resoftened after polymerization, e.g., urea-formaldehyde, phenol-
formaldehyde, etc.
 Timber is general name of wood. It is composite of cellulose and lignin. Cellulose fibers are strong in tension
and are flexible. Lignin works as a binding material to bind the fibers and give them stiffness.
 Ceramics are compound of metallic and non-metallic materials. It has properties of high compressive
strength, low thermal expansion, high elasticity, high hardness, high wear resistance, and low electrical and
thermal conductivity.
 Abrasives are hard, non-metallic, sharp edged and irregular shaped materials used to remove small amount
of materials by cutting action.
 Silica is available in abundance in nature in the form of quartz.
 It is a super cooled amorphous material. It consists of more than 50% silica and other additives such as
oxides of aluminium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, titanium, lithium, lead, and potassium.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Ability of material to resist deformation due to (a) resilience (b) stiffness
stress is known as (c) plasticity (d) hardness
(a) toughness (b) stiffness 4. Ability of material to undergo large permanent
(c) plasticity (d) hardness deformation in tension is known as
2. Ability of material to resist fracture due to high (a) toughness (b) stiffness
impact load is known as (c) ductility (d) hardness
(a) toughness (b) stiffness 5. Property of material due to which they can be
(c) plasticity (d) hardness drawn into wire is known as
3. Ability of material to absorb energy in the plastic (a) toughness (b) stiffness
range is known as (c) ductility (d) hardness
424 Basic Mechanical Engineering

6. Ability of material to retain permanent deforma- (c) wear criterion of metals

tion is known as (d) tensile strength of metals
(a) toughness (b) stiffness 16. An amorphous material is
(c) plasticity (d) hardness (a) mica (b) lead
7. Property of material due to which it can be rolled (c) rubber (d) glass
or hammered into thin sheets is known as 17. Polyesters belong to the group of
(a) toughness (b) stiffness (a) Thermoplastic (b) Thermosetting plastic
(c) malleability (d) hardness (c) Phenolics (d) PVC
8. Ability of material to resist penetration by 18. Brinell hardness number is equal to
another material is known as P
(a) toughness (b) stiffness (a)
(c) plasticity (d) hardness D − D2 − d 2
P
9. Hardness can be defined as resistance to (b)
(a) wear
(c) scratching
(b) local penetration
(d) all of the above
(
D D − D2 − d 2 )
2P
10. When a body recovers its original dimensions on (c)
removing the external load, it is known as D − D2 − d 2
(a) elastic (b) plastic 2P
( )
(d)
(c) brittle (d) none of these π D D − D2 − d 2
11. Cast Iron is a
(a) ductile material (b) malleable material 19. Vicker’s Pyramid Number (VPN) is equal to
(c) brittle material (d) none of these 2 P sin θ P sin θ
(a) (b)
12. Silicon steel is widely used in d2 d2
(a) cutting tools (b) connecting rod θ
(c) electrical industry (d) chemical industry P sin
(c) 2 (d) none of these
13. Thermosetting plastics are the materials that d2
(a) become soft on application of heat and can 20. Knoop Harness Number (KHN) is equal to
be moulded again P P
(b) do not become hard with the application of (a) (b) 2
heat and pressure and no chemical change LC LC
occurs 2P 2P
(c) (d) 2
(c) set permanently with heat and pressure and LC LC
cannot be deformed when again subjected
21. Composite materials are
to heat
(a) made mainly to improve temperature
(d) none of these
resistance
14. Thermoplastics are the materials that (b) used to improve optical properties
(a) become soft on application of heat and can (c) made with strong fibres embedded in
be moulded again weaker and softer matrix to obtain strength
(b) do not become hard with the application of better than strength of matrix
heat and pressure and no chemical change (d) made with strong fibres embedded in
occurs weaker and softer matrix to obtain strength
(c) set permanently with heat and pressure and better than strength of both matrix and filler
cannot be deformed when again subjected 22. Ceramic materials are
to heat (a) good conductors of electricity
(d) none of these (b) basically crystalline oxides or metals
15. Moh’s scale is used in connection with (c) inorganic compounds of metallic and non-
(a) composition of metal metallic elements
(b) hardness of material (d) none of the above
 Engineering Materials 425

Answers
1. (b), 2. (a), 3. (a), 4. (c), 5. (c), 6. (c), 7. (c), 8. (d), 9. (d), 10. (a), 11. (c), 12. (c), 13. (c), 14. (b), 15. (b),
16. (d), 17. (b), 18. (d), 19. (c), 20. (c), 21. (c), 22. (c)

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the mechanical properties of engineering materials in brief.
2. Explain the experimental set up of tensile testing of steel.
3. Explain the methods to measure the hardness of a material.
4. How do you measure the toughness of a material? Explain the experimental methods used to measure the
same.
5. Classify the engineering materials and explain the application and constituents of some of the important
ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
6. Write short notes on
(i) Timber
(ii) Composite materials
(iii) Glass
(iv) Plastics