Part1: Vector Analysis

Scalars And Vectors

A quantity can be either a scalar or a vector.
A scalar has only magnitude. Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy,
electric potential, and population are scalars.
A vector has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities include velocity, force,
displacement, and electric field intensity.
To distinguish between a scalar and a vector, we represent a vector by a letter with an arrow
on top of it, such as ⃗
A and ⃗B, or by a letter in boldface type such as A and B.
A scalar is represented simply by a letter—e.g., A, B, U, and V.
EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields. A field is a function that specifies a
particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the quantity is scalar (or vector), the field is said
to be a scalar (or vector) field. Examples of scalar fields are temperature distribution in a
building, sound intensity in a theater, electric potential in a region, and refractive index of a
stratified medium. The gravitational force on a body in space and the velocity of raindrops in
the atmosphere are examples of vector fields.
1.1 UNIT VECTOR
The magnitude of a vector A is a scalar written as or |A|. A unit vector a A along A is defined as
a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along A, that is,
A A
a A= =
| A| A
Thus, we may write A as A=A a A , which completely specifies A in terms of its magnitude A and
its direction a A. A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be represented as
( A x , A y , A z) or A x ax + A y a y + A z a z

Figure 1.1 (a) Unit vectors a x , a y ∧az ,(b) components of A along a x , a y ∧az .

where A x , A y ∧A z are called the components of A in the x, y, and z directions respectively;

a x , a y ∧az , are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. For example, a x is a
dimensionless vector of magnitude one in the direction of the increase of the x-axis.
The unit vectors a x , a y ∧az are illustrated in Figure 1.1 (a), and the components of A along the
coordinate axes are shown in Figure 1.1 (b). The magnitude of vector A is given by
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 A=√ A 2x + A2y + A 2z
and the unit vector along A is given by
A x a x + A y a y+ A z a z
a A=
√ A +A
2
x
2
y
2
+A z

1.2 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Two vectors A and B can be added component by component to give another vector C; that is,
C = A + B. Thus, if A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx,By,Bz). Then, C = (Ax + Bx) ax + (Ay + By) ay + (Az + Bz)az.
Vector subtraction is similar: D = A - B = A + (-B) = (Ax - Bx)ax + (Ay - By)ay + (Az - Bz)az.
Three basic laws obeyed by any given vectors A, B, and C, are summarized as follows:

A vector field is said to be constant or uniform if it does not depend on space variables x, y, and z.
For example, vector B = 3ax-2ay + 10az is a uniform vector while vector A =2xyax-3zay + 10xyzaz is
not uniform because B is the same everywhere whereas A varies from point to point.

1.3 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

 Scalar (or dot) product: A • B  Scalar triple product: A • (B X C)
 Vector (or cros) product: A X B  Vector triple product: A X (B X C)
A. Scalar (Dot) Product (SP)
The dot product of two vectors A & B is given by

A.B=ABcosѲAB=AxBx+ AyBy+AzBz
Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each other if A•B = 0.
NB: The scalar product obeys the following:

B. Cross Product(CP)
The cross product of two vectors A & B is given by

where an is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B.

The cross product has the following basic properties:
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 C. Scalar Triple Product(STP)
The scalar triple product of three vectors A, B & C is defined as

D. Vector Triple Product (VTP)

For vectors A, B, and C, we define the vector triple product as follows by using the "bac-cab" rule.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

Scalar product is used in determining the projection (or component) of a vector in a given
direction. The projection can be scalar or vector. Given a vector A, we define the scalar
component AB of A along vector B as

The vector component AB of A along B is simply the scalar component multiplied by a unit vector
along B; that is,

NB: vector A can be resolved into two orthogonal components: one component AB parallel to B,
another (A -AB) perpendicular to B

Figure 1.10 Components of A along B: (a) scalar component AB, (b) vector component AB.

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 1.5 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION
A point or vector can be represented in any curvilinear coordinate system, which may be
orthogonal or non-orthogonal. An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are
mutually perpendicular. Examples of orthogonal coordinate systems include the Cartesian (or
rectangular), the circular cylindrical, the spherical, the elliptic cylindrical, the parabolic
cylindrical, the conical, the prolate spheroidal, the oblate spheroidal, and the ellipsoidal. In this
course, we shall only consider the three best-known coordinate systems: the Cartesian, the
circular cylindrical, and the spherical.

1.5.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM (2CS)

A point P in Cartesian Co-ordinate System (2CS) can be represented as (x, y, z) as illustrated in
Figure 1.1. The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

A vector A in 2CS can be written as ( A x , A y , A z ) or

Ax ax + A y a y + Az az

1.5.2 CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM (3CS)

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 Point P and unit vectors (a) in the 3CS (b) in spherical coordinate systems.

A point P in 3CS is represented as P( ρ , φ , z ) and is as shown in Figure 2.1(a).

Where, ⍴ is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis: φ ,
called the azimuthal angle, is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane; and z is the same as in the
Cartesian system. The ranges of the variables are given below

A vector A in 3CS can be written as

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where a⍴, aФ and az are unit vectors along ρ− ,φ− and z− directions.

.
NB: unit vectors a⍴, aФ and az are mutually perpendicular because our coordinate system is
orthogonal; a⍴ points in the direction of increasing ρ , aФ in the direction of increasing φ , and az
in the positive z-direction. Thus,

The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the 2CS and those of the 3CS ( ρ , φ , z ) are easily
obtained from Figure 2.2

This is called transforming a point from Cartesian (x, y, z) to cylindrical ( ρ , φ , z ) coordinates, and
( ρ , φ , z )→( x , y , z ) transformation respectively.
The relationships between (⍴, Ф, z) and (x, y, z) are obtained geometrically from Figure 2.3:

Finally, the relationships between (Ax, Ay, Az) and (A⍴, AФ, Az) are obtained by

In matrix form, we have the transformation of vector A from ( A x , A y , A z ) to( A ρ , A φ , A z ) as

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 (a) (b)
Figure 2.2 Relationship between
(a) (x, y, z) and ( ρ , φ , z ) (b) (x, y, z) ,( ρ , φ , z ) and (r,Ѳ,Ф)

Figure 2.3 Unit vector transformation:

(a) cylindrical components of ax, (b) cylindrical components of ay

The inverse of the transformation from( A ρ , A φ , A z ) ) to ( A x , A y , A z ) is obtained as

An alternative way of obtaining the above relationship is using the dot product. For example:

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 1.5.3 SPHERICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM (SCS)
The SCS is most appropriate when dealing with problems having a degree of spherical symmetry.
A point P can be represented as (r, Ѳ, Ф) and is illustrated in Figure 2.1(b). We notice that r is
defined as the distance from the origin to point P or the radius of a sphere centered at the origin
and passing through P; Ѳ (called the colatitude) is the angle between the z-axis and the position
vector of P; and Ф is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle as in 3CS). According to
these definitions, the ranges of the variables are

.
where ar, aѲ and aФ are unit vectors along r-,Ѳ-and Ф-directions.

Notice that the unit vectors ar ,aѲ and aФ are mutually perpendicular because our coordinate
system is orthogonal; ar points in the direction of increasing r , aѲ in the direction of increasing
Ѳ, and aФ in the positive Ф-direction.
Thus,

The space variables (x, y, z) in 2CS can be related to variables (r, Ѳ, Ф) of a SCS. From Figure 2.5 it
is easy to notice that

The above point transformations are from Cartesian (x, y, z) to spherical (r,Ѳ,Ф)coordinates, and
( r , θ , φ)→( x , y , z ) transformation respectively.
The Cartesian and spherical co-ordinates unit vectors’ relationship is given by

The components of vector A=( A x , A y , A z ) and A=( Ar , A θ , A φ ) are related to each other as
follows:

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By collecting like terms,

In matrix form, the ( A x , A y , A z )→( A r , A θ , A φ ) vector transformation and the inverse

transformation ( A x , A y , A z )→( A r , A θ , A φ ) are performed according to the following
respectively as

And

Alternatively, we may use the dot product. For example,

NB: in point or vector transformation, the point or vector has not changed; it is only expressed
differently. Thus, for example, the magnitude of a vector will remain the same after the
transformation and this may serve as a way of checking the result of the transformation.
The distance between two points is usually necessary in EM theory. The distance d between two
points with position vectors r1 and r2 is generally given by

Figure 2.6 Unit vector transformations for 3CS and SCS.

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Or

EXAMPLE 2.1: Given point P (-2, 6, 3) and vector A = yax + (x + z)ay, express both P and A in 3CS
and SCS. Evaluate A at P in the 2CS, 3CS and SCS.

In the 2CS, A at P is A = 6ax + ay

For vector A, Ax = y, Ay = x + z, Az = 0. Hence, in the 3CS,

But x=ρ cos φ , y= ρsin φ , and substituting these yields

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Similarly, in the SCS,

But x=rsinѲcosФ, y=rsinѲsinФ and z=rcosѲ. Substituting these yields

Note that |A| is the same in the three systems; that is,

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Exercise:
(1) Transform the point P(0,−4 ,3) from 2CS to 3CS and SCS.
(2)Transform the Q vector to 3CS and SCS.
(3) Evaluate Q at the point P(0,−4 ,3) in the three coordinate systems.

(4) Express the following vectors in 2CS:

(a) A=⍴zsinФa⍴+3⍴cosФaФ+⍴cosФsinФaz (b) B=r2ar+sinѲaФ

Ans: (1) T(4, 270°, 3), T(5, 53.13°, 270°)

(4)

1.6 CONSTANT CO-ORDINATE SURFACES

Surfaces in 2CS, 3CS and SCS are easily generated by keeping one of the coordinate variables
constant and allowing the other two to vary. In 2CS, if we keep x constant and allow y and z to
vary, an infinite plane is generated. Thus, we could have infinite planes x=constant, y=constant,
z=constant which are perpendicular to the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, as shown in below.
The intersection of two planes is a line. For example, x = constant, y = constant is the line RPQ
parallel to the z-axis. The intersection of three planes is a point. For example, x = constant, y =
constant, z = constant is the point P(x, y, z). Thus, we may define point P as the intersection of
three orthogonal infinite planes.
If P is (1, -5, 3), then P is the intersection of planes x = 1, y = - 5 and z=3
Orthogonal surfaces in 3CS can likewise be generated. The surfaces p = constant, φ =constant, z =
constant are illustrated in Figure below, where ⍴ = constant is a circular cylinder, φ =constant is a
semiinfinite plane with its edge along the z-axis, and z = constant is the same infinite plane as in a
Cartesian system.

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Where two surfaces meet is either a line or a circle. Thus, z = constant, ⍴ = constant is a circle QPR
of radius p, whereas z = constant, φ =constant is a semiinfinite line. A point is an intersection of
the three surfaces. Thus, ⍴ = 2, φ = 60°, z = 5 is the point P (2, 60°, 5).

The orthogonal nature of the SCS is evident by considering the three surfaces r = constant, θ =
constant, φ = constant which are shown in Figure below, where we notice that r=constant is a
sphere with its center at the origin; Ѳ= constant is a circular cone with the z-axis as its axis and the
origin as its vertex; Ф= constant is the semiinfinite plane as in a cylindrical system. A line is formed
by the intersection of two surfaces.
For example: r = constant, Ѳ = constant is a semicircle passing through Q and P. The intersection
of three surfaces gives a point.

Fig: Constant x, y, and z surfaces Fig: Constant p,φ , and z surfaces

Fig: Constant r, Ѳ, Ф surfaces

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Thus, r = 5, Ѳ= 30°, Ф= 60° is the point P(5, 30°, 60°). We notice that in general, a point in three-
dimensional space can be identified as the intersection of three mutually orthogonal surfaces.
Also, a unit normal vector to the surface n = constant is ± an, where n is x, y, z, ⍴, Ф, r, or Ѳ.
Example: to plane y = 5 and to plane Ѳ = 20°, a unit normal vectors are ±ay and ±aѲ respectively.
Example1: Two uniform vector fields are given by E=-5a⍴ +10aФ+3az and F= a⍴ +2aФ-6az.
Calculate: (a) |ExF|
(b) the vector component of E at P(5, π/2,3) parallel to the line x=2, z=3.
(c) the angle E makes with the surface z=3 at P.

(c) The z-axis is normal to the surface z = 3, the angle between the z-axis and E can be found
using the dot product:

Hence, the angle between z = 3 and E is

Example2: Given a vector field

D = r sinФar-1/r(sinѲcosФ)aѲ + r2aФ
determine
(a) D at P(10, 150°, 330°)
(b) The component of D tangential to the spherical surface r = 10 at P
(c) A unit vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone Ѳ = 150°
Solution:
(a) At P, r = 10, Ѳ = 150°, and Ф = 330°. Hence,
D = 10 sin 330° ar – 1/10(sin150°cos 330°)aѲ + 100 aФ = (-5, 0.043, 100)
(b) Any vector D can always be resolved into two orthogonal components:
D = D t+ D n
where Dt is tangential to a given surface and Dn is normal to it. In our case, since ar is normal to
the surface r =10,
Dn = r sinФar = -5ar. Hence, Dt = D - Dn = 0.043 aѲ +100 aФ

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(c)A vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone θ = 150°is the same as the vector
perpendicular to both D anda θ . Hence,

A unit vector along this is

1.7 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME

The differential elements in the Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates respectively are
shown below.

NB: In all the following cases, the differential areas orientation from the x,y,z direction perspective
shown below

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A. Cartesian Coordinates(2CS):
 Differential displacement is given by
dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az
 Differential normal area is given by

 Differential volume is given by

dv= dx dy dz
B. Cylindrical Coordinates(3CS):
 Differential displacement is given by
dl = d⍴ a⍴ + ⍴dФ aФ + dz az
 Differential normal area is given by

 Differential volume is given by

dv= ⍴ d⍴ dФ dz
C. Spherical Coordinates(SCS):
 Differential displacement is given by
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 dl = dr ar + r dѲ aѲ + r sinѲ dФ aФ

 Differential normal area is given by

 Differential volume is given by

dv= r2 sinѲ dr dѲ dФ
Example: Consider the object shown & Calculate the following unknowns

Solution: Although points A, B, C, and D are given in Cartesian coordinates, it is obvious that the
object has cylindrical symmetry. Hence, we solve the problem in cylindrical coordinates. The
points are transformed from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates as follows:

(a) Along BC, dl = dz; hence,

(b)Along CD,dl=ρdφ and ρ=5 , so

(c) For ABCD, dS=ρdφ dz and ρ=5 . Hence

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 (d)For ABO, dS=ρdφdρ and z = 0, so

0
(e) For AOFD, dS=dρdz andφ=0 , so

(f) For volume ABDCFO, dv =ρdρdφdz . Hence

1.8 LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

The familiar concept of integration will now be extended to cases when the integrand involves a
vector. By a line we mean the path along a curve in space. We shall use terms such as line, curve,
and contour interchangeably.
❑

The line integral ∫ A . d l is the integral of the tangential component of A along curve L. Given a
L
❑ b

vector field A and a curve L, we define the integral ∫ A . d l=∫ ¿ A∨cosθdl as the line integral of A
L a
around L.
If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca in Figure (a) below, the integral becomes
a closed contour integral ∮ A . d l which is called the circulation of A around L.
Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, we define the surface
integral or the flux of A through S (see Figure (b)below) as

where, at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S.

For a closed surface (defining a volume), the surface integral becomes ∮ A . d S which is referred
to as the net outward flux of A from S.
NB: a closed path defines an open surface whereas a closed surface defines a volume. We define
the integral ∫ ρv dv as the volume integral of the scalar ρ v over the volume v. The physical meaning
of a line, surface, or volume integral depends on the nature of the physical quantity represented
by A or ρ v.

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 (a) (b)

Figure (a) Path of integration of vector field A

(b) The flux of a vector field A through surface S.

Example: Given that F=x2ax –xz ay –y2 az, calculate the circulation of F around the (closed) path
shown in Figure below.
Solution:
❑

The circulation of F around path L is given by ∮ F . d l=¿ ¿

L
where the path is broken into segments numbered 1 to 4 as shown in the Figure.
For segment 1, y= 0 = z

Notice that dl is always taken as along +ax so that the direction on segment 1 is taken care of by
the limits of integration. Thus,

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By putting all these together, we obtain
L

∮ F . d l= −1
3
2 5 −1
+ 0− + =
3 6 6
L

1.9 DEL OPERATOR

The del operator, written as ∇ , is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= a x+ ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

The operator is useful in defining:

1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇ V
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇ . A
3. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ x A
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ 2 V
To obtain ∇ in terms of ⍴, Ф, and z we do it as follows
y
Since ρ=√ x 2 + y 2 , tan ∅ =
x
∂ ∂ sin ∅ ∂
=cos ∅ −
∂x ∂ρ ρ ∂∅

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 ∂ ∂ cos ∅ ∂
=sin ∅ +
∂y ∂ρ ρ ∂∅

Thus, in 3CS ∇ is written as

∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= aρ + a∅+ az
∂ρ ρ ∂∅ ∂z

Similarly, to obtain ∇ in terms of r,θ , and ∅ , we use

Thus, in SCS ∇ is written as

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= ar + aθ + a
∂r r ∂θ rsinθ ∂ ∅ ∅

1.10 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction
of the maximum space rate of increase of V. The gradient of V can be expressed in 2CS, 3CS and
SCS as follows.
For Cartesian co-ordinates (2CS):
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax+ ay + a
∂x ∂y ∂z z
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
For Cylindrical co-ordinates (3CS): ∇ V = aρ + a ∅+ a
∂ρ ρ ∂∅ ∂z z

For Spherical co-ordinates (SCS):

∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇= ar+ aθ + a
∂r r ∂θ rsinθ ∂ ∅ ∅

For U and V are scalars and n is an integer, the following computation formulas on gradient are
true

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NB: the gradient of a scalar field V has the following fundamental properties:
 The magnitude of ∇ V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
 ∇ V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
 ∇ V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point.
 The projection (or component) of ∇ V in the direction of a unit vector a is ∇ V . a and is
called the directional derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in the direction
of a.
Thus, the gradient of a scalar function V provides us with both the direction in which V
changes most rapidly and the magnitude of the maximum directional derivative of V.
 If A=∇ V , V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

Example: Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) V =e−z sin 2 x coshy
(b) U =ρ2 z cos 2 ∅
(c) W =10 r sin2 θ cos ∅

Practice Exercise
Determine the gradient of the following scalar fields:
(a) U = x2y + xyz
(b) V = ρzsin ∅ + z 2 cos 2 ∅ + ρ2
(c) f =cosθ sin ∅ lnr +r 2 ∅
Answer:
(a) y(2x + z)ax + x(x + z)ay + xyaz

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 ( )
2
z
(b) ( zsin ∅ + 2 ρ ) aρ + zcos ∅ −
ρ
2
sin 2 ∅ a ∅ +(ρsin ∅ +2 z cos ∅ ) a z

(c) ( cosθ sin ∅

r ) (
+2 r ∅ ar −
sinθsin ∅
r ) (
lnr aθ +
cotθ
r )
cos ∅ lnr +r cosecθ a ∅

1.11 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENC THEOREM

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained from the integral
∮ A . d S . The divergence of A at a given point P is
 The outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
 A measure of how much the field diverges or emanates from that point.
 The limit of the field's source strength per unit volume (or source density); it is positive at a
source point in the field, and negative at a sink point, or zero where there is neither sink nor
source.
Hence,

where ∇ V is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located.

 In Figure (a) the divergence of a vector field at point P is positive because the vector
diverges (or spreads out) at P.
 In Figure (b) a vector field has negative divergence (or convergence) at P, and
 In Figure (c) a vector field has zero divergence at P.

Figure: Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P; (a) positive divergence, (b) negative
divergence, (c) zero divergence.

∇ . A in Cartesian coordinates at the point P(xo,yo, zo) is obtained as follows: let the point be
enclosed by a differential volume as in the following Figure.

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 Figure: Evaluation of ∇ . A at point P(xo,yo, zo);

The surface integral is obtained as ffs:

A three-dimensional Taylor series expansion of Ax about P is

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 ∂ Ax ∂ A y ∂ Az
∇ . A= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

The divergence of A in the cylindrical & spherical coordinates is given respectively

Note the following properties of the divergence of a vector field:

1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no sense.
3. ∇ . ( A+ B )=∇ . A+ ∇ . B
4. ∇ . ( V A ) =V ∇ . A + A . ∇ V
From the definition of the divergence of A, we expect that
❑ ❑ ❑

∯ A . d S=¿∭ ∇ . A dv ≡ ≡∮ A . d S=∫ ∇ . A dv ¿
v S v

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem.
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The divergence theorem states that the total out ward flux of a vector field A through the closed
surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

Figure: Volume v enclosed by surface S.

Since volume integrals are easier to evaluate than surface integrals, to determine the flux of A
through a closed surface, it is better to use the volume integral than the surface integral.

Example:
Determine the divergence of these vector fields:
(a) P = x2yz ax + xz az
(b) Q = ⍴ sin Фa⍴ + ⍴2z aФ +zcosФ az
1
(c) T = r 2 cosθ ar +rsinθcos ∅ a θ+ cosθ a ∅
Solution:

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Example2
If G ( r )=10 e−2 z (ρ a ρ+ a z) G(r), determine the flux of G out of the entire surface of the cylinder ⍴ =
l, 0 < z < 1. Confirm the result using the divergence theorem.

Solution:

Alternatively, since S is a closed surface, we can apply the divergence theorem:

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 ❑

showing that G has no source. Hence, Ψ =∫ ( ∇ . G ) dv =0.

v

Figure for example2

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Determine the flux of D = ⍴2 cos2Фa⍴ + z sinФaФ over the closed surface of the cylinder
0 ≤ z ≤ 1 , ρ=4 . Verify the divergence theorem for this case.
Ans: 64π

1.12 CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM

We defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L as the integral ∮ A ⋅ ⅆ l.
L

The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A
per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when
the area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum. That is

where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the surface ΔS
and is determined using the right-hand rule. To obtain an expression for ∇ x A from the above
definition, consider the differential area in the yz-plane as shown in the following Figure.

Figure: Contour used in evaluating the x-component of ∇ x A at point P(x0, y0, z0).
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The line integral is obtained as

We expand the field components in a Taylor series expansion about the center point P(x o, yo, zo)

In general, the curl of A in Cartesian coordinates is summarized below

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In general, the curl of A in cylindrical coordinates is given below

In general, the curl of A in spherical coordinates is given by

Note the following properties of the curl:

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is

 it provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation
density) and indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
 a measure of the circulation or how much the field curls around a point. For example,
Figure (a) below shows that the curl of a vector field around P is directed out of the page.
Figure (b) below shows a vector field with zero curl.

Figure: Illustration of a curl: (a) curl at P points out of the page; (b) curl at P is zero.
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Also, from the definition of the curl of A, we say the following relationship which is called Stokes's
theorem.
∮ A ⋅ ⅆ l=∫ (∇ × A )⋅ ⅆ S
L S

Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed) path is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by (see the figure (a) below)
provided that A and ∇ x A are continuous on S.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) Determining the sense of dl and dS involved in Stokes's theorem
Figure (b) Illustration of Stokes's theorem.

The proof of Stokes's theorem is similar to that of the divergence theorem. The surface S is
th
subdivided into a large number of cells as shown in Figure (b) above. If the K cell has surface
area ΔS K and is bounded by path L , as shown in Figure (b), there is cancellation on every
k
interior path, so the sum of the line integrals around L k's is the same as the line integral around
the bounding curve L.

Therefore, taking the limit of the right-hand side of the above equation as ΔS K → 0 leads to
Stokes's theorem which is given by

NB: The direction of dl and dS must be chosen using the right-hand rule or right-handed screw
rule. Using the right-hand rule, if we let the fingers point in the direction of dl, the thumb will
indicate the direction of dS (see Fig (b).

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Note that whereas the divergence theorem relates a surface integral to a volume integral,
Stokes's theorem relates a line integral (circulation) to a surface integral.
Example1: Determine the curl of the vector fields:
(a) P = x2yz ax + xz az
(b) Q = ⍴ sin Фa⍴ + ⍴2z aФ +zcosФ az
1
(c) T = r 2 cosθ ar +rsinθcos ∅ a θ+ cosθ a ∅

Example2:

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Figure for example 2
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 1.13 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
Laplacian is a single operator which is the composite of gradient and divergence operators. Thus,
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as ∇ 2 V is the divergence of the gradient of V.

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A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region. In
2
other words, if ∇ V =0 is satisfied in the region. The solution for V is harmonic (it is of the form of
sine or cosine). This equation is called Laplace's equation.

Example: Find the Laplacian of the scalar fields

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
Determine the Laplacian of the following scalar fields

1.14 CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS

A vector field is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl. Neither the divergence nor
curl of a vector field is sufficient to completely describe the field. All vector fields can be classified
in terms of their vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl as follows:

Figure: Typical fields with vanishing and nonvanishing divergence or curl

A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if ∇ . A=0. Such a field has neither
source nor sink of flux. Hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it.
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Examples of solenoidal fields are incompressible fluids, magnetic fields, and conduction current
density under steady state conditions, according to divergence theorem which is restated below
∯ A ⋅ ⅆ S=∭ ( ∇ ⋅ A ) ⅆV =0
S V

The divergence of a curl of A is zero. Thus, a solenoidal field A can always be expressed in
terms of another vector F; that is,

If ∇ . A=0 then, ∯
S
A ⋅ ⅆ S=0 and A=∇ x F

⤿ We will see its application in chapter 3, as

For a magnetic flux density B and magnetic vector potential A,
∇ . B=0 then, ∯ B ⋅ ⅆ S=0 and B=∇ x A
S

A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if ∇ x A=0.That is, a curl-free vector is
irrotational. From Stokes's theorem,

Thus, for irrotational field A,

 the circulation of A around a closed path is identically zero or
 the line integral of A is independent of the chosen path.
 is also known as a conservative field.
Examples of irrotational fields include the electrostatic field and the gravitational field.
In general, the curl of gradient of V (for any scalar V) is purely irrotational since ∇ x ( ∇ V )=0.
Thus, an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a scalar field V; that is
if ∇ x A=0 , then∮ A ⋅ ⅆ l=0∧A=−∇ V
L

⤿ We will see its application in chapter 2, as

For an electric field intensity E and scalar electric potential V,
∇ x E=0 then, ∮ E ⋅ ⅆ l=0 and E=−∇ V
L

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of A.
A vector A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its divergence and its curl. If we let

ρV can be regarded as the source density of A and ρ S its circulation density. Any vector A

satisfying the above equation with both ρV and ρ S vanishing at infinity can be written as the sum
of two vectors: one irrotational (zero curl), the other solenoidal (zero divergence). This is called
Helmholtz 's theorem. Thus, we may write

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
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+++++++ END +++++++++++

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