National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics
Complex Numbers: Algebra and Loci (Lecture Notes)

Topic 16: Complex Numbers

Key questions to answer:

1. What is a complex number? How is it different from a real number?

- How is i defined?
- How to write a complex number in its Cartesian form?
- What is the relationship between the set of real numbers and the set of complex numbers?

Complex Numbers in Cartesian Form

2. When can we say that two complex numbers given in Cartesian form are equal?
- How do we apply this property to solve simple equations involving a complex variable?

3. How do we carry out arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

and square root) on complex numbers in Cartesian form?

4. How do we find the conjugate of a complex number? What are its properties and
applications?

5. What can we say about the roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients?
- How do we solve cubic equations with real coefficients when a root (real or non-real) is given?

6. How do we find the modulus and argument of a complex number given in Cartesian form?

7. How do we represent a complex numbers in Cartesian form by a point in the Argand

diagram?
- How do we interpret geometrically, the terms ‘real part’, ‘imaginary part’, ‘modulus’, ‘argument’ and
‘conjugate’?

Complex Numbers in Polar & Exponential Form

8. How do we convert a complex number from one of the following forms to another:
(a) Cartesian form, (b) polar form and (c) exponential form?

9. How do we multiply and divide two complex numbers given in polar and exponential
forms?

10. How do we represent a complex number in polar form by a point in the Argand diagram?

11. How do we interpret geometrically the effects of conjugating a complex number, and
adding/subtracting/multiplying/dividing two complex numbers?
- What is the geometrical effect of multiplication by i?

12. What is de Moivre’s Theorem?

- How do we apply de Moivre’s Theorem to find the powers and nth roots of a complex number?

Complex Loci
13. How do we sketch the loci of simple equations and inequalities involving a complex
variable in the Argand diagram?

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§1 Introduction

1.1 Roots of quadratic equations

How many roots do you expect to obtain when solving a

Let’s be
intellectually
quadratic equation?
curious!
Solve the following quadratic equations:
(a) x2 2 x 3 0 Two real and distinct roots
2 16
x x 3 or x 1
2
(b) x2 2 x 1 0 Two real and repeated roots
2 0
x x 1
2
(c) x2 2 x 5 0 No real roots
2 16
x
2
Can we expand our notion of numbers to those that are non-real? How then can
we express the roots of equation (c)?

1.2 Definition and Terminology

Definition 1.2.1 (Imaginary Unit)

The imaginary unit, i, is a number such that i 2 1 . Hence, i 1.

Thus, the square root of any negative real number can then be written in the form
of ai, where a is a positive real number.
For example, 3 3i 2 3 i, 25 25i2 5i .

Definition 1.2.2 (Complex Number in Cartesian form)

A complex number, z , is a number of the form x iy , where x, y .

The symbol is used to denote the set of complex numbers.

Hierarchy of the number system:

Complex Numbers,

Real Numbers, Purely Imaginary Numbers

Rational Numbers, Irrational Numbers

Integers, Fractions

Negative Integers Zero Positive Integers

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Definition 1.2.3 (Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number)

If z x iy , x, y , then

x is the real part of z and is denoted by Re z . (i.e. Re z x)

y is the imaginary part of z is denoted by Im z . (i.e. Im z y)

Notes:

1. If x 0 , then z iy is a purely imaginary number.

2. If y 0 , then z x is a real number.
3. Im z y is a real number. Im z is NOT iy.

Definition 1.2.4 (Equality of Complex Numbers)

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are
equal.

That is, given that z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , then

z1 z2 x1 x2 and y1 y2 .

Notes:

1. z 0 x 0 and y 0
2. Inequalities do not apply to complex numbers that are not real numbers. For
example, we cannot say 2 i is larger or smaller than 2 i .

Example 1.2.5

Find x and y, where x, y , if x 2 y i(3x y) 4 2i .

Solution:

Comparing real part on both sides, we get x 2y 4 (1)

Comparing imaginary part on both sides, we get 3x y 2 (2)

8 10
Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get x and y .
7 7

Note: We must ensure that the terms on both sides of the simultaneous equations
are real.

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§2 Arithmetic Operations on Complex Numbers

2.1 ‘i’ follows all arithmetic operations on real numbers

(i) Addition: 3i + 4i = 7i (ii) Subtraction: 10i – 3i = 7i

(iii) Multiplication:

a i ai ; i a b ia ib ; ai bi abi2 ab, where a, b .

In particular,
i2 1 (by definition)
i3 ii 2 i
2
i4 i2 1
i5 ii 4 i

Hence, i to any power can be reduced to one of i, 1, i or 1.

1 1 i i
(iv) Division: i1 i.
i i i i2

For Sections 2.2 to 2.3, consider two complex numbers z1 x1 iy1 and
z2 x2 iy2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 .

2.2 Addition, Subtraction & Multiplication of Complex Numbers

(a) z1 z2 x1 i y1 x2 i y2 ( x1 x2 ) i ( y1 y2 )
(b) z1 z2 x1 i y1 ( x2 i y2 ) x1 x2 i y1 y2
(c) kz1 k x1 iy1 kx1 iky1 , k
(d) z1 z2 ( x1 iy1 )( x2 iy2 ) x1 x2 iy1 x2 ix1 y2 i 2 y1 y2
( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i( x1 y2 x2 y1 )

2.3 Division of Complex Numbers

This is done by realising the denominator, which is multiplying the complex

conjugate (refer to page 6) of the denominator to the numerator and denominator.

z1 x1 iy1 x2 iy2 ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i( x2 y1 x1 y2 ) x1 x2 y1 y2 x2 y1 x1 y2
i
z2 x2 iy2 x2 iy2 x2 2 y2 2 x2 2 y2 2 x2 2 y2 2

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Example 2.3.1

Express the following complex numbers in the form x iy, where x, y .

5 10i
(a) (2 + 3i) − (−1 + 2i) (b) (2 + 4i)(1 – i) (c)
4 3i

Solution:

(a) (2 + 3i) − (−1 + 2i) = 2 + 3i + 1 – 2i = 3 + i

(b) (2 + 4i)(1 – i) = 2 – 2i + 4i – 4i2 = 2 + 2i + 4 = 6 + 2i

5 10i 5 10i 4 3i 20 15i 40i 30 50 25i

(c) . 2 i
4 3i 4 3i 4 3i 16 9 25

Example 2.3.2

Solve the simultaneous equations (1 i) z 2iw 0 and 3iz (1 i)w i .

Solution:
(1 i) z 2iw 0 ----- (1) ; 3iz (1 i)w i ----- (2)
2iw
From (1), we have z . Substituting into (2), we get
1 i
2iw
3i (1 i) w i
1 i
6w
(1 i) w i
1 i Therefore,
2
6 w (1 i ) w i 1 i
1 1 1
8w i 1 2i i 1 i
8 8 4 1
1 1 z
w i 1 i 1 i 4
8 8

Example 2.3.3

Find the square roots of 3 4i .

both signs
Solution:
The question requires us to evaluate 3 4i . Let 3 4i x iy .

2
Then x iy 3 4i x2 y2 2ixy 3 4i .

Comparing the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we have:

x2 y2 3 ----- (1) ; 2 xy 4 ----- (2)

Solving simultaneously, we have x 2 , y 1 or x 2, y 1.

The square roots of 3 + 4i are 2 i and 2 i .

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§3 Complex Conjugates

Definition 3.1 (Complex Conjugate)

The complex conjugate of a complex number z x iy is defined to be the

complex number x iy and is denoted by z * .
For example, if z 3 5i , then z* 3 5i .

Properties 3.2

zz* x iy x iy x 2 i2 y 2 iyx ixy x2 y 2 , i.e. the product of any

complex number and its conjugate is real.
This explains why a eqn with real coefficients always have roots of a conjugate pair
z z* 2Re z z1 z2 * z1 * z2 * Treat the conjugate sign as a “-“
which only works on the imaginary part
z – z* 2iIm z z1 z2 * z1 * z2 *
* n * n
z* z z z * , where n
*
kz * kz * , where k z1 z1 *
z2 z2 *
Example 3.3

If z1 2 i and z2 4 i , find 2 z1 z2 * and z1 z2 * .

Solution:

2 z1 z2 * 2 z1 * z2 * 2 2 i 4 i 4 2i 4 i 8 i
z1 z2 * z1 * z2 * 2 i 4 i 8 2i 4i i 2 9 2i

Example 3.4
If z 4 9i , find zz*.

Solution:

2
zz* 4 9i 4 9i 42 9i 42 92 97

Example 3.5

5 *
2 i
Find 3
in the form x iy .
2 i

Solution:

5 * 5
2 i 2 i * 2 i
5
2
3 3 3
2 i 3 4i
2 i 2 i 2 i

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Example 3.6
Solve the simultaneous equations (1 i) z 2iw 0 --- (1) and
3iz (1 i)w* i --- (2)

Solution:
2iw
From (1), z -- (3)
1 i
Substituting (3) into (2),
2iw
3i (1 i) w* i
1 i
3i( 2iw) (1 i)(1 i) w* (1 i)i
6w 2w* 1 i

Let w x iy , where x and y are real. Then

6( x iy) 2( x iy) 1 i
8 x i(4 y) 1 i

1 1
Comparing real and imaginary parts, x ,y .
8 4
1 1 2iw 3 1
Hence w i and z i.
8 4 1 i 8 8

Example 3.7 (GC Practice. Refer to Appendix I for more GC information)

7 17i 1
Given that z , find (i) z (ii) z 2
1 i z*

Solution:
7 17i
Step 1: Store z as in the GC.
1 i

Use to store the complex number as z. GC will

simply express the number in Cartesian form. [Note that you should have changed
the mode to “a + bi “ form.]

Step 2: Find z.

Using to call out z, we obtain

3 + 2i as a square root of z.
[To check your answer, you may want to square 3 + 2i to see if you get back z.]
Note: 3 + 2i is not the only root!
1
Step 3: Find z 2 .
z*
1
Using conj( from MATH CMPLX menu to represent z*, we see that z 2 =
z*
−118.97 + 120.07i.

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§4 Complex Roots of Equations

Theorem 4.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial of degree n with coefficients in has exactly n roots in ,

including repeated roots.
Note: Complex roots include real roots as the imaginary part can be zero.

Theorem 4.2 (Complex Conjugate Root Theorem)

All non-real roots of a polynomial with real coefficients must occur in conjugate
pairs.

That is, if z a ib, b 0 is a root of

1
an x n
an 2 xn 2 .... a2 x 2 a1 x a0 0 where ai
an 1 xn , for
i 0, 1, 2, ..., n 1, n ,
then z a ib, b 0 is also a root of the equation.

Example 4.3

Solve x2 2 x 5 0 .

Solution:

By Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, we expect 2 roots.

2 2 22 4(1)(5)
x 2x 5 0 x
2
2 16
2
1 2i or 1 2i
We see that Complex Conjugate Root Theorem holds true as the coefficients are
real.

Alternatively, using a GC,

x 1 2i or x 1 2i

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Example 4.4

Solve z 2 3iz 2 0 .

Solution:

2
2
3i 3i 41 2
z 3iz 2 0 z
2
3i+i 3i i
or
2 2
2i or i

We see that i and 2i are not conjugate pairs since Complex Conjugate Root
Theorem would not hold when the equation has a non-real coefficient.

Example 4.5

2
By completing the square, solve the equation z (4 2i) z 8i 0 . Explain why
the solutions are not a conjugate pair.

Solution:

z 2 (4 2i) z 8i 0
2 2
z 2 i 8i 2 i 0
2 2
z 2 i 8i 2 i
2
z 2 i 8i 4 4i 1
3 4i

From Example 2.3.3, we have found that 3 4i 2 i .

Hence, z 2 i 3 4i 2 i z 2i or z 4.

Since not all the coefficients are real, the complex roots do not occur in conjugate
pairs.

Let’s be
Try to solve the equation in Examples 4.4 and 4.5 using the
intellectually graphing calculator. Can the graphing calculator solve
curious! polynomial equations with non-real coefficients?

The graphing calculator is unable to solve polynomial

equations with non-real coefficients.

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Example 4.6

If 1 i is a root of x3 x2 2 0 , find the other roots without using a graphic

calculator.

Solution:

Since the coefficients are real, by Complex Conjugate Root Theorem, 1 + i is also
a root of the equation. Also, the third root must be a real number, a.

By trial and error, we have

f ( 1) ( 1)3 ( 1)2 2 1 1 2 0, where f ( x) x3 x2 2 .
Therefore, a 1 is the third root.

Hence the other roots are x 1 and x 1 i .

Let’s be
Can we solve this equation without using trial and error?
intellectually
curious! Method 1: Long Division
x 1 i x 1 i x2 2 x 2

Performing long division of x3 x2 2 by x2 2 x 2 , we

obtain x 1 as the last factor.
Hence, x 1 is a root.

Method 2: Comparing coefficients

The last root must be a real number, a. Thus we have
x 1 i x 1 i x x3 x2 2
x2 2 x 2 x x3 x2 2

Comparing the coefficients of the constant terms, we get

2 2
1

How many real roots can a quadratic/cubic equation with

Let’s clarify real coefficients have? How many real roots can it have if
and seek not all the coefficients are real?
understanding.

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§5 Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers

5.1 The Argand Diagram

A complex number z x iy can be represented as Imaginary Axis

a point P with Cartesian coordinates x, y on the Im
x-y plane. y P

The x-y plane is called the Argand diagram where

the horizontal axis is known as the real axis, Real Axis
denoted by Re and the vertical axis the imaginary Re
axis, denoted by Im. O x

Example 5.1.1

Represent the following complex numbers in an Argand diagram:

a 2 3i , b 2 3i , c 2 3i , d 2 3i , e 2 , f 3i , g 3, h 2i

Solution:

Let A, B, …, H be the points representing a, b, …, h in the Argand diagram.

( 2,3) (0,3) (2,3)

( 3, 0) (2, 0)

(0, 2)

(2, 3)
( 2, 3)

How are the following related in an Argand diagram?

Let’s be
intellectually (a) z and z* (see A and D)
curious! They are reflections about the real axis.

(b) z and z (see A and C)

They are reflections about the origin.

What about A and B? We see that z * z*

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Complex numbers can alternatively be represented by position vectors, i.e., a

x
complex number z x iy can be represented as a position vector OP in
y
the x-y plane.

Techniques and operations used in coordinate geometry and vectors can be

applied to complex numbers. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers
correspond to the parallelogram law of vector addition and subtraction.
when doing addition or subtraction, must make sure at least the end of one vector start
from the origin
Im
P
Let z1 = a + ib be represented by P1 P1
z2 = c + id be represented by P2.
z = z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d) be represented by P. z1
z2
In terms of vectors, P2
Re
OP OP1 OP2 O

The subtraction z2 z1 is the same as the addition of z2 Im

and z1 . Thus, let P2 P represents z1 , then the OP P1

represents z2 z1 . z1

z = z2 − z1 = (c – a) + i (d – b) be represented by P. z2 P2
Re
O
In terms of vectors, z1
OP PP
1 2 OP2 OP1
P

What are some possible limitations of considering complex numbers as

vectors on the Argand Diagram? Let’s be
intellectually
Every complex number can only be represented by position vectors and not careful.

displacement vectors. So for example when finding the difference between

two complex numbers (e.g. z2 z1 ), the vector obtained must be translated to
start from the origin first, before the real and imaginary parts of the complex
number can be obtained. Finding differences of vectors on the other hand, has
no such restriction.

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5.2 Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number

Im

y P

Re
O x
Without loss of generality, P represents the complex number
z x iy, where x, y . We have:

Definition 5.2.1 (Modulus)

The modulus of a complex number z x iy is defined as x2 y 2 , and is

denoted by z .

Geometrically, it is the distance between the origin and the point P, i.e., the
magnitude of OP .

Notes:
2
1. z is always a non-negative real number, e.g., 3 4i 3 42 5.
2. From vector subtraction (diagram from parallelogram law of vector
subtraction), we see that z2 z1 PP
1 2 is the distance between
P1 and P2 .
Im
P1

z1

z2 P2
Re
O

Definition 5.2.2 (Argument)

The argument of z is defined as θ, the angle between OP and the positive real
axis, and is denoted by arg(z).

Notes:
1. θ is positive when measured anti-clockwise from the positive real axis and is
negative when measured clockwise from the positive real axis.
2. It is important that you first check the quadrant in which z lies before
computing the argument.

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Example 5.2.3

Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers:
3, –5, –2i, 3 i and 3 i.

Solution:
3 3, arg(3) 0
5 5, arg( 5)

2i 2, arg( 2i)
2
1 1
3 i 3 1 2, arg( 3 i) tan
3 6
1 1 5
3 i 3 1 2, arg( 3 i) tan
3 6

Note: There can be multiple answers for arg(z), e.g., arg( 3 i) can be or
6
other values differing by 2k , where k . However, we will usually quote the
principal argument as the answer. θ is the principal argument if it lies in the
principal range, i.e., .

Notes: Im

y z = x + iy
1. arg(0) is undefined.
r
2. z is real arg(z) = 0 or π, and
Re
3. z is purely imaginary arg z .
2 O − x
4. z, z* and –z have the same modulus, i.e., z z* z
2 2 2 r
5. z Re z Im z
−y z* = x – iy
6. arg(z*) = −arg(z)

7. zz* = |z|2 (A very useful result.)

Reason is due to 5/ due to the angle cancel each other and the modules of both are the same
Example 5.2.4

1
Find the reciprocal of z 2 3i , i.e., .
z

Solution:

1 1 z* z* 2 3i 2 3
2 2
i.
z z z* z 22 3 13 13
2
(Here we are using the identity zz* z )

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§6 Polar Form of a Complex Number

Im
6.1 Cartesian Form Polar Form

Suppose z x iy (in Cartesian form) y P

From the Argand diagram, we have r
2 2
r z x y
Re
y
tan for basic angle, O x
x

From the Argand diagram, we also have

x r cos
y r sin
Therefore,
z x iy
r cos ir sin
r cos i sin

We have now expressed z in polar form (or also known as modulus–

argument form): z r cos i sin , where r 0 .
The argument is usually expressed in the principal range (i.e.
π π ) unless otherwise specified.

Note: The following expressions (where r 0 ) are not in polar form. Can you
explain why this is so? Next, try converting them to polar form.
Draw graph to visualise!
(a) r cos i sin r cos i sin What do you
notice about (a)?
(b) r sin i cos r cos i sin
2 2
(c) r cos i sin r cos i sin

(d) r sin i cos r cos i sin

2 2
by right, r, cos and isin must have coeffiecient of 1, so
that if the function is not in the standard form, it can be
Example 6.1.1 manipulated back to standard form

Express (i) –3 and (ii) 5 5i in polar form. steps:

1. calculate modulus and angle
(draw out on argand diagram to see the angle)
Solution: 2. apply the polar form formula
(i)
3 3, arg( 3)
3 3(cos i sin )
(ii)
3
5 5i 25 25 50 5 2, arg( 5 5i)
4 4
3 3
5 5i 5 2 cos i sin
4 4

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§7 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

7.1 Euler’s Formula

From the Maclaurin’s expansion of cos , sin and e for all real values of x and
x

, we have

2 4 6 3 5
cos 1 ... , sin ... ,
2! 4! 6! 3! 5!
x2 x3 x4
ex 1 x ...
2! 3! 4!

If we let x i , we get
2 3 4
i i i i
e 1 i ...
2! 3! 4!
1 2 1 3 1 4
1 i i ...
2! 3! 4!
1 2 1 4 1 3
1 ... i ... cos isin
2! 4! 3!

Euler’s Formula: ei cos isin

Let’s be broad If we put π in Euler’s Formula, then we would

and adventurous!
obtain a remarkable identity which links together
geometry, algebra, and five of the most essential
symbols in math -- 0, 1, i, π and e -- that are essential
tools in scientific work.

ei cos isin 1 ei 1 0

7.2 Exponential Form

Since any complex number can be expressed in the polar form r (cos isin ) , it
follows from Euler’s formula that we can write

z r cos i sin rei ,

where r z and arg z , usually expressed in principal range i.e. π π.

z rei is known as the exponential form of z.

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Notes:
1. For z rei , θ must be in radians and usually expressed in the principal
range, .
2. ei cos i sin cos 2 sin 2 1.
3. ei ei(2n ) , for n .
i i
4. e e 2cos , e e i
i
2isin conjugate pairs
iy
5. For x, y , ex e x .eiy e x eiy e x
iy
arg e x arg e x .eiy arg e x arg eiy 0 y y

Example 7.2.1

Express the following in exponential form:

(i) z1 1 i (ii) z2 3 i

Solution:
(i)
z1 1 i 2, arg 1 i
4
i
z1 2e 4

(ii)
z2 3 i 3 1 2,

1 1
arg 3 i tan
3 6
i
6
z2 2e

7.3 Multiplication/Quotient of Complex Numbers in Exponential Form

Let z1 r1 (cos 1 isin 1 ) r1ei 1 and z2 r2 (cos 2 isin 2 ) r2ei 2 . Then,

(1) z1 z2 r1ei 1 r2ei 2

r1r2ei 1 ei 2
r1r2ei 1 2

Hence, z1 z2 r1r2 z1 z2 and arg z1 z2 1 2 arg z1 arg z2

We can extend the above result to get

(a) z1 z2 z3 ...zn z1 z2 z3 .... zn
n
(b) arg z1 z2 z3 ....zn arg z1 arg z2 arg z3 ..... arg zn arg zk
k 1

In particular, when z1 z2 z3 ... zn z , we have

n
(c) zn z
(d) arg z n n arg( z )

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De Moivre’s Theorem

From (c) and (d), we can deduce the De Moivre’s Theorem:

n
For all real values of n, z n r cos i sin r n cos n i sin n

z1 r1ei 1 r1 i
(2) e 1 2
.
z2 r2ei 2 r2

z1 r1 z1 z1
Hence, and arg 1 2 arg( z1 ) arg( z2 )
z2 r2 z2 z2

Example 7.3.1

Given that z1 1 3i and z2 3 i . Find arg z1 z2 .

Solution:
1 1 1 5
arg z1 tan 3 and arg z2 tan
3 3 6

5 7 5
arg z1 z2 arg z1 arg z2 .
3 6 6 6

Note: The argument is usually expressed in the principal range (i.e. π π)

unless otherwise specified.

Alternative Method

z1 z2 1 3i 3+i Im

3 i 3i 3
2 3 2i

Re
1 2
arg z1 z2 tan O
2 3
5
6 6 −2

What are the advantages/disadvantages compared to the previous method?

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Example 7.3.2 (Simplifying using laws of indices)

Express the following in exponential form:

1 i
(i) (ii) (1 i)3 ( 3 i)4
3 i

Solution:
i 5
1 i 2e 4 1 i 4 6 1 i 12
(i) e e
3 i i
6
2 2
2e

3 4
3 2
i i i i
3 4 3 4 6 4 3 12
(ii) (1 i) ( 3 i) z z
1 2 2e 4
2e 32 2e 32 2e

* You may use the GC if exact form is not required.

Note that by expressing a complex number in exponential form first can aid in the
subsequent manipulations/simplifications.

Example 7.3.3 (Simplifying using properties of modulus and argument)

Express the following in polar and exponential form.
6
3 2
1 i 3
(i) 1 i 3 1 i (ii) 3
1 i
Solution:
(i)
3 2 3 2
1 i 3 1 i 1 i 3 1 i
3 2
1 3 1 1 16

3 2 3 2
arg 1 i 3 1 i arg 1 i 3 arg 1 i

3arg 1 i 3 2 arg 1 i

1
3 tan 3 2
4 2

Thus,
3 2 i
2
1 i 3 1 i 16e
.
16 cos i sin
2 2

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(ii)
6 6 6
1 i 3 1 i 3 1 3 26
3 3 3 3
16 2
1 i 1 i 1 1 2

6
1 i 3 1 17
arg 3
6 arg 1 i 3 3arg 1 i 6 tan 3 3
1 i 4 4

6
1 i 3 17
principal arg 3
2 2
1 i 4 4

6
1 i 3 i
4
Thus, 16 2 cos i sin3
16 2e .
1 i 4 4
* You may use the GC if exact form is not required.

Example 7.3.4 (“Half-Argument” approach)

ei
The complex number q is given by q , where 0 2π . In either order,
1 ei
1
(i) find the real part of q (ii) show that the imaginary part of q is cot .
2 2

Solution:
ei
q
1 ei
ei
i i i
e 2
e 2
e 2

i
e 2

i i
e 2
e 2

cos i sin
2 2
cos i sin cos i sin
2 2 2 2

cos i sin i cos sin

2 2 2 2
2i sin 2sin
2 2
1 1
i cot
2 2 2

1 1
Thus, Re(q) , and Im(q) cot .
2 2 2

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7.4 Geometrical Effect of Multiplication of Complex Numbers

We first consider the special case of multiplication of a complex number by i.

Im
Let z = 3 + 2i.
iz = −2 + 3i
iz = i(3 + 2i) = −2 + 3i z = 3 + 2i

i2z = −(3 + 2i) = −3 − 2i = −z

Re
3 O
i z = −i(3 + 2i) = 2 − 3i

i4z = 3 + 2i = z i2z = −3 − 2i
i3z = 2 − 3i

Using the same scale on both axes on the Argand diagram, we observe that if a
point P represents a complex number z, then the point representing iz is obtained
by rotating OP 90o anti-clockwise about the origin. i.e magnitudes of Re and Im are exchanged
Similar geometrical effect applies to the points representing i 2 z,i3 z and i4 z z .

In general, we consider multiplying a complex number z1 r1ei 1 to another

complex number z2 r2ei 2 .
The result is z1 z2 r1r2ei 1 2
.

Im

Re
O

Geometrically, the length of z1 has been scaled by factor r2, and it has been
rotated by θ2 degrees anti-clockwise (assuming θ2 is positive).

What happens when θ2 is negative?

Let’s clarify and
seek
understanding.

How would you illustrate division geometrically?

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§8 nth Roots of a Complex Number

Suppose we have a fixed number (real or complex), p.

1 1
p p 2 (square root of p) 3 p p 3 (cube root of p)

1 1
4 p p4 ( ) 5 p p5 ( )

1
n p pn ( )

n
Suppose we need to solve the equation z p , where p is any fixed complex
number. How many roots will we obtain for the following cases? [Recall the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and look at the highest degree of z in the
equation.]

z2 p: No of roots = 2
z3 p : No of roots = 3
zn p : No of roots = n

In this section, we will be looking at obtaining the roots of (or solutions to)
zn p .

n
Below are the steps to finding the roots of the equation in the form z p.
Suppose p x iy . Then z n p x iy , where r x iy and arg x iy .

Step 1: Convert p to exponential form.

zn x iy rei , where r x iy and arg x iy

Step 2: Add 2kπ to the argument.

i 2k
z n re , k
1
Step 3: Raise both sides by power .
n

1 2k 1
i 2k 2k
z r e
n n
r n
cos i sin
n n

Step 4: Obtain the roots by substituting suitable integer values of k.

n
The solutions to z p are known as the nth roots of the complex number p.

Note: When p = 1, we obtain the special case z n 1 .

Such solutions are called the nth roots of unity.

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n
Here, we shall reflect on the steps to finding the roots of z p.
Let’s seek &
1. In Step 1, why do we want to convert to exponential form? evaluate reasons.

Ans: Notice that in Step 3, we need to raise both sides to

1
power of . It is more efficient to work in exponential
n
form when dealing with powers of functions.

2. In Step 2, why do we add 2kπ to the argument?

i 1
Ans: Suppose we have z 3 i e 2 . Then we raise both sides to power of . We
3
i
will have z e 6 as the answer. But according to the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra in Section 4.1, we should have three roots of the equation.

Recall that the argument of a complex number is not unique.

Im
In an Argand diagram, we can
obtain the same complex
y P number by rotating the
argument by 2π, 4π, 6π, etc.
(integer multiples of 2π) either
Re clockwise or anti-clockwise
about the origin.
x
In general, we can add/subtract
integer multiples of 2π to the
− 2π argument of a complex number
+ 2π without changing its final
value.

This is actually a concept we have acquired when we solve trigonometric

1
problems, i.e., sin 2 , for 0 2 .
2

3. In Step 3, we are actually applying de Moivre’s Theorem when we raise the

1
power by .
n

4. In Step 4, how many values of k do we need to obtain all the roots?

Ans: The number of values of k to take, depends on the number

Let’s clarify and
of unique roots of the equation. In general, if the equation seek
has n unique roots, we will take n consecutive integer understanding.
values of k. The choice of values of k determines whether
we obtain roots with arguments within the principal range.

Question: Can we interchange Steps 2 and 3?

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Example 8.1

Find the cube roots of unity. Display the roots on an Argand diagram.

Solution:

z3 1 z3 ei2k , k .
2k
i
z e 3
, k = 0, ±1

Taking k = −1, 0, 1 to find the unique solutions, we get

2
i
3 2 2 1 3
k = −1, z e cos i sin i
3 3 2 2
k = 0, z = 1 Always draw out the angle on the diagram to visualise
2
i 2 2 1 3 Another way to do:
k = 1, z e 3
cos i sin i use tan to get the ratio x:y.
3 3 2 2 then make use of the r value(magnitude) to work out exact vaue of x and y

Im
1 3
z +i
2 2

2
3
Re
2 1
3

1 3
z i
2 2 Must draw dotted line!! and indicate angle

The roots of the equation lie along the circumference of a circle of radius 1.

Notes:

1. While we could have chosen any 3 consecutive values of k (0, 1, 2 or −3,−2,

−1), we often choose values of k which result in principal arguments for the
roots. If the argument is not in the principal range, we can easily convert to
principal argument. (Do you remember how to do so?)

4
i 4 4
Example: k =2, z e 3
cos i sin
3 3
2 2 1 3
In terms of principal argument, z cos i sin i
3 3 2 2

This is equivalent to the case when we take k = −1.

2. The angle between each root on the Argand diagram is equal.

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Example 8.2
5 i
Find, in exact form, all complex numbers z such that z 5 . Display the
2 3i
roots on an Argand diagram.

Solution:

1 i 2k
5 i i 2k
z5 1 i 2e 4
z 2 5e 5 20
, k
2 3i

We take k = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 (or any 5 consecutive integers) to get unique solutions.

1 i 2 2 1 i 17 1
5 20 20 17 17
k = −2, z 2 e
5
2 e 10
210 cos i sin
20 20
1 i 2 1 1 i 9 1
5 20 20 9 9
k = −1, z 2 e
5
2 e 10
2 10
cos i sin
20 20
1 i 20 1 i 1
5 20 20
k = 0, z 2 e 5
210 e 210 cos i sin
20 20
1 i 21 1 i 7 1
5 20 20 7 7
k = 1, z 2 e 5
2 e
10
2 10
cos i sin
20 20
1 i 22 1 3 1
5 20
i
4 3 3
k = 2, z 2 e 5
2 e10
210 cos i sin
4 4

1 7
i Label all the roots; dotted lines for all workings;
20
z 2 e
10
draw the direction of angle and label the angles
1 3
i
4
z 2 e
10

1 i
20
z 2 e 10

1 17
i
20
z 2 e 10

1 9
i
20
z 2 e10

1
The roots lie along the circumference of a circle of radius 2 . 10

Note: The angle between each root on the Argand diagram is equal.

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Example 8.3

Write down all the 8th roots of unity.

i i
Show that z e z e z2 2cos z 1.
Hence express z 8 1 as the product of two linear factors and three quadratic
factors, where all coefficients are real and expressed in a non-trigonometrical
form.

Solution:

z8 1 z8 ei2k , k .
2k k
i i
z e 8
e 4
, k 0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4

z ei z e i
z 2 (ei e i
)z 1
z2 cos i sin cos( ) i sin z 1
z2 2 cos z 1

i i
For k 1, z e 4 z e 4
z2 2cos z 1 z2 2z 1
4

2 2
i i 2
For k 2, z e 4
z e 4
z2 2cos z 1 z2 1
4

3 3
i i 3
For k 3, z e 4
z e 4
z2 2cos z 1 z2 2z 1
4

Hence,
z8 1
2 2 3 3
i 0 i i i i i i i
z e z e 4
z e 4
z e 4
z e 4
z e 4
z e 4
z e

z 1 z2 2z 1 z2 1 z2 2z 1 z 1

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§9 Loci in the Complex Plane

In the Argand diagram, we let z x iy be represented by point P x, y . If the

values of x and y vary according to some given condition, the set of all possible
points in the Argand diagram will describe some line or curve. This line or curve
is called the locus of z.

9.1 z a r , where z is a complex variable, a is a fixed complex number,

and r is a fixed real number

For a start, we consider the following Im

questions:
z 3i
What is the distance between the origin
and each of the points representing 3, 3i
and 3 i?
Re
What other points also have the same z 3
distance from the origin?
z 3i
What shape does such collection of points
result in?

So what does z a r describe?

Recall: In Section 5.2, the modulus of the difference of two complex numbers
z1 z2 is the distance between the two points representing z1 and z2 .

Let variable point P and fixed point A represent Im

the complex variable z and fixed complex number
a respectively. P
Given that the distance between P and A, z a ,
is equal to r (a fixed real number) i.e. z a r , A
then
for a fixed value of r, P must move in a circle
with centre at the fixed point A and radius r. Re
O

The locus of z expressed in the form: z a r is

a circle with centre at the fixed point A and radius r.

Let z x iy and a i ,
2 2 2 2
Then ( x ) (y )i r x y r x y r2
which is the Cartesian equation of a circle centred at , with radius r.

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Example 9.1.1
Describe the locus of z completely for the following:
(a) z 1 i 3 (b) 2 i 2 z 1

Solution:
(a) z 1 i z 1 i 3 The locus of z is a circle centred at (1, 1)
with radius 3.
(b)
i i i i 1
2 i 2z 2 z 1 2 z 1 2z 1 1 z 1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
The locus of z is a circle centred at 1, with radius .
2 2 Let’s clarify and
seek
z a r represents the set of points on the circumference of understanding.
a circle with centre at the fixed point A and radius r. What
happens if we change the ‘=’ to inequality signs?

9.2 z a z b , where z is a complex variable, and a and b are fixed

complex numbers

For a start, we consider the following questions:

Im
Given fixed points A and B representing fixed
complex numbers a and b respectively, what are some A P
points that are equidistant from points A and B?

What other points also have equal distance from

points A and B? B
Re
What shape does such collection of points result in? O

So what does z a z b describe?

Let variable point P fixed points A and B represent Im

the complex variable z and fixed complex number a
and b respectively. A P
We know that
z a z b
means the distance between P and A and that of P
and B are the same. Hence, P must move along a B
perpendicular bisector of line joining A and B. Re
O

The locus of z expressed in the form z a z b is

the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the fixed points A and B.

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Example 9.2.1

Describe the locus of the point P representing z when

i z
(a) z 3 i z 3 i (b) 1.
i z
Solution:

(a)
z 3 i z 3 i z 3 i z 3 i
The locus of z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining (3,1) and (−3,−1).

(b)
i z
1 i z i z z i z i z i
i z
The locus of z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining (0, −1) and (0, 1).

z a z b represents the set of points on

perpendicular bisector of the line joining the fixed points A Let’s clarify and
seek
and B. What happens if we change the ‘=’ to inequality signs? understanding.

For example, we change the form to z a z b .

Refering to the diagram above, do you shade the side
containing A or the side containing B?

z a z b actually means if we have a point representing z on the Argand

diagram, then the line formed by the joining the point representing z and the point
representing a is actually shorter or equal to the line formed by joining the point
representing z and the point representing b. This implies we will actually shade
the side containing A.

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9.3 arg z a , where z is a complex variable, a is a fixed complex

number and is an angle measured in radians

For a start, we consider the following questions:

What are the arguments of 1 i and 2 2i ?

What other complex numbers can you think of with the same argument?
Im
So what does arg (z – a) = α describe?

Recall: arg z is the angle between OP (where P

P is the point representing z) and the positive
real axis. In particular, we make reference to the
origin (the point representing 0) when finding
the angle. i.e. arg z 0
A
Re
Let variable point P and fixed point A represent
O
complex variable z and fixed complex number a
respectively.

Then arg z a is the angle that AP makes with the horizontal in the
positive real axis direction. In particular, we make reference to A (the point
representing a) when finding the angle.

Thus P moves along the half-line that makes an angle α with the horizontal in the
positive real axis direction.

The locus of z expressed in the form arg z a is

the half–line from the fixed point A (excluding the point A) that makes an
angle α with the horizontal in the positive real axis direction.

Why do we have to exclude point A?

Let’s seek &
evaluate reasons.

arg z a represents the set of points on the half–

Let’s clarify and
line from the fixed point A that makes an angle α with
seek
understanding. the horizontal in the positive real axis direction. What
happens if we change the ‘=’ to inequality signs?

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Example 9.3.1

Describe the locus of z if

2
(a) arg z ; (b) arg z 2 3i
3 3
z 2 i
(c) arg iz 1 ; (d) arg
1 2i 4

Solution:

(a) arg z The locus of z is a half-line from the origin, making an

3
angle of with the positive real axis.
3

2
(b) arg z 2 3i arg z 2 3i The locus of z is a half-line
3
2
from (−2, −3), making an angle of with the horizontal in the positive
3
real axis direction.

1
(c) arg iz 1 arg i z arg i z i arg i arg z i
i
arg z i
2 2
π
The locus of z is a half-line from (0, −1), making an angle of with
2
the horizontal in the positive real axis direction.

z 2 i
(d) arg arg z 2 i arg 1 2i
1 2i 4
arg z 2 i tan 1 2 arg z 2 i tan 1 2
4 4
The locus of z is a half-line from (2, 1), making an angle of tan 1 2
4
with the horizontal in the positive real axis direction.

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Notes:

1. We are able to describe the loci of a circle, perpendicular bisector and half-
line if they fall into one of the following categories:
z a r; z a z b ; arg z a ,
where a and b are fixed complex numbers and r, are fixed real numbers.

2. The coefficient of z is or must be 1 in the standard equations of the loci.

3. If the equation given is not one of the above, we will either try to change it to
one of the above by algebraic manipulation, or try to obtain the Cartesian
equation and then describe the locus. A useful result to use is
2
z z* z x2 y2 .

Example 9.3.2

Describe the locus of

(a) z 2 5i 3 4i (b) z 1 2z 1 .

Solution:

(a) Despite the question looks like the form z a z b , there is no z in the
modulus on the right hand side. This is actually a question of the form
z a r.

3 4i 32 42 5
Hence, z 2 5i 5.

Thus, locus is a circle centred at (2, −5) with radius 5.

(b) Let z x iy . Then,

z 1 2z 1
x iy 1 2 x iy 1
2 2 2
x 1 y2 2x 1 2y
2 2 2
x 1 y2 2x 1 2y
3x 2 3 y 2 6 x 0
2 2 2 2
x y 2x 0, i.e. x 1 y 0 1

Thus, locus is a circle centred at (−1, 0) with radius 1.

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9.4 Problems Involving Inequalities and Maximum/Minimum

Example 9.4.1

Given that z 3 3i 2 , find the greatest and least values of

(a) z 1,
(b) arg z 1 .

Solution:
z 3 3i z 3 3i 2
The locus is a circle centred at C(3, –3) with radius 2.
2 2
CP 3 1 3 0 5

Let Z be the point that represent z in the Argand diagram.

Im
z 1 distance between Z and P( –1, 0).
O 3
Re
From the Argand diagram, Q
the least value of z 1 PQ CP CQ 5 2 3 ,
-3
C
the greatest value of z 1 PR CP CR 5 2 7 . R

Im
arg z 1
= the angle, measured in the anti-clockwise direction, D X
O
A Re
of PZ from the positive real axis.

In the right-angle triangles APC and BPC , C

AC 2 B
APC BPC sin 1 sin 1 0.41152
CP 5
In the right-angle triangle CDP ,
CD 3
CPD tan 1 tan 1 0.64350
DP 4

The least value of arg z 1 BPX

CPD BPC
0.64350 0.41152
1.06 to 3 s.f.
The greatest value of arg z 1 APX
CPD APC
0.64350 0.41152
0.232 to 3 s.f.

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Example 9.4.2

If arg z 3 , find the least value of |z|.

3
Im
Solution:

The least value of |z| is the distance between P

P and the origin.
3 3 Re
Least value of z OP 3sin (- 3,0) O
3 2

Example 9.4.3

Shade the region represented on an Argand diagram by

(a) z i 2 (b) 0 arg z 2 i (c) arg z and
6 4 2
z z 2 2i

Solution:
Im
(z)(0,3)
(a) z i z i 2
The locus of z is a circle centred at (0, 1)
with radius 2.
(0,1)
Re
O
(z)
(0,-1)

(b) 0 arg z 2 i Im
6
0 arg z 2 i (-2,0) Re
6 O

(0,-1)

Im
(c) arg z and z z 2 2i
4 2 (0,2)

arg z and z z 2 2i (1,1)

4 2
4
Re
O (2,0)

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Example 9.4.4

On a single Argand diagram, sketch the loci given by

(i) z 3 4
(ii) z 3 3i z
Hence, or otherwise, find the exact values of all the complex numbers z that
satisfy both (i) and (ii).

Solution:

(i) z 3 4 is a circle centred at (3, 0) with radius 4.

(ii) z 3 3i z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining the

points (3, 3) and (0, 0).

Note: bisector passes through (3,0)

(0,4)
A
b

x
(-1,0) a (3,0) (7,0)

y
B
Locus of (ii)
Locus of (i)

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Let A a ib

4 b
sin
4 4
2
b 4
2
b 2 2

3 a
cos
4 4
2
3 a 4
2
a 3 2 2
A 3 2 2 i2 2

Let B x iy
y
sin
4 4
2
y 4
2
y 2 2
4
x 3
cos
4 4
2
x 3 4
2
x 3 2 2
B 3 2 2 i2 2

Alternatively using GC,

2 2
Step 1: Find Cartesian equation of circle : x 3 y2 42 y 2 16 x 3
2 2
Key in Y1 16 x 3 and Y2 16 x 3 or Y1

Step 2: Find Cartesian equation of the perpendicular bisector:

3 0 3
Gradient of line joining (3, 3) and (0, 0) = 1
3 0 3

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1
Thus gradient of the perpendicular bisector is 1 and passes through the
1
3 0 3 0
midpoint of (3, 3) and (0, 0) i.e. , .
2 2
Equation of the perpendicular bisector:
3 3
y 1 x
2 2
y x 3
Key in Y3 x 3

Step 3: Press ‘Graph’. Enter ‘2nd’, ‘trace’ and scroll down to press ‘intersection’
to find the intersection(s) of the circle and the perpendicular bisector.

Note: You may use the GC to help you in your calculations involving complex
numbers, unless it is stated that the problem given needs to be solved
without the use of a calculator, or if the exact solution is required.

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Appendix I: Complex Numbers in GC

This section aims to equip you with some basics of using GC in complex numbers. However, you
are also strongly encouraged to read up any GC guidebook to acquire the basic skills required to
utilise a GC and to explore its various functions.

Note that you may use the GC to help you in your calculations involving complex numbers, unless
it is stated that the problem given needs to be solved without the use a calculator, or if the exact
solution is required.

Getting Started
1. Press to display mode settings. Scroll down to
select “a + b i ” so that you can obtain complex number
solutions in Cartesian form.
It is also recommended that you use radian mode for
calculations involving complex numbers.

2. To enter the complex number i, press .

3. Other operations or functions for complex numbers can be

found in the Math CPX menu, which contains standard
operations involving complex numbers.

Press to get to the CMPLX menu.

A brief description of the 7 operations or functions in the menu:

Operation: Form : Explanation:

1: conj( conj(complex number z) Returns the complex conjugate z* of z.
2: real( real(complex number z) Returns the real part, x, of z = x + yi = rei .
3: imag( imag(complex number z) Returns the complex part, y of z = x + yi = rei .
4. angle( angle(complex number z) Returns the principal argument, , of z = x + yi
= rei .
5: abs( abs(complex number z) Returns the modulus, r, of z = x + yi = rei .
6: ►Rect Complex number z ►Rect Displays z in Cartesian form, z = x + yi.
7: ►Polar Complex number z ►Polar Displays z in Exponential form, z = rei .

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