IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON WATERBORNE DISEASES IN NIGERIAN

URBAN AREAS: A CASE STUDY OF ILORIN, KWARA STATE

BY

IBITOYE, Victor Ayodeji

19/77JB020

A RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, FACULTY OF SOCIAL
SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

2023
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Access to clean water is a fundamental human right and essential for public health.
However, the global picture on water security paints a concerning story. The World
Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 2 billion people lack access to safe
drinking water, and approximately 4.2 billion lack safely managed sanitation . This
lack of access has dire consequences, with waterborne diseases claiming the lives of
an estimated 1.4 million people annually, primarily children under the age of five.

Developing countries like Nigeria face a particularly significant challenge. Rapid

urbanization is straining existing water infrastructure and sanitation systems. Cities
are growing at a faster rate than the development of essential services, leading to a
rise in slums and informal settlements. These densely populated areas often lack
proper sanitation facilities and access to clean water, creating a breeding ground for
waterborne pathogens.

Waterborne diseases are a broad category of illnesses caused by contaminated water

or poor sanitation. They can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or protozoa.
Common waterborne diseases include cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhoeal diseases,
hepatitis A, and giardiasis. These diseases cause a range of symptoms, including
diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, fever, and abdominal cramps. In severe cases, they
can lead to death.

The impact of waterborne diseases extends beyond immediate health concerns. They
contribute to economic hardship through lost productivity due to illness and
healthcare costs. They also hinder development by impacting education and overall
well-being.
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Nigeria's cities are booming, and Ilorin, the capital of Kwara State, is no exception.
This rapid growth presents economic opportunities, but public health researcher Dr.
Nwabor Ozioma Forstinus warns it's a "double-edged sword." Existing infrastructure,
particularly water and sanitation systems, struggles to keep pace, potentially
jeopardizing public health. A critical concern is the rise of waterborne diseases.

As Ilorin expands, aging water treatment plants and overwhelmed sewage systems
create a breeding ground for contamination, as water resources expert Professor
Nnamonu Emmanuel Ikechukwu cautions. Imagine water meant for drinking
harboring harmful bacteria or raw sewage overflowing into waterways.

Urbanization disrupts the environmental balance. Professor Adeyinka Sikiru Yusuff,

an environmental scientist, explains that rainwater races across impervious surfaces,
picking up pollutants and contaminating waterways as it bypasses natural filtration
through the ground.

Informal settlements, a hallmark of rapid urbanization, add another layer of

complexity. Densely populated and often lacking proper sanitation facilities, these
areas see a rise in open defecation. Dr. Wasiu John, a specialist in infectious diseases,
highlights the dangers: "Open defecation directly contaminates water sources with
fecal matter, creating a breeding ground for waterborne pathogens" that can cause
severe health problems.

Dr. Akintayo Christopher Oloruntoba, a public health advocate, emphasizes the need
for a deeper understanding of the specific link between urbanization and waterborne
diseases in Ilorin. This knowledge is crucial for guiding interventions to safeguard
public health.
 Can Ilorin navigate these challenges and ensure clean water for its residents?
Upgrading water treatment facilities, expanding sanitation systems, promoting proper
waste management, and exploring sustainable urban planning strategies are all
essential steps. The future of Ilorin's public health hinges on our ability to address
these issues. By working together, we can ensure that clean water and good health are
basic rights for all in this growing city.

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How does urbanization influence the prevalence of waterborne diseases in

Nigerian urban areas?
2. What are the specific challenges posed by urbanization to water quality,
sanitation, and hygiene practices in Ilorin?
3. What are the socio-economic and health consequences of waterborne diseases
in urban communities?

1.4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This project aims to assess the impact of urbanization on waterborne diseases in

Nigerian urban areas, with a specific focus on Ilorin. The objectives are to:

 Analyze the relationship between population density, water infrastructure, and

waterborne disease prevalence in Ilorin.
 Identify the key challenges associated with urbanization that contribute to
waterborne diseases in Ilorin.
 Evaluate the socio-economic and health consequences of waterborne diseases
on the population of Ilorin.
 Recommend strategies for improving water quality, sanitation, and hygiene
practices to mitigate the spread of waterborne diseases in Ilorin.
1.5. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This study is crucial for several reasons:

 It sheds light on the complex relationship between urbanization and

waterborne diseases, providing valuable insights for public health interventions.
 By focusing on Ilorin, it offers a case study that can be replicated in other
urban settings across Nigeria.
 The findings will inform policymakers in developing strategies to improve
water security, sanitation, and hygiene promotion in urban areas.
 The study contributes to the ongoing dialogue on achieving Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 6, which aims to ensure access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all.

1.6. AREA OF STUDY

1.6.1. Brief History of Ilorin

Ilorin's history is rich and complex, shaping its current demographics and urban
landscape. Here's a glimpse into the past:

 Early Inhabitants: The first settlers in the Ilorin area were believed to be the
Baruba people, who later migrated for unknown reasons.
 Founding: Yoruba people established Ilorin around 1450 AD as a provincial
military outpost for the Oyo Empire.
 Shifting Power: In the early 19th century, a warlord named Afonja, fleeing
persecution within the Oyo Empire, arrived in Ilorin. He allied with Fulani Muslim
scholar, Shehu Alimi, leading to a rebellion that ultimately broke Ilorin's ties with Oyo
and established the Ilorin Emir
1.6.2. Geographical Location of Ilorin

lIorin sits at approximately 8°32' North latitude and 4°35' East longitude. This places
it within the tropical savanna climate zone.

Fig 1. Showing the Map of Ilorin, Kwara state

1.6.3. Region: Ilorin acts as a bridge city, situated between the following regions:

 South-Western Nigeria: Densely populated with higher rainfall.

 Nigerian Middle Belt: Sparsely populated with drier conditions.

1.6.4. Topography

Ilorin is built on a relatively flat plateau with an elevation ranging from 273 meters
to 364 meters above sea level on the eastern side . However, there are isolated hills
within the city limits, with Sobi Hill reaching 394 meters . The topography influences
drainage patterns and can affect the risk of flooding, potentially contaminating water
sources.
1.6.5. River System
The Awun River, a minor tributary of the Niger River, flows through Ilorin. While
the river provides some water resources, it can also be a source of contamination if
sanitation is inadequate.

1.6.6. Climate

Ilorin experiences a tropical savanna climate with distinct wet and dry seasons

Wet Season (April to October): Characterized by heavy precipitation, which can

lead to waterlogging and potential contamination if proper drainage systems are not in
place.

Dry Season (November to March): Hot and dry, with reduced water availability.
This can exacerbate water scarcity and increase reliance on potentially unsafe water
sources.

1.6.7. Vegetation
Ilorin lies in the transition zone between the deciduous woodlands of southern
Nigeria and the dry savannas of northern Nigeria [2]. This vegetation pattern
influences water infiltration rates and soil quality, which can indirectly impact
waterborne disease risks.

1.6.8. Demographic Characteristics:

Ilorin's population is estimated to be over 1.5 million people [reference needed], with
a high growth rate. This rapid growth puts a strain on existing infrastructure and
resources. Here's a breakdown of some key demographics:
 Age Structure: A relatively young population with a high proportion of
children under the age of five. This age group is particularly vulnerable to waterborne
diseases.
 Population Density: Uneven distribution of population density within the
city. Informal settlements with higher densities often lack proper sanitation facilities
and clean water access.
 Migration Patterns: A significant influx of migrants seeking economic
opportunities in Ilorin. These new residents may not have access to established water
and sanitation systems.

1.6.9. Socioeconomic Characteristics:

Ilorin's economy is a mix of formal and informal sectors. Understanding the income
levels, employment patterns, and education levels of the population is crucial for
assessing vulnerability to waterborne diseases:

 Income Levels: Significant disparities in income levels exist. Lower-income

communities often have limited resources to invest in safe water and sanitation
solutions.
 Employment Patterns: A high proportion of the workforce engaged in
informal employment sectors. These jobs may not provide adequate income for basic
necessities, including safe water and sanitation.
 Education Levels: Varying levels of education within the population. Lower
levels of education can correlate with less awareness about hygiene practices and
disease prevention.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid pace of urbanization, particularly in developing countries, has brought
with it a myriad of challenges. One such challenge, and the focus of this literature
review, is the impact of urbanization on the prevalence of waterborne diseases. This
issue is of particular relevance to Nigeria, a country experiencing significant urban
growth.
This literature review will explore the topic “Impact of Urbanization on Waterborne
Diseases in Nigerian Urban Areas: A Case Study of Ilorin, Kwara State”. The review
will delve into the intricate relationship between urbanization and the increased risk of
waterborne diseases, considering factors such as population growth, inadequate
infrastructure, and environmental changes.
The review will also highlight common waterborne diseases prevalent in developing
countries, with a special focus on Nigeria. The case study of Ilorin, Kwara State, will
provide a localized perspective on the issue, offering insights that could inform public
health policy and urban planning in Nigeria.
The literature review aims to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on the
health implications of urbanization, providing a comprehensive overview of the
current state of research on the topic. By focusing on the Nigerian context, the review
will also offer valuable insights that could inform interventions aimed at mitigating
the impact of urbanization on the spread of waterborne diseases in the country.
In the following sections, we will delve deeper into each of these areas, drawing on a
range of sources, including the work of Nigerian scholars such as Nwabor Ozioma
Forstinus, Nnamonu Emmanuel Ikechukwu, Adeyinka Sikiru Yusuff, Wasiu John,
and Akintayo Christopher Oloruntoba. Their contributions to the field provide
invaluable insights into the complex interplay between urbanization and waterborne
diseases in Nigeria.

2.2. URBANIZATION AND WATERBORNE DISEASES

2.2.1. Link Between Urbanization and Increased Risk of Waterborne Diseases

Urbanization, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, often leads to
inadequate sanitation and access to clean water, thereby increasing the risk of
waterborne diseases. A study by Ogenyi Franca C. highlights that Nigeria is one of the
countries with unsafe water supplies due to uncoordinated efforts of various federal,
state, and local agencies. This lack of sanitation system, pipe breaks, leaks,
groundwater contamination, and shared water sources between humans and wildlife
can lead to the spread of diseases.
Fig 1.2 Showing the water stressed areas in the world

2.2.2. Impact of Population Growth on Waterborne Diseases

Population growth can exacerbate the risk of waterborne diseases. As the
population increases, the demand for clean water also rises, leading to water stress in
many regions. In 2021, over 2 billion people lived in water-stressed countries, which
is expected to be exacerbated in some regions as a result of climate change and
population growth. Globally, at least 1.7 billion people use a drinking water source
contaminated with faeces.

2.2.3. Impact of Inadequate Infrastructure on Waterborne Diseases

Inadequate infrastructure can significantly contribute to the spread of waterborne
diseases. Poor sanitation, inadequate wastewater treatment, and polluted water sources
can contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases. In developing countries, multiple
water treatment techniques are used, leading to a reduction in waterborne diseases
from 50 to 90%.

2.2.4. Impact of Environmental Changes on Waterborne Diseases

Environmental changes, particularly those related to climate change, can also
increase the risk of waterborne diseases. High temperatures can alter pathogen
survival, replication, and virulence, heavy rainfall events can mobilize pathogens and
compromise water and sanitation infrastructure, and drought can concentrate
pathogens in limited water supplies. A growing body of evidence suggests that climate
change may alter the incidence of waterborne diseases, and diarrhea diseases in
particular.

2.3. COMMON WATERBORNE DISEASES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Common waterborne diseases in developing countries include bacteria-caused
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea, protozoa such as amoebiasis, and viral
diseases such as retrovirals, hepatitis A, hepatitis E, and polio infections. Waterborne
diseases cause 3.5 million deaths annually. High temperatures, heavy rain, and
drought increase the risk of waterborne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and E.
coli..

2.4. HISTORY OF WATER BORNE DISEASES

Waterborne diseases have plagued humanity for millennia. Early civilizations
grappled with outbreaks of diarrhea illnesses, cholera, and typhoid fever, though the
microbial causes remained a mystery. Historical records from ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and India offer glimpses into this struggle. The Ebers Papyrus from
1550 BC mentions treatments for diarrhea and dysentery in Egypt, while clay tablets
from Mesopotamia describe illnesses with symptoms suggestive of waterborne
diseases. Ayurvedic texts in India highlight the importance of clean water and
sanitation practices, indicating an awareness of water's role in health, even without a
full understanding of germs.
Despite some early recognition, the Middle Ages and Renaissance saw stagnant
progress in understanding waterborne diseases. Poor sanitation practices in densely
populated cities like London and Paris worsened the situation. The Bubonic Plague,
which devastated Europe in the 14th century, primarily spread through rodents, but
contaminated water sources undoubtedly played a role. People often used the same
water for washing clothes, disposing of waste, and drinking, creating a perfect
breeding ground for pathogens.
A paradigm shift occurred in the 19th century with the rise of germ theory.
Pioneering scientists like Louis Pasteur demonstrated the role of microorganisms in
fermentation and disease, while Ignaz Semmelweis championed handwashing in
hospitals, significantly reducing childbirth mortality (though the germ theory
explanation came later). A pivotal moment arrived in 1854 with John Snow's
meticulous investigation of a London cholera outbreak. By meticulously mapping the
cases, Snow linked the spread of the disease to a contaminated public well, providing
compelling evidence for the connection between contaminated water and cholera
transmission.
The 20th century witnessed a dramatic decline in waterborne diseases in
developed nations thanks to public health interventions. Chlorination of water
supplies became a simple yet effective method to significantly reduce bacterial
contamination. Investments in sewage treatment plants and proper waste disposal
systems further minimized water contamination. Public health campaigns emphasized
handwashing and proper sanitation practices, empowering individuals to protect
themselves.
However, the 21st century presents new challenges. While advancements have
been made, the burden of waterborne diseases falls heavily on developing countries
lacking proper infrastructure and access to clean water and sanitation. The rise of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and new pathogens like Cryptosporidium pose ongoing
threats. Perhaps the most concerning challenge comes from climate change, which
can disrupt water quality and distribution patterns, potentially increasing the risk of
waterborne diseases
 .
Waterborne diseases, illnesses caused by ingesting contaminated water, remain a
significant public health threat globally. Every year, millions of people fall ill, with
children disproportionately affected, highlighting the urgency of understanding the
sources and causes of these diseases to prevent outbreaks and ensure safe drinking
water for all.

2.5. PREVALENCE OF WATERBORNE DISEASES IN NIGERIA

Waterborne diseases are a significant public health concern in Nigeria. According to

UNICEF, more than 2.5 million people in Nigeria are in need of humanitarian
assistance, 60% of which are children. These individuals are at increased risk of
waterborne diseases due to severe flooding. A study revealed that the prevalence of
waterborne diseases was statistically significant, with typhoid (37.85%), malaria
(32.11%), cholera (20.56%), and shigellosis (10.06%) being the most
common. Another report indicated that typhoid ranked the highest, followed by
cholera, hepatitis, and dracunculiasis.

Fig 1.2. Showing the percentage of Waterborne disease composition in Nigeria

2.6. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE PREVALENCE OF
WATERBORNE DISEASES IN NIGERIA

2.6.1 Poor Sanitation

Poor sanitation is a major factor contributing to the prevalence of waterborne
diseases in Nigeria. The unavailability of piped water and the dependence of rural
dwellers on surface waters, which are often contaminated with fecal materials, are the
major causes of the rising prevalence of waterborne diseases4. Poor hygienic practices
also play a significant role in the spread of these diseases.

2.6.2. Limited Access to Clean Water

Limited access to clean water is another significant factor. It is estimated that 78
million children in Nigeria are at the highest risk from a convergence of three water-
related threats – inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); related diseases;
and climate hazards. This lack of access to clean water increases the risk of
waterborne diseases.

Figure 1.3.: World Health Organization (WHO) Drinking Water Quality

Guidelines.
 Source: WHO 2019

2.6.3. Inadequate Water Treatment

Inadequate water treatment is also a contributing factor. Without proper
treatment, water can remain contaminated with harmful bacteria and other pathogens,
leading to the spread of waterborne diseases. The use of contaminated drinking water
and poor sanitary conditions result in increased vulnerability to waterborne diseases,
including diarrhea, which leads to the deaths of more than 70,000 children under five
annually.
In conclusion, addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that
includes improving sanitation facilities, ensuring access to clean water, and enhancing
water treatment processes. This will significantly reduce the prevalence of waterborne
diseases in Nigeria.

. A treatment facility typically has several stages, such as pre-treatment,

chemical coagulation, quick mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtering, and
disinfection. These stages are commonly organised as depicted in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4. : Flow Diagram Showing Treatment Stages in a Rapid Filtration
Plant

. Source: Adapted from Dunne & Newell, 2018.

Urbanization is a global phenomenon that has significant impacts on water

resources and sanitation systems. According to Bilgiç & Baba, rapid urbanization due
to population migration to cities has led to various natural hazards in recent
decades. They noted that urbanization enhances flooding, over-extraction of
groundwater, increase in impervious surfaces due to construction, water pollution, and
the degradation of water quality due to the accumulation of pollutants derived from
industrial and agricultural activities, waste disposal, and sewage.
In the context of Ilorin, a study conducted by Agaja and Towobola investigated the
impact of urban land use on rainwater quality in Ilorin Metropolis. They found that
urban land uses and rainwater quality have a significant relationship. Particularly,
residential land use was associated with poor rainwater quality, while commercial
land use was associated with fairly good quality. They concluded that urban land uses
have an impact on the rainwater quality and recommended that rainwater should be
purified before drinking, and sustainable urbanization policies should be developed to
prevent atmospheric pollution in Ilorin Metropolis.
Another study conducted in Uruguay examined water quality in various watersheds
with different urbanization levels and socio-environmental characteristics along a
precipitation gradient. They found that urbanization, particularly urban areas, paved
areas, and populations without sanitation, significantly influenced water quality
parameters. This study underscores the importance of interdisciplinary teams and
localized data for informed freshwater resource management.

2.7. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION: STRAIN ON WATER

TREATMENT PLANTS AND OVERBURDENED SEWAGE SYSTEMS

Water and waste water treatment systems are critical infrastructures that provide the
foundation for supporting public health, economic vitality, and a healthy environment.
However, these systems face significant strain due to various factors. The reliability,
performance, continuous operation, safety, maintenance, and protection of water and
wastewater systems are essential for producing clean and safe water.
However, the growth in global wealth and population means our wastewater,
including sewage, contains increasing amounts of dangerous chemicals, toxic
substances, and the debris associated with modern consumer lifestyles. This can lead
to overburdened sewage systems and potential health risks. In many densely
populated areas lacking treatment facilities, this problem is particularly acute.
In Nigeria, a study by Iheukwumere et al. emphasizes the potential of municipal
wastewater as an alternative source of water supply for agricultural, industrial, and
domestic purposes, especially at a time when climate change and rising population is
exerting so much pressure on available fresh water sources. However, the success of
such an idea is largely dependent on the perception and acceptability of reclaimed
municipal wastewater by the public.
2.8.. WASTE MANAGEMENT: OVERFLOWING LANDFILLS AND OPEN
DEFECATION AS CONTRIBUTORS TO WATER CONTAMINATION
Landfilling is one of the most common waste management methods employed
globally. However, it is associated with various environmental pollution problems,
such as underground water pollution due to the leaching of organic, inorganic, and
various other substances of concern contained in the waste.
Overflowing landfills can result in leachate, a liquid produced by landfill sites,
contaminating nearby water sources, further damaging ecosystems. Open defecation
introduces toxins and bacteria into the ecosystem in amounts that it cannot handle or
break down at a time. This leads to a build-up of filth and can end up in aquatic
systems, causing harm to aquatic life.
In Nigeria, open defecation persists as a significant problem, contributing to the
proliferation of diseases and presenting formidable challenges to public health, water
quality, and overall well-being in numerous communities across the country. Ngwu
(2017) posited that open defecation in rivers and lakes that are the sources of drinking
water are more prevalent in the rural areas in Nigeria with serious health and
environmental consequences.

2.9. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES: URBANIZATION, IMPERVIOUS

SURFACES, FLASH FLOODS, AND POLLUTED RUNOFF
Urbanization increases regional impervious surface area, which generally reduces
hydrologic response time and therefore increases flood risk. As watersheds are
urbanized, much of the vegetation is replaced by impervious surfaces, thus reducing
the area where infiltration to groundwater can occur. This leads to more stormwater
runoff - runoff that must be collected by extensive drainage systems that combine
curbs, storm sewers, and ditches to carry stormwater runoff directly to streams6.
Urbanization enhances flooding, over-extraction of groundwater, increase in
impervious surfaces due to construction, water pollution, and the degradation of water
quality due to the accumulation of pollutants derived from industrial and agricultural
activities, waste disposal, and sewage. This highlights the importance of sustainable
water management to protect and conserve water resources in urban areas.
In Lagos, Nigeria, a study by Guo et al. found that both localized urbanization and
global warming contribute to the increase in urban land surface temperature. The
increasing urbanization-induced urban heat island effect is the major cause for more
heat-related health risks and climate extremes that many urban residents are suffering.

3.0. Climate Change and Waterborne Diseases in Nigeria

Climate change has significantly influenced the spread of waterborne diseases

(WBDs) in Nigeria, affecting environmental quality and human life . Rising sea levels
increase vulnerability to flooding and waterborne disease. Additionally, drought and
rising temperature hinder agricultural production and fishing, reducing food security
and negatively impacting health and nutrition⁵.

A study conducted in Lagos revealed a significant impact of climate change on food

crop production and yield between 1998 and 2018, resulting in a notable decline in
overall production levels. Increased temperature also creates a conducive environment
for the proliferation of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, increasing the incidence of
preventable vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever.

3.1. References on Climate Change and Waterborne Diseases

Several scholarly articles have explored the relationship between climate change and
waterborne diseases. For instance, a study published in Current Environmental Health
Reports provides evidence suggesting that climate change may alter the incidence of
waterborne diseases, particularly diarrheal diseases. Another study published in the
journal Water discusses the impact of climate change on waterborne diseases and
suggests directions towards sustainability.
3.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The study by Michael E. Omeka et al. provides an in-depth discussion on the status,
challenges, trends, and prospects of groundwater quality assessment in Nigeria. It
underscores that the imminent industrial growth and population increase in Nigeria
will continue to cause significant shifts in water quality, with a rise in emerging
contaminants. The review also brings to light the underexplored application of
machine learning in water quality prediction in Nigeria, attributing this to limited data
availability and poor funding by the government.

In another insightful study, Hussein Adedoyin Adegoke et al. delve into the
analysis of sanitation and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria. The
study establishes a relationship between access to improved sanitation, potable water
supply, and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria. The results reveal
water scarcity in the southern part of Ondo State and inadequate access to improved
sanitation in both the southern and northern parts of the State. The study also employs
the multiple linear regression model to develop a relationship equation using
waterborne diseases as a dependent variable and potable water supply and improved
sanitation as independent variables.
These studies offer valuable insights into the relationship between urbanization and
the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Nigeria. They highlight the critical role of
improved sanitation, access to clean water, and effective water quality assessment
techniques in mitigating the risk of waterborne diseases.
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