UNIT 11 LANDSLIDES

11.0 Learning Outcome

I 1;1 Introduction
11.2 Landslides
11.2.1 Classification of Landslides
11.2.2 Landslide Movement Rates
11.2.3 Causes of Landslides
11.2.4 Ilnpacts of Landslides
1 1.3 Risk Reduction Measures
11.4 Landslide Disaster Management in India
11.5 Conclusion
11.6 Key Concepts
11.7 References and Further Reading
\

11.8 Activity

110 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
e understand the various types, causes and impacts of landslides;
e explain the risk reduction measures;
o describe the action taken by the Government for landslide disaster management in India; and
e identify the landslide prone regions of India, indicating the extent of their vulnerability to
landslides.
J-
11.1 ' INTRODUCTION
Landslides (also called "Landslips") are a major threat to the environment,human settlements and
infrastructure.They are mostly hill events and cover a wide variety of land forms and processes
involving the movement of soil and rock down-slope under the influence of gravity, Landslide
phenomenon is experienced in all the hill ranges of India. The Himalayas have been observed to be
the scene of most frequent landslide incidents, mainly because Himalayas are a comparatively *
young mountain system and the rock structure is still weak and fragile. The other hiil ranges in India
chn be'grouped in decreasing order of landslide proneness,such as: Northeast hill ranges, Western
Ghats and Nilgiris, Eastern Ghats and Vindhyas. Landslides cquse extensive damage to houses,
roads, buildings,forests, plantations and agricultural fields. The debris originating from landslides
rgsults in siltation of streams and rivers, inducingfurther problems of erosion andfloods,Damages
to st~uctures, loss of lives as well as properties occur extensively every year as a result of landslides,
A majority of landslides are triggered by natural causes, includingsubstantial rainfalls,cloud bursts,
earthquakes, etc.
140 Understa~tdingNatural Disasters

Over the past 50 years, the landslide problem seems to have increased in magnitude as well as
frequency due to human activities. Large scale constiuction works in hilly areas involving dams,
hydroelectric projects, mining activities, extensive expansion of road network, as well as
deforestation resulting frorrt~exploitationof the forests, have all taken their toll of the fragile eco-
systems of hill ranges. The result'is%kk~~&ncedin the shape of enormous increase in the
landslide problems. At the same time, increasing needs for defence services, development of hilly
areas and providing un-interrupted colnlnunication system to the remote and far-flung areas, have
all created a very high demand for developing and keeping the transport and communication
network in the hills always open.
In this Unit, we will discuss the various types,causes, impacts, and risk reduction measuresregarding
landslide disaster. In view of the need to adopt inore effective measures, we will discuss landslide
disaster management in India. This Unit will highlight the role of the Geological Survey of India as
the Nodal Agency for landslide management.

LANDSLIDES
Landslide may be defined as failure of a slope, mainly under the action of its own weight in which
the displacement has both vertical and horizontal components of considerablemagnitude. Landslide
denotes downward and outward movement of slope-fonning materials coinposed of natural rock,
soil, ar*tificialfill or acornbination of tliesematerials.The moving mass follows anyone of the three
principal types of move~nents,viafalling, sliding,flowingor their combinations.The rate of movement
may vary from slow to rapid.
Every soil mass beneath a slope has the tendency to slide downwards or outwards under the
influence of gravity. If the shear strength of soil is adequate to counteract this tendency, the hill
slope is stable, otherwise aslideoccurs.As per the Inte~nationalAssociation of Engineering Geology
(IAEG),the landslides are simply defined as "the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a
slope".

11.2.1 Classificatioil of Landslides

Over the years, different systems of landslide classification haveevolved on the basis of the mode
and the rate of the movements,shape of the slide surface, type and riahlre of ~naterialinvolved, age
of deposits, and other factors, such as the trigger or the prevalent weather, Some systems classify
them according to soil type or mode of failure and yet others classify according to the forces
causing failure or else, according to the force that triggered the sliding. However, there is need to
use standard terminology to facilitate universal understanding of the worldwide phenomenon of
landslides. Therefore, in general,landslidesare sub-divided into falls, topples, slides, lateral spreads,
flows and complex movements. These categories are filrther sub-divided according to the type of
inaterial (rock debris or earthhoil) that constitt~testhe landslide. These classifications of landslide
types are depicted schematically in tslble 11.1
Falls are the separation of soil or, more likely, rock froin steep slopes or cliffs. This separation
occurs with only lninj~nalshear defonnation of the material.The displaced material inay go into
free fall, bound or roll atinoveinent rates, which can vary from slow to extrelnely rapid.
Topples are the forward rotation of anear vertical unit (orunits) of rock or soil about an axial point
at the base of the unit. Movements prior to failure may occur at aslow rate over a long time period.
Free fall of the intact unit occurs when gravitation forces exceed the ground strength.
The term "slide"irnplies downslopemovementof geologic materials ~ccuning predominantlyon
either surfaces of rupture or relatively thin zones of intense shear strain. Movement is usually
 Table 11.1: Classification of Landslide Types

Q p e of Material

Qpeof Movement I I Engineering soils 1

Bedrock
Mostly coarse Mostly fine

Falls Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall

-

I Topples I Rock Topple

I
I
I
Debris topple I
I
Earth topple 1
I
F~~ Rock slump Debris slump Earth Slump
Rock block slide Debris block slide Earth block slide

Many units Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide

Lateral spreads Rock spread 1 " Debris spread Earth spread
1 Flows 1 Rocktlow I Dehris flow I Earthtlow
I
Co~nplex I Combination of two onnore principal types of movement I
progressive from an area of local fkilure.The first signs of ground movement are cracks in the
originalground surface. The main scarp of the slide may fonn slowly or rapidly depending on
whether the shearing strength o f l single unit or the entire lnilss is exceeded.
Lateral spreads are an extension and run out of the sliding mass. The fracturedinass of the material
may subside into the softer underlying material. The rupture surface may or may not be a distinct
surface of intense shear. Spreads may result from either liquepdction of cohesion-less materials or
flow of the softer materials underlying the mass.
A flow is a viscous inovement in which surfaces of shear are short-lived, closely spaced and
usually notpreserved. The lower boundary of the displaced Inass may be a su~fice along which
appreciable differential movement has taken place or a thick zone of distributed shear. There are
different modes of flows, namely; skin flows, lahars (debris flow from volcanoes),channeljsed
flows, open-slope debris flows, and debris avalanches.
Complex slides are landslides exhibiting a comhination of two or more types of movements. In
practice, inany landslides are complex, although one type of inavernentdominates others in certain
areas, within a slide, at a particular time. It has also been a general observation that in small slides,
movements change from one to another as sliding progresses. Also, different types of movements
may be occurring in different parts of the slide at different times in large slides.

11.2.2 Landslide Movement Rates

The sate of movelnentof different landslide types is highly variable.Slides move relatively slowly in
co~npallisonto flows. Topples~andfalls occur instantaneously and are associated with steep gradient
slopes or cliffs. Movement rates during failure depend not only on the nature and extent of slope
materials involved, but also on the shape of the slip surface. For slopes composed of brittle materials,
considerable acceleration of movements can occur when strslins in the ground exceed thestrain at
which peak ground strength occurs. For other materials, such as extra sensitive or quick clays,
remoulding results jn almost complete loss of strength and consequently,speeds of movements are
very high.
 142 Understunding Natural Disasters

Movement rate is also highly dependent on the magnitude and duration of rainfall in a particular
area. Mudflow movements may occur where initial slides have created planes of shear, which
weakened the soil mass and permitted water infiltration.These movements are generally faster
than movement rates of other landslide types. Table 11.2 depicts the rates of movementof landslides.

Table 11.2: Classification of Landslide Movement Rates

- - - -- - - -

Landslide: Rate of Movement (rnmlsec) Classification

>5 x lo3 .. Extremely Rapid
50-5 x 10' Very Rapid
0.5 - 50 Rapid
5 x 1W - 0.5 Moderate
50 x lo-" 5 x lo--' SIOW
0.5 x lo-('-5 0 x Very Slow
<O.5 x 10-6 Extremely Slow
-.
The data given in the above table indicates that the rate of movement of extremely ripid landslides
exceeds 5xlOhmm/sec.i.e. more than 18 kmph; on the other hand, it is less than 0.5 x 10~6mm~sec
i.e., less than half a millimeter per 24 hours for extremely slow landslides.
The rate of movement is acritical element in landslides,which result in natural disasters. Here loss
of life and destruction are directly related to the speed of the landslide. For instance, small debris
flows of high velocity are more apt to result in a natural disaster on aroad than mass slides of low
velocity.
11.2.3 Causes of Landslides
The principle of limiting equilibrium indicates that landslides occur when the forces driving the
ground mass are greater than the forces 1-esistinggroundmovetnent.Landslides can be caused by ,
poor ground conditions, geomorphic phenomena, natulal physical forces, and quite often due to
man-made reasons. A list of causes for landslides is given in table 1 1.3.
In general, the causative factors listed in table 11.3 can be divided into those conditions that exist
in a slope, such as topography, lithology and structural features, and those conditions, such as
rainfall, excavations andearthquakesthat may produce a change. The following are the important
conditions that cause slopes to become unstable and factors that trigger mass movements, resulting
in landslides.
I
i) Change in the Slope Gradient
I
' Aprogressive increase i n the slope angle due to underminingof the foot of a slope by erosion, i.e.,
by streams, rivers andglaciers and undercutting of banks by rivers or by waves or tidal currents, I

contributes to slope failures. Change in the angle of slope may also occur due to previous rock fall
or slide, or subsidence. Human activities, such as, mining,cuts, quarries,pits, canals, lakes, reservoirs
and alteration of water levels may lead to slope instability. Increase in slope gradient causes a I
1

change in the internal stress of rock mass and equilibrium conditions may be disturbed by such I
I
increase in the stress. I

I
ii) Surcharge 1)
The surcharge or the overloading may lead to increase in shear stresses and increase in the pore-
water pressure i n clay type soils or rocks, which in turn produces a decrease in shear strength.

I
Landslides

Table 11.3 : Causes of Landslides

Ground causes
1 . Weak, sensitive, or weathered materials ?--

2. Adverse ground structure (joints,fissures) L

3. Physical property variation (permeability, plasticity)

Morphological causes
1. Ground uplift (volcanic, tectonic) .
2. Erosion (wind, water)
3. Scour
4. Deposition loading in the slope crest
5. Vegetation removal (by forest fire, drought)
Physical causes
1. Intense or prolongedprecipitation
2. Rapid drawdown
3. Earthquake
4. Volcanic eruption
5. mawing
6. Shrink and swell
7. Artesian pressures
Man-made causes
1. Excavation (particularly at the toe of slope)
2. Loading of slope crest
3. Drawdown (of reservoirs)
4. Deforestation
5'. higation
6. Mining
7. Mtficial vibration
8. Water impoundmentand leakage fromutilities

The surcharge may be due to natural or human actions.The surcharge from natural causes may be
due to rain, hail, snow, water from springs, accumulation of talus on existing landslide materials,
accumulated volcanic material, etc. The surcharge from human activities may be on account of
construction of buildings, and other stnictures, loaded vehicles,construction of earth fills, stockpiles
of &re,etc. I
I

iii) Shocks and Vibrations

Earthquakes, large-scale explosive and machine vibrations produce vibrations of different
frequenciesand affect the equilibrium of slopes. This may trigger a landslide on accountof temporary
changes of stress. In saturated fine sand and sensitive clays, vibrations may even result in sudden
liquefaction of the soil.
iv) Changes in Water Content
Rainfalland snowmelt water penetrate into the joints and crevices and produce hydrostaticpressure.
The increase in pore-water pressure in soils causes decrease in the mobilised shear resistance
which may eventually lead to instability. The deleterious effectof rain water is more when the rain
cohes after a long dry period and clayey soils are desiccated and shrunken so that water readily
percolates deep into the fissures. Changes in water content often occur because of human activities,
such as, diversion of streams, blockage of drainage and deforestation.Flowing or confined ground
 ---
144 Understanding Natural Disasters

water also exerts pressure on overlying beds, which leads to decrease in the stability of the slope.
If the ambient temperatures are in the sub-freezing range, the freezing water in rock fissures increases
in volume and tends to widen them there by reducing the cohesion. Ice larninaeeformnedin clays,
clayey and sandysoils increase the water content on melting during the thaw period.
v) Rainfall and Claud Bursts
Rainfall has come to be increasingly recognised as a major factor that triggers slope movements
and controls the frequency of landslides. The magnit~~de of its influence depends on climatic
conditions, topography of the area, the geological structure or slopes and permeability and other
properties of rocks and soils, as well as the amount, intensity and frequency of rainfall.
.Studies conducted specially in the Himalayan areas have shown a good correlation between annual
rainfall precipitation and the extent of landslide activity. Flashes of cloudbursts often punctuate
rainfall,specially in theHimalayas. Acloud burst brings intense rainfall all of asudden which lasts
for a few minutes and leaves behind a trail of devastation, worse than that inflicted by the combined
effect of rainfall for the rest of the season.
vi) Changes due to Weathering
Changes due to mechanical effects of weathering, such as, softening of fissured clays, physical
disintegration of granular rocks, such as, granite or sandstone under frost action or thennal expansion
' occur frequently. Chemical alterations, such as, hydration and ion exchange i n clays, influence of
seasonal and diurnal fluctuations of temperature, freeze-thaw cycles, drying of clays and shales
generally result in deterioration of the strength characteristics of the slope fotlning materials, thereby,
increasing the risk of instability.Over-consolidatedclays and clay shales f o ~ m a major rock type in
the Shiwalik range of rheHimalayas. These rock types are specially prone to landslides and slope
stability problems, The clay shales and over-co~~solidated clays are highly fissurcddue to past
stress history and stress relief combined with absorption of water, wherever available, renders
these formations unstable, which is yet another major cause of landslides in the Himalayas.
vii) Structure, Slope Geometry and Stratigraphy
The stn~cturaland stratigraphicfeatures and slope geometry control slope failure in predominantly
rock slopes. Some of these factors are: discontinuities;such as, faults and beddingplanes; foliations
in weak rock, such as schist's joints fractured zone. Massive beds over weak materials, such as,
sandstones resting on clay beds, lead to slope failure. If the rock strata are inclined towards the
slope face, the probability of the occurrence of landslide is enhanced.
viii) Landslides Induced due to Surface Erosion
Yet another cause of landslide occunence, specially peculiar to the Western Himalayas, is surface
erosion. The soils covering slopes in the Western Himalayas have low cohesion and the rainfa.11 is
moderate. The cornbination of these conditions is highly conducive to the initiation of shallow
surface erosion and if such erosion is allowed to continue unchecked, the extent of slope area
affected by erosion increases as well as deepens. Eve~lhlally,
overall stability of the slope is affected I

sesulting in large-scalemass movements.

I

ix) Influence of Developmental Activities

Increased pace of develop~nentalactivities in the hill areas has also resulted in increased incidence
of landslides. Slope cutting for roads, housing,etc. and denudation of hill slopes due to clearing of ;
forests and mining activities have adverse effects on the stability of hill slopes.
I

11.2.4 Impacts of Landslides I

111considering the adverse impacts of landslides, it should.be kept in
mind that landslides occur in
remote mountain areas with difficult terrain and adverse physical and clirnatic conditions. The
 Landslides 145

settlements built on steep slopes, weak soils, at the base of steep slopes, or at the mouths of
streams emerging from mountain valleys are vulnerable. Mostly, landslides give no notice and
enormous amounts of rock and soil come crashing with speed on the unwarried and unprepared
victims. In most cases, damage may occur to buildings, even if foundations have been strengthened.
FLII-themore, infrastluchIra1ele~nentssuch as buried utilities or brittle pipes contlibuteto vulnerability.
Keeping in view the above situations, the adverse effects of landslides rnay be divided into two
parts; i.e. direct and indirect impacts.
Direct impacts include anything on top or in the path of a landslide which results in total destruction.
The resulting rubble damages'lines of co~nmunicationsand blocks roadways; blockage in the
waterways created flash flood with disastrous effects. In landslide disastel; casualties may not be
widespread, except in cases when associated with earthquakes or volcanoes. Fatalities are more
where population pressure has prompted settlements in areas vulnerable to landslides. In this
context, casualties result from collapse of buildings or burial by landslide debris. Table 1 1.4
highlights the roadway damage intensity related to landsliclel~~ove~nent rate.
It is evident from the data that landslides affect: roadways on tlie basis of landslide movement rate.
In case of extremely rapid landslides, damage level is catastrophicand it leads to total destruction
of roadway and adjoining areas where escape for people and vehicles is almost impossible. However
in very slow landslide movement rate, maintenance keeps road open with only infrequent road
closures if repair work is not urgent. The effect:of road damage by landslides on socio-economic
activities can be seen as village isolation, house relocation, evacuation of persons, increase in
prices of essential colnmodities in short supply and so on. A well-developed road network or an
a1temate a1ignmen t with little detoms may mi~iimisetlie effects.
, Landslides cause indirect impacts apart from loss of houses, destruction to propel-ty and disturbance
in family life. They lead to loss of productivity in agricult~lre,poul try, small-scalecottage industry or
forest produce; reduced real estate values in high-risk areas; changes in streams and irrigation
facilities;and, flooding. Landslides damage roads and other infrastructures.They cause disruption
to traffic due to collapse of road infrastructure or accumulation of collapsed material on road from
upper slopes, and bridge failures due to debris flows.
- --

1111.3 RISK REDUCTION MEASURES

Most of the risks from landslides are due to inadequate attention paid to the nature of slope,
properties of slope rnaterials and related aspects. Design of a stable slope angle where deep cuts
are involved is rasely if ever done on thebasis of stability analysis. Howeve]; with adequateplanning,
such problerns can be minimised or even avoided and where necessary, suitable protective measures
can be taken to preserve the hill slope stability. The iinplementation of risk reduction measures
must be preceded by locating areas, which are prone to slope failures. In other words, site
investigation is of prirne importance both to locate potentially risky areas from the point of view of
landslides or to investigate the causes (andexplore steps to curb recul-sence) where landslide has
occurred.
Site Investigation
Site investigation for landslides and landslide-prone areas
,.
is an iinportant and decisive part of the
sttidy and serves two main objectives:
a) To identify landslide-prone areas before the construction work is taken up. Such investigation
is required to suggest preventive measures or alternative routes that are less susceptible to
landslide hazard; and
 146 Understanding Nut~tralDisasters

Table 11.4 : Roadway Damage in relation to Landslide Movement Rate

I 1 I

Damage Damage Level Landslide Typical Roadway Effects

Classification Movement Rate
/ Imperceptible Extremely Slow o Routine, periodic
maintenance.
. Movement cannot
be detected without instruments.
Negligible Very Slow Maintenance. keeps road o p ~ n
with only infrequent road
closures; drainage structures
generally not dalnaged.
Repair work is generally not urgent.
Slight Slow Road closures probable for short
time periods.
Repair work can be safely
done during movement.
Moderate Moderate Overall roadway stability may be
affected unless remedial work is
uiidertake~~
immediately.
Worker safety must be monitored.
( Serious . Roadways are closed, and
iln~nediatearea evacuated.
Unsafe to undertake remedial
work, while movement continues.
o Roadway destroyed.
o Escape difficult for motorists and
pedestrians.
o Repair work is extensive, difficult
and time consuming.
Catastrophic Extremely Rapid Total destruction of roadway and

.-
. adjoining areas.
Escape unlikely
formotorists, pedestrians, and

. structure iahabita~~ts.
Repair unlikely.

b) In an existing slide, site investigation helps to identify factors ldesponsiblefor the instability or
movement.and to determine the appropriate corrective measures needed to prevent or ~nini~nise I

recurring of instdbility problems. I

I
Sufficient information should be collected on site conditions to enable analysis of the problem, I

1
assessment of the lisk of instability and the design ofrernedial measures to prever~tor minimise the I

risk to acceptable levels. Any recommendation for corrective and preventive measures in a landslide I
,
area or landslide prone area lnust be based on a detailed, integrated, geological and geo-tkchnical i:
investigation. The geological structure of the area, the properties of the rocks and the local I
hydrogeological conditions should be studied in detail. The morphological history of the slope must 1
be studied as the present condition of a slope is the end product of past geological processes. t
Landslides

The investigations for landslide prone areas consist of four phases:

0 Initial or preliminary studies
ii) Field investigations
iii) Laboratory testing
iv) Compilation, analysis an,dpresentation of data in the fom-of landslide hazards map
L
The landslide hazard map permits planners to determine the level of risk and to make proper
decisions regarding avoidance, prevention or mitigation of existing and future landslides. The risks
arising from landslides may be of geographical, engineering, medical, and/or socio-economicnature.
The spread and deposition of debris and blocking of streams due to landslides are known as
geographical risks. Engineering risks involve risk of damage to bui Idings, roads, bridges and
communication. The medical risks are concerning human and animal life, i.e. injury, shock or
death. Last type of risk affects the socio-economic life of the people due to loss of family, house,
cattle, agriculture and employment. These risks can be reduced or minirnised by adopting risk
reduction measures. As already stated, hating disaster prone areas must precede implementation
of risk reduction measures which can be divided in two categories, viz., Risk Control Measures
and kisk ~ssistance ~ e a s u r e s"Risk
. control measures", such as hazards mapping, preparation of
hazard zonation maps, community education and awareness, land-use regulations, advance planning,
relocating vulnerable settlements, strengtheningof weak structures, and by creating adequatedrainage
to avoid accumulation of water. Equally important are the "Risk Assistance Measures", such as
monitoring and warning; search and rescue; medical assistance;damage assessment;and economic
assistance for rehabilitation and reconstruction. We shall discuss landslide disaster management in
a little more detail in the next section with particular reference to our country.

1 . 4 ILANDSLLDEDISASTER MANAGEMENT IGN INDIA

As already stated, landslides are a frequent and recurring phenomenon in the various hill regions of
India from Kerala to the Himalayas. However the geological history of the rocks and the ,rainfall
regime ofthe place have a strong bearing on the incidence of landslides in any region. Therefore,
there are variations in the occurrence of landslides in different parts of the country as indicated in
table 11.5 below.
Table 11.5: Incidence of Landslides in India

Region Incidence of Landslides or the Vulnerability

of the Regions to Landslides
Himalayas High to very high
North-eastern Hills High
Western Ghats and Nigliris Moderate to high
Kerala, Eastern Ghats & Vindhyachal Low

Pre-disaster mitigation helps to avoid or minimise the risk due to landslides and also ensures fast
recovery of a community from the adverse impacts of a landslide disaster. An effective mitigation
programme is based on partnershipsi.e. the involvement of all the stakeholders, viz., government,
non-governmentalorganisations and community. The components of acompsehensive emergency
management include preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation activity. The preparedness
actions to deal with disasters include community education and awareness; preparation of hazard
zonation maps; relocating highly vulnerablesettlements;strengthening of weak structures; removal
 148 Understanditzg Natural Disasters

of likefllockages; creating adequate drainage; monitoring and warning; community pasticipation

and cooperation; and vigilance.
The major responsibility to deal with la~~dslides lies with the State Government and the District
officials. The Central Government moves in toassist the State Government, financially or otherwise,
as per the situation. Earlier, there were no clear cut disaster management procedures as such
specifically for landslides.Most of the actions conce~nedproviding short-term relief and rehabilitation,
in the form of compensation, to the affected communities after the event.
Now, landslide disaster management has been receiving considerable attention. The first meeting
of the National Core Group for Landslide Risk Mitigation was held on 5th October 2004 under
the Chairmanshipof Secretary (BorderRoads Management), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
To prevent and mitigate landslide risks, this group have acted to finalise uniform methodologies for
landslide hazard zonation;developing methodologies for landslide hazard zonation on mesoscales;
landslide hazard zonation of vulnerableareas on macro and ~nesoscales;developing landslide risk
mitigation plan; monitoringof recurringlandslides;rapid response to suggest measures in the event
of landslides;evolving an early warning system; awarness generation; and coordination.
For proper coordination, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) has been designated as the nodal
agency for landslidesby the bovernment of India vide Ministry of Coal and Mines co~nmunication
No. 11[5]04-M.I.dated January 29,2004. It has been decided that any landslide hazardzonation
will be carried out only with approval from the GSI to ensure that landslide hazard zonation is
carried out in line with the prescribed parameters.
The GSI will develop awareness generation strategy in consultation with the Ministry of Home
Affairs (MHA) and take up awareness programmes in disaster prone areas to raise awareness at
various levels through mediacampaigns, meetings and workshops.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has existingcodes for landslide hcazardzonation on macro
scales. GSI.has applied the provisions of these codes for landslide hazard zonation and suggested
revision of these codes accordingly. BIS will come up with provisions for landslide hazard zonation
on mesoscales.
To have a quick preliminary appraisal of large areas, and to identify critical slopes and prioritise
areas, GSI will identify the routes in consultation with the State Governments. The National Remote
Sensing Agency (NRSA) will provide remote sensing data to GSI and the Survey of India (SOI)
will provide topographical maps on the required scales to GSI.
For developing landslide risk mitigation plan, GSI in consultation with technical committee and
relevant institutions will develop specific set of guidelines for landslide risk mitigation for various
zones in India. All Central and State Government Ministries/Departments/Agenciesare to follow
these. These approved secommendationswill be issued as standing orders of the Governmentfor
, compliance by all Central and State Agencies,
To monitor the rec~zrringlandslides, which pose danger to communication routes or cause river
blockages, mapping on a scale of 1:500- 1 :200will be initiated by GSI on 10sites for mitigation
platming.
For providing rapid response to suggest immediate measures in the event of landslides, GSI will
set up control rooms in the Headquarters and Field offices. he$ will also upgrade their
communication links andlink their control rooms with the control Room of MHA and the State
Governments. All incidences of landslides will be reported by the State Government and Central
Agencies like the Border Roads Organisation.(BRO)and CPWD to the GSI. In response, the
GSI will share the procedures for reporting on incidences on landslides with the State Governmen
Landslides

and other Central Agencies. In addition, a landslide incidence inventory will be developed by the
GSI in consultation with the State Governments and other agencies.

11.5 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have concentrated on understanding the technical and practical aspectsof landslides,
such as, definitions, various types, causes and effects of landslides. It has been suggested that the
zoning or evaluation of landslide hazard areas is essential. In this regard, regular moni toring of
hazard prone areas by inspection or by instrumental measurements should be carried out. In addition,
some assessments of possible preventive actions must be done and implemented before adisaster
occurs. This Unit also dealt with possible risk reduction measures such as risk control measures
and risk assistance measures. Preparedness actions to deal with the disasters of landslides have
been highlighted in the unit. Disaster Managementin India related to landslides has been discussed
and the role of the Geological Survey of India has been brought out in detail. Regions vulnerable
to landslides in India have been identified.

11.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Crown : The material that is still in place, practically undisplaced
, and adjacent to the highest parts of the main scrap.
Displaced Material : Thematerial that ha moved away from its original psition
on the slope. It may be in a deformed or unreformed state.
Flank : The side of the landslide.
Foliation : Wavy or streaky structure in rocks (such as schists).
Foot : That portion of the displaced material that lies downslope
from the toe of the surface of rupture.
Left and Right : Compass directions are preferable in describing a slide,
but if right and left are used they refer to the slide as viewed
from the crown,
Lithology : Literally, lithology is the name of the science that studies
rocks &their physical, chemical and textural properties.
Here in the contextof landslides, lithology means the nature
of aparticularrocksystem expressed in terms of its visible
characteristics e.g., texture and grain size.
Main body : That part of the displaced material that overlies the surface
of rupture between the main scrap and the toe of the
surface of rupture.
Original Ground Surface : The slope that existed before the movement, If this is the
surface of an older landslide, that fact should be stated.
Scarp (or Escarpment) : Steep slope.
Schists : Medium to coarse grained metamorphic rock showing
foliation and tendency to split.
Scour : Powerful erosive effect of acurrent of water.
 150 Understanding Natural Disasters

Shale Sedimentary rock formed from deposits of fine mud

compacted by the compression of overlying rocks usually
banded in thin layers which split apart easily.
Shearing Cracking and breaking.ofrock at a fault or thrust plane.
Stratigraphy The branch of geology dealing with'the study and
description of the order and succession of rock strata.
Talus(or Scree) Steep slope of sharp, angular rocks and loose slithering
stones on a mountaingide. It-resultsfrom frost action or
other weathering processes.
The point on the toe most distant from the top of the
slide.
Toe The margin of displaced material mostdistant from the
main scrap.
Toe ofSurface of Rupture . The intersection (sometimes buried) between the lower
part of the surface of rupture and the original ground
surface.
Zone of ~ccymulatidn The area within which the displaced materia1 lies above
the original ground surface.
Zone of Depletion . The area within which the displaced material lies below
the original ground surface.

11.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture,Department of Agricultureand Co-operation,NCDM,
Manual on Natural isa aster ~ a n a ~ e m einn India,
t 200 1 , New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster ManagementDivision, Action
Planfor Landslide Risk Mitigation, Office Memorandum, No. 31-56-2003. NDH.I/III, dated
November 3,2004, New.Delhi.
Landslide Hazard Zonation Atlas of India, 2003, BMTPC and CDMM, New Delhi.
Prakash, Indu, 1994,DisahferManagement, ~ a s h t r i ~rahari
~a ~rakashan,Gbaziabad.
S ahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and UmifMedury (Eds.), 2002, DisasterMitigation Experiences
and Rejlections, hentice Hall of India, New Delhi

11.8 ACTIVITY
I) Prepare a list of the causes of landslides and their impact.
2) Identify landslide prone areas in India indicating the extent of vulnerability of these areas. I

I
3)- What are the main mitigation measures for landslides?
4) Distinguish betwken "Risk Control Measures" and "Risk AssistanceMeasures" in the context
I
of landslides giving a fewzxamples of each.
5 ) Discuss the different types of landslides.