CS304 QUIZ 1 lecture 1-10

Midterm Quiz
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1. Which of the following concept is more close to encapsulation

Information hiding…..confirm

2. _______ is represented by a line with unfilled diamond head

Aggregation……confirm

3. ________is represented by a line with a filled diamond head

Composition…..confirm

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 4. if some of objects exhibit identical characteristics then they belong to

Different classes

5. Which of the following relationship shows the inheritance?

Doctor is a person…..confirm

6. Constructor have ____ return type

No….confirm

7. If class b inherits from class a which of the following is child class.

Class A…..confirm

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 8. Which of the following can be the attribute of an object ali

address…..confirm

9. A car has wheel. What is the relationship between car and wheel

Composition

10. In order to make any function constant, keyword const is placed ______ the
parameter list.

After

11. Which of the following is Not true about inline function?

Inline function does not substitute the code within the function definition on
a function call….confirm

12. Normal form of class representation includes ___________.

Class Name, Attributes, Operation…….confirm

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 13. Which of the following is used to create user-defined data type in OOP?

Classes……confirm

14. Member functions defined inside a class are ____ by default

Private(inline)…..confirm

15. In which of the following different forms of a single entity exist?

Polymophism……confirm

16. Which of the following is not a pillar of object oriented programming?

Normalization….confirm

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 17. A/an _____ class represent the abstract concept.

Abstract class….confrim

18. Which of the following statements defines destructor for class student?

~Student(){//-}…..confirm

19. Constructor is used to __________ the objects of a class

Initialize…..confirm

20. Through ________ objects communicate with outer world.

Interface….confirm

21. There is/are ______ way(s) to create user defined types for objects in c++

Two…..confirm

22. We can allocate dynamic memory in C++ through _______ operator

New operator…..confirm

23. Object hides its information from other this concept is known as ______.

Information hiding…..confirm

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 24. The concept of derived class is involved in ________.

Inheritance

25. Enclosing all the characteristics of an object within the object itself is described
as______.

Encapsulation….confirm

26. Generalization is implemented through ________.

Inheritance…..confirm

27. IF we extend our object oriented model and the rest of model is not affected, this
feature is called_______.

Reusability

28. A class can have only ___ destructor

One……confirm

29. Data member of a class “Student” cannot be _________

Char*name;

30. In OOP, we can achieve reusability through _________.

Inheritance…..confirm

31. Which of the following is not an example of multiple inheritance?

Car…..confirm

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 32. Student registers course and teacher teaches the course is an example of ______.

Ternary association……..confirm

33. Which of the following method allows to reuse the characteristics of more than one
parent class?
Multiple inheritance.…confirm

34. If our class involves dynamic memory and we do not write deep copy constructor
for this class ___________ problem(s) can occur.

All options…..confirm

35. Generalization is __________ approach

(Top-bottom, bottom to top)….both are correct…..confirm

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 36. Statement Yasir is a friend of Ali and Ali is a friend of yasir is an example of
______.

Two way association…….confirm

37. In which of the following different forms of a single entity exist?

Polymorphism……confirm

38. Which of the following is True about Accessor functions?

All option……confirm

39. Identify the common attribute of the given scenario:

Circle has color, vertices, and radius. Triangle has color, vertices and angle

Color, vertices……confirm

40. In OOP, inheritance is shown in a class diagram by using __________.

Filled arrow….confirm

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 41. Which relationship exists between cat and animal class?

Association……not sure

42. Which of the following is not true about destructor?

Used to free memory allocated through static allocation….confirm

43. _________ are best candidates to become objects in problem description.

Nouns….confirm

44. Abstraction hides the ________details

Irrelevant …..confirm

45. _____ is the reverse process of generalization

Specialization…confirm

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 Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

CS304-Handouts

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Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

LECTURE NO.01 ................................................................................................................................................. 8

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
WHAT IS A M ODEL? ......................................................................................................... 10
OO MODELS ................................................................................................................................................... 11
OBJECT-ORIENTATION - ADVANTAGES ................................................................................................................ 12
WHAT IS AN OBJECT? ...................................................................................................... 12
TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE OBJECTS ................................................................................................. 13
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
LECTURE NO.02 .............................................................................................................................................. 15
INFORMATION HIDING ............................................................................................................................... 15
ENCAPSULATION ................................................................................................................................................................ 16
INTERFACE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................................................................................................................. 18
SEPARATION OF INTERFACE & IMPLEMENTATION ......................................................................... 19
MESSAGES........................................................................................................................................................ 19
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................................................... 19
LECTURE NO.03 .............................................................................................................................................. 21
ABSTRACTION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
CLASSES ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
INHERITANCE ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
LECTURE NO.04 .............................................................................................................................................. 29
CONCEPTS R ELATED WITH INHERITANCE .......................................................................................... 29
GENERALIZATION .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
SUB-TYPING (EXTENSION ) ................................................................................................. 31
SPECIALIZATION (RESTRICTION ) ....................................................................................... 32
OVERRIDING ................................................................................................................................................... 34
ABSTRACT CLASSES ..................................................................................................................................... 36
CONCRETE CLASSES ..................................................................................................................................... 38
LECTURE NO.05 .............................................................................................................................................. 40
SIMPLE ASSOCIATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 50
COMPOSITION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 52
AGGREGATION ............................................................................................................................................... 54
LECTURE NO.06 .............................................................................................................................................. 55
CLASS COMPATIBILITY ................................................................................................................................................... 55
POLYMORPHISM ................................................................................................................................................................. 56
POLYMORPHISM IN OO MODEL ............................................................................................................. 56
POLYMORPHISM – ADVANTAGES ........................................................................................................... 57
OBJECT-ORIENTED M ODELING AN EXAMPLE ................................................................................... 57
LECTURE NO.07 .............................................................................................................................................. 65
CLASS ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
TYPE IN C++ ...................................................................................................................... 65
ABSTRACTION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 66
DEFINING A NEW USER DEFINED TYPE .............................................................................................. 66
OBJECT AND CLASS ...................................................................................................................................... 68
ACCESSING MEMBERS .................................................................................................................................. 68
ACCESS SPECIFIERS ...................................................................................................................................... 69
LECTURE NO.08 .............................................................................................................................................. 72

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MEMBER FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................................................... 72

DEFINING M EMBER FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................ 72
INLINE FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 73
CONSTRUCTOR .................................................................................................................................................................... 75
CONSTRUCTOR PROPERTIES....................................................................................................................................... 75
DEFAULT CONSTRUCTOR ......................................................................................................................... 76
CONSTRUCTOR OVERLOADING ............................................................................................................... 77
CONSTRUCTOR OVERLOADING ............................................................................................................... 78
COPY CONSTRUCTOR.................................................................................................................................. 79
SHALLOW COPY ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
DEEP COPY ..................................................................................................................................................................... 82
LECTURE NO.09 .............................................................................................................................................. 84
SHALLOW COPY ............................................................................................................................................ 85
DEEP COPY ............................................................................................................................................................................ 90
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT COPY CONSTRUCTOR ......................................................................... 94
DESTRUCTOR ....................................................................................................................................................................... 94
ACCESSOR FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................... 95
THIS POINTER...................................................................................................................................................................... 96

LECTURE NO.10 .............................................................................................................................................. 99

USES OF THIS POINTER ............................................................................................................................. 99
SEPARATION OF INTERFACE AND IMPLEMENTATION .................................................................... 99
COMPLEX NUMBER ........................................................................................................................................................ 100
CONST MEMBER FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................ 102
THIS POINTER AND CONST MEMBER FUNCTION .......................................................................... 104

LECTURE NO.11 ............................................................................................................................................105

USAGE EXAMPLE OF CONSTANT MEMBER FUNCTIONS ............................................................... 105
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIALIZATION AND ASSIGNMENT.................................................... 106
MEMBER INITIALIZER LIST .................................................................................................................. 106
CONST OBJECTS................................................................................................................................................................ 107
STATIC VARIABLES ........................................................................................................................................................ 109
LECTURE NO.12 ............................................................................................................................................112
ACCESSING STATIC DATA M EMBER .................................................................................................. 113
LIFE OF STATIC DATA M EMBER ......................................................................................................... 114
STATIC M EMBER FUNCTION ................................................................................................................ 115
THIS POINTER AND STATIC MEMBER FUNCTIONS ........................................................................ 116
GLOBAL VARIABLE VS. STATIC MEMBERS...................................................................................... 116
ARRAY OF OBJECTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 116
LECTURE NO.13 ............................................................................................................................................118
POINTER TO OBJECTS .................................................................................................................................................. 118
BREAKUP OF NEW OPERATION ........................................................................................................... 119
CASE STUDY ................................................................................................................................................ 119
COMPLETE CODE OF DATE CLASS ....................................................................................................... 121
LECTURE NO.14 ............................................................................................................................................124
14.1. COMPOSITION .................................................................................................................................................................... 124
LECTURE NO.15 ............................................................................................................................................132
AGGREGATION ........................................................................................................................................... 135
FRIEND FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................. 138
LECTURE NO.16 ............................................................................................................................................142

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16.1. OPERATOR OVERLOADING......................................................................................................................................... 142

LECTURE NO.17 ............................................................................................................................................ 149
17.1. OVERLOADING ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR .......................................................................................................... 151
LECTURE NO.18 ............................................................................................................................................ 155
SELF ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM .................................................................................................................................... 155
OTHER BINARY OPERATORS ................................................................................................................. 156
FRIEND FUNCTIONS AND OPERATOR OVERLOADING .................................................................. 157
LECTURE NO.19 ............................................................................................................................................ 158
STREAM INSERTION OPERATOR .......................................................................................................... 158
STREAM EXTRACTION OPERATOR ...................................................................................................... 158
OVERLOADING STREAM INSERTION OPERATOR .......................................................................... 159
OVERLOADING STREAM EXTRACTION OPERATOR ...................................................................... 160
OTHER BINARY OPERATORS ................................................................................................................. 161
LECTURE NO.20 ............................................................................................................................................ 163
SUBSCRIPT [] OPERATOR .......................................................................................................................................... 164
OVERLOADING SUBSCRIPT [] OPERATOR ....................................................................................... 164
OVERLOADING FUNCTION () OPERATOR .......................................................................................................... 165
FUNCTION OPERATOR PERFORMING SUB STRING OPERATION, ................................... 165
UNARY OPERATORS ...................................................................................................................................................... 166
LECTURE NO.21 ............................................................................................................................................ 168
BEHAVIOR OF ++ AND -- FOR PRE- DEFINED TYPES ..................................................................... 168
POST-INCREMENT OPERATOR ................................................................................................................................. 169
TYPE CONVERSION......................................................................................................................................................... 170
USER DEFINED TYPES .................................................................................................................................................. 173
DRAWBACKS OF T YPE CONVERSION OPERATOR ......................................................................... 174
LECTURE NO.22 ............................................................................................................................................ 175
PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF INHERITANCE IN C++ .............................................. 175
INHERITANCE IN CLASSES ...................................................................................................................... 175
UML NOTATION ........................................................................................................................................ 175
INHERITANCE IN C++ .................................................................................................... 175
“IS A” RELATIONSHIP ............................................................................................................................. 176

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 Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

Lecture No.01

Introduction

Course Objective:
Objective of this course is to make students familiar with the concepts of
object oriented programming. These concepts will be reinforced by their
implementation in C++.

Course Contents:
The main topics that we will study in the 45 lectures of this course are given
below,
 Object Orientation
 Objects and Classes
 Overloading
 Inheritance
 Polymorphism
 Generic Programming
 Exception Handling
 Introduction to Design Patterns

Recommended Text Book:

C++ How to Program ( Deitel & Deitel )

Reference Books:

1. Object-Oriented Software Engineering

By Jacobson, Christerson, Jonsson, Overgaard
(For object oriented programming introductory concepts)
2. The C++ Programming Language
By Bjarne Stroustrup
(For better c++ understanding)

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Object-Orientation (OO)

What is Object-Orientation?

It is a technique in which we visualize our programming problems in the form of

objects and their interactions as happens in real life.

Examples:
We have different objects around us in our real life that interact with each other to
perform different operations for example,

A Person A House

A Tree A Car

Different Objects

These objects interact with each other to perform different operations,

Lives in
Ali House

Drives

Car Tree

Take another example of a School; the objects in a school are student, teacher, books,
pen ,school bag, classroom, parents, playground and so on… ,

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Objects in a School

Teacher Student School Bag

Book Pen Playground

Parents Classroom Library

Suppose we want to develop a fee collection system for a school for this we will need
to find out related objects and their interactions as happens in real life.
In this way we can say that object orientation makes it easier for us to solve our real
world problems by thinking solution of the problem in terms of real world objects.

So we can say that in our daily life everything can be taken as an object that behaves in a
certain way and has certain attributes.

In object orientation we move our concentration to objects in contrast to procedural

paradigm in which we simply write our code in functions and call them in our main
program.

What is a Model?

A model is an abstraction of something real or conceptual.

We need models to understand an aspect of reality.

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Model Examples

Highway maps
Architectural models
Mechanical models

OO Models:

In the context of programming models are used to understand the problem before
starting developing it.
We make Object Oriented models showing several interacting objects to understand
a system given to us for implementation.

Example 1– Object Oriented Model

lives-in
Ali House

drives

Car Tree

Objects Interactions
Ali, Car, House, Tree Ali lives in the house
Ali drives the car

Example 2– Object Oriented Model (A School Model)

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A School Model

Teaches Plays-in
Teacher Student Playground

Has

Book Pen School Bag

Objects Interactions
Teacher, Student, School Bag, Pen, Teacher teaches Student.
Book Playground Student has School Bag, Book and Pen

Object-Orientation - Advantages

As Object Oriented Models map directly to reality as we have seen in examples

above therefore,

We can easily develop an object oriented model for a problem.

Everyone can easily understand an object oriented model.
We can easily implement an object oriented model for a problem using any object
oriented language like c++ using its features1 like classes, inheritance, virtual
functions and so on…

What is an Object?

An object is,

1. Something tangible (Ali, School, House, Car).

2. Something conceptual (that can be apprehended intellectually for example
time, date and so on…).

An object has,

1. State (attributes)
2. Well-defined behavior (operations)

1
We will study these features in detail in this course

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3. Unique identity

Tangible and Intangible Objects

Examples of Tangible Objects:

Ali is a tangible object, having some characteristics (attributes) and behavior as given
below,

Ali
Characteristics (attributes) Behaviour (operations)
Name Walks
Age Eats

We will identify Ali using his name.

Car is also a tangible object having some characteristics (attributes) and behavior
given below,

Car
State (attributes) Behavior (operations)
Color Accelerate
Model Start Car
Change Gear

We can identify Car using its registration number

Examples of Intangible Objects (also called as conceptual objects):

Time is an intangible (conceptual) object

Time
State (attributes) Behavior (operations)
Hours Set/Get Hours
Seconds Set/Get Seconds
Minutes Set/Get Minutes

We will assign our own generated unique ID in the model for Time object

Date is also an intangible (conceptual) object

State (attributes) Behavior (operations)

Year Set/Get Year
Day Set/Get Day
Month Set/Get Month

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We will assign our own generated unique ID in the model for Date object.

Summary:

 Model is the abstraction of some real word scenario. It helps us to understand

that scenario.
 Object oriented model of any scenario (problem) describes that scenario
(problem) in the form of interacting objects.
 We use Object Orientation because it helps us in mapping real world problem
in a programming language.
 Object Orientation is achieved using objects and their relationships.
 Properties of an object are described using its data members and behavior of an
object is described using its functions.
 Objects may be tangible (physical) or intangible (also called conceptual or
virtual).
 Generally when we have given a certain problem description, nouns in that
problem description are candidates for becoming objects of our system.
 There may be more than one aspects of an object
 It is not necessary that every object has a specific role in implementation of a
problem there may be some objects without any role, like school parking in
our school.
 It is easier to develop programs using Object Oriented Programming because
it is closer to real life.

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Lecture No.02

Lecture Contents

1. Information Hiding
2. Encapsulation
3. Interface
4. Implementation
5. Separation of Interface & Implementation
6. Messages

Information Hiding:

Information hiding is one of the most important principles of OOP inspired from real
life which says that all information should not be accessible to all persons. Private
information should only be accessible to its owner.
By Information Hiding we mean “Showing only those details to the outside world which
are necessary for the outside world and hiding all other details from the outside world.”

Real Life Examples of Information Hiding

1. Ali’s name and other personal information is stored in his brain we can’t
access this information directly. For getting this information we need to ask
Ali about it and it will be up to Ali how much details he would like to share
with us.

2. An email server may have account information of millions of people but it

will share only our account information with us if we request it to send
anyone else accounts information our request will be refused.

3. A phone SIM card may store several phone numbers but we can’t read the
numbers directly from the SIM card rather phone-set reads this information
for us and if the owner of this phone has not allowed others to see the
numbers saved in this phone we will not be able to see those phone numbers
using phone.

In object oriented programming approach we have objects with their attributes and
behaviors that are hidden from other classes, so we can say that object oriented
programming follows the principle of information hiding.

In the perspective of Object Oriented Programming Information Hiding is,

“Hiding the object details (state and behavior) from the users”

Here by users we mean “an object” of another class that is calling functions
of this class using the reference of this class object or it may be some other
program in which we are using this class.

Information Hiding is achieved in Object Oriented Programming using the

following principles,

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 All information related to an object is stored within the object

 It is hidden from the outside world
 It can only be manipulated by the object itself

Advantages of Information Hiding

Following are two major advantages of information hiding,

It simplifies our Object Oriented Model:

As we saw earlier that our object oriented model only had objects and their
interactions hiding implementation details so it makes it easier for everyone to
understand our object oriented model.

It is a barrier against change propagation

As implementation of functions is limited to our class and we have only given the
name of functions to user along with description of parameters so if we change
implementation of function it doesn’t affect the object oriented model.

We can achieve information hiding using Encapsulation and Abstraction, so we see

these two concepts in detail now,

Encapsulation

Encapsulation means “we have enclosed all the characteristics of an object in the object
itself”
Encapsulation and information hiding are much related concepts (information
hiding is achieved using Encapsulation)
We have seen in previous lecture that object characteristics include data members
and behavior of the object in the form of functions.

So we can say that Data and Behavior are tightly coupled inside an object and
both the information structure and implementation details of its operations are
hidden from the outer world.

Examples of Encapsulation

Consider the same example of object Ali of previous lecture we described it as

follows,

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Ali
Characteristics
(attributes)
 Name
 Age

Behavior
(operations)
 Walks
 Eats

You can see that Ali stores his personal information in itself and its behavior is
also implemented in it.
Now it is up to object Ali whether he wants to share that information with
outside world or not. Same thing stands for its behavior if some other object in
real life wants to use his behavior of walking it can not use it without the
permission of Ali.

So we say that attributes and behavior of Ali are encapsulated in it.

Any other object don’t know about these things unless Ali share this information
with that object through an interface,

Same concept also applies to phone which has some data and behavior of
showing that data to user we can only access the information stored in the phone
if phone interface allow us to do so.

Advantages of Encapsulation
The following are the main advantages of Encapsulation,

a. Simplicity and clarity

As all data and functions are stored in the objects so there is no data or function
around in program that is not part of any object and is this way it becomes very
easy to understand the purpose of each data member and function in an object.

b. Low complexity
As data members and functions are hidden in objects and each object has a
specific behavior so there is less complexity in code there will be no such
situations that a functions is using some other function and that functions is
using some other function.

c. Better understanding
Everyone will be able to understand whole scenario by simple looking into object
diagrams without any issue as each object has specific role and specific relation
with other objects.

Interface

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Interface is a set of functions of an object that he wants to expose to other objects.

As we discussed previously that data and behavior of each object is hidden in

that object it self so we have to use the concept of interface of the object to expose
its behavior to outer word objects.

 Different objects may need different functions of an object so interface of

an object may be different for different objects.
 Interfaces are necessary for object communication. Each object provides
interface/s (operations) to other objects through these interfaces other
objects communicate with this object.

Example – Interface of a Car

 Steer Wheels
 Accelerate
 Change Gear
 Apply Brakes
 Turn Lights On/Off

Example – Interface of a Phone

 Input Number
 Place Call
 Disconnect Call
 Add number to address book
 Remove number
 Update number

Implementation

It is actual implementation of the behavior of the object in any Object Oriented

language.

It has two parts,

 Internal data structures to hold an object state that will be hidden from us
it will store values for an object data members.
 Functionality in the form of member functions to provide required
behavior.

Examples of Implementation

a. Gear Box in car system

Consider object Gear Box in car system it has a certain structure and
functionality. When this object will be implemented it will have two things,
 Physical structure of the gear box
 Functionality implemented in this structure to change gear.
Both these things are part of implementation.

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So it has,

 Data Structure in the form of Mechanical structure of gear box

 Functionality mechanism to change gear

b. Address Book in a Phone

Similarly take the example of contact details saved in the SIM of a phone,

In that case we can say physical structure of SIM card as Data Structure
And Read/write operations provided by the phone as Functionality.

Separation of Interface & Implementation

As discussed earlier we only show interface of an object to outside world and

hide actual implementation from outside world. The benefit of using this
approach is that our object interface to outside word becomes independent
from inside implementation of that interface.

This is achieved through the concepts of encapsulation and information

hiding.

Real Life example of separation of interface and implementations

 Driver has a standard interface to drive a car and using that interface
he drive can drive any car regardless of its model or type whatever
engine type it has or whatever type of fuel it is using.

Messages

Objects communicate through messages they send messages (stimuli) by

invoking appropriate operations on the target object. The number and kind of
messages that can be sent to an object depends upon its interface

Examples – Messages

A Person sends message (stimulus) “stop” to a Car by applying brakes

A Person sends message “place call” to a Phone by pressing appropriate button

Summary

 Information hiding is achieved through encapsulation.

 Encapsulation and Information Hiding are related to each other.
 Interface of an object provides us the list of available functions.
 An object may have more than one interface.
 Interface and implementation are separated from each other to achieve
Information Hiding.
 Objects communicate with each other using messages.

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Useful Links:

http://www.alice.org/

A Graphical Programming Environment to teach Computer Programming.

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Lecture No.03
Lecture Contents:

 Abstraction
 Classes
 Inheritance
 Major benefits of inheritance (Reuse)

Abstraction
Real life objects have a lot of attributes and many kind of behaviors but most of the
time we are interested in only that part of the objects that is related to the problem
we are currently going to solve, for example in implementing a school system we
don’t need to take care of the personnel life of a student or a teacher as it will not
effect our system in any way so we will see these objects in the perspective of school
system and will ignore their other characteristics, this concept is called “Abstraction”.
Abstraction is a way to cope with complexity and it is used to simplify things.

Principle of abstraction:

“Capture only those details about an object that are relevant to current perspective”

Abstraction Example:

Suppose we want to implement abstraction for the following statement,

“Ali is a PhD student and teaches BS students”

Here object Ali has two perspectives one is his student perspective and second is his
teacher perspective.

We can sum up Ali’s attributes as follows,

Name
Age
Student Roll No
Year of Study
CGPA
Employee ID
Designation
Salary

As you can see out of all these listed attributes some belong to Ali’s student
perspective(Roll No, CGPA, Year of study) and some belong to Ali’s teacher
perspective(Employee ID, Designation, Salary).

Similarly we can sum up Ali’s behavior as follows,

Study
DevelopExam

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GiveExam
TakeExam
PlaySports
Eat
DeliverLecture
Walk

As was the case with attributes of object Ali, its behavior can also be divided in Ali’s
student perspective as well as Ali’s teacher perspective.

Student’s Perspective

Attributes:

- Name - Employee ID
- Student Roll No - Designation
- Year of Study - Salary
- CGPA - Age

Behaviour:

- Study - DevelopExam
- GiveExam - TakeExam
- PlaySports - Eat
- DeliverLecture - Walk

Teacher’s Perspective

Attributes:
- Name - Employee ID
- Student Roll No - Designation
- Year of Study - Salary
- CGPA - Age

Behaviour:
- Study - DevelopExam
- GiveExam - TakeExam
- PlaySports - Eat
- DeliverLecture - Walk

A cat can be viewed with different perspectives

Ordinary Perspective Surgeon’s Perspective

A pet animal with A being with
Four Legs A Skeleton
A Tail Heart

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Two Ears Kidney

Sharp Teeth Stomach

A car can be viewed with different perspectives

Driver’s View Engineer’s View

Abstraction – Advantages

Abstraction has following major advantages,

1. It helps us understanding and solving a problem using object oriented

approach as it hides extra irrelevant details of objects.

2. Focusing on single perspective of an object provides us freedom to change

implementation for other aspects of for an object later.

Similar to Encapsulation Abstraction is also used for achieving information hiding as

we show only relevant details to related objects, and hide other details.

Classes

In OOP we create a general sketch for each kind of objects and then we create
different instances using this sketch we call this sketch or prototype or map as
“class”.
All objects of same kind exhibit identical characteristics (information structure and
behavior) however they have data of their own.

Class –Example 1

Consider the objects given below,

 Ali studies mathematics
 Anam studies physics
 Sohail studies chemistry

Each one is a Student so we say these objects are instances of the Student class.

Class –Example 2

Consider the objects given below,

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 Ahsan teaches mathematics

 Aamir teaches computer science
 Atif teaches physics

Each one is a teacher so we say these objects are instances of the Teacher class

Class Representation:
we can represent a class using a rectangle as follows,

(Class Name)

(Attributes)

(Operations)
(Class Name)

Normal Form Suppressed Form

Class Example: Circle

Circle

center
radius

draw
computeArea
Circle

Normal Form Suppressed Form

Class Example: Person

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Person

name
age
gender

eat
walk
Person

Normal Form Suppressed Form

Inheritance

A child inherits characteristics of its parents, besides inherited characteristics, a child

may have its own unique characteristics

Inheritance in Classes

If a class B inherits from class A then it contains all the characteristics (information
structure and behaviour) of class A
The parent class is called base class and the child class is called derived class
Besides inherited characteristics, derived class may have its own unique
characteristics

Person

Student Doctor
Teacher

Shape

Line Triangle
Circle

Inheritance – “IS A” or “IS A KIND OF” Relationship

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Each derived class is a kind of its base class

Person
name
age
gender

eat
walk

Student Teacher Doctor

program designation designation
studyYear salary salary

study teach checkUp

heldExam takeExam prescribe

Here,
Student IS A Person
Teacher IS A Person
Doctor IS A Person

Shape
color
coord

draw
rotate
setColor

Triangle
Circle
radius Line angle

draw length draw

computeArea computeArea
draw

Here,
Circle IS A Shape
Line IS A Shape
Triangle IS A Shape

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Inheritance – Advantages

1. Reuse
2. Less redundancy
3. Increased maintainability

Reuse with Inheritance

Main purpose of inheritance is reuse, we can easily add new classes by inheriting
from existing classes.
Select an existing class closer to the desired functionality, create a new class and
inherit it from the selected class, add to and/or modify the inherited functionality

Shape
color
coord

draw
rotate
setColor

Triangle
Circle
radius Line angle

draw length draw

computeArea computeArea
draw

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Person
name
age
gender

eat
walk

Student Teacher Doctor

program designation designation
studyYear salary salary

study teach checkUp

heldExam takeExam prescribe

Person
name
age
gender

eat
walk

Student Teacher Doctor

program designation designation
studyYear salary salary

study teach checkUp

heldExam takeExam prescribe

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Lecture No.04

Lecture Contents
 Generalization
 Sub typing (extension)
 Specialization (restriction)
 Overriding
 Abstract classes
 Concrete classes

Recap – Inheritance

 Derived class inherits all the characteristics of the base class

 Besides inherited characteristics, derived class may have its own
unique characteristics
 Major benefit of inheritance is reuse

Concepts Related with Inheritance

o Generalization
o Subtyping (extension)
o Specialization (restriction)

Generalization

In OO models, some classes may have common characteristics.

We extract these features into a new class and inherit original classes from this new
class. There are many objects with common characteristics in object model. The
common characteristics (attributes and behaviour) of all these objects are combined
in a single general class. Base class encapsulates the idea of commonality of derived
classes. Base class is general class representing common behaviour of all derived
classes.
This concept is known as Generalization.
It reduces the redundancy and gives us reusability, using generalization our solution
becomes less complex.
In generalization there should be “Is a Kind of Relationship” (also called “Is A
relationship”) between base and child classes.

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Example: Line, Circle and Triangle

Line Circle Triangle

color color color
vertices vertices vertices
length radius angle

move move move

setColor setColor setColor
getLength computeArea computeArea

Line is shape Circle is a shape Triangle is a shape

Shape
color
vertices

move
setColor

Triangle
Circle
radius Line angle

computeArea length computeArea

getLength

Common attributes
Color vertices
Common behaviour
Set Color, Move

Example: Student Doctor and Teacher

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Student Teacher Doctor

name name name

age age age
gender gender gender
program designation designation
studyYear salary salary

study teach checkUp

heldExam takeExam prescribe
eat eat eat
walk walk walk

Person
name
age
gender

eat
walk

Student Teacher Doctor

program designation designation
studyYear salary salary

study teach checkUp

heldExam takeExam prescribe

Common attributes, Common behaviour

Name, age, gender Eat, Walk

Sub-typing & Specialization

We want to add a new class to an existing model

We have developed an existing class hierarchy
Find an existing class that already implements some of the desired state and
behaviour
Inherit the new class from this class and add unique behaviour to the new
class

Sub-typing (Extension)
Sub-typing means that derived class is behaviourally compatible with the
base class
Derived class has all the characteristics of base class plus some extra
characteristics
Behaviourally compatible means that base class can be replaced by the
derived class

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Sub-typing (Extension) - Example

Person
Shape
name
color age
vertices gender

setColor eats
move walks

Circle Student

radius program
studyYear
computeCF
computeArea study
takeExam

Circle is extending the behaviour of Student has two extra attributes

shape, it is extending attributes of shape program and studyYear
by adding radius similarly it is extending Similarly it has extended behaviour
behaviour of shape by adding compute by adding study and takeExam.
Circumference and compute Area.

Subtyping and generalization are related concepts, Subtyping (extension) and

generalization is a way to look same thing in two ways.
Sub typing is looking at things from Top to bottom whereas in generalization we
look at things from bottom to top.

Specialization (Restriction)

We want to add a class to existing hierarchy of classes having many similarities to

already existing classes but some part of its behaviour is different or restricted. In
that case we will use the concept of specialization.
Specialization means that derived class is behaviourally incompatible with
the base class
Behaviourally incompatibility means that base class can’t always be replaced
by the derived class
Derived class has some different of restricted characteristics than of base
class.

Example – Specialization (Restriction)

Suppose we want to add one more class of Adult for some special requirement like
for ID card generation such that it is a person but its age is greater than 18 and
having all other behaviour of that of person class. One solution is that we write

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another class from beginning and write all code of person again in it with age limit,
but better solution is that we derive adult class from person class and restrict age in
that class as shown below in diagram,

Person
age : [0..100]
…

setAge( a ) age = a
…

Adult
If age < 18 then
age : [18..100] error
… else
age = a
setAge( a )
…

Similarly Natural Numbers2 are also Integers 3 with the restriction that natural
numbers set can NOT contain zero or negative integers it consists of only positive
integers so we can implement this relationship also as specialization,

IntegerSet
…
add( elem ) add element to the
… set

If elem < 1 then

NaturalSet error
else
… add element to
add( elem ) the set
…

2
Natural numbers: positive integers only (numbers from 1 to
…….onwards)
3
Integers: all positive and negative numbers (…..-3 , -2 , -1 , 0 , 1 , 2 ,
3………)

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Add method behaviour is present in both base and derived classes but derived class
behaviour is different in derived class. Derived class will not exhibit the behaviour of
base class but it is overriding behaviour of base class with its own behaviour.

Overriding

A class may need to override the default behaviour provided by its base class
Derived class overrides the behaviour of its base class.
Reasons for overriding
Provide behaviour specific to a derived class (specialization)
Extend the default behaviour (extension)
Restrict the default behaviour (restriction)
Improve performance
It is used for the implementation of inheritance.

Example – Specific Behaviour (Specialization)

Shape
color
vertices

draw
move

Circle Line Triangle

radius length angle
draw draw
draw
computeArea
computeArea

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Example – Extention

Window
width
height
open
close
draw

1- Invoke Window’s
DialogBox draw
2- draw the dialog
controls
box
enable
draw

Example – Restriction

IntegerSet

…
add( elem ) Add element to
… the set

If elem < 1 then

NaturalSet give error
else
…
Add element
add( elem ) to the set
…

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Example – Improve Performance

Class Circle overrides rotate operation of class Shape with a Null operation.

Shape

color
coord

draw
rotate
setColor

Circle
radius
draw
rotate

Abstract Classes

In our examples we made classes for shape and person. These are abstract concepts
and the classes we make against abstract concepts are called abstract classes. They
are present at or near the top in the class hierarchy to present most generalized
behaviour.

An abstract class implements an abstract concept

Main purpose is to be inherited by other classes
Can’t be instantiated
Promotes reuse

Abstract Classes - Example I

Shape
color
vertices

draw
move
setColor

Circle Line Triangle

Here, Shape is an abstract class

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Abstract Class Shape

Concrete Classes Circle Line Triangle ….

Abstract Classes - Example II

Person
name
age
gender

eat
walk

Student Doctor
Teacher

Here, Person is an abstract class

Abstract Class Person

Concrete Classes Student Teacher Doctor Engineer Director ….

Abstract Classes - Example III

Vehicle

color
model

accelerate
applyBrakes

Car Truck

Bus

Here, Vehicle is an abstract class

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Abstract Class Vehicle

Concrete Classes Car Bus Truck ….

Abstract Classes can not exist standalone in an object model

While making object model we start by finding out objects in our object model and
then we find out objects having common attributes and make them in the form of
general classes at the top of class hierarchies.

Concrete Classes

The entities that actually we see in our real world are called concrete objects and
classes made against these objects are called concrete classes.

A concrete class implements a concrete concept

These are used to instantiate objects in our programs
Provides implementation details specific to the domain context

Concrete Classes - Example I

Person

Student Doctor
program Teacher
studyYear
study
heldExam

Here Student, Teacher and Doctor are concrete classes

Concrete Classes - Example II

Vehicle

Car Truck
Bus
capacity

load
unload

Here Car, Bus and Truck are concrete classes

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 A concrete class may exist in an object model independently

 Concrete classes mostly lie below the top of class hierarchy in a good object
model.

If there is an abstract class then hierarchy exists in the object model as there will
definitely be some concrete classes as well derived from this abstract class otherwise
there is no use of abstract class.

Glossary:

a. Natural numbers: numbers from 1 to …….onwards

b. Integers: all positive and negative numbers …..-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3………
c. Whole numbers: numbers from 0 ,1 ,2, 3 ….onwards (natural no’s including
0)
Some times whole numbers are also called numbers without fractional part.

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Lecture No.05
Multiple Inheritance

Inheritance:
We saw inheritance purposes in last lecture

 Generalization
 Extention or sub typing
 Specialization or restriction

Abstract and concrete classes, former is used to represent abstract concepts later is
used to represent concrete concepts.
Overriding derived classes override inherited classes (base classes) behaviour.
Overriding is used for Specialization, Extention, Restriction, and Performance.

Multiple Inheritance

Sometimes we want to reuse characteristics of more than one parent class, in that
case we need to inherit a class from more than one classes.

Example 1– Multiple Inheritance

Consider the example of an imaginary specie Mermaid used in fairy tales that lives in
water having features both of a women as well as of a fish, In Object Oriented
programming perspective Mermaid can be derived from two classes Women and
Fish.

Woman Fish

Mermaid

C++ Code:

/*Program to demonstrate simple multiple inheritance*/

class Fish {

};

class Woman {

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};

class Mermaid : public Woman , public Fish {

};

Our Mermaid class inherits features of both woman and fish suppose our woman
class has method wald() and fish cclass has method swim then our mermaid class
can use both methods i.e can walk as well as can swim.

Woman Fish
void walk() void swim()

Mermaid

C++ code:

#include <iostream>
#include <stdlib.h>

using namespace std;

/*Program to demonstrate simple multiple inheritance*/

class Fish
{
public:
void swim(){
cout<<"\n In method swim";
}

};

class Woman
{
public:
void walk(){
cout<<"\n In method walk"<<endl;
}

};

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class Mermaid : public Woman,public Fish

{

};

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

Mermaid mermaid;
/*This Mermaid object will have two implicit objects one of Fish class and one of
Woman class*/
mermaid.swim();
mermaid.walk();

system("PAUSE");
return 0;

Output:

In method4 swim
In method walk

Example 2– Multiple Inheritance

Take another example of amphibious vehicle (vehicle that can run on land as well as
on water) so it has properties of both land as well as of water vehicle. The general
hierarchy in this case will be,

Vehicle

Land Vehicle Water Vehicle

Car Amphibious Vehicle Boat

Here we have added a general Vehicle class as well to add all common functions of
Land Vehicles and Water Vehicles in that class, and specific functions of Land and

4
class member functions are also called class methods

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Water vehicle in their respective classes then we have derived Amphibious Vehicle
class from Land Vehicle and Water Vehicle classes (we can do the same in first
example as well concerning Woman, Fish and Mermaid).

C++ code:

class Vehicle
{

};

class WaterVehicle : public Vehicle

{

};

class LandVehicle : public Vehicle

{

};

class AmphibiousVehicle : public LandVehicle,public WaterVehicle

{

};

Suppose we have a changeGear method in Vehicle class that is applicable to both

water and land vehicle, we also have Float and Move methods in water and land
vehicles respectively then our amphibious vehicle will have all these methods,

C++ code:

#include <iostream>
#include <stdlib.h>

using namespace std;

/*Multiple Inheritance in case of Amphibious Vehicle*/

class Vehicle
{
public:
void changeGear(){ cout<<"\nI am Vehicle changeGear() function..\n";}
};

class WaterVehicle : public Vehicle

{

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public:
void Float(){ cout<<"\nI am float function of Water Vehicle";}
};

class LandVehicle : public Vehicle

{
public:
void Move(){ cout<<"\nI am move function of Land Vehicle"<<endl;}

};

class AmphibiousVehicle : public LandVehicle,public WaterVehicle

{

};

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

AmphibiousVehicle amphibious;

amphibious.Float();
/*Calling Float function of Water Vehicle class*/

amphibious.Move();
/*Calling Move function of Land Vehicle class*/

system("PAUSE");
return 0;

Output:

I am float function of Water Vehicle

I am move function of Land Vehicle

Advantage of Multiple Inheritance:

As was the case with simple (single) inheritance multiple inheritance also decreases
redundant code as we can inherit a class from many classes and can use their
functions without the need to write them again.

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However, there are more disadvantages of multiple inheritance, than its advantages.

Problems with Multiple Inheritance

Increased complexity

Amphibious vehicle hierarchy is a complicated as this class is derived from two

classes that will make code more complex and less understandable however this is
obvious as amphibious vehicle is a complicated vehicle. It is generic problem.

Reduced understanding

Due to increased complexity of class hierarchy the object model becomes difficult it
understand especially for someone who is looking it first time.

Duplicate features

As we are deriving a single class from more than one class so there is a chance of
duplication of features (same methods in both parents), following problems may
arise due to duplicate features,

Problem 1: Ambiguity

Consider the class hierarchy of Mermaid class below,

Woman Fish
eat eat
… …

Mermaid

As mermaid also needs to eat and its both parents have their own methods of eating
so here question arises,

Which eat operation Mermaid should inherit as both functions are available?

Solution – We can solve this problem by explicitly calling eat method from any of
the parent classes in Mermaid class according to behaviour of Mermaid (i.e. if it eats
like a Woman we can call eat method of Woman class and if eats like Fish we can call
method of Fish class), for this we will Override the Common method in multiply
inherited class and in that class overridden method we will call the appropriate base
class function.

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Woman Fish

eat eat
… …

Mermaid
eat a. Override eat method in
Mermaid class
…
b. Invoke eat operation of
desired parent class

Example C++ Code

#include <iostream>
#include <stdlib.h>

using namespace std;

/*Program to demonstrate simple multiple inheritance*/

class Fish
{
public:
void eat(){
cout<<"\n In Fish eat method ";
}

};

class Woman
{
public:
void eat(){
cout<<"\n In Woman eat method \n"<<endl;
}

};

class Mermaid : public Woman,public Fish

{

public:

void eat(){

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cout<<"\n In Mermaid eat method "<<endl;

cout<<"\n Explicity calling Woman eat method. .... "<<endl;

Woman::eat();

};

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

Mermaid mermaid;
/*This Mermaid object will have two implicit objects one of Fish class and one of
Woman class*/
mermaid.eat();
/*Calling Mermaid eat method*/

system("PAUSE");
return 0;

Problem 2: Two instances for same function (Diamond Problem)

Vehicle
changeGear

Land Vehicle Water Vehicle

Car Amphibious Vehicle Boat

Here Amphibious Vehicle will have two copies of changeGear function as it will
have two objects of Vehicle class one with respect to Land Vehicle and one with
respect to Water Vehicle as shown below,

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Vehicle Vehicle
changeGear changeGear

Land Vehicle Water Vehicle

Amphibious Vehicle

Actual Memory Layout

Compiler will not be able to decide which changeGear operation Amphibious

Vehicle should inherit so it will generate an error as shown below (two copied of
same method),

error: request for member `changeGear' is ambiguous

error: candidates are: void Vehicle::changeGear()
void Vehicle::changeGear()
Execution terminated

Solution to Diamond Problem

Some languages disallow diamond hierarchy

Others provide mechanism to ignore characteristics from one side. There are two
cases while solving diamond problem virtual inheritance and non virtual inheritance
(we will study these details in coming lectures)

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Vehicle

changeGear

Land Vehicle Water Vehicle

Car Amphibious Vehicle Boat

Invoke changeGear
operation with respect to
one side

Association:

Interaction of different objects in OO model (or in problem domain) is known as

association.
In object oriented model, objects interact with each other in order to perform some
useful work, while modeling these objects (entities) is done using the association.
Usually an object provides services to several other objects. An object keeps
association with other objects to delegate tasks. This association can be represented
with a line along an arrow head ( ) or without arrow head.

Kinds of Association:
There are two main types of association which are then further subdivided i.e
1. Class Association
2. Object Association

1. Class Association
Class association is implemented in terms of Inheritance. Inheritance implements
generalization/specialization relationship between objects. Inheritance is considered
class association.
 In case of public inheritance it is “IS-A” relationship.
 In case of private inheritance it is “Implemented in terms of” relationship.
This relationship ensures that public members of base class are available to derived
class in case of public inheritance.

When we create objects of classes in which we have implemented inheritance

relationships we are forcing the inheritance relationship between created objects. In
this case the derived class objects will also contain base class objects attributes and
methods.

2. Object Association

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It is the interaction of stand alone objects of one class with other objects of anther
class.
It can be of one of the following types,

 Simple Association
 Composition
 Aggregation

Simple Association

The two interacting objects have no intrinsic relationship with other object. It is the
weakest link between objects. It is a reference by which one object can interact with
some other object.
Customer gets cash from cashier
Employee works for a company
Ali lives in a house
Ali drives a car

Ali lives-in House

1 1

Ali drives Car

1 *

It is generally called as “association” instead of “simple association”

Kinds of Simple Association

Simple association can be categorized in two ways,

 With respect to direction (navigation)

 With respect to number of objects (cardinality)

Kinds of Simple Association w.r.t Navigation

With respect to navigation association has the following types,

a. One-way Association
b. Two-way Association

a. One-way Association

In One way association we can navigate along a single direction only, it is denoted
by an arrow towards the server object.
Examples:

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Ali lives-in House

1 1

 Ali lives in a House

Ali drives Car

1 *

 Ali drives his Car

b. Two-way Association

In two way association we can navigate in both directions, it is denoted by a line

between the associated objects
Examples:

Employee works-for Company

* 1

Employee works for company

Company employs employees

Two-way Association - Example

Yasir friend Ali

1 1

Yasir is a friend of Ali

Ali is a friend of Yasir

Kinds of Simple Association w.r.t Cardinality

With respect to cardinality association has the following types,

a. Binary Association
b. Ternary Association
c. N-ary Association

a. Binary Association

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It associates objects of exactly two classes; it is denoted by a line, or an arrow

between the associated objects.

Example

works-for
Employee Company
* 1

Association “works-for” associates objects of exactly two classes

Ali drives Car

*

Association “drives” associates objects of exactly two classes

b. Ternary Association
It associates objects of exactly three classes; it is denoted by a diamond with lines
connected to associated objects.
Example
Objects of exactly three classes are associated

Student Teacher
* 1

*
Course

c. N-ary Association
An association between 3 or more classes its practical examples are very rare.

Composition

An object may be composed of other smaller objects, the relationship between the
“part” objects and the “whole” object is known as Composition, Composition is
represented by a line with a filled-diamond head towards the composer object

Example – Composition of Ali

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Head

Arm Ali Leg

2 2

1
Body

Example – Composition of Chair

Back

Chair

2 1 4
Arm Seat Leg

Composition is stronger relationship:

Composition is a stronger relationship, because
Composed object becomes a part of the composer
Composed object can’t exist independently

Example I

Ali is made up of different body parts

They can’t exist independent of Ali

Example II

Chair’s body is made up of different parts

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They can’t exist independently

Aggregation

An object may contain a collection (aggregate) of other objects, the relationship

between the container and the contained object is called aggregation, Aggregation is
represented by a line with unfilled-diamond head towards the container

Example – Aggregation

Bed

Chair Room Table

* 1

1
Cupboard

Example – Aggregation

Garden Plant
*

Aggregation is weaker relationship

Aggregation is weaker relationship, because

 Aggregate object is not a part of the container
 Aggregate object can exist independently

Example I
Furniture is not an intrinsic part of room
Furniture can be shifted to another room, and so can exist independent of a
particular room

Example II
A plant is not an intrinsic part of a garden
It can be planted in some other garden, and so can exist independent of a particular
garden

http://www.codeproject.com/KB/cpp/oopuml.aspx

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Lecture No.06

Class Compatibility
A class is behaviorally compatible with another if it supports all the operations of the
other class. Such a class is called subtype. A class can be replaced by its subtype.
Derived class is usually a subtype of the base class. It can handle all the legal
messages (operations) of the base class. Therefore, base class can always be replaced
by the derived class.

Examples
Child class also includes characteristics of its base class.

Shape

color
vertices

move
setColor
draw

Circle Triangle
Line
radius angle
length
draw
draw draw
computeArea
getLength computeArea

All the three derived class are behaviourally compatible with base class.

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File
size
…

open
print
…

ASCII File PS File

PDF File
… …
…
print
… print
print
…
…

Wherever the file class is it can be replaced by any of its child classes.

Polymorphism
It is also essential component of object oriented modeling (paradigm).
In general, polymorphism refers to existence of different forms of a single entity. For
example, both Diamond and Coal are different forms of Carbon.

Polymorphism in OO Model

In OO model, polymorphism means that different objects can behave in different

ways for the same message (stimulus). Consequently, sender of a message does not
need to know exact class of the receiver.
Sender sends message to receiver and appropriate method is called on receiver side.

Example – Polymorphism

draw
View Shape
draw

Line Circle Triangle

draw draw draw

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Shape class hierarchy shape is base class and there are three child classes line circle ,
triangle. View send draw method to shape class and draw is called according to the
nature of actual object present.

print
Editor File

print

ASCII File PDF File PS File

print print print

Editor sends message print to file class and print is called based on the actual child
object of file class message is same and appropriate execution will be done.

Polymorphism – Advantages
Messages can be interpreted in different ways depending upon the receiver class
New classes can be added without changing the existing model

draw Shape
View
draw

Square Line Circle Triangle

draw draw draw draw

In general, polymorphism is a powerful tool to develop flexible and reusable systems

Object-Oriented Modeling an Example

Problem Statement
Develop a graphic editor that can draw different geometric shapes such as line, circle
and triangle. User can select, move or rotate a shape. To do so, editor provides user
with a menu listing different commands. Individual shapes can be grouped together
and can behave as a single shape.

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Identify Classes
Extract nouns in the problem statement
Develop a graphic editor that can draw different geometric shapes such as line,
circle and triangle. User can select, move or rotate a shape. To do so, editor provides
user with a menu listing different commands. Individual shapes can be grouped
together and can behave as a single shape.

Eliminate irrelevant classes

Editor – Very broad scope. But it is the name of overall system and we are going to
model it so we will not make its object. For example if we are going to model
computer we will not make its object but its components however if it is component
of some other system then it will behave as an object. So it is marked as irrelevant.
User – Out of system boundary, it is interacting with the system from outside of the
system.
Add classes by analyzing requirements
Group (of shapes) – required to behave as a shape so it should behave as an object in
our system

“Individual shapes can be grouped together and can behave as a single shape”

View – graphic editor must have a display area to show the shapes. We made this
object using domain knowledge.

 Shape
 Line
 Circle
 Triangle
 Menu
 Group
 View

So we have the following classes,

Shape Group

Line Menu

Circle
View

Triangle

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Finding Associations:

Next step is to find associations between the objects.

Identify Associations

Find relationships between objects,

1. Extract verbs connecting objects,

“Individual shapes can be grouped together”

 Group consists of lines, circles, triangles

 Group can also consists of other groups (Composition)

Line, circle and triangle have composition relationship.

2. Verify access paths

a. View contains (draws) shapes

 View contains lines

 View contains circles
 View contains triangles
 View contains groups

So there is Aggregation relationship between shapes and View.

Menu sends message to View

So there is Simple One-Way Association relationship between Menu and View.

Identify Attributes of the identified objects

Extract properties of the object,

a. From the problem statement

Properties are not mentioned
b. From the domain knowledge

 Line
i. Color
ii. Vertices
iii. Length
 Circle
i. Color
ii. Vertices
iii. Radius
 Triangle

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i. Color
ii. Vertices
iii. Angle
 Shape
i. Color
ii. Vertices
 Group
i. noOfObjects
 View
i. noOfObjects
ii. selected
 Menu
i. Name
ii. isOpen

Object Model – Graphic Editor

Object model so far is shown below,

Identify Operations

Extract verbs connected with an object

Develop a graphic editor that can draw different geometric shapes such as line, circle
and triangle. User can select, move or rotate a shape. To do so, editor provides user
with a menu listing different commands. Individual shapes can be grouped together
and can behave as a single shape.

Eliminate irrelevant operations

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Develop – out of system boundary

Behave – have broad semantics

Following are selected operations:

• Line
– Draw
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
• Circle
– Draw
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
• Triangle
– Draw
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
• Shape
– Draw
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
• Group
– Draw
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
• Menu
– Open
– Select
– Move
– Rotate
Extract operations using domain knowledge

• View
– Add
– Remove
– Group
– Show
– Select
– Move
– Rotate

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Object Model after adding operations:

View
noOfObjects
Menu Shape
selected
name color
isOpen vertices
add()
remove() n
open() draw()
group()
select() select()
show()
move() move()
select()
rotate() rotate()
move()
rotate() n
n n
Line n n Triangle Group
length angle noOfObjects
Circle
n
draw() radius draw() draw()
n
n draw()

Identify Inheritance

a. Search lines like “is a kind of” by looking at keywords like “such as”, “for
example”, etc

“…shapes such as line, circle and triangle…”

Line, Circle and Triangle inherits from Shape

By analyzing requirements

“Individual shapes can be grouped together and can behave as a single shape”

Group inherits from Shape

Refining the Object Model

Application of inheritance demands an iteration over the whole object model

In the inheritance hierarchy,
 All attributes are shared
 All associations are shared
 Some operations are shared
 Others are overridden

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Refining the Object Model

 Share associations
o View contains all kind of shapes
o Group consists of all kind of shapes
 Share attributes
o Shape – Line, Circle, Triangle and Group
 Color, vertices
 Share operations
o Shape – Line, Circle, Triangle and Group
 Select
 Move
 Rotate
 Share the interface and override implementation

o Shape – Line, Circle, Triangle and Group

 Draw

View
Menu noOfObjects Shape
name selected color
isOpen vertices
add()
remove() n
open() draw() n
group()
select() select()
show()
move() move()
select()
rotate() move() rotate()
rotate()

Line Circle Triangle Group

length radius angle noOfObjects

draw() draw() draw() draw()

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View
noOfObjects
Menu Shape
name selected color
isOpen vertices
add()
remove()
open() n draw()
group()
select() select()
show()
move() move()
select()
rotate() rotate()
move()
n
rotate()
n n
Line n Triangle Group
n
length angle noOfObjects
Circle
n
draw() radius draw() draw()
n
n draw()

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Lecture No.07

The basic concept “Object” of Object Orientation (thinking in terms of objects) is

realized using classes in programming languages.

Class
It is a way (Mechanism) given by c++ to realize objects in a program. It is concrete
implementation of objects in c++. We capture any object attributes and behaviour in
a programming language using classes.
In other words it can be defined as facility given by c++ to create new types
according to our requirement. (Class is composite data type made from basic c++
types like integers, chars and float).

Example:
Consider the examples of entity lion there are many lions but all lions will have
similar attributes and behaviour.
Similarly consider student object all students have separate existence but all students
have similar attributes and they exhibit similar behaviour.

When we hear word student or think about student a sketch comes in our mind for
student along with its attributes and behaviour. The attributes of student comes in
our mind are its name, roll no, class, degree so on. Similarly the behaviour of student
comes in our mind are study, register and many more.

We need to capture the characteristic features of any object (attributes and

behaviour) in the programming language. The concept of class is used for this
purpose.

Now consider the scenario having many interacting objects: a University System
having many objects like student, subject, classroom, and teacher so on…we will
realize all these objects in our software using classes. These all object will use the
services of each other for example student will ask teacher to teach him. This
approach is closer to real life instead of having simple functions being called from
main here these objects will call each other to get their services. This is the reason we
say that object oriented programming mimics real life.

Uses

Objects are structured in terms of class so our problem becomes easier to understand
in the terms c++ program.
We can implement interactions easily in terms of classes.

Student objects will interact with each other to take and give services to each other as
happens in real life and mapped in object oriented programming approach.

Now we see how class mechanism helps us in implementing real life concept.

Type in C++

We implement generic concepts using types.

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We have to model generic concept of Student. But there is no built in type student in
c++ like built-in c++ type’s int or float. Class is mechanism in c++ that will allow us
to define student as user defined type, similarly generic concept circle will also be
implemented in the same way. User define types will be,

 Student in student management system

 Circle in a drawing software

As objects have attributes and behaviour so corresponding classes will also have data
members and methods as shown below,

Corresponding class
Ali
/*c++ code for class Person, we can create any
Characteristics (attributes)
object like Ali from it*/
class Person {
private: /* attributes are generally made
private*/
Name char name[]; /*char array to store name*/
Age int age; /*int age to store age*/
public: /* methods are generally made
Behavior (operations)
public*/
Person(); /*constructor used to initialize
data members*/
Walks void walks(); /* method walk */
Eats void eats(); /*method eats*/
}
a. object b. class code

Abstraction

We only include those details in the system that are required for making a functional
system so we will leave out irrelevant attributes and behaviour from our objects.
Take the example of student,

Student
 Name
 Address Relevant to our problem
 Sibling
 Father Business Not relevant to our problem
Defining a New User Defined Type

There are two ways to create user defined types for objects in c++ these are,

Structure Definition:

Partially we can use Structures to define an object

Struct{

};

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In c we can not define functions in a structure however in c++ we can add functions
in both structure and classes.

Class Definition:

class keyword (small case)

class identifier

class ClassName
{
Access Specifier: (public, private or protected)

DataType MemberVariable; Data members

… …. …
Access Specifier: (public, private or protected)

ReturnType MemberFunction(); Function members

… …. …

};

Example

class Student
{
private:
int rollNo;
char *name; Member Variables
float CGPA;
char *address;

public:
void setName(char *newName); Member Functions
void setRollNo(int newRollNo);

};

Why Member Functions:

They model the behaviors of an object,

Objects can make their data invisible (in accordance with the principle of data
hiding). Setters and getters functions are provided by class to access the its members
it also minimizes the changes to move the objects in inconsistent state as we can write
checks in our setter functions for example we can check that whether the user has
entered correct age value and has not entered negative value for age.
Object remains in consistent state

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Example:

We can check that the entered roll number by user is positive or negative,

Student aStudent;
aStudent.rollNo = 514;
aStudent.rollNo = -514; //Error

Object and Class:

Object is an instantiation of a user defined type or class. Once we have defined a

class we can create as many objects for that class as we require.

Declaring class variables

Variables of classes (objects) are declared just like variables of structures and built-in
data types as follows,

TypeName VariableName;

int var; // declaring built in int data type variable

Student aStudent; // declaring user defined class Student object

Accessing members

Members of an object can be accessed using,

a. dot operator (.) to access via the variable name

Student aStudent; // declaring Student object
aStudent. rollNo = 5;

b. arrow operator (->) to access via a pointer to an object

Student * aStudent = new Student();
// declaring and initializing Student pointer
aStudent->rollNo = 5;

Note: it is against the principle of OOP to access the data members directly using
object of class as we have done above. This code is given for example only we should
write assessor functions (setters and getters) wherever we want to access the
members of the class.

Member functions are accessed in the similar way using dot or arrow operator.

Example
class Student{
int rollNo;
void setRollNo(int aNo);
};

Student aStudent;
aStudent.setRollNo(5);

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Student *ptr_student = new Student();

ptr_student->setRollNo(5);

Access specifiers
These are used to enforce access restrictions to members of a class, there are three
access specifiers,

1. ‘public’ is used to tell that member can be accessed whenever you have
access to the object
2. ‘private’ is used to tell that member can only be accessed from a member
function
3. ‘protected’ to be discussed when we cover inheritance

Example

class Student{
private:
char * name; Can not be accessed outside the class
int rollNo;
public:
void setName(char *); Can be accessed outside the class
void setRollNo(int);
...
};

Example Program

class Student{
char * name;
int rollNo;
public:
void setName(char *);
void setRollNo(int aNo);
};
void Student::setName(char * aName){
if (strlen(aName) > 0)
{
name = new char[strlen(aName)];
strcpy(name,aName);
}
}

void Student::setRollNo(int arollNo){

if(arollNo > 0)
rollNo = arollNo;
}

int main(){
Student aStudent;
aStudent.rollNo = 5;

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/* Error: we can not access private member of the class. */

aStudent.name = “Ali”;
/* Error: we can not access private member of the class */
aStudent.setRollNo(1);
aStudent.setName(“Ali”);
/* Correct way to access the data member using public setter functions */
}

Default access specifier

When no access specifier is mentioned then default access specifier is private.

Example

class Student class Student

{ {
char * name; private:
int RollNo; char * name;
}; int RollNo;
Equivalent
};

Example

We should use keyword public before the methods of the class as given below of will
not use public keyword they will also be treated as private ad will not be accessible
outside the class as shown below,

class Student
{
char * name;
Error in accessing
int RollNo;
SetName it will be
void SetName(char *);
inaccessible
};
Student aStudent;
aStudent.SetName(Ali);

Corrected code will be,

class Student
{
char * name;
int RollNo;
public:
void setName(char *);

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};
Student aStudent;
aStudent.SetName(“Ali”);

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Lecture No.08

Member Functions

• Member functions are the functions that operate on the data encapsulated in
the class
• Public member functions are the interface to the class

Defining Member Functions

We can define member functions in two ways,
a. We can define member functions of the class inside the class definition when
we define any class in our program.
OR
b. We declare member function inside the class definition and declare them
outside the class.

In this case class definition is added in ClassName.h file and class implementation
code is added in ClassName.cpp file.

Function definition inside the class:

General Syntax:
class ClassName {
…
public:
ReturnType FunctionName() {
…
}
};

Example:
Define a class of student that has a roll number. This class should have a function
that can be used to set the roll number

class Student{
int rollNo;
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo){
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
};

Function definition outside class

General Syntax:

class ClassName {
…

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public:
ReturnType FunctionName();
};
ReturnType ClassName::FunctionName()
{
…
}

Example Scope resolution operator

class Student{
…
int rollNo;
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo);
};
void Student::setRollNo(int aRollNo){
…
rollNo = aRollNo;
}

Inline Functions

 Inline functions is a way used by compilers to improve efficiency of the

program, when functions are declared inline normal process of function
calling (using stack) is not followed instead function code is added by
compiler at all points where these functions have been called. Basic concept
behind inline functions is that they are functions in our code but in compiler
generated files these functions code is added by compiler at all places where
they were called in the code.
 Normally small size functions that need to be called many times during
program execution are declared inline. Inline functions decrease the code
execution time because program in their case doesn’t involve function call
overhead.
 Keyword ‘inline’ is used to request compiler to make a function inline.
 However using inline keyword with function doesn’t guarantee that function
will definitely in inlined, it depends on the compiler if it finds it can make
function inline it does so otherwise it ignores the keyword inline and treat the
function as normal function.

Example

inline int Area(int len, int hi)

{
return len * hi;
}
int main()
{
cout << Area(10,20);

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return 0;
}

Inline Functions

The functions defined inside the class are by default inline (whether we mention
keyword inline with them or not)
In case we define function outside the class then we must use the keyword ‘inline’ to
make the function inline.
However compiler decides whether it will implement these functions code as inline
or not.

Example
Inline function inside the class: Function setRollNo
will be automatically
class Student{ inlined by compiler.
int rollNo;
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo){
…
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
};

Example
Inline function outside the class:

class Student{
…
public:
inline void setRollNo(int aRollNo);
};
void Student::setRollNo(int aRollNo){
…
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
class Student{
…
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo);
};
inline void Student::setRollNo(int aRollNo){
…
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
class Student{
…
public:

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inline void setRollNo(int aRollNo);

};
inline void Student::setRollNo(int
aRollNo){
…
rollNo = aRollNo;
}

Constructor

Constructor is used to initialize the objects of a class. Constructor is used to ensure

that object is in well defined state at the time of creation.
The constructor of a class is automatically generated by compiler however we can
write it by our self also.
Constructor is automatically called when the object is created. Constructors are not
usually called explicitly by us.

Constructor Properties

• Constructor is a special function having same name as the class name

• Constructor does not have return type
• Constructors are commonly public members

Example
class Student{
int rollNo; Student Class
public: constructor
Student(){
rollNo = 0;

}
};

int main()
{
Student aStudent;
/*constructor is implicitly called at this point*/
}

We can assure that constructor is called automatically by adding cout statement in

constructor as shown below,

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
Student Class
int rollNo;
public:
constructor
Student(){
rollNo = 0;
cout<<”I am constructor of Student class…\n”;

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}
};

int main()
{
Student aStudent;
/*constructor is implicitly called at this point*/
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

Default Constructor

• Constructor without any parameter or with all parameters with default

values is called default constructor
• If we do not define a default constructor the compiler will generate a default
constructor
• Compiler generated default constructor is called implicit and user written
default constructor is called explicit
• This compiler generated default constructor initialize the data members to
their default values
• If we have given any constructor for a class whether it is
• our own explcit default constructor ( i.e parameterless or with
parameters having default values )
or
• our own constructor with parameters

Then compiler will not create implicit default constructor5.

Example

Consider the class student below it has no constructor so compiler will generate one
for it,

class Student
{
int rollNo;
char *name;
float GPA;
public:
… //no constructors
};

Code of Compiler generated implicit default constructor

5
compiler generated default constructor is called implicit and user written default constructor is called
explicit

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rollNo = 0;
GPA = 0.0;
name = NULL;
}

Constructor Overloading

We can write constructors with parameters as well. These parameters are used to
initialize the data members with user supplied data (passed as parameter). The
example is shown below, here example Student class has four constructors their
prototypes are,

1. Student(); /* explicit default parameterless constructor */

2. Student(char * aName); /* constructor with one parameter* /
3. Student(char * aName, int aRollNo); /* constructor with two parameters */
4. Student(int aRollNo, int aRollNo, float aGPA); /* constructor with three
parameters */

Example

class Student{
int rollNo;
char *name;
float GPA;
public:
Student(); /* explicit default constructor */
Student(char * aName); /* constructor with one parameter* /
Student(char * aName, int aRollNo); /* constructor with two parameters */
Student(int aRollNo, int aRollNo, float aGPA); /* constructor with three
parameters */

};
Student::Student(){

rollNo = 0;
name = NULL; // to indicate it is pointing to nothing at this moment
otherwise it can generate erroneous code.
GPA = 0.0;

}
Student::Student(int aRollNo){

if(aRollNo < 0){

rollNo = 0;
}
else {
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
name = NULL;

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}
Student::Student(int aRollNo,
char * aName){

if(aRollNo < 0){

rollNo = 0;
}
else {
rollNo = aRollNo;
}

if (strlen(aName) > 0)
{
name = new char[strlen(aName)+1];
strcpy(name,aName);
}
else
{
name = NULL;
}

We can create this Student class object using any one of these constructors as follows,

int main()
{
Student student1; // default constructor will be used
Student student2(“Name”); // one parameter constructor will be used
Student student3(”Name”, 1); // two parameter constructor will be used
Student student4(”Name”,1,4.0); // three parameter constructor will be used
}

Constructor Overloading

We can use default parameter values to reduce the writing effort in that case we will
have to write only one constructor and it will serve the purpose of all constructors as
given below,

Example
Student::Student( char * aName = NULL, int aRollNo= 0, float aGPA = 0.0) {
…

It is equivalent to all three constructors,

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Student();
Student(char * aName);
Student(char * aName, int aRollNo);
Student(char * Name, int aRollNo, float aGPA);

It will use default values if values are not passed as arguments while creating
objects) it is described in code given below,

int main()
{
Student student1; /*char * aName = NULL, int aRollNo= 0, float aGPA = 0.0*/

Student student2( “Name” ); /*char * aName = Name, int aRollNo= 0, float

aGPA = 0.0*/

Student student3( ”Name”, 1 ); /*char * aName = Name, int aRollNo= 1, float

aGPA = 0.0*/

Student student4( ”Name”, 1 , 4.0); /*char * aName = Name, int aRollNo= 1,

float aGPA = 4.0*/

Copy Constructor
Copy constructors are used when:

• Initializing an object at the time of creation (we want to create an object with
state of a pre existing object)
• When an object is passed by value to a function (As you know temporary
copy of object is created on stack so we need copy constructor to create that
temporary object with the state of actual object being passed).

Example
void func1(Student student){
…
}

Copy constructor will

be called to create
temporary student
int main(){
object
Student studentA;
Student studentB = studentA;

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func1(studentA);

Copy constructor will

be called as we are
Copy Constructor (Syntax) creating studentB in
terms of studentA.
Student::Student( const Student &obj){

/*copying values to newly created object*/

rollNo = obj.rollNo;
name = obj.name;
GPA = obj.GPA;

As was the case with default constructor compiler also generates copy constructor by
itself however we can override that copy constructor by writing our own copy
constructor as shown in example below,

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
int rollNo;
Student class default
public:
constructor
Student(){
rollNo = 0;
cout<<”I am default constructor of Student class…\n”;
}

Student(const Student &obj){

cout<<”I am copy constructor of Student class\n”;
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

}
};
Student class copy
constructor
int main()
{
Student aStudent;
/*default constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

Student bStudent = aStudent;

/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

system(“pause”);

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return 0;
}

Shallow Copy

• When we initialize one object with another then the compiler copies state of
one object to the other using copy constructor by assigning data member
values of previous object to newly created object.

Shallow copy using default Copy Constructor (Syntax)

Student::Student( const Student & obj ){

rollNo = obj.rollNo;
name = obj.name;
GPA = obj.GPA;
}

• This kind of copying is called shallow copying

Example

Student studentA;
Student studentB = studentA; /*Shallow copy: compiler will use copy constructor to
assign studentA values to newly created object studentB*/

Shallow copy works fine if our class doesn’t include dynamic memory allocation but
in case of dynamic memory allocation it leads to dangling pointer problem as
explained below,

Problem is Shallow Copy

Student class data member name of char * type is added to store the name of student
and it is using dynamic memory according to the length of name entered by user for
student.

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Memory
studentA
studentB
A
Name H Name
M
RollNo A RollNo
D
GPA … GPA

Object studentB is also pointing to memory allocated object studentA for Student
class data member name of char * type, now there are two problems with this sort of
copying,

Suppose we delete first object studentA for some reason then its destructor will also
free memory allocated by it hence memory area containing name “AHMAD” will
also be freed and will be given to some other application by operating system, but
studentB member name is still pointing to that area so issue of “Dangling Pointer”
will arose. [Pointer pointing to incorrect memory location]. If we will try to print the
name of object studentB our program will terminate abnormally as it was pointing
memory of some other applications.
Secondly if for some reason we change name of studentA the value of object
studentB will also be changed as it pointing to same memory location.

We resolve these two issues using deep copy.

Deep Copy
We write our own deep copy code in copy constructor so that when we create new
object from an existing object using copy constructor we also allocate new dynamic
memory for data members involving dynamic memory as shown below,
Student::Student( const Student & obj){

int len = strlen(obj.name);

name = new char[len+1];
// assignming new dynamic memory to data member name of char * type for
newly created object*/
strcpy(name, obj.name);
…
//copy rest of the data members in the same way
}

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Example

Student studentA;
Student studentB = studentA; // now copy constructor will perform deep
copy (separate memory for both objects)

A
Memory

A Name
H
M RollNo
A
D GPA

A Name
H
M RollNo
A
D GPA

In case our class doesn’t involve dynamic memory then default copy constructor that
performs shallow copy works fine.
In case our class has any data member involving dynamic memory we have to write
our own code to do deep copy.

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Lecture No.09
Review
Copy Constructor
Copy constructors are used when:

Initializing an object at the time of creation (we want to create an object with state of
a pre existing object)
When an object is passed by value to a function (As you know temporary copy of
object is created on stack so we need copy constructor to create that temporary object
with the state of actual object being passed).

Example

void func1(Student student){

…
} Copy constructor will
be called as a
int main(){
temporary student
object will be created.
Student studentA;
Student studentB = studentA;
func1(studentA);
return 0;
}

Copy constructor will

be called as we are
creating studentB in
terms of studentA.

Copy Constructor (Syntax)

Student::Student( const Student &obj){

/*copying values to newly created object*/

rollNo = obj.rollNo;
name = obj.name;
GPA = obj.GPA;
}

As was the case with default constructor compiler also generates copy constructor by
itself however we can override that copy constructor by writing our own copy
constructor as shown in example below,
As was the case with default constructor compiler also generates copy constructor by
itself however we can override that copy constructor by writing our own copy
constructor as shown in example below,

#include <iostream>

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using namespace std;

class Student{
int rollNo;
Student class default
public:
constructor
Student(){
rollNo = 0;
cout<<”I am default constructor of Student class…\n”;
}

Student(const Student &obj){

cout<<”I am copy constructor of Student class\n”;
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

}
}; Student class copy
constructor
int main()
{
Student aStudent;
/*default constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

Student bStudent = aStudent;

/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

Shallow Copy

When we initialize one object with another then the compiler copies state of one
object to the other using copy constructor by assigning data member values of
previous object to newly created object. This kind of copying is called shallow
copying.

Shallow copy using default Copy Constructor (Syntax)

Student::Student( const Student & obj ){

rollNo = obj.rollNo;
name = obj.name;
GPA = obj.GPA;
}

This kind of copying is called shallow copying

Example

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Student studentA;
Student studentB = studentA; /*Shallow copy: compiler will use copy constructor to
assign studentA values to newly created object studentB*/

Example
Student studentA(“Ahmad”);

A
H
studentA M
A
RollNo D

Name
Heap
GPA

Student studentB = studentA;

A
H
studentA M studentB
A
RollNo D RollNn

Name Name
Heap
GPA GPA

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
char * name;
int rollNo;
public:
Student(char * aName, int arollNo){
name = new char[strlen(aName)+1];
strcpy(name,aName);

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rollNo = arollNo;

}
Student(const Student &obj){
name = obj.name;
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

}
void showName(){
cout<<name<<endl;

}
~Student(){

delete []name;

}
};

int main()
{
Student studentA("AHMAD",1);
Student studentB = studentA;
/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

studentA.showName();
studentB.showName();

system("pause");
return 0;
}

Shallow copy works fine if our class doesn’t include dynamic memory allocation but
in case of dynamic memory allocation it leads to dangling pointer problem as
explained below.

Problem is Shallow Copy

Student class data member name of char * type is added to store the name of student
and it is using dynamic memory according to the length of name entered by user for
student.

Student class data member name (char *) of object studentB is also pointing to
memory allocated for datamember name of object studentA, due to this there may be
two kinds of problems.

Suppose we delete first object studentA for some reason then its destructor will also
free memory allocated by it hence memory area containing name “AHMAD” will
also be freed and will be given to some other application by operating system, but

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studentB member name is still pointing to that area so issue of “Dangling Pointer”
[Pointer pointing to incorrect memory location] will arose.
Same will happen if object studentB is deleted then studentA object data member
name will become dangling pointer. This has been explained below,
Let us change code in main to make our second object studentB in a new local scope
as shown below,

int main(){
Student studentA(“Ahmad”,1);

{
Student studentB = studentA;
}
return 0;
}

Now if we will try to print the name of object studentA our program will not show
any output as name is pointing to some irrelevant memory address,

studentA Irrelevant
address
RollNo

Name
Heap
GPA

Complete program code is given below,

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
char * name;
int rollNo;
public:
Student(char * aName, int arollNo){
name = new char[strlen(aName)+1];
strcpy(name,aName);
rollNo = arollNo;

}
Student(const Student &obj){

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name = obj.name;
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

}
void showName(){
cout<<name<<endl;

}
~Student(){
delete []name;
}
};

int main()
{
Student studentA("AHMAD",1);

{
Student studentB = studentA;
/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/
}

studentA.showName();

system("pause");
return 0;
}

Secondly if for some reason we change name of object studentA the value of object
studentB will also be changed as it pointing to same memory location.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
char * name;
int rollNo;
public:
Student(char * aName, int arollNo){
name = new char[strlen(aName)+1];
strcpy(name,aName);
rollNo = arollNo;

}
Student(const Student &obj){
name = obj.name;
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

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void setName(char * aName){

strcpy(name,aName);

void showName(){
cout<<name<<endl;

}
~Student(){

delete []name;

}
};

int main()
{
Student studentA("AHMAD",1);
Student studentB = studentA;
/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/

studentA.showName();
studentB.showName();

studentA.setName("MOEEN");
studentA.showName();
studentB.showName();

system("pause");
return 0;
}

We resolve these two issues using deep copy.

Deep Copy

We write deep copy code in copy constructor so that when we create new object from
an existing object using copy constructor we also allocate new dynamic memory for
data members involving dynamic memory as shown below,

Student::Student( const Student & obj){

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int len = strlen(obj.name);

name = new char[len+1]; // assignming new
/*dynamic memory to data member name of char * type for newly created object.*/
strcpy(name, obj.name);
…
//copy rest of the data members in the same way
}

Now we see what happens when we created objects in main as shown below,

int main(){
Student studentA(“Ahmad”,1);

{
Student studentB = studentA;
}
}

A
H
M studentB
studentA A
D RollNo
RollNo
Name
Name A
H GPA
GPA M
A
D

Now when we will execute code with object studentB in local scope our code still
works fine and shows name for object studentA as now deletion of object studentB
has no effect on object studentA as shown below,

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A
H
M
studentA A
D
RollNo

Name
Heap
GPA

Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Student{
char * name;
int rollNo;
public:
Student(char * aName, int arollNo){
name = new char[strlen(aName)+1];
strcpy(name,aName);
rollNo = arollNo;

}
Student(const Student &obj){

name = new char[strlen(obj.name)+1];

strcpy(name,obj.name);
rollNo = obj.rollNo;

void showName(){
cout<<name<<endl;

}
~Student(){

delete []name;

}
};

int main()
{

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Student studentA("AHMAD",1);
{
Student studentB = studentA;
/*copy constructor is implicitly called at this point*/
}
studentA.showName();

system("pause");
return 0;
}

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Important points about copy constructor:

1. In case our class doesn’t involve dynamic memory then default copy
constructor that performs shallow copy works fine.
2. In case our class has any data member involving dynamic memory we have
to write our own code in copy constructor to perform deep copy.
3. Copy constructor is normally used to perform deep copy
4. If we do not make a copy constructor then the compiler performs shallow
copy
5. Shallow copy performs bitwise copy.

Destructor

1. Destructor is used to free memory that is allocated through dynamic

allocation. We have to free memory allocated using new operator by over self
in destructor otherwise it remain occupied even after our program ends.
2. Destructor is used to perform house keeping operations.
3. Destructor is a function with the same name as that of class, but preceded
with a tilde ‘~’

Example

class Student
{
…
public:
~Student(){
if(name){
delete []name;
}
}
};

Overloading
Destructors cannot be overloaded.

Sequence of Calls
Constructors and destructors are called automatically
Constructors are called in the sequence in which object is declared
Destructors are called in reverse order

Example
Student::Student(char * aName){
…
cout << aName << “Constructor\n”;
}
Student::~Student(){
cout << name << “Destructor\n”;
}
};
Example

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int main()
{
Student studentB(“Ali”);
Student studentA(“Ahmad”);
return 0;
}

Example

Output:
Ali Constructor
Ahmad Constructor
Ahmad Destructor
Ali Destructor

Accessor Functions

In accordance to principle of information hiding data members of a class are declared

as private so that outside world can not access the private data of the object only an
interface is provided to outside world in the form of functions.
Accessor functions are also used to access private data of the object, we provide
accessor functions to get and set private data members of the class.
We also add error checking code in accessor functions to reduce errors so that object
doesn’t move in illegal state.

Example – Accessing Data Member

Example - Setter

class Student{
…
int rollNo;
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo){
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
};

Avoiding Error
void Student::setRollNo(int aRollNo){
if(aRollNo < 0){
rollNo = 0;
}
else
{
rollNo = aRollNo;
}
}
Example - Getter

class Student{

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…
int rollNo;
public:
int getRollNo(){
return rollNo;
}
};

Good Practice:
Never return a handle to a data member from getter function because you are never
sure that function accessing the reference will not change the value of the variable.

this Pointer

Consider the code of a general class given below,

class Student{
int rollNo;
char *name;
float GPA;
public:
int getRollNo();
void setRollNo(int aRollNo);
…
};

The compiler reserves space for the functions defined in the class

Function Space
getRollNo(), …

 Space for data is not allocated (since no object is yet created)

this Pointer
Student s1, s2, s3;

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s2(rollNo,…)

Function Space
getRollNo(), …
s3(rollNo,…)

s1(rollNo,…)

this Pointer

 Function space is common for every variable

 Whenever a new object is created:
o Memory is reserved for variables only
o Previously defined functions are used over and over again

Memory layout for objects created:

s1 s2 s3 s4
rollNo, … rollNo, … rollNo, … rollNo, …

Function
Space
getRollNo(),
…

this Pointer

 Address of each object is passed to the calling function.

 This address is de-referenced by the functions and hence they act on correct
objects

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s1 s2 s3 s4
rollNo, … rollNo, … rollNo, … rollNo, …

address address address address

Passing this Pointer

 Whenever a function is called the this pointer is passed as a parameter to that

function.
 Function with n parameters is actually called with n+1 parameters

Example

void Student::setName(char *)

is internally represented as,

void Student::setName(char *, const Student *)

Declaration of this

DataType * const this;

Compiler Generated Code

Student::Student(){ Compiler generated code Student::Student(){

rollNo = 0; this->rollNo = 0;
} }

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Lecture No.10

Uses of this Pointer

o There are situations where designer wants to return reference to

current object from a function
o In such cases reference is taken from this pointer like (*this)

Example

Student Student::setRollNo(int aNo)

{
…
return *this;
}
Student Student::setName(char *aName)
{
…
return *this;
}

Usage:

int main()
{
Student aStudent;
Student bStudent;

bStudent = aStudent.setName(“Ahmad”);
…
bStudent = aStudent.setName(“Ali”).setRollNo(2);

return 0;
}

Separation of interface and implementation

o Public member functions exposed by a class are called interface.

o Separation of implementation from the interface is good software
engineering.
Benefits of separating interface and implementation:

Consider the example of following complex no. class, this complex no. class two
forms of implementations one is new and one is old implementation you can observe
that if you have separated interface and implementation then we can easily change
implementation without changing interface,

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Complex Number

o There are two representations of complex number

 Euler form
z=x+iy
 Phasor form
z = |z| (cos  + i sin )
z is known as the complex modulus and  is known as the complex argument or
phase

Example

Old implementation New implementation

Complex Complex
float x float z
float y float theta

float getX() float getX()

float getY() float getY()
void setNumber void setNumber
(float i, float j) (float i, float j)
… …

Uml notation to show private data members

Example

class Complex{ //old

float x;
float y;
public:
void setNumber(float i, float j){
x = i;
y = j;
}
…
};

Example

class Complex{ //new

float z;
float theta;
public:
void setNumber(float i, float j){

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theta = arctan(j/i);
…
}
…
};

Advantages

1. User is only concerned about ways of accessing data (interface)

2. User has no concern about the internal representation and implementation of
the class

Separation of interface and implementation

In c++ generally we can relate the concept of interface of a class to its header (.h) file
and and implementation of a class to its (.cpp) file. However it is not complete
separation of interface and implementation.

 Usually functions are defined in implementation file (.cpp) while the class
definition is given in header file (.h)
 Some authors also consider this as separation of interface and implementation

Student.h

class Student{
int rollNo;
public:
void setRollNo(int aRollNo);
int getRollNo();
…
};

Student.cpp
#include “student.h”

void Student::setRollNo(int aNo){

…
}
int Student::getRollNo(){
…
}

We only need to include header (.h) file in main.cpp to use the Student class as
shown below,

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Main.cpp (main file to run the program)

#include “student.h”

int main(){
Student aStudent;
return 0;
}

const Member Functions

Some functions in our programs are general purpose functions to show or access
data, they are supposed to do read only tasks only however there are chances that
they can change the state of data members of the class while accessing the data
members due to programming mistake, c++ provides the solution of this problem
using constant member functions.

We make those functions as constant who need only read only access (for example
such functions that will only display data or will return the value of data members).
When we make them constant compiler generates an error if these functions try to
change the value of data members of the class.

const Member Functions

Keyword const is placed at the end of the parameter list to make any function as
constant.

Declaration:
Inside class
class ClassName{
ReturnVal Function() const;
};

Definition:
Outside class
ReturnVal ClassName::Function() const{
…
}

Example
class Student{
public:
int getRollNo() const {
return rollNo;
}
};

const Functions

 Constant member functions cannot modify the state of any object

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 They are just “read-only”

 Errors due to typing are also caught at compile time

Example

Consider the function given below that is being used to check if roll no is equal to
entered value if in this function we replace comparison statemtn == with assignment
= statement it will compile correctly but whole code logic will change and we will get
un expected result,

bool Student::isRollNo(int aNo){

if(rollNo = = aNo){
return true;
}
return false;
}

Example

bool Student::isRollNo(int aNo){

/*undetected typing mistake*/
if(rollNo = aNo){
return true;
}
return false;
}

But if we have implemented as constant then compiler will catch this error and will
produce compile time error as shown below,

Example

bool Student::isRollNo
(int aNo)const{
/*compiler error*/
if(rollNo = aNo){
return true;
}
return false;
}

const Functions

Constructors and Destructors cannot be const because Constructors and

destructors are used to modify the object to a well defined state or to clean the
memory occupied by the object.

Example

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class Time{
public:
Time() const {} //error…
~Time() const {} //error…
};

const Function

 Constant member function cannot change data member

 We cannot call non constant functions in constant functions because non
constant member functions may have code for changing state of the object
that is not allowed in the constant functions.

Example
class Student{
char * name;
public:
char *getName();
void setName(char * aName);
int ConstFunc() const{
name = getName(); //error
setName(“Ahmad”);//error
}
};

this Pointer and const Member Function

As we know that when a class function is called an implicit this pointer is passed to
tell the function about the object it has to operate same is true for constant function
with the difference that it will bbe passed as constant pointer to const data in case of
constant member functions so that this pointer can not be used now to change the
value of data members of the object,

const Student *const this;

// In case of constant member functions

instead of

Student * const this;

// In case of ordinary member functions

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Lecture No.11

Usage example of Constant member functions

Problem:
Suppose we have requirement to change the class Student such that a student is
given a roll number when the object is created and cannot be changed afterwards our
existing class is given below,

Student Class

class Student{
…
int rollNo;
public:
Student(int aNo);
int getRollNo();
…
};

Solution of this problem:

We can do this by making rollNo constant so that cannot be changed once it is

defined as shown below,

Modified Student Class

class Student{
…
const int rollNo;
public:
Student(int aNo);
int getRollNo();
…
};

Now there is only one issue of initializing this roll no with initial value but the
problem is that we cannot set the value of roll no in constructor, as when code in
constructor is executed the data member roll no has already been created and when
we try to assign value to it in constructor compiler generates error,
Example
Student::Student(int aRollNo)
{
rollNo = aRollNo;

/*error: cannot modify a constant data member assignment statement not

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initialization*/
}

Second solution is to write separate function but the problem remains same that we
can’t assign value to constant data member,

void Student::SetRollNo(int i)
{
rollNo = i;
/*error: cannot modify a constant data member again assignment
statement not initialization */
}

We also know that we can only declare data members in structure or class but we
cannot initialize them at the time of declaration in structure or class because
before executing constructor code, the class const member roll no has not got life it
will get life along with other class members when constructor will be invoked so we
can not assign any value to this constant member while declaring it. 6
Solution:
so what is the solution of this problem as we can not initialize constant members
while declaring them and we can not initialize them in constructor also because as
soon as they go life they become constant to solve this problem C++ gives us new
mechanism (syntax) for initialization of constant data members of the structure or
class to resolve above mentioned issues,

Difference between Initialization and Assignment:

Initialization is assigning value along with creation of variable.

int i = 2;

Assignment is assigning value after creation.

int i;
i = 7;

Member Initializer List

Member initialization list is used where we cannot modify the state of data members
in the member functions of the class including constructor,

 A member initializer list is a mechanism to initialize data members

 It is given after closing parenthesis of parameter list of constructor

6
In c++ static const data members can be initialized in class or structure as well.

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 In case of more than one member use comma separated list

Example
class Student{
const int rollNo;
char *name;
float GPA;
public:
Student(int aRollNo) : rollNo(aRollNo), name(Null), GPA(0.0){ //
initialization
…
}
…
};

Order of Initialization

 Data member are initialized in order they are declared in the class
 Order in member initializer list is not significant at all

Example
class ABC{
int x;
int y;
int z;
public:
ABC();
};
ABC::ABC():y(10),x(y),z(y)
{
…
}
/* x = Junk value
y = 10
z = 10 */

const Objects

 Objects can be declared constant with the use of const keyword

 Constant objects cannot change their state

Example
int main()

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{
const Student aStudent;
return 0;
}

Example

#include <cstdlib> #include <cstdlib>

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>

using namespace std; using namespace std;

class Student{ class Student{

int rollNo; int rollNo;
public: public:

Student( ) { Student(int aRollNo) :

rollNo(aRollNo){
}
}
int getRollNo(){
return rollNo; int getRollNo(){
} return rollNo;
}; }
};

int main(){ int main(){

const Student aStudent(5);
const Student aStudent; int a = aStudent.getRollNo();
int a = aStudent.getRollNo(); //error

//error system("PAUSE");
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
system("PAUSE"); }
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

const Objects

const objects can access only const member functions so chances of change of state of
const objects once they are created are eliminated.
We make getRollNo function constant so that we can access it using constant objects,

Example
class Student{

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…
int rollNo;
public:
…
int getRollNo()const{
return rollNo;
}
};
int main(){
const Student aStudent;
int a = aStudent.getRollNo();
return 0;
}

Constant member functions

Make all functions that don’t change the state of the object constant
This will enable constant objects to access more member functions

Static Variables
Static variables of a class are such variables which are independent of class objects.

Lifetime of static variable is throughout the program life, if static variables are not
explicitly initialized then they are initialized to 0 of appropriate type.

Example

Static variable is initialized once only throughout the program, independent of how
many times the function initializing it is called,

void func1(int i){

static int staticInt = i;
//initialization statement will be executed once
//only as static variables are initialized once
cout << staticInt << endl;
}
int main(){ Output:
func1(1); 1
func1(2); 1
return 0;
}

void func1(int i){

static int staticInt;

staticInt = i;
//assignment statement will be executed with each function call
cout << staticInt << endl;

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}
int main(){ Output:
func1(1); 1
func1(2); 2
return 0;
}

Static Data Member

Definition
“A variable that is part of a class, yet is not part of any object of that class, is called
static data member”

Static Data Member

They are shared by all instances (objects) of the class

They do not belong to any particular instance of a class

Class vs. Instance Variable

Suppose we created three objects of student class as shown below,

Student s1, s2, s3;

Instance Variable
Class Variable s2(rollNo,…)

Class Space
s3(rollNo,…)

s1(rollNo,…)

Static Data Member (Syntax)

Keyword static is used to make a data member static

class ClassName{
…
static DataType VariableName;
};

Defining Static Data Member

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Static data member is declared inside the class

But they are defined outside the class

Defining Static Data Member

class ClassName{
…
static DataType VariableName;
};

DataType ClassName::VariableName;
Initializing Static Data Member

Static data members should be initialized once at file scope

They are initialized at the time of definition

Example
class Student{
private:
static int noOfStudents;
public:
…
};
int Student::noOfStudents = 0;
/*private static member cannot be accessed outside the class except for
initialization*/

Initializing Static Data Member

If static data members are not explicitly initialized at the time of definition then they
are initialized to 0

Example

int Student::noOfStudents;

is equivalent to

int Student::noOfStudents=0;

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Lecture No.12

Review:
Static Data Member
Definition
“A variable that is part of a class, yet is not part of an object of that class, is called
static data member”

Static Data members are shared by all instances of the class and they do not belong to
any particular instance of a class.

Class vs. Instance Variable

Memory for static variables in allocated in class space whereas for instance variables
it is separate for each object as shown below, if we have class Student as given below,

class Student{
private:
static int noOfStudents;
public:
…
};

When we will create objects of Student as s1, s2, s3 then memory will be allocated as
given below,

Instance Variable
Class Variable s2(rollNo,…)

Class Space
s3(rollNo,…)

s1(rollNo,…)

Static Data Member (Syntax)

Keyword static is used to make a data member static,

class ClassName{
…
static DataType VariableName;
};

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Defining Static Data Member (allocating memory for them)

Static data member is declared inside the class

But they are defined outside the class,

class ClassName{
…
static DataType VariableName;
};

DataType ClassName::VariableName;

Initializing Static Data Member(assigning them some initial value)

Static data members should be initialized once at file scope

They are initialized at the time of definition,

Example

class Student{
private:
static int noOfStudents;
public:
…
};
int Student::noOfStudents = 0;
/*private static member cannot be accessed outside the class except for
initialization*/

Initializing Static Data Member

If static data members are not explicitly initialized at the time of definition then they
are initialized to 0

Example
int Student::noOfStudents;

is equivalent to

int Student::noOfStudents=0;

Accessing Static Data Member

To access a static data member there are two ways

 Access like a normal data member (using dot operator ‘.’)
 Access using a scope resolution operator ‘::’

Example

class Student{
public:

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static int noOfStudents;

};

int Student::noOfStudents;

int main()
{
Student aStudent;
aStudent.noOfStudents = 1;
Student::noOfStudents = 1;
return 0;
}

Life of Static Data Member

 They are created even when there is no object of a class
 They remain in memory even when all Objects of a class are destroyed

Example
class Student{
public:
static int noOfStudents;
};
int Student::noOfStudents;
int main(){
Student::noOfStudents = 1;
}

Example
class Student{
public:
static int noOfStudents;
};
int Student::noOfStudents;
int main(){
{
Student aStudent;
aStudent.noOfStudents = 1;
}
Student::noOfStudents = 1;
return 0;
}

Uses
They can be used to store information that is required by all objects, like global
variables
Example

Modify the class Student such that one can know the number of student created in a
system

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class Student{
…
public:
static int noOfStudents;
Student();
~Student();
…
};
int Student::noOfStudents = 0;
Student::Student(){
noOfStudents++;
}
Student::~Student(){
noOfStudents--;
}

int Student::noOfStudents = 0;
int main(){
cout <<Student::noOfStudents <<endl;
Student studentA;
cout <<Student::noOfStudents <<endl;
Student studentB;
cout <<Student::noOfStudents <<endl;
return 0;
}

Output:
0
1
2

Problem
noOfStudents is accessible outside the class
Bad design as the local data member is kept public

The solution is that we write static member function to access static members,

Static Member Function

Definition:
“The function that needs access to the members of a class, yet does not need to be
invoked by a particular object, is called static member function”

 They are used to access static data members

 Access mechanism for static member functions is same as that of static data
members
 They cannot access any non-static members

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Example
class Student{
static int noOfStudents;
int rollNo;
public:
static int getTotalStudent(){
return noOfStudents;
}
};
int main(){
int i = Student::getTotalStudents();
return 0;
}

Accessing non static data members

int Student::getTotalStudents(){
return rollNo;
}
int main(){
int i = Student::getTotalStudents();
/*Error: There is no instance of Student, rollNo cannot be accessed*/
return 0;
}

this Pointer and static member functions

 this pointer is passed implicitly to member functions

 this pointer is not passed to static member functions
 Reason is static member functions cannot access non static data members

Global Variable vs. Static Members

 Alternative to static member is to use global variable
 Global variables are accessible to all entities of the program
 User of Global variables is against the principle of information hiding.
Array of Objects
 Array of objects can only be created if an object can be created without
supplying an explicit initializer
 There must always be a default constructor if we want to create array of
objects

Example
class Test{
public:
};
int main(){
Test array[2]; // OK

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return 0;
}

class Test{
public:
Test();
};
int main(){
Test array[2]; // OK
return 0;
}

class Test{
public:
Test(int i);
};
int main(){
Test array[2]; // Error
return 0;
}

class Test{
public:
Test(int i);
};
int main(){
Test array[2] = {Test(0),Test(0)};
return 0;
}

class Test{
public:
Test(int i);
};
int main(){
Test a(1),b(2);
Test array[2] = {a,b};
return 0;
}

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 Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

Lecture No.13

Pointer to Objects
 Pointer to objects are similar as pointer to built-in types
 They can also be used to dynamically allocate objects

Example

class Student{
…
public:
Student();
Student(char * aName);
void setRollNo(int aNo);
};
Example
int main(){
Student obj;
Student *ptr;
ptr = &obj;
ptr->setRollNo(10);
return 0;
}
Allocation with new Operator
 new operator can be used to create objects at runtime
Example
int main(){
Student *ptr;
ptr = new Student;
ptr->setRollNo(10);
return 0;
}
Example
int main(){
Student *ptr;
ptr = new Student(“Ali”);
ptr->setRollNo(10);
return 0;
}
Example
int main()
{
Student *ptr = new Student[100];
for(int i = 0; i < 100;i++)
{
ptr->setRollNo(10);
}
return 0;
}

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Breakup of new Operation

new operator is decomposed as follows

 Allocating space in memory
 Calling the appropriate constructor
Case Study
Design a class date through which user must be able to perform following operations
 Get and set current day, month and year
 Increment by x number of days, months and year
 Set default date
Attributes
Attributes that can be seen in this problem statement are
 Day
 Month
 Year
 Default date
Attributes
The default date is a feature shared by all objects
 This attribute must be declared a static member
Attributes in Date.h
class Date
{
int day;
int month;
int year;
static Date defaultDate;
…
};
Interfaces
 getDay
 getMonth
 getYear
 setDay
 setMonth
 setYear
 addDay
 addMonth
 addYear
 setDefaultDate
Interfaces
As the default date is a static member the interface setDefaultDate should also be
declared static
Interfaces in Date.h
class Date{
…
public:
void setDay(int aDay);
int getDay() const;
void addDay(int x);
…

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…
};
Interfaces in Date.h
class Date{
…
public:
static void setDefaultDate(
int aDay,int aMonth, int aYear);
…
};
Constructors and Destructors in Date.h
Date(int aDay = 0,
int aMonth= 0, int aYear= 0);

~Date(); //Destructor
};
Implementation of Date Class
The static member variables must be initialized

Date Date::defaultDate (07,3,2005);

Constructors
Date::Date(int aDay, int aMonth,
int aYear) {
if(aDay==0) {
this->day = defaultDate.day;
}
else{
setDay(aDay);
}
//similarly for other members
}
Destructor
We are not required to do any house keeping chores in destructor

Date::~Date
{
}
Getter and Setter
void Date::setMonth(int a){
if(a > 0 && a <= 12){
month = a;
}
int getMonth() const{
return month;
}
addYear
void Date::addYear(int x){
year += x;
if(day == 29 && month == 2
&& !leapyear(year)){
day = 1;

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month = 3;
}
}
Helper Function
class Date{
…
private:
bool leapYear(int x) const;
…
};
Helper Function
bool Date::leapYear(int x) const{
if((x%4 == 0 && x%100 != 0)
|| (x%400==0)){
return true;
}
return false;
}
setDefaultDate
void Date::setDefaultDate(
int d, int m, int y){
if(d >= 0 && d <= 31){
day = d;
}
…
}

Complete code of Date class

# include<iostream.h>
# include<conio.h>
class Date{

private:
int day, month, year;
static Date defaultDate;
public:
void setDefaultDate(int aDay,int aMonth, int aYear);
void setDay(int aDay);
int getDay() const;
void addDay(int x);
void setMonth(int aMonth);
int getMonth() const;
void addMonth(int x);
void setYear(int aYear);
int getYear() const;
void addYear(int x);
bool leapYear(int x)const;
Date(int aDay , int aMonth, int aYear);
void setDate(int aDay , int aMonth, int aYear);

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~Date(); //Destructor
};

Date Date::defaultDate(07,3,2005);

Date::Date(int aDay, int aMonth, int aYear)

{
if(aDay==0)
{
this->day = defaultDate.day;
}
else
{
setDay(aDay);
}

if(aMonth==0)
{
this->month = defaultDate.month;
}
else
{
setMonth(aMonth);
}

if(aYear==0)
{
this->year = defaultDate.year;
}
else
{
setYear(aYear);
}

void Date::setMonth(int a) {
if(a > 0 && a <= 12)
{
month = a;
}
}

int Date:: getMonth() const {

return month;
}

void Date::addYear(int x)
{
year += x;

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if(day == 29 && month == 2 && !leapYear(year))

{
day = 1;
month = 3;
}
}

bool Date::leapYear(int x) const {

if((x%4 == 0 && x%100 != 0) || (x%400==0))
{
return true;
}
return false;
}

void Date::setYear(int aYear){

year=aYear;
}
void Date::setDay(int aDay){
day=aDay;

void Date::setDate(int aDay , int aMonth, int aYear){

setDay(aDay);
setMonth(aMonth);
setYear(aYear);
cout<<day<<"/"<<month<<"/"<<year<<endl;

Date::~Date(){
cout<<"Date destructor"<<endl;
}
int main()
{
Date aDate(0,0,0);

aDate.setDate(20,10,2011);
system("pause");
}

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Lecture No.14

Composition

Consider the following implementation of the student class we discussed in previous

lectures,

Student
gpa : float
rollNo : int
name : char *

Student(char * = NULL, int = 0,

float = 0.0);
Student(const Student &)
GetName() const : const char
*
SetName(char *) : void
~Student()
…

Composition

If one object is part of another object (relationship of part and whole) in composition
lifetime of one object depends upon the other. The part objects are essential
components of the whole.
For example person is composed of hands, eyes, feet so on.

In student class we assigning dynamic memory for variable name using new
operator as shown,

class Student{
private:
float gpa;
char * name;
int rollNumber;
public:
Student(char * = NULL, int = 0, float = 0.0);
Student(const Student & st);
const char * GetName() const;
// never return handle of private data members or private member functions
~Student();
…
};

Student::Student(char * _name, int roll, float g)

{
cout << "Constructor::Student..\n";

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if (!_name){
name = new char[strlen(_name)+1];
strcpy(name,_name);
}
else name = NULL;
rollNumber = roll;
gpa = g;
}

Student::Student(const Student & st){

if(str.name != NULL){
name = new char[strlen(st.name) + 1];
strcpy(name, st.name);
}
else name = NULL;
rollNumber = st.roll;
gpa = st.g;
}

const char * Student::GetName(){

return name;
}

// never return handle of private data members or private member functions const
ensures that private data members will not be changed

Student::~Student(){
delete [] name; // deleting name array
}

In C++ “it is all about code reuse”

Composition is Creating objects of one class inside another class
“Has a” relationship:
Bird has a beak
Student has a name

Composition

Now we change code slightly replacing name char * by String so that it is whole
object of class String as it qualifies to be an object because we have to apply many
operations on it like string dynamic creation and deletion, string copy using deep
copy, searching a substring and so on….

Conceptual notation:

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Student

gpa : float
rollNo : int
name : String String

string : char *
Student(char * = NULL, int = 0, String()
float = 0.0);
SetString(char *) : void
Student(const Student &) GetString() const : const
GetName() const : String char *
GetNamePtr() const : const
~String()
char *
…
SetName(char *) : void
~Student()
…

Composition

Now we see string class code to see how it simplifies original Student object and how
we have used composition here,

class String{
private:
char * ptr;
public:
String(); // default constructor
String(const String &); // copy constructor
void SetString(const char *); // setter function
const char * GetString() const;
// getter function returning const pointer to data member ptr
~String()
…
};
String::String(){
cout << "Constructor::String..\n";
ptr = NULL;
}

String::String(const String & str){

if(str.ptr != NULL){
ptr = new char[strlen(str.ptr)+1];
strcpy(ptr, str.ptr);
}
else ptr = NULL;
}
void String::SetString(const char * str){
if(ptr != NULL){
delete [] ptr;

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ptr = NULL;
}
if(str != NULL){
ptr = new char[strlen(str)+1];
strcpy(ptr, str);
}
}

issue of memory leakage (inaccessible memory)

if we simply set pointer here
memory will be outside of our object many cause problems later
user still has pointer of passed value it can itself modify it

We resolve these two issues in SetString by allocating new memory and deleting
previous memory.

const char * String::GetString()const{

return ptr;
}
String::~String(){
delete [] ptr;
cout <<"Destructor::String..\n";
}

Make pointer equal to NULL as well any where you delete dynamic memory.

Now consider the code of Student class again, now by adding composed string object
our code has been simplified very much, (we will use methods of composed object
simply by calling them where needed)

class Student{
private:
float gpa;
int rollNumber;
String name;
public:
Student(char* =NULL, int=0,float=0.0);
Student(const Student &);
void SetName(const char *);
String GetName() const;
const char * GetNamePtr() const;
~Student();
…
};

Student ::Student(char * _name, int roll, float g){

cout <<"Constructor::Student..\n";
name.SetString(_name);

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rollNumber = roll;
gpa = g;
}

Student::Student(const Student & s){

name.SetString(s.name.GetString());
gpa = s.gpa;
rollNumber = s.rollNumber;
}

Explanation:

1. name.SetString(s.name.GetString());
// setting composed name of newly created object

2. name.SetString(s.name.GetString());
//accessing the composed object string name of object to be copied

3. name.SetString(s.name.GetString());
//accessing the value of composed object string name by calling its member
function GetString

4. name.SetString(s.name.GetString());
//overall result : the value of composed object string of object to be copied
will be copied to newly created object composed object string.

const char * Student::GetNamePtr() const{

return name.GetString();
}

void Student::SetName(const char * n){

name.SetString(n);
}

Student::~Student(){
cout <<"Destructor::Student..\n";
}

void main(){
Student *aStudent=new Student("Fakhir", 899, 3.1);
cout << endl;
cout << “Name:” << aStudent->GetNamePtr() << “\n”;
}

Output:

Constructor::String..
Constructor::Student..

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Name: Fakhir
Destructor::Student..
Destructor::String..

Important Points:

1. We can access methods of composed object in the same way as we can access
methods of other objects.

Name of composed object.MemberFunction

2. Member functions of a class can access its private data members like,

Student::Student(const Student & s){

name.SetString(s.name.GetString());

// accessing private member String name of student using its object s

and then accessing String name member function GetString to access
string value two methods calss in one line

gpa = s.gpa;
// accessing private members of student in student member function

rollNo = s.rollNo;
// accessing private members of student in student member function

Constructors & Composition

Constructors of the sub-objects are always executed before the constructors of the
master class

Example:

As you see the example output of program given above,

Output:

Constructor::String..
Constructor::Student..

Name: Fakhir
Destructor::Student..
Destructor::String..

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Constructor for the sub-object name is executed before the constructor of Student
and destructor of sub-object is called after destructor of student. It is logical as
composing object has to contain composed object so composed object should be
created first and then composing object. Similarly while destructing objects we
composing object is destructed first and then composed object as shown in diagram
below,

Composed
object
String

Student
Composing
object

Composition

Constructor calling:
Constructors are called from composed objects to composing objects.

Constructor of composed object

String

String

Student

Constructor of
composing object

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Destructor calling:

Destructors are called from composing objects to composed objects.

String

Student
Destructor of
composing object

Destructor of composed object

String

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 Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

Lecture No.15

Composition:
We saw composition in last lecture, its Conceptual notation is given below,

Student

gpa : float
rollNo : int
name : String String

Student(char * = NULL, int = string : char *

0, float = 0.0);
Student(const Student &) String()
GetName() const : String SetString(char *) : void
GetNamePtr() const : const GetString() const : const
char * char *
SetName(char *) : void ~String()
~Student() …

We created student object in main as by passing name, rollno and gpa and then
displayed the name of student using GetNamePtr member function of student
class,

int main(){
Student aStudent("Fakhir", 899,3.1);
cout << endl;
cout << “Name:” << aStudent.GetNamePtr()<< endl;
return 0;
}

Output:
The output of our code is given below,

Constructor::String..
Constructor::Student..
Name: Fakhir
Destructor::Student..
Destructor::String..

Constructor Code:
Let us see the constructor code again,

Student::Student(char * n, int roll, float g){

cout <<"Constructor::Student..\n";
name.SetString(n);
rollNumber = roll;
gpa = g;
}

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In this code we are setting string data member name of Student class using SetString
but the problem in this approach is that we have to call SetString method explicitly to
set value in string class, the reason for it is that our String class doesn’t support
setting its value while creating its object this is the reason we have to use the function
SetString in the constructor.
This is an overhead and also not very good way to set any object value, we want to
initialize our string sub-object name in the student class as we initialize other objects
using constructor. For achieving this functionality we add an overloaded constructor
in the String class that takes char string as parameter and initialize the String class
object with this value using the Student constructor’s “Member initialization list” as
shown below in bold text:

class String{
char *ptr;
public:
String();
String(char *); // constructor with char * as parameter
String(const String &);
void SetName(char *);
~String();
…
};

String::String(char * str){
if(str != NULL){
ptr = new char[strlen(str)+1];
strcpy(ptr, str);
}

else ptr = NULL;

cout << "Overloaded Constructor::String..\n";

Now Student class constructor code is modified as follows:

class Student{
private:
float gpa;
int rollNumber;
String name;
public:
…
Student(char *=NULL, int=0, float=0.0);
};

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Student::Student(char * n,int roll, float g): name(n) {

cout << "Constructor::Student..\n";

rollNumber = roll;
gpa = g;

int main(){
Student aStudent("Fakhir", 899, 3.1);
cout << endl;
cout << “Name:” << aStudent.GetNamePtr() << endl;
return 0;
}

Output:

Overloaded Constructor::String..
Constructor::Student..

Name: Fakhir
Destructor::Student..
Destructor::String..

Now suppose we want to add date object in student class to store student Birth Date,
the conceptual diagram will be as given below,

String

name: char *
Student
String()
… String(char *)
name : String ~String()
birthDate : Date …

Student()
Student( char *, Date
const Date &, int,
float) day: int
SetName(char *) : void Month: int
GetName() : char * year: int
~Student()
… …
Date()
Date(int,int,int)
Date(const Date &)
…

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Student class is modified as follows:

class Student{
private:
…
Date birthDate;
String name;
public:
Student(char *, const Date &, int, float);
~Student();
…
};

Composition

Student::Student(char * n, const Date & d, int roll, flaot g): name(n),birthDate(d) {

cout << "Constructor::Student..\n";
rollNumber = roll;
gpa = g;
}

Student::~Student(){
cout << "Destructor::Student..\n";
}
int main(){
Date _date(31, 12, 1982);
Student aStudent("Fakhir", _date,899,3.5);
return 0;
}

Output:

Overloaded Constructor::Date..
Copy Constructor::Date..
Overloaded Constructor::String..
Constructor::Student..
Destructor::Student..
Destructor::String..
Destructor::Date..
Destructor::Date..

Aggregation

In composition we made separate object of those concepts that we think were worthy
to be implemented as an object within other object to make our code simpler and to
make functionality modular (divided in parts) and understandable like we made
String class in Student class, but in real life most situations are such that two distinct
(different) objects and one object is using services of the other one like student and
teacher, student and librarian, room and chair, passenger and bus, book and

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bookshelf, person and computer so on. In this case we cannot make one object as part
of other object because they exist independently and only provide services to each
other like in case of,

Student and Teacher: Student or Teacher object cannot be composed of other one yet
they are taking services of each other.
Passenger and Bus: Passenger and Bus are taking services of each other but exist
standalone also, bus includes passengers but passenger are not Part of Bus they can
exist independently as well.

Composition vs. Aggregation

Aggregation is a weak relationship than composition because in this relationship two

classes get services of each other but can exist independently as well, main difference
is memory organization of two objects as shown below,

Object 1
Object 2

Composition

Object 1
Object 2

Aggregation

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Example:

Take the example of Room and Chair as given below,

Room Chair

area : float
chairs[50]:Chair * …

Chair()
Room(char *, int) DoSomething() : void
~Room() FoldChair() : bool
FoldChair(int) : bool UnFoldChair() : bool
… ~Chair()
…

Aggregation C++ implementation:

In aggregation, a pointer or reference to an object is created inside a class. The sub-

object has a life that is NOT dependant on the life of its master class.
e.g

 Chairs can be moved inside or outside at anytime

 When Room is destroyed, the chairs may or may not be destroyed

Aggregation:

class Room{
private:
float area;
Chair * chairs[50];
Public:
Room();
void AddChair(Chair *, int chairNo);
Chair * GetChair(int chairNo);
bool FoldChair(int chairNo);
…
};

Room::Room(){
for(int i = 0; i < 50; i++)
chairs[i] = NULL;

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}
void Room::AddChair(Chair * chair1, int chairNo){
if(chairNo >= 0 && chairNo < 50)
chairs[chairNo] = chair1;
}

Chair * Room::GetChair(int chairNo){

if(chairNo >= 0 && chairNo < 50)
return chairs[chairNo];
else
return NULL;
}

bool Room::FoldChair(int chairNo){

if(chairNo >= 0 && chairNo < 50)
return chairs[chairNo]->FoldChair();
else
return false;
}
int main(){
Chair ch1;
{
Room r1;
r1.AddChair(&ch1, 1);
r1.FoldChair(1);
}
ch1.UnFoldChair(1);
return 0;
}

Friend Functions

The functions which are not member functions of the class yet they can access all
private members of the class are called friend functions.

Why they are needed?

They are needed in situations where we have written code for some function in one
class and it need to be used by other classes as well for example,
Suppose we wrote the code to compute a complex mathematical formulae in one
class but later it was required by other classes as well, in that case we will make that
function friend of all other classes.

Are friend functions against the concept of Object Oriented Programming?

It can be said that friend functions are against the principle of object oriented
programming because they violate the principle of encapsulation which clearly says
that each object methods and functions should be encapsulated in it. But there we are
making our private member accessible to other outside functions.

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Consider the following class:

class X{
private:
int a, b;
public:
void MemberFunction();
…
};

Suppose we have a global function DoSomething that need to access the private
members of class X, when we will try to access them compiler will generate error as
outside world can not access private members of a class except its member functions.

void DoSomething(X obj){

obj.a = 3; //Error
obj.b = 4; //Error
}

Friend Functions

In order to access the member variables of the class, we must make function friend of
that class,

class X{
private:
int a, b;
public:
…
friend void DoSomething(X obj);
};

Now the function DoSomething can access data members of class X

void DoSomething(X obj){

obj.a = 3;
obj.b = 4;
}

Friend Functions

Prototypes of friend functions appear in the class definition.

But friend functions are NOT member functions.

Friend Functions

Friend functions can be placed anywhere in the class without any effect
Access specifiers don’t affect friend functions or classes

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class X{
...
private:
friend void DoSomething(X);
public:
friend void DoAnything(X);
...
};

Friend Functions

While the definition of the friend function is:

void DoSomething(X obj){

obj.a = 3; // No Error
obj.b = 4; // No Error
…
}

friend keyword is not given in definition.

Friend Functions

If keyword friend is used in the function definition, it’s a syntax error

//Error…

friend void DoSomething(X obj){

…
}

Friend Classes

Similarly, one class can also be made friend of another class:

class X{
friend class Y;
…
};

Member functions of class Y can access private data members of class X

class X{
friend class Y;
private:
int x_var1, x_var2;
...
};
class Y{
private:
int y_var1, y_var2;

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X objX;
public:
void setX(){
objX.x_var1 = 1;
}
};
int main(){
Y objY;
objY.setX();
return 0;
}

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Lecture No.16

16.1.Operator overloading

Consider the following class,

class Complex{
private:
double real, img;
public:
Complex Add(const Complex &);
Complex Subtract(const Complex &);
Complex Multiply(const Complex &);
…
};

We want to write function to add two complex no. objects, the Add function
implementation to add two complex numbers is shown below, this function is taking
one complex no object and its adding the current (with reference to which it will be
called) and is returning result in new object,

Complex Complex::Add(const Complex & c1){

Complex t;
t.real = real + c1.real;
t.img = img + c1.img;
return t;
};

// adds the contents of c2 to c1

// creating new object c3 and assigning it result of c1+c2

Now we can add two complex no. objects using the following statement,

Complex c3 = c1.Add(c2);

In this statement two operations are taking place,

1. One is addition of two objects using the function call Add and returning the
result in a new object.
Complex c3 = c1.Add(c2);

2. Second is copy of that temporary object to newly created object c3 using copy
constructor.
Complex c3 = c1.Add(c2);

But there are two issues with this implementation,

1. We can’t add two complex no. objects by simple writing ‘+’ as we can add
basic data types like int or float as shown below,

int a = 3;

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int b = 5;
c = a + b; // correct

Complex c1(2,3), c2(4,5);

Complex c3 = c1 + c2; // error

Instead we have to explicitly write,

Complex c3 = c1.Add(c2)

If we give our complex no. class code some user in compiled form for use,
user will need to know how we have written Add function (no. of parameters
, return type) to add two complex no. objects so that he can call Add function
correctly.

2. If we want to perform add operation on more than two objects in a single

mathematical statement like:
c1+c2+c3+c4
We are unable to do it.

We have to explicitly write,

c1.Add(c2.Add(c3.Add(c4)))

Alternative way is:

t1 = c3.Add(c4);
t2 = c2.Add(t1);
t3 = c1.Add(t2);

This is also overhead, especially if the mathematical expression is large,

Converting it to C++ code will involve complicated mixture of function calls

Code will become less readable
Chances of human mistakes will become very high
Code produced will be very hard to maintain

The solution to this problem is simple that we can write normal operators like +,-,*,
and so on for our user defined classes as well,

It is “Operator overloading”

Using operator overloading we can perform basic operations (like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division and so on…) on our own defined classes objects
in the similar way as we perform them on basic built-in types(like int, float, long,
double etc.).
C++ allows us to overload common operators like +, - or * etc…
With operator overloading Mathematical statements don’t have to be explicitly
converted into function calls as we had to do to add two complex no objects using
function call Add.

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Operator overloading

Assume that operator + has been overloaded then actual C++ code becomes:
c1+c2+c3+c4
The resultant code is very easy to read, write and maintain

Operator overloading

C++ automatically overloads operators for pre-defined types as these have also been
implemented as classes by c++.
Example of predefined types:
int
float
double
char
long

Operator overloading

float x;
int y;
x = 102.02 + 0.09; // overloaded operator ‘+’ for float type will be called by c++
Y = 50 + 47; // overloaded operator ‘+’ for int type will be called by c++

The compiler probably calls the correct overloaded low level function for addition
i.e:
// for integer addition:
Add(int a, int b)

// for float addition:

Add(float a, float b)

Operator overloading

Operator functions are not usually called directly, they are automatically invoked to
evaluate the operations they implement by compiler.

List of operators that can be overloaded in C++:

List of operators that can’t be overloaded:

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Reason: They take actual current object name, rather than value in their argument as
you have seen previously in the use of dot (‘.’) operator,

Student std;
int roll = std.getRollNo() // dot operator is performing on actual function
(getRollNo) of class Student that will vary from program to program.

?: is the only ternary operator in C++ and can’t be overloaded.

The precedence of an operator:

The precedence of an operator is order of evaluation which operator will be

evaluated first in expression.
The precedence of an operator is NOT affected due to overloading.
Example:

c1*c2+c3
c3+c2*c1
In both lines multiplication * will be done first and then addition.

Associativity:

Associativity is NOT changed due to overloading

Following arithmetic expression always is evaluated from left to right:
c1 + c2 + c3 + c4

Unary operators and assignment operator are right associative, e.g:

a=b=c is same as a=(b=c)
All other operators are left associative:
c1+c2+c3 is same as
(c1+c2)+c3

Important things to consider:

Always write code representing the operator for example adding subtraction code
inside the + operator will create chaos.
Creating a new operator is a syntax error (whether unary, binary or ternary), you
cannot create $.

Arity of Operators

Arity (no of operands it works on) of an operator is NOT affected by overloading

Example:
Division operator will take exactly two operands in any case:
b=c/d

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General syntax of Operators Overloading:

In case of member functions of a class:

return_type class_name::operator operator_symbol( parameters ){

/*code*/
}

In case of non member functions of a class (in this case we will make overloaded
operator function as friend function):

return_type operator operator_symbol( parameters ){

/*code*/
}

For example:

Complex& Complex::operator + (const Complex & c){

/*code*/
}

Complex& operator + (const Complex & c){

/*code*/
}

Binary Operators Overloading:

Binary operators act on two quantities.

Examples of binary operators:

General syntax of Binary Operators Overloading:

In case of member function of a class:

TYPE class_name::operator operator_symbol( TYPE rhs ){

/*code*/
}

In case of non-member function of a class:

TYPE class_name::operator operator_symbol( TYPE rhs1, TYPE rhs2 ){

/*code*/
}

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The “operator OP” must have at least one formal parameter of type class (user
defined type)

Following is an error:
int operator + (int, int);

Examples:

Overloading + operator:

class Complex{
private:
double real, img;
public:
…
Complex operator +(const Complex & rhs);
};

Complex Complex::operator +( const Complex & rhs){

Complex t;
t.real = real + rhs.real;
t.img = img + rhs.img;
return t;
}

The return type is Complex so as to facilitate complex statements like:

Complex t = c1 + c2 + c3;

The above statement is automatically converted by the compiler into appropriate

function calls:
(c1.operator +(c2)).operator +(c3);

If the return type was void,

class Complex{
...
public:
void operator+(
const Complex & rhs);
};

void Complex::operator+(const Complex & rhs){

real = real + rhs.real;
img = img + rhs.img;
};

We have to do the same operation c1+c2+c3 as:

c1+c2
c1+c3
// final result is stored in c1

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Drawbacks of void return type:

Assignments and cascaded expressions are not possible

One of the existing objects is used to store result
Code is less readable
Debugging is tough
Code is very hard to maintain

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Lecture No.17

Binary operators (cont.)

The binary operator is always called with reference to the left hand argument.

Example:
In c1+c2,
c1.operator+(c2)
// c1 is calling overloaded + operator and c2 is being passed as
// reference in that function.
In c2+c1,
c2.operator+(c1)
// c2 is calling overloaded + operator and c1 is being passed as
// reference in that function.

Adding basic data type to complex number class:

The overloading code we discussed before for complex no. class can add two
complex number objects but it can not handle the following situation:

Complex c1;
c1 + 2.325 (as we are adding basic data type double to complex no.)

To do this, we have to modify the Complex class.

Modifying the complex class:

class Complex{
...
Complex operator+(const Complex & rhs);
Complex operator+(const double& rhs);
};

Complex operator + (const double& rhs){

Complex t;
t.real = real + rhs;
t.img = img;
return t;
}

Now we can write both forms of statements,

Complex c2, c3;
Complex c1 = c2 + c3;
Complex c4 = c2 + 235.01;
But problem arises if we do the following:

Complex c5 = 450.120 + c1;

The + operator is called with reference to 450.120

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No predefined overloaded + operator is there that takes Complex as an argument

Now if we write the following two functions to the class, we can add a Complex to a
real or vice versa :

Class Complex{
…
friend Complex operator + (const Complex & lhs, const double & rhs);
friend Complex operator + (const double & lhs, const Complex & rhs);
};

We have made them as friend so that we can write them as non member functions
and they are not called with respect to complex no. class object instead we pass both
arguments (complex no. object and double value) to this function compiler invoke
them according to arguments passed. Their implementation is similar,

Complex operator +(const Complex & lhs, const double& rhs){

Complex t;
t.real = lhs.real + rhs;
t.img = lhs.img;
return t;
}

Complex operator + (const double & lhs, const Complex & rhs){

Complex t;
t.real = lhs + rhs.real;
t.img = rhs.img;
return t;
}

Binary operators

So adding three overloaded versions for + operator as shown below allow us to write
code to,
Add two complex objects
Add complex object and a double value.

Class Complex{
…
Complex operator + (const Complex &);
friend Complex operator + (const Complex &, const double &);
friend Complex operator + (const double &, const Complex &);
};

Non members which are not friend call also achieve this functionality but in that case
we need extra four functions two getters and two setters each for real and imag part.
Compiler searches overloaded operator code in member function first and then in
non member functions.

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Binary operators

Other binary operators are overloaded in similar to the + operator as demonstrated

in the above examples
Example:

Complex operator * (const Complex & c1, const Complex & c2);
Complex operator / (const Complex & c1, const Complex & c2);
Complex operator - (const Complex & c1, const Complex & c2);

Overloading Assignment operator

As we know compiler can generate the following three functions for a class if
required on its own,

 Default Constructor (in case we have not written any other constructor for a
class)
 Copy Constructor
 Assignment Operator

However as we discussed previously if our class has any data member using
dynamic memory then we had to write our own code for default constructor, copy
constructor and similarly assignment operator as compiler generated version of these
functions performs shallow copy that creates dangling pointer, and memory leakage
issues in case of dynamic memory allocation.
We have already seen code of default constructor and copy constructor and the code
for overloaded assignment operator is similar,

Consider the string class:

class String{
int size;
char * bufferPtr;
public:
String(); // default constructor
String(char *); // overloaded constructor
String(const String &); // copy constructor
…
};
String::String(){

bufferPtr = NULL;
size = 0;
}

String::String(char * ptr){
if(ptr != NULL){
size = strlen(ptr);
bufferPtr = new char[size+1];
strcpy(bufferPtr, ptr);
}

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else{
bufferPtr = NULL;
size = 0;
}
}

String::String(const String & rhs){

size = rhs.size;

if(rhs.size != 0){
bufferPtr = new char[size+1];
strcpy(bufferPtr, ptr);
}
else
bufferPtr = NULL;

int main(){
String str1(“Hello");
String str2(“World”);
Member wise copy
str1 = str2;78
assignment
return 0;
}

Assignment operator (Shallow Copy)

Result of str1 = str2 (memory leak)

Hello World

str1 str2

Second issue is dangling pointer issue as was in the case of copy constructor.

Modified Assignment Operator Code:

So we add overloaded assignment operator to perform deep copy as given below,

7
Here by term member wise copy we mean copying values of members of class one by one blindly
also called bitwise copy.
8
In ANSI c++ standard term member wise copy has also been used to indicate logical copy (the deep
copy)

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class String{
…
public:
…
void operator =(const String &);
};

void String::operator = (const String & rhs){

size = rhs.size;
if(rhs.size != 0){
delete [] bufferPtr; // resolving inaccessible memory issue
bufferPtr = new char[rhs.size+1]; // creating new dynamic memory
strcpy(bufferPtr,rhs.bufferPtr); // deep copy
}
else
bufferPtr = NULL;

int main(){
String str1(“ABC");
String str2(“DE”), str3(“FG”);
str1 = str2; // Valid…
str1 = str2 = str3; // Error…
return 0;
}

The problem in statement

str1 = str2 = str3 is,

str1=str2=str3 is resolved as:

str1.operator=(str2.operator=(str3))
Assignment operator is beiing called two times one for part str2 = str3 and then for
str1 = (str2 = str3) as assignment operator is right associate so first str2=str3 will be
executed, and str2 will become equal to str3, then first overloaded assignment
operator execution result will be assigned to s1,
str1.operator=(str2.operator=(str3))

Problem is when compiler will try to invoke second assignment operator to assign
value to str1 error will be returned becuase of void return type of oveloaded
assignment operator the reasn is explained below,
As we have studied before values are passed as parameters in operator overloadnig,
str2 = str3 means str2.operator = (str3)
// str3 is being called as parameter
and
str1 = str2 = str3 means str3.operator(str2.operator = (str3))
// str2.operator = (str3) is being passed as parameter

This issue can be resolved by introducing minor change in our code of copy
assignment operator to make it return String object instead of void as shown below,

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class String{
…
public:
…
String & operator = (const String &);
};

String & String :: operator = (const String & rhs){

size = rhs.size;
delete [] bufferPtr;
if(rhs.size != 0){
bufferPtr = new char[rhs.size+1];
strcpy(bufferPtr,rhs.bufferPtr);
}
else bufferPtr = NULL;
return *this;
}

Now we are returning the value by reference of the object with respect to which this
overloaded assignment operator will be called. It will be str2 in the case of str2 = str3,
now when part str1 = (str2 = str3) will be executed, str2 will be passed as argument,
that will be assigned to str1.

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Lecture No.18
Self assignment problem:

In we assign same string to itself as done in main function below our program will
produce unexpected results as source and destination operands for copying are
same,

int main(){
String str1("Fakhir");
str1 = str1; // Self Assignment problem…
return 0;
}

Result of str1 = str1

…
??? // size = rhs.size;
Fakhir // delete [] bufferPtr;
…

str1

We can resolve this issue by adding a simple if condition to ensure that both strings
are not same
String & String :: operator = (const String & rhs){
if(this != &rhs){
size = rhs.size;
delete [] bufferPtr; // deleting memory of left hand side operand
if(rhs.bufferPtr != NULL){
bufferPtr = new char[rhs.size+1];
strcpy(bufferPtr,rhs.bufferPtr);
// memory access violation or incorrect data copy
}
else bufferPtr = NULL;
}
return *this;
}

Now self-assignment is properly handled:

int main(){
String str1("Fakhir");
str1 = str1;
return 0;
}

We can make return type String & as constant to avoid assignment to sub
expressions, like (str1 = str2) = str3

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class String{
…
public:
…
const String & operator=9
(const String &);
};

int main(){
String s1(“ABC”),
s2(“DEF”),
s3(“GHI”);
// Error…
(s1 = s2) = s3;
return 0;
}

But as we can do that with primitive types so we can allow assignment to sub
expressions by making return type as String & only as we have done before.

int main(){
int a, b, c;
(a = b) = c;
return 0;
}

Other Binary operators

Overloading += operator:

class Complex{
double real, img;
public:
Complex & operator+=(const Complex & rhs);
Complex & operator+=(const double & rhs);
...
};

Complex & Complex::operator += (const Complex & rhs){

real = real + rhs.real;
img = img + rhs.img;
return * this;
}

Complex & Complex::operator += (const double & rhs){

real = real + rhs;
return * this;

9
W e have seen previously that we should not return handle to any private data
member

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int main(){
Complex c1, c2, c3;
c1 += c2;
c3 += 0.087;
return 0;
}

Friend Functions and Operator overloading

Friend functions minimize encapsulation as we can access private data of any class
using friend functions,
This can result in:
 Data vulnerability
 Programming bugs
 Tough debugging

Hence, use of friend functions must be limited we can overload operators without
declaring them friend functions of a class, for example the + operator can be defined
as a non-member, non-friend function as shown below,
(Three versions of overloaded + operator for Complex no class to handle three kinds
of statements)
 obj1 + obj2
o + obj1
 obj1 + 3.78

Complex operator + (const Complex & a, const Complex & b){

Complex t = a; // creating temporary object t to store a+b
return t += b; // returning t by reference
}

Complex operator + (const double & a, const Complex & b){

Complex t = b;
return t += a;
}

Complex operator + (const Complex & a, const double & b){

Complex t = a;
return t += b;
}
Other Binary operators

The operators
-=, /=, *=, |=, %=, &=, ^=, <<=, >>=, !=
can be overloaded in a very similar fashion.

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Lecture No.19

Overloading stream insertion extraction operators

Stream Insertion operator

Often we need to display the data on the screen c++ provides us insertion operator
(‘<<’)to put data on output stream default is console but it can be any file or network
socket as well to send data on network from our program.

Example:
int i=1, j=2;
cout << “i= ”<< i << “\n”;
cout << “j= ”<< j << “\n”;

Stream Extraction operator

We also need to get data from the console or from file or network this is achieved
through c++ provided stream extraction operator (‘>>’) that is used to get data from
input stream, again default input stream is from console.

Example:

int i,j;
cin >> i >> j; // getting value of i and j from user

Explanation:

cin and cout are objects of istream and ostream classes used for input and output
respectively, the insertion and extractions operators have been overloaded in istream
and ostream classes to do these tasks.

When we write lines like,

int i;
cin>> i;
cout << i;

Actually we are using istream and ostream class objects and using these objects we
are calling these classes overloaded (>> and <<) operators that have been overloaded
for all basic types like integer, float , long , double and char *.
We have seen previously that actual call of overloaded operators for a class takes
place by passing the objects to overloaded function as parameter like shown below,

cin>>i;
istream & operator >> (istream & in, int & i)
Here cin will be passed as istream object along with int i to be displayed and code of
this functions is returning istream object by reference & to accommodate multiple
input statement in a single line like,
int i , j;
cin>>i >> j;

as we did in our string class before.

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Same goes for insertion operator <<

cout << i;
ostream & operator >> (ostream & os, const int & i)

Stream insertion and extraction operator have been overloaded for basic data types
but if we try to use them for user defined data types like our Complex no. class
compiler will generate error as it will not find any overloaded operator code for our
complex no class

Complex c1;
cout << c1; // Error
cout << c1 << 2; // Error cascaded statement

// Compiler error: binary '<<' : no operator // defined which takes a right-hand operand of
type ‘class Complex’

Same error will be for stream extraction operator so will need to overload these two
operators (<< and >>) for our Complex no. class.

Overloading Stream Insertion Operator

First we try to overload insertion << operator as member function as we did before,

class Complex{
…
public:
…
void operator << (const
Complex & rhs);
};

But when we will call this overloaded function is main compiler will generate errors
as shown below,
int main(){
Complex c1;
cout << c1; // Error
c1 << cout;
c1 << cout << 2; // Error
return 0;
};

class Complex{
…
public:
…
void operator << (ostream &);
};

void Complex::operator << (ostream & os){

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os << ‘(‘ << real

<< ‘,’ << img << ‘)’;
}

Now the statement c1 << cout will work but it has two limitations,
Difficult to understand and remember statement syntax (c1 << cout ; )
Cascaded statements not possible ( cout << c1 << 2 ;)

Better syntax is given below to resolve these two issues,

class Complex{
...
friend ostream & operator << (ostream & os, const Complex & c);
};

Stream Insertion operator

// we want the output as: (real, img)
ostream & operator << (ostream & os, const Complex & c){
os << ‘(‘ << c.real
<< ‘,‘
<< c.img << ‘)’;
return os;
}

ostream reference can not be const as it store the data in its buffer to insert on output
stream, however Complex reference will be constant as we are only getting data from
Complex object and inserting it to output stream.
Complex c1(1.01, 20.1), c2(0.01, 12.0);
cout << c1 << endl << c2;

Stream Insertion operator

Output:
( 1.01 , 20.1 )
( 0.01 , 12.0 )

Now cascading statements are also possible as given below,

cout << c1 << c2;

is equivalent to

operator<<( operator<<(cout,c1),c2);

Because insertion operator is Left to right associative so first left part cout << c1 << c2
will be executed and then the next part as opposed to copy assignment operator that
will right associative.

Same thing can be done with stream extraction operator,

Overloading Stream Extraction Operator:

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class Complex{
...
friend istream & operator >> (istream & i, Complex & c);
};

istream can not be cont and istream buffer will change as we will get data from it and
assign it to complex reference similarly Complex object can not be const for stream
extraction operator as well because we will add data to it and hence its state will
change.

Stream Extraction Operator Code:

istream & operator << (istream & in, Complex & c){
in >> c.real;
in >> c.img;
return in;
}

Main Program:

Complex c1(1.01, 20.1);

cin >> c1;
// suppose we entered // 1.0025 for c1.real and // 0.0241 for c1.img
cout << c1;

Output:

( 1.0025 , 0.0241 )

Other Binary operators:

Overloading comparison operators (Equality and Inequality operators)

class Complex{
public:
bool operator == (const Complex & c);
//friend bool operator == (const //Complex & c1, const Complex & c2);
bool operator != (const Complex & c);
//friend bool operator != (const //Complex & c1, const Complex & c2);
…
};

Equality operator:

bool Complex::operator ==(const Complex & c){

if((real == c.real) &&
(img == c.img)){

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return true;
}
else
return false;
}

As non member friend function:

bool operator ==(const Complex& lhs, const Complex& rhs){

if((lhs.real == rhs.real) &&
(lhs.img == rhs.img)){
return true;
}
else
return false;
}

Inequality Operator:

bool Complex::operator !=(const Complex & c){

if((real != c.real) ||
(img != c.img)){
return true;
}
else
return false;
}

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Lecture No.20
Modified String Class:
We have seen the following string class till now,

class String{
private:
char * bufferPtr;
int size;
public:
String();
String(char * ptr);
void SetString(char * ptr);
const char * GetString();
...
};

int main(){
String str1(“Test”);
String str2;
str2.SetString(“Ping”);
return 0;
}

What if we want to change the string from “Ping” to “Pong”?? {ONLY 1 character to be
changed…}
Possible solution:

 Call: str2.SetString(“Pong”);
 This will delete the current buffer and allocate a new one
 Too much overhead if string is too big

Or, we can add a function which changes a character at nth location

class String{
...
public:
void SetChar(char c, int pos);
...
};

void SetChar(char c, int pos){

if(bufferPtr != NULL){
if(pos>0 && pos<=size)
bufferPtr[pos] = c;
}
}

Other Binary Operators

Now we can efficiently change a single character:

String str1(“Ping”);

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str1.SetChar(‘o’, 2);
// str1 is now changed to “Pong”

Subscript [] Operator

There is another elegant solution present for this problem. It is subscript operator
that is used on basic char [] data type as shown below,
char array[5] = “Ping”;
array[1] = ‘o’;

We want to get same functionality for our own defined String class for this we
overload the subscript “[]” operator.

We want function like given below for subscript operator in our String class,

int main(){
String str2;
str2.SetString(“Ping”);
str[2] = ‘o’;
// acting as l-value (left value so that we can assign it some value)
cout << str[2];
// acting as r-value (we are reading value using subscript operator)
return 0;
}

Overloading Subscript [] Operator

Subscript operator must be overloaded as member function of the class with one
parameter of integer type,

class String{
...
public:
char & operator[](int);
...
};

char & String::operator[]( int pos){

assert(pos>0 && pos<=size);
return stringPtr[pos-1];
}
int main() {
String s1(“Ping”);
cout <<str.GetString()<< endl;
s1[2] = ‘o’;
cout << str.GetString();
return 0;
}

Output:

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Ping
Pong

Overloading Function () operator

Must be a member function

Any number of parameters can be specified
Any return type can be specified
Operator() can perform any generic operation

Function Operator
class String{
...
public:
char & operator()(int);
...
};

char & String::operator()

(int pos){
assert(pos>0 && pos<=size);
return bufferPtr[pos-1];
}
int main(){
String s1(“Ping”);
char g = s1(2); // g = ‘i’
s1(2) = ‘o’;
cout << g << “\n”;
cout << str.GetString();
return 0;
}
Output:

i
Pong

Function Operator performing Sub String operation,

class String{
...
public:
String operator()(int, int);
...
};

String String::operator()(int index, int subLength){

assert(index>0 && index+subLength-1<=size);
char * ptr = new char[subLength+1];

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for (int i=0; i < subLength; ++i)

ptr[i] = bufferPtr[i+index-1];
ptr[subLength] = ‘\0’;
String str(ptr);
delete [] ptr;
return str;
}

int main(){
String s(“Hello World”);
// “<<“ is overloaded
cout << s(1, 5);
return 0;
}

Function Operator
Output:

Hello

Unary Operators

Unary operators take one operand, they act on the object with reference to which
they have been called as shown below,
& * + - ++ -- ! ~

Examples:

 --x
 -(x++)
 !(*ptr ++)

Unary Operators

Unary operators are usually prefix, except for ++ and --

++ and -- both act as prefix and postfix

Example:
h++;
g-- + ++h - --i;

General syntax for unary operators

As Member Functions:
TYPE & operator OP (); // no argument the object with respect to which it is called
is taken as one operand
As Non-member Functions:
Friend TYPE & operator OP (TYPE & t);
// one argument object with respect to which it is called.

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Overloading unary ‘-’:

class Complex{
...
Complex operator - ( );
// friend Complex operator -(Complex &);
};

Complex Complex::operator -(){

Complex temp;
temp.real = -real;
temp.img = -img;
return temp;
}

Complex c1(1.0 , 2.0), c2;

c2 = -c1;
// c2.real = -1.0
// c2.img = -2.0

Unary ‘+’ is overloaded in the same way.

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Lecture No.21
Unary Operators

Behavior of ++ and -- for pre-defined types:

 Post-increment ++:
Post-increment operator ++ increments the current value and then returns the
previous value
 Post-decrement --: Works exactly like post ++

Example:
int x = 1, y = 2;
cout << y++ << endl;
cout << y;

Output:
2
3

Example:
int y = 2;
y++++;// Error
y++ = x; // Error

Behavior of ++ and -- for pre-defined types:

 Pre-increment ++:
Pre-increment operator ++ increments the current value and then returns it’s
reference
 Pre-decrement --:
Works exactly like Pre-increment ++

Example:
int y = 2;
cout << ++y << endl;
cout << y << endl;

Output:
3
3

Example:
int x = 2, y = 2;
++++y;
cout << y;
++y = x;
cout << y;

Output:
4
2

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Example (Pre-increment):

class Complex{
double real, img;
public:
...
Complex & operator ++ ();
// friend Complex & operator ++(Complex &);
};

Complex & Complex::operator++(){ // member function

real = real + 1;
return * this;
}

Complex & operator ++ (Complex & h){ // non member function

h.real += 1;
return h;
}

Example:

Complex h1, h2, h3;

++h1;

Function operator++() returns a reference so that the object can be used as an lvalue

++h1 = h2 + ++h3;

How does a compiler know whether it is a pre-increment or a post-increment?

A post-fix unary operator is implemented using:

Member function with 1 dummy int argument
OR
Non-member function with two arguments

In post increment, current value of the object is stored in a temporary variable

Current object is incremented
Value of the temporary variable is returned

Post-increment operator: class

Complex{
...
Complex operator ++ (int);
// friend Complex operator ++(const Complex &, int);
};

Complex Complex::operator ++ (int){

complex t = *this;

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real += 1;
return t;
}

Complex operator ++ (const

Complex & h, int){
complex t = h;
h.real += 1;
return t;
}

How does a compiler know whether it is a pre-increment or a post-increment?

The dummy parameter in the operator function tells compiler that it is post-
increment
Example:
Complex h1, h2, h3;
h1++;
h3++ = h2 + h3++; // Error…

The pre and post decrement operator -- is implemented in exactly the same way

Type Conversion
The compiler automatically performs a type coercion of compatible types
e.g:
int f = 0.021;
double g = 34;
// type float is automatically converted into int. Compiler only issues a warning…

Type Conversion
The user can also explicitly convert between types:

int g = (int)0.0210;
double h = double(35);

// type float is explicitly converted (casted) into int. Not even a warning
// is issued now…

Type Conversion

For user defined classes, there are two types of conversions

From any other type to current type
From current type to any other type

We can do the following type conversion by our self,

Conversion from any other type to current type:
Requires a constructor with a single parameter
For example,
String str = 135;
Conversion from current type to any other type:
Requires an overloaded operator

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For example,
String str;
char * ptr = str;

Conversion from other type to current type (int to String):

class String{
...
public:
String(int a);
char * GetStringPtr()const;
};
String::String(int a){
cout << "String(int) called..." << endl;
char array[15];
itoa(a, array, 10);
size = strlen(array);
bufferPtr = new char [size + 1];
strcpy(bufferPtr, array);
}
char * String::GetStringPtr() const{
return bufferPtr;
}
int main(){
String s = 345;
cout << s.GetStringPtr() << endl;
return 0;
}

Output:

String(int) called…
345

Automatic conversion like shown above using constructor has drawbacks conversion
takes place transparently even if the user didn’t wanted the conversion for example
see the code below, in it user can write the following code to initialize the string with
a single character:

int main(){

String s = ‘A’;
// ASCII value of A that is 65 is being taken automatically it may be what the user //
wants, perhaps user intent was String s = “A” to store A in the string object
// but instead 65 is being stored

cout << s.GetStringPtr()<< endl << s.GetSize() << endl;

return 0;

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Output:

String(int) called…
65
2

Keyword explicit

There is a mechanism in C++ to restrict automatic conversions like this using

constructor code it is to use keyword explicit with such constructors if we have used
this keyword then casting must be explicitly performed by the user.
Keyword explicit only works with constructors.

Example:
class String{
…
public:
…
explicit String(int);
};

int main(){
String s;
s = ‘A’; // Error…
return 0;
}

int main(){
String s1, s2;
s1 = String(101); // valid, explicit casting…
// OR
s2 = (String)204;
return 0;
}

Type Conversion

There is another method for type conversion:

“Operator overloading”
It is used for converting from current type (user defined) to any other basic type or
user defined type.

General Syntax:

TYPE1::operator TYPE2();
Like,
String::operator char * (); // TYPE1 = String , TYPE2 = char *

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It will convert our string object to char *.

We write such functions as member function of the class.

NO return type and arguments are specified
Return type is implicitly taken to be TYPE2 by compiler

Type Conversion

Overloading pre-defined types:

class String{
…
public:
…
operator int();
operator char *();
};
String::operator int(){
if(size > 0)
return atoi(bufferPtr);
else
return -1;
}

String::operator char *(){

return bufferPtr;
}

int main(){
String s("2324");
cout << (int)s << endl << (char *)s;
// int a = (int)s;
// int a = int (s);
return 0;
}

Output:
2324
2324

User Defined types:

User-defined types can be overloaded in exactly the same way

Only prototype is shown below:

class String{
…
operator Complex();
operator HugeInt();
operator IntVector();

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};

Drawbacks of Type Conversion Operator:

class String{
…
public:
…
String(char *);
operator int();
};

int main(){
String s(“Fakhir");
// << is NOT overloaded
cout << s; // compiler is automatically converting s to int
return 0;
}

Output:
Junk Returned…

To avoid this problem DO NOT use type conversion operators instead use separate
member function for such type conversion as shown below,

Modifying String class:

class String{
…
public:
…
String(char *);
int AsInt();
};
int String::AsInt(){
if(size > 0)
return atoi(bufferPtr);
else
return -1;
}
int main(){
String s(“434");
// << is NOT overloaded
cout << s; //error
cout << s.AsInt();
return 0;
}

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Object Oriented Programming (CS304) VU

Lecture No.22

Practical implementation of Inheritance in c++

Topics to be discussed in this lecture are,

 Inheritance in Classes
 UML Notation of Inheritance
 Types of Inheritance in c++
 IS A relationship
 Accessing members
 Allocation in memory
 Constructors
 Base class initializers
 Initializing members
 Destructors
 Order of execution constructors and destructors
 Examples of C++ implementation of inheritance

Inheritance in Classes

If a class B inherits from class A, then B contains all the characteristics (information
structure and behavior) of class A.
The class whose behavior is being inherited is called base class and the class who
inherits the behavior of base class is called derived class. Base class is also called
parent class and child class is called also derived class
Besides inherited characteristics, derived class may have its own unique
characteristics

UML Notation

We use arrow from derived class to the parent class to show inheritance as shown
below,

Inheritance in C++

In c++ we can inherit a class from another class in three ways,

 Public
 Private
 Protected

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“IS A” Relationship

Inheritance represents “IS A” relationship for example “a student IS A person”.

In general words we can say that inheritance represents,
“Derived class IS A kind of Parent class”

C++ Syntax of Inheritance

class ChildClass
: public BaseClass{
...
};

Example

class Person{
...
};
class Student: public Person{
...
};

Accessing Members
Public members of base class become public member of derived class.
Private members of base class are not accessible from outside of base class, even in
the derived class (Information Hiding)
Example
In the code given below Student and Teacher classes has been derived from single
Person class,

Person

Student Teacher

class Person{
char *name;
int age;
...
public:
const char *GetName() const;
int GetAge() const;
...
};

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class Teacher: public class Student: public

Person{ Person{
char * dept; int semester;
int course; int rollNo;
... ...
public: public:
char * GetDept() const; int GetSemester() const;
int GetCourse() const; int GetRollNo() const;
void Print() const; void Print() const;
... ...
}; };

Example

void Student::Print()

Error
{
cout << name << “ is in” << “ semester ” << semester;
}
corrected Code:
void Student::Print()
{
cout << GetName() << “ is in semester ” << semester;
}
int main(){
Student stdt;

stdt.semester = 0;//error
stdt.name = NULL; //error
cout << stdt.GetSemester();
cout << stdt.GetName();

return 0;
}

Explanation of above code (char * data type)

In C++ char arrays ( char []) are handled in two ways one way is statically using
statements like,
char name[30]; // static array of length 30 characters
or dynamically as shown below,
char * name;
name = new char[30];
In dynamic creation of arrays we simply store char * in class and assign it a dynamic
memory according to our need using new operator.

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Allocation in Memory

The object of derived class is represented in memory as follows

base member1 Data members of base

base member2
class
...
derived member1 Data members of derived
derived member2
class
...

Derived Class Object

Every object of derived class has an anonymous object of base class

Constructors
 The anonymous object of base class must be initialized using constructor of
base class
 When a derived class object is created the constructor of base class is executed
before the constructor of derived class

base member1 Base class constructor initializes

base member2 the anonymous (base class) object
...
derived member1 Derived class constructor
derived member2 initializes the derived class object
...

Derived Class Object

Example

class Parent{
public:
Parent(){ cout <<
“Parent Constructor...”;}
};
class Child : public Parent{
public:
Child(){ cout <<
“Child Constructor...”;}
};

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int main(){
Child cobj;
return 0;
}

Output:

Parent Constructor...
Child Constructor...

Constructor
 If default constructor of base class does not exist then the compiler will try to
generate a default constructor for base class and execute it before executing
constructor of derived class
 If the user has given only an overloaded constructor for base class, the
compiler will not generate default constructor for base class

Example
class Parent{
public:
Parent(int i){}
};
class Child : public Parent{
public:
Child(){}
} Child_Object; //ERROR

Definition of Some Terms:

Default constructor: Default constructor is such constructor which either has no

parameter or if it has some parameters these have default values. The benefit of
default constructor is that it can be used to create class object without passing any
argument.
Implicit Default constructor:
Compiler generates implicit default constructor for any class in case we have not
given any constructor for the class.
Explicit Default constructor:
If user has given constructor for any class without any arguments or with all
arguments with default values then it is also default constructor according to
definition but it is explicit (user defined) default constructor.

Now if a base class has only non-default constructor (constructor with parameters
without default values), then when we will create object of any class derived from
this base class compiler will not be able to call base class constructor as base class has
no default constructor ( constructor that can be called without giving any
parameters) so compiler will generate error.
We can avoid this error by calling base class non-default constructor in derived class
constructor initializer list by ourself.

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Base Class Initializer

 C++ has provided a mechanism to explicitly call a constructor of base class
from derived class

 The syntax is similar to member initializer and is referred as base-class

initialization

Example
class Parent{
public:
Parent(int i){…};
};
class Child : public Parent{
public:
Child(int i): Parent(i)
{…}
};

Example
class Parent{
public:
Parent(){cout <<
“Parent Constructor...”;}
...
};
class Child : public Parent{
public:
Child():Parent()
{cout << “Child Constructor...”;}
...
};

Base Class Initializer

 User can provide base class initializer and member initializer simultaneously

Example
class Parent{
public:
Parent(){…}
};
class Child : public Parent{
int member;
public:
Child():member(0), Parent()
{…}
};

Base Class Initializer

 The base class initializer can be written after member initializer for derived
class

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 The base class constructor is executed before the initialization of data

members of derived class.
Initializing Members
 Derived class can only initialize members of base class using overloaded
constructors
o Derived class can not initialize the public data member of base class
using member initialization list
Example
class Person{
public:
int age;
char *name;
...
public:
Person();
};

Example
class Student: public Person{
private:
int semester;
...
public:
Student(int a):age(a)
{ //error
}
};

Reason
 It will be an assignment not an initialization

Destructors
 Destructors are called in reverse order of constructor called
 Derived class destructor is called before the base class destructor is called

Example
class Parent{
public:
Parent(){cout <<“Parent Constructor”;}
~Parent(){cout<<“Parent Destructor”;}
};

class Child : public Parent{

public:
Child(){cout << “Child Constructor”;}
~Child(){cout << “Child Destructo”;}
};

Example
Output:
Parent Constructor

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Child Constructor
Child Destructor
Parent Destructor

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180 © Virtual University of Pakistan

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SR MCQS QUESTION ANSWER
NO
1 In expression c1*c2+c3-c4 which of the C1*c2
following will be executed in first order
2 Inheritance is a way to Add features to existing
classes without
rewriting them
3 --------------- represent “IS A ”relationship Inheritance
4 Constructor without any parameter is Default constructor
called:
5 Which of the following stores the address Pointer
of a variable?
6 A Post-fix unary operator is implemented 1 dummy int argument
in C ++ using Member function with
7 minimum classes required in a program 3
for implementing multiple inheritance
8 Which of the following statement(s) All of the given option
describe constant member functions?
9 composition is a strong relation Composed object cant
relationship because exist independency
10 How many interactions are there in the 3
following scenario Imran has the car. he
drive the car and car has four wheels and
doors
11 if we extend our model ,and the rest of Flexibility
the model is not affected then it is called-
-----
12 choose correct declaration of Complex and
overload*=1 operator for class complex operator*=(const
as Member function complex & c)
13 Consider the following class A{int a,b,c; A,b,c
public: A():B(10),C(0)a(7) };
14 Class is a blue print of Objects
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15 Suppose we have a class student which Student*object
of the following statement is correctly
declaring the pointer to the object of
student class?
16 In c++ composition is relationship Whole, part
between -------and------objects
17 Which of the following Depicts the a class is description of
proper definition of class? a kind of object
18 in class attributes are represented by ---- data member, Member
and------ respectively function
19 which of the following represents the Employee works for the
two Association company
20 Entities in OO model are represented by Rectangle
21 Which of the following features of OOP is Inheritance
used to derive a class from another?
22 In C ++ which of the following is defined <<
as a stream insertion operator?
23 choose the correct declaration of Bool operator==(const
overloaded equality (==)operator for string and s)
class string as a Member function
24 ---- is the relationship between the part Composition
object and the whole object
25 object hides its information from others information hiding
this concept is known as
26 the concept of derived classes is involved Inheritance
in
27 abstraction provides information user perspective
according to
28 which of the following is not an object Inheritance
Association
29 which of the following classes are used both land and water
by amphibious vehicle to inherit vehicle
characteristics
29 object data includes both states and
attributes of an object
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30 choose correct declaration of overloaded friend pool operator
inequality operator for class string as non !=(const string
member friend function &s1,const string &2)
31 How many objects of a given class may as many as the
be constructed in an application? application ask for
32 how many objects of a given class may be as many as the
constructed in an application application ask for
33 Which of the following statements all of the given option
describe constant member functions?
34 student *ptr=new student(" Ali"); is an static memory
example of allocation
35 in------- base class can be replaced by the extension
derived class
36 Which of the following is a correct way of cosnst int Roll no;
declaring constant variable ROLLNO?
37 which of the following operator doesn't none of the given
take argument hit overloaded choices
38 which of the following is part of the Class all of the given option
diagram
39 a child inherits characteristic from its parent
40 which of the following issues can be programming Bugs
caused by the use of friend function
41 which of the following is not true about all of the given option
constant number function
42 Which one is not the main features of exception handling
object oriented programming?
43
44 in object oriented programming, objects messages
communicate with each other through
45 static data member is declared inside the class
46 the concept of derived classes is involved inheritance
in
47 Which of the following can we attribute address
of an object "Ali"?
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48 Which of the following keyword tell the inline
compiler to substitute the code within
the function definition for every instance
of a function call?
49 inheritance is the relationship between classes
50 how many objects are involved in the 2
binary Association
51 all objects of same class has -------- same
attributes
52 which of the following concept is more information hiding
close to encapsulation
53 member initialization list is used to initialize data member
54 aggregation between objects show that objects have week
relationship
55 there is /are ways to create user defined two
types for objects in C ++
56 composition is a strong relationship composed object can
because: not exist independently
57 in polymorphism messenger can be receiver
interpreted in different ways depending
upon the----- class
58 which of the following is most suitable simplifies the model
advantage of information hiding
59 the process of extracting common Generalization
characteristics from two or More classes
and combining them into a generalized
superclass is called
60 ------- operator is used to create objects new
at run time
61 choose the correct option to declare an friend out stream and
overloaded Stream insertion operator for operator<<(ostream
userdefind class "string" as a non- and os,const string & s)
member friend function
62 static data member is declared inside the class
63 an instance of user defined type is called object
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64 which of the following is true about all of the given option
constructor
65 Which of the following correct way of const int ROLLNO;
declaring constant variable ROLLNO?
66 inheritance is shown by filled arrow
67 which of the following operators operate unary operator
on one operand
68 which of the following will happen when compile time error will
a constant function tried to change the occur
value of data members of the class
69 in object oriented programming, objects messages
communicate with each other through---
70 How the information hidden within an through its interface
object can be accessed?
71 object orientation approach can be interactions
achieved using object and their-------
72 constructors have ----- return type no
73 which of the following is an example of increment operator(++)
unary operator
74 memory is allocated to non-static object is created
members only when
75 in class B inherit from class A which of class B
the following is child class
76 the------ tells the compiler what task the function definition
function will be performing
77 Consider the statement" room has chair" aggregation
which of the following type of
Association exists between whom and
chair?
78 how many objects are involved in the N- more than 3
ary Association
79 deconstruct is a function which has the ~
same name as that of class but starts
with a----- sign
80 which of the following is a tangible entity car
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81 member initializer list is used to initialize data members
82 we can get the address of variable stored & symbol
in pointer using-----
83 two sentence object oriented aggregation
programming book in bookshelf is an
example of
84 which of the following best defines the hide the
obstruction implementation and
show current
perspective
85 which of the following define default student(){//..}
constructor 5 class student
86 object data includes both state and
attributes of an object
87 minimum classes required in a program 3
for implementing multiple inheritance
88 information hiding can be achieved encapsulation,
through------- abstraction
89 compiler generated defaulter structure is implicit, explicit
called----- hand user written default
constructor is called----
90 which of the following is true about all of the given option
constructor
91 In which of the following different forms polymorphism
office single entity exist?
92 data members of a class student can be: all of the given option
93 the----- turn off the compiler what does function definition
the function will be performing
94 Suppose a class does not have any compiler will call
constructor what will happen when an implicit default
object of this class is created? constructor
95 how can we differentiate between destructor are preceded
constructor and destructor with a Tilda(~) symbol,
and constructor are not
preceded with any
symbol
AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
96 ---- is used for hiding the details of an encapsulation
object from the other parts of a program
97 Class diagram include class name, attributes,
operation
98 through interface was access objects------ behavior
--
99 composition is a strong relationship compose object cannot
because exist independently
100 copy constructor is called when: an object is created in
term of Preexisting
object
101 choose the correct option to declare an friend ostream &
overloaded stream insertion operator for operator(ostream
a user defined class string as a non- &os.const string &s)
Member friend function
102 a post-fix unary operator implemented in two
C plus plus using non Member function
with---- arguments
103 in class attributes and behaviors are data members, member
represented by---- and--- respectively functions
104 which of the following best describes the composition
relationship between book and book
chapter classes
105 which of the following is true about all of the given option
destructor
106 in composition----- are called from destructors
composing objects to composed subjects
107 which of the following can be used an Global variables
alternative to Static members
108 which of the following statement is true it is used to access static
about static function of a class data members
109 which of the following operator does not none of the given
take any arguments if overloaded choices
110 what is the output of the following code error
int main(){int cost
x=10;cout<<++x;return0;}
AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
111 abstraction includes------- relevant information
112 Which of the following can be the eat
behavior of an object "Usman"?
113 a class defined within another class is nested class
114 when an object is initialized, is constructor
automatically called by the compiler
115 the compiler treats the Member function inline function
of a class as
116 an object has attributes operation ,and--- unique identity
----
117 Which of the following is not an access hidden
specifier in C ++?
118 which of the following parts of an object data
exhibits its state
119 ---- is the relationship between the part composition
object and the whole object
120 how can we identify classes from a given by extracting nouns
problem statement from problem
statement
121 what "friend" should be placed in function declaration
122 generalization is-------- approach bottom-up
123 static data members can be accessed dot operator and scope
through-------- resolution operator
124 composition age----- and aggregation is--- strong, weak
---- relationship
125 suppose there is an object of type name
person, which of the following can be
considered as one of its attributes
126 Which of the following depicts the proper a class is a description
definition of class? of a kind of object
127 a child inherits characteristics from its----- parent
--
128 the car is composed of wheels what is composition
the relationship between car and
wheels?
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129 ------ is creating objects of one class composition
inside another class
130 the other name of specialization is------- restriction
131 suppose a is an int type static data int test::a=0
member class test then which of the
following is correct way of initialization
the static variable outside the class test
132 Which of the following stores the address Pointer
of variable?
133
134
135 static data member is declared inside the class
136 polymorphism makes the system all of the given option
137 which of the following statement best constructor is used to
describes the constructor initialize the data
members of a class
138 data member(s) of a class student can be all of the given option
139 which of the following is a strong composition
relationship
140 all objects of same class has------- same
attributes
141 in C ++ composition is a relationship whole, part
between----and---- objects
142 suppose 12 class string assignment compiler will generate
compile time error
operator is overloaded with following
declaration void operator=(const string
&); what will happen when we will write
following statement in main()
str=str2=str3;where,str1.str2,str3 are
object of class string

143 in class B inherits from class A then it class A

contains all characteristics of----
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144 which of the following is not an example car
of multiple inheritance
145 which of the following can be created static data members
without any object of a class?
146 consider the following code segment junk value,5, junk value
class test{int a;int b;int c;}
147 object orientation approach can be interactions
achieved using objects and their-----
148 member functions defined inside a class private
declaration are------- by default
149 how can we identify classes from a given by extracting nouns
problem statement from problem
statement
150 which of the following statement is not static variable belongs
true about static variable of a class? to particular instance of
a class
151 there are------ types of constructor in C++ 3
152 statement yasir is a friend of Ali and Ali is two way Association
a friend of yasir is an example of
153 this pointer cannot be passed implicitly static member
to-------- functions
154 which of the following issues can be all of the given
caused by the use of friend function
155 in------ send a message does not need to none of the given
know exact class of the receiver option
156 minimum classes required in a program 3
for implementing multiple inheritance
157 -------Associates the object of the exact binary Association
two classes
158 main characteristics of information hiding keep the model simple
is
159 static data member is declared inside the class
160 in expression b=c/d, the arity of 2
division(/) operator is
AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
161 we can allocate dynamic memory in C ++ new
through operator
162 Which of the following is true about all of the given option
accessor functions?
163 in---- base class cannot always be specialization
replaced by the derived class
164 abstraction help to reduce the complexity
165 relationship in which child object gets composition
destroyed if parent object is destroyed
166 object oriented programming is better it is more close to
than procedural programming because: reality
167 The derived class inherits behavior from Overriding
the base class and also exhibits its own
behavior. this concept is known as---
168 the other name of subtyping is Extension
169 A good model is------ related to life closely
problem
170 in generalization general class represents common
the -------- behavior of the class
171 how can we identify from a given by extracting noun from
problem statement? problem statement
172 which of the following is not a access hidden
specifier in C ++
173 in composition------ are called from destructors
composing objects to composed objects
174 a class have only---- destructor one
175 suppose you have following C + + oldVlue=11,newVlue=11
statement int old value=10; int new
value=++old value; what will be the value
of old value and newValue after
executing above statements ?
176 in constant Member function the type of constant pointer to
this pointer is constant data
177 ----- is creating objects of one class inside composition
another class
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178 -------- Associates the objects of the exact ternary Association
three classes
179 generalization is implemented through inheritance
180 which of the following is strong composition
relationship
181 composition is a strong relationship composed object
because cannot exist
independently
182 ----- is set of function of an object interface
exposed of other objects
183 suppose student is a class, which of the student(char*aName);
following defines constructor with one
parameter for class student
184 which of the following is not true about all of the given option
constant Member function
185 ----- define the order of evaluation of an operator precedence
operator is an expression
186 choose correct declaration of overloaded friend bool
inequality(!=) operator for class string as operator!=(const string
non member friend function &s1,cont string &s2)
187 which of the following is most suitable simplifies the model
advantage of information hiding
188 a fan has wings, which type of relation composition
exists between fan and Wings in this
sentence
189 multiple inheritance is implemented comma(,)
between class through------ symbol
190 postfix unary operator is implemented in two
C ++ using non Member function with
arguments
191 Supposed derived class is inherited from the constructor of base
base class what happens when a derived class exact is executed
class object is created before the constructor
of derived class
192 assignment operator are right associative
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
193 a postfix unary operator is implemented 1 dummy int argument
in C ++ using number function with
194 which of the following is true about all of the given option
exception functions

Question No: 1

Which part of an object exhibits its state?

► Data (Page 23)

► Operations

► Any public part

► Any private part

Question No: 2

Inheritance is a way to

► organize data.

► pass arguments to objects of classes.

► add features to existing classes without rewriting them. (Page 27)

► improve data-hiding and encapsulation.

Question No: 3

Suppose you have been given the following design,

"A person has a name, age, address and sex. You are designing a class to represent a type of person

called a patient. This kind of person may be given a diagnosis, have a spouse and may be alive".

Given that the person class has already been created, what of the following would be appropriate to

include when you design the patient class?

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► registration date and diagnosis

► age and sex

► sex and diagnosis

► diagnosis and age

Question No: 4

What problem(s) may occur when we copy objects without using deep copy constructor?

► Dangling pointer

► Memory Leakage

► All of the given (Page 147)

► System crash

Question No: 5

this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.

► True (Page 114)

► False

Question No: 6

A static member function cannot be declared.

► Static

► Implicit

► Explicit

► Virtual

Question No: 7

___ remain in memory even when all objects of a class have been destroyed.
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► Static variables (Page 111)

► Instance variable

► Primitive variables

► None of given

Question No: 8

Friend functions are _____ functions of a class.

► None of given

► object member

► non-member (Page 136)

► data member

Question No: 9

_____, which means if A declares B as its friend it does NOT mean that A can access private data

of B. It only means that B can access all data of A.

► Friendship is one way only

► Friendship is two way only

► NO Friendship between classes

► Any kind of friendship

Question No: 10

The statement objA=objB; will cause a compiler error if the objects are of different classes.

► True

► False
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Question No: 11

Identify which of the following overloaded operator function’s declaration is appropriate for the given

call?

Rational_number_1 + 2.325

Where Rational_number_1 is an object of user defined class Rational_number.

► Rational_number operator+( Rational_number & obj);

► Rational_number operator+(double& obj); (Page 145)

► Rational_number operator+(Rational_number &obj, double& num);

► operator+(double& obj);

Question No: 12

Which operator can not be overloaded?

► The relation operator ( >= )

► Assignment operator ( = )

► Script operator ( [] )

► Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 13

To convert from a user-defined class to a basic type, you would most likely use

► a built-in conversion operator.

► a one-argument constructor.

► an overloaded = operator.

► a conversion operator that’s a member of the class.

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No: 14

The technique in which we visualize our programming problems according to real life’s problems is

called

----------------

► structured programming

► object oriented Programming (Page 9)

► procedural programming

► non of the given

Question No: 15

In object orientated programming, a class of objects cans _____ properties from another class

of objects

► Utilize

► Borrow

► Inherit

► Adopt

Question No: 16

A C++ class is similar to --------------------

► Structure

► Header File

► Library File

► None of the given

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No: 17

What problem(s) may occur when we copy objects without using deep copy constructor?

► Dangling pointer

► Memory Leakage

► All of the given (Page 147)

► System crash

Question No: 18

Suppose that the Test class does not have an overloaded assignment operator. What happens when an

assignment a=b; is given for two Test objects a and b?

► The automatic assignment operator is used

► The copy constructor is used

► Compiler error

► Run-time error

Question No: 19

a’A static member function can be called, even when a class is not ____.

► Declared

► Define

► Instantiated C++ How to Program, Fifth Edition(Page 871)

► Called

Question No: 20

Identify which of the following overloaded operator function’s declaration is appropriate for the given

call?

Rational_number_1 + 2.325

Where Rational_number_1 is an object of user defined class Rational_number.

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE

► Rational_number operator+( Rational_number & obj);

► Rational_number operator+(double& obj); (Page 145)

► Rational_number operator+(Rational_number &obj, double& num);

► operator+(double& obj);

Question No:21

____ provide the facility to access the data member.

► accesser function (Page 68)

► private function

► inline function

► None of the given

Question No: 22

Constant objects cannot change their state,

► True (Page 105)

► False

Question No: 23

The ____ relationship indicates that an object contains other objects.

► None of given (Page 53)

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► ‘has-a’

► ‘is-a’

► ‘be-

Question No: 24

Which one of the following features of OOP is used to derive a class from another?

► Encapsulation

► Polymorphism

► Data hiding

► Inheritance (Page 25)

Question No: 25

___ is a relationship

► Inheritance (Page 25)

► Polymarphism

► abstraction

► encapsulation

Question No: 26

____ satisfy the condition of polymorphism

► Carbon

► Diamond

► Coal

► all of the given (Page 56)

Question No: 27

A generalization-specialization relation between classes are implemented using

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► data hiding

► friend classes

► encapsulation

► inheritance (Page 49)

Question No: 28

The >= operator can be overloaded.

► True (Page 140)

► False

Question No: 29

In order to free the memory occupied by the object, we use -------------

► Constructor

► Destructor (Page 92)

► Shallow Copy

► Deep Copy

Question No: 30

Which of the following is not an example of multiple inheritances?----------

► Mermaid

► Woman (Lecture No.5)

► None of the given

► Amphibious Vehicle
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No: 31

Static variable can be initialized more than once.

► True

► False

Question No: 32

A generic class showing all the common attributes and a behavior of other classes represents a very

important feature in oop called --------

► Inheritance (Page 26)

► Encapsulation

► Polymarphism

► Abstraction

Question No: 33

We can get only one unique value which can be used by all the objects of that class by the use of,

►static variables

►dynamic variables

►instance variables

►data members

Question No: 34

A member function having the same name as that of a class and a ~ sign with it is called,

►Constructor
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►Getter

►Setter

►Destructor (Page 92)

Question No: 35

Using encapsulation we can achieve

►Information hiding (Page 16)

►Least interdependencies among modules

►Implementation independence

►All of given options

Question No: 36

Inheritance is a way to

►make general classes into more specific classes. (Page 27)

►pass arguments to objects of classes.

►improve data hiding and encapsulation.

►providing class growth through natural selection.

Question No: 37

Static variable can be initialized more than once.

 True
 False (Page 107)
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Question No: 38

For classes with common behavior, you can save effort by placing the common behavior in a ____.

►Derived Class

►Base class (Page 29)

►Deprived Class

►Named class

Question No: 39

Which of the following are an advantage of OOP?

►OOP makes it easy to re-use the code

►It provides an ability to create one user defined data type by extending the other

►It provides the facility of defining Abstract data types through which real world entities can be

defined better.

►All of the given options Click here for detail

Question No: 40

The >= operator can be overloaded.

►True (Page 140)

►False

Question No: 41

A static member function cannot be declared.

►Static

►Implicit

►Explicit

►Virtual
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Question No: 42

Static variables act like a global variable in the context or scope of the class.

►True

►False

Question No: 43

The compiler won’t object if you overload the * operator to perform division.

►True

►False

Question No: 44

We can use "this" pointer in the constructor in the body and even in the initialization list of any class if

we are careful,

►TRUE

►False

Question No: 45

A C++ class is similar to --------------------

►Structure

►Header File

►Library File

►None of the given

Question No: 46

Which operator can not be overloaded?

►The relation operator ( >= )

►Assignment operator ( = )
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►Script operator ( [] )

►Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 47

An overloaded operator always requires one less argument than its number of operands.

►True

►False

Question No: 48

A generalization-specialization relation between classes are implemented using

►data hiding

►friend classes

►encapsulation

►inheritance (Page 49)

Question No: 49

In OOP a class is an example of ___

►Data Type

►Abstract Type

►User Defined Type (Page 66)

►None of the given

Question No: 50

A class can be identified from a statement by -------------

►Noun (Page 58)

►Pronoun

►Verb

►Adverb
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Question No: 51

The members of a class that can be accessed without creating the object of the class is called

►Private member

►Data Member

►Public Member (How to Program page 983)

►Static

Question No: 52

Suppose there is an object of type Person, which of the following can be considered as one of its

attributes

► Name

► Age

► Work()

► Both Name and Age (page 13)

Question No: 53

What a derived class can add?

► New data members

► New member functions and New friend functions

► New constructors and destructor

► All of given

Question No: 54

____ is/are used to access information hidden within an object?

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► Interface

► Private data members

► Private member functions (Page 69)

► Both public and private members

Question No: 55

this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.

► True (Page 14)

► False

Question No: 56

A static member function cannot be declared.

► Static

► Implicit

► Explicit

► Virtual

Question No: 57

C++ compiler does not allow to dynamically allocate memory for objects

► False

► True

Question No: 58

Given the following class

class Base{

int Age=33;

How you can improve above class with respect to accessing the field Age?
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► Define the variable Age as private

► Define the variable Age as protected

► Define the variable Age as private and create a get method that returns it and a set method that

updates it

► Define the variable Age as protected and create a set method that returns it and a get method that
updates it

Question No: 59

Friend class and friend function can be used as an alternate to each other

► True

► False

Question No: 60

Which of the following operators always takes no argument if overloaded?

►/

►-

►+

► ++

Question No: 61

Suppose that the Test class does not have an overloaded assignment operator. What happens when an

assignment a=b; is given for two Test objects a and b?

► The automatic assignment operator is used

► The copy constructor is used

► Compiler error

► Run-time error
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No:62

Assume a class C with objects obj1, obj2, and obj3. For the statement obj3 = obj1 - obj2 to work

correctly, if the overloaded - operator must

► take two arguments.

► return a value

► create a named temporary object.

► take four arguments

Question No: 63

Which operator can not be overloaded?

► The relation operator ( >= )

► Assignment operator ( = )

► Script operator ( [] )

► Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 64

We achieve independence of internal implementation from its external interface through-----------

► Encapsulation

► Information Hiding

► Abstraction

► both encapsulation and information hiding

Question No: 65
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Which one of the following is not an object association?

► Simple Assocation

► Inheritance (Page 49)

► Aggregation

► Composition

Question No: 66

Keeping in view the principle of abstraction, which of the above information the company needs to save

as employee’s record?

► 2, 4

► 1, 3, 5

► 1, 2, 3 (Lecture No.3)

► 1, 2, 3, 4

Question No: 67

What a derived class can add?

► New data members

► New member functions and New friend functions

► New constructors and destructor

► All of given

Question No: 68

The concept of derived classes is involved in,

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► inheritance (Page 25)

► encapsulation

► structure

► array

Question No: 69

Your chief Software designer has shown you a sketch of the new Computer parts system she is about to

create. At the top of the hierarchy is a Class called Computer and under this are two child classes. One is

called LinuxPC and one is called WindowsPC. The main difference between the two is that one runs the

Linux operating System and the other runs the Windows System (of course another difference is that one

needs constant re-booting and the other runs reliably). Under the WindowsPC are two Sub classes one

called Server and one Called Workstation. How might you appraise your designers work?

► Give the goahead for further design using the current scheme

► Ask for a re-design of the hierarchy with changing the Operating System to a field rather than

Class

► Ask for the option of WindowsPC to be removed as it will soon be obsolete

► Change the hierarchy to remove the need for the superfluous Computer Class.

Question No: 70

Consider the code below,

class Fred {

public:

Fred();

...

};
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
int main()

Fred a[10];

Fred* p = new Fred[10];

...

Select the best option,

► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 09 times

Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times

► Produce an error

► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 11 times

Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 11 times

► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times

Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times

Question No:71

Which construct is the source for the creation of an object?

► Destructor of the class

► New operator

► Delete operator

► Constructor of the class

Question No: 72

this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.

► True (Page 14)

► False
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No: 73

When a variable is define as static in a class then all object of this class,

► Have different copies of this variable

► Have same copy of this variable

► Can not access this variable

► None of given

Question No: 74

___ remain in memory even when all objects of a class have been destroyed.

► Static variables (Page 111)

► Instance variable

► Primitive variables

► None of given

Question No: 75

Given the following class

class Base{

int Age=33;

How you can improve above class with respect to accessing the field Age?

► Define the variable Age as private

► Define the variable Age as protected

► Define the variable Age as private and create a get method that returns it and

a set method that updates it

► Define the variable Age as protected and create a set method that returns it and a get method that

updates it

Question No: 76

The life of sub object is not dependant on the life of master class in _____.
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► Composition

► Aggregation (Page 134)

► Separation

► None of the given

Question No: 77

Which one is not keyword in C++?

► operator

► B_op

► const

► None of given

Question No: 78

The >= operator can be overloaded.

► True (Page 140)

► False

Question No: 79

A template provides a convenient way to make a family of

► variables and data members

► functions and classes

► classes and exceptions

► programs and algorithms

 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
Question No: 80

Which one of the following terms must relate to polymorphism?

► Static allocation

► Static typing

► Dynamic binding (How to program , page 1103)

► Dynamic allocation

Question No: 81

What is true about function templates?

► The compiler generates only one copy of the function template

► The compiler generates a copy of function respective to each type of data (Page 257)

► The compiler can only generate copy for the int type data

► None of the given.

Question No: 82

Which of the following is the best approach if it is required to have more than one functions having

exactly same functionality and implemented on different data types?

► Templates

► Overloading

► Data hiding

► Encapsulation

Question No: 83
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
template <>

class Vector<char*> { }

This is an example of partial specialization.

► True (Page 281)

► False

Question No: 84

Classes like TwoDimensionalShape and ThreeDimensionalShape would normally be concrete, while

classes like Sphere and Cube would normally be abstract.

► True

► False Click here for Detail

Question No: 85

A non-virtual member function is defined in a base class and overridden in a derived class; if that

function is called through a base-class pointer to a derived class object, the derived-class version is used.

► True

► False

Question No: 86

Assume a class Derv that is privately derived from class Base. An object of class Derv located in main()

can access
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
► public members of Derv.

► protected members of Derv.

► private members of Derv.

► protected members of Base.

Question No: 87

In order to define a class template, the first line of definition must be:

► template <typename T> (Page 281)

► typename <template T>

► Template Class <ClassName>

► Class <Template T>

Question No: 88

If there is a pointer p to objects of a base class, and it contains the address of an object of a derived class,
and both classes contain a nonvirtual member function, ding(), then the statement p->ding(); will cause the
version of ding() in the ___ class to be executed.

► Base

► Derived

► Abstract

► virtual (not sure)

Question No: 89

When the base class and the derived class have a member function with the same name, you must be

more specific which function you want to call (using _____).

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► scope resolution operator

► dot operator

► null operator

► Operator overloading (Page 204)

Question No: 90

Non Template Friend functions of a class are friends of ____instance/s of that class.

► All

► One specific

► All instances of one date type

► None of the given options

Question No: 91

The find() algorithm

► finds matching sequences of elements in two containers.

► finds a container that matches a specified container.

► takes iterators as its first two arguments.

► takes container elements as its first two arguments.

Question No: 92

If you define a vector v with the default constructor, and define another vector w with a one-argument

constructor to a size of 11, and insert 3 elements into each of these vectors with push_back(), then the

size() member function will return __ for v and ___ for w.

► 11 for v and 3 for w.

► 0 for v and 0 for w.

► 0 for v and 3 for w.

► 3 for v and 11 for w.

Question No: 93
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Which of the following may not be an integral part of an object?

► State

► Behavior

► Protected data members

► All of given (not sure)

Question No: 94

Which is not the Advantage of inheritance?

► providing class growth through natural selection.

► facilitating class libraries.

► avoiding the rewriting of code.

► providing a useful conceptual framework

How can we differentiate between constructor and destructors?

Destructor are preceded by a tilde(~) symbol and constructor are not preceded with any
symbol.

If you do not initialize static variable of int type then it is automatically initialized with

Choose the correct statement

All of the given options

associates the objects of the exact two classes.

Binary association

Which of the following is the advantage of inheritance?

Reusability

Member function defined inside a class declaration are by default

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Public

Class is a single class provides functionally to operate on different type of data.

Template

Which of the following may inherit from an ordinary class?

All of the given

Which of the following represents complete specialization? Template <int.char>

Are called Non-type parameters

Which of the following is correct way to define a template class X?

typename&lt;class T &gt; class X {};

Which of the following is a sequence Container?

Vector

In resolution order of function template compiler searches for in the end.

Generic Template

May inherit from a complete specialization.

All of the given option

Which of the following may inherit from an ordinary class?

All of the given option

Which of the following is NOT an Associate Container?

Group
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When was specialize a function template .it is called
Function template Overriding

Which of the following types of Inheritance is used to model “Implemented in terms of”
relationship?
Private

In case of protected inheritance, public members of base class will be in derived class?
Protected

In C++ by default access of classes is .

Private

If there is a pointer p to objects of a base class , and it contains the address of an object of a
derived Class, and both classes contain a virtual member function, ding(), then the statement
p->ding(); will cause the version of ding() in the class to be executed.
Derived

In case of private inheritance, private members of base class will be in derived class.
Hidden

Defines the order of evaluation of an operator in an expression.

Operator Precedence

Which of the following is the correct syntax of declaring static variable “count” of type int?

Static int count;

Defining a function in class body, the compiler treats that function as:
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Inline function

What is the output of the following code?Int main()

{intconst x = 10; cout<< ++x; return 0;}

11

Which of the following statements best describes the Constructor?

Constructor is used to initialize the data members of a class.

What will the value of variables a, b, and c after instantiating an object of above class?
Junk Value, 5, Junk value

Which of the following is a strong relationship?

Inheritance binding means that target function for a call is selected at compile time. Static

In case of public inheritance, protected members of base class will be in derived class.
Protected

A template provides a convenient way to make a family of

functions and classes

Function overriding is done in context of,

Derived and base class

In Protected Inheritance the public members of base class become in derived class.
Protected

In resolution order compiler search firstly .

Ordinary function
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Compiler generated copy constructor performs .
Both Shallow aperformscopy

A pure virtual function is a virtual function that

causes its class to be abstract

Methodologies to the development of reusable software relate to .

Generic programming

In C++ generic programming is done using .

Packages

Consider the code below, class class1{

Private:

Function func1 of class1 is in class2.

Private

When derived class has user defined assignment operator.

Compiler itself calls base Class default constructor.

A Child class can call constructor of its parent class through,

Both from its constructor initialization list or body

How many objects of a given class may be constructed in an application?

As many as the Application asks for

Which of the following is True about Destructor?

All of the given
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How many objects are involved in the N-ary association?
More than 3

Which of the following can be the behavior of an object “Usman”?

Eat

In C++, Composition is a relationship between and objects.

Parent, Child

Generalization is approach.

Top-bottom

The tells the compiler what task the function will be performing.
Function declaration

Suppose str1, str2 and str3 are objects of class String. Choose appropriate declaration of
overloaded Assignment operator for the following statement to work correctly.
String& operator =(const String &);

In operator overloading, which of the following operator takes one or no argument.

<<

Class is blueprint of .

Objects

Polymorphism makes the system:

All of the given

If class B inherits from class A then it contains all characteristics of .

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Class A

What is meant by multiple inheritance?

Deriving a derived class from more than one base class

Class is a single class provides functionally to operate on different type of

Data.
Template

Which of the following may inherit from an ordinary class?

All of the given

Which of the following represents complete specialization?

Template <int.char>

The parameters given in template definition other than those used for mentoring templates
types are called

Non-type parameters

Which of the following is correct way to define a template class X?

Typename&lt;class T &gt; class X {};

Which of the following is a sequence Container?

Vector

In resolution order of function template compiler searches for in the end.

Generic template

may inherit from a complete specialization.

All of the given option
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Which of the following may inherit from an ordinary class?
All of the given option

Which of the following is NOT an Associate Container?

Group

Which of the following is NOT casting operator in C++ standard?

Var_cast

Which of the following types of Inheritance is used to model “Implemented in terms of”
relationship?
Private

In case of protected inheritance, public members of base class will be in derived

Class?

Protected

In C++ by default access of classes is .

Private

If there is a pointer p to objects of a base class , and it contains the address of an object of a
Derived class, and both classes contain a virtual member function, ding(), then the statement
p->ding(); will cause the version of ding() in the class to be executed.
Derived

Suppose we have defined derived class copy constructor but have not defined base class Copy
constructor then compiler will,

Use base class default constructor

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In case of private inheritance, private members of base class will be in derived
Class.

Hidden

defines the order of evaluation of an operator in an expression.

Operator Precedence

Which of the following is the correct syntax of declaring static variable “count” of type int?

Static int count;

When was specialize a function template .it is called

Function template overriding

Which of the following is/are key component(s) of standard Template Library?

All of the given option

Each of a template class by default becomes function template.

Member function

In statement “template<class U,int |=5>”the non type parameter is

Int |

Solution order highest priority is given to in template

Complete template

In case of template specialization ,if compiler cannot find required complete

Partial specialization
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is a pointer which is declared outside the
Cursor, Container

Suppose a template class “Test” has a static data member. How many copies of this static
daya member following line of C++ code?
Three

In statement template <class T,class U ,int |=5> the non-parameter is .

Class U

A template argument is preceded by the keyword .

Class.

We can have type of member functions in a class.

All of the given

Which of the following is a strong relationship?

Inheritance

Binding means that target function for a call is selected at compile time.
Static

In case of public inheritance, protected members of base class will be in derived

Class.
Protected

A template provides a convenient way to make a family of

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Functions and classes

Function overriding is done in context of,

Derived and base class

Which of the following is TRUE.

Derived class pointer can be used as Base class pointer

The default inheritance mode is,

Private inheritance

In Protected Inheritance the public members of base class become in derived class.
Protected

In resolution order compiler search firstly .

Ordinary function

Compiler generated copy constructor performs .

Both Shallow and Deep copy

A pure virtual function is a virtual function that

Causes its class to be abstract

Methodologies to the development of reusable software relate to .

Generic programming

In C++ generic programming is done using .

Packages
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Consider the code below,

Class class1{

Private:
Void func1();
};
Class class2 : private class1 {

};
Function func1 of class1 is in class2.
Private

When derived class has user defined assignment operator.

Compiler itself calls base class default constructor.

A Child class can call constructor of its parent class through,

Both from its constructor initialization list or body

How many objects of a given class may be constructed in an application?

As many as the application asks for

The other name of specialization is .

Restriction

How can we differentiate between constructors and destructors?

Destructors are preceded with a tilde (~) symbol, and constructors are not preceded with any
symbol.
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How many entities are there in the following scenario?Ali lives in the house that is near the
Tree and he also drives his car.
2

Which of the following is True about Destructor?

All of the given

How many objects are involved in the N-ary association?

More than 3

Which of the following can be the behavior of an object “Usman”?

Eat

In C++, Composition is a relationship between and objects.

Parent, child

If you have three classes in a C++ program A, B, and C where class A inherits from class B,
then class contains all the characteristics of class .
A, B

In case when we define the function outside the class then we must use the keyword
to make the function inline.
Inline

Mermaid is an example of:

Multiple Inheritance
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Assignment operators are:
Right associative

Generalization is approach.
Top-bottom

The tells the compiler what task the function will be performing.
Function declaration

Uppose str1, str2 and str3 are objects of class String. Choose appropriate declaration of
Overloaded assignment operator for the following statement to work correctly.
String& operator =(const String &);

In operator overloading, which of the following operator takes one or no argument.

<<

Class is blueprint of .
Objects

Polymorphism makes the system:

All of the given

If class B inherits from class A then it contains all characteristics of .

Class A

What is meant by multiple inheritance?

Deriving a derived class from more than one base class
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In C++, which of the following operator can only be overloaded as a member function of the
class?
Stream Extraction Operator: >>

Insertion operator is associative.

Left to Right

In expression c1*c2+c3-c4 which of the following will be executed in first order?

C1*c2

Suppose for a class String, assignment operator is overloaded with following declaration.
Void operator =(const String &);

What will happen when we will write following statement in main()?

Str1 = str2 = str3
Where, str1, str2 and str3 are objects of class String.

Compiler will generate compile time error.

Identify the abstract class from the given statement:

“Vehicle class is base class. Bus, Car, and Truck are derived classes”

Vehicle

Which of the following operators operate on one operand?

Unary Operators

Subtyping means that derived class is behaviorally with the base class.
Compatible
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In , Base class can’t always be replaced by the derived class.
Specialization

The overloaded ‘-‘ operator for Complex class will be called with reference to in the
following statement
Complex C3 = C1 – C2;
Complex

What is a class?
A class is a description of a kind of object

In polymorphism, messages can be interpreted in different ways depending upon the

class.
Receiver

Suppose there is an object of type Person, which of the following can be considered as one of
its attributes?
Name

Which of the following is True about class?

All of the given

In C++, which of the following keywords works only with constructors?

Explicit

Choose correct declaration of overloaded stream insertion operator for class String as non-
member friend function.
Friend ostream& operator << ();
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Which of the following classes are used by Amphibious vehicle to inherit characteristics?
Both Land & Water Vehicle

Suppose derived class is inherited from base class. What happens when a derived class object
is created?
The constructor of base class is executed before the constructor of derived class.

Suppose str1, str2 and str3 are objects of class String. Choose appropriate declaration of

Overloaded assignment operator for the following statement to work correctly.

Str1 = str2 = str3;

String& operator =(const String &);

In C++, which of the following is defined as stream insertion operator?

<<

Choose correct declaration of overloaded inequality (!=) operator for class String as non-
Member friend function.
None of the given options

Relationship in which child object gets destroyed if parent object is destroyed.

Composition

How the information hidden within an object can be accessed?

Through its interface

Which of the following defines default constructor for class “Student”?

Student() {//…

}
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The sub-object’s life is not dependent on the life of master class in .
Aggregation

Hiding the implementation details makes program:

Easy to understand

The functions defined inside the class are by default .

Inline

Which of the following statement is TRUE about static function of a class?

It is used to access static data members.

Deconstruct is a function which has the same name as that of class but starts with a—– sign
~

‘this’ pointer cannot be passed implicitly to functions.

Static Member

Which of the following can be the behavior of an object “Usman”?

Eat

In Object Oriented programming, objects communicate with each other through

Messages

Constructor is used to the objects of a class.

Initialize
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Which of the following is NOT an access specifier in C++?
Hidden

The other name of subtyping is .

Extension

Suppose a class does not have any constructor. What will happen when an object of this class
is created?
Compiler will call implicit default constructor.

In case when we define the function outside the class then we must use the keyword
To make the function inline.

Inline

In constant member function the type of this pointer is:

Constant pointer to constant data

In , base class can be replaced by the derived class.

Extension

We can get the address of a variable stored in a pointer using :

& symbol

A child inherits characteristics from its .

Parent
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Which of the following function declaration is correct to overload the + operator as member
function in complex class?
Complex operator +(const Complex &rhs);

Which of the following is not true about constant member function?

All of the given options

What is the general syntax of overloading Unary Operator as member function of the class?
TYPE & operator OP ();

is creating objects of one class inside another class.

Composition

Which of the following is true about constructor?

All of the given option

Memory is allocated to non static members only, when

Object is created

A child inherit characteristics from its ?

Parents

A post-fix unary operator is implemented in C++ member function with

1 dummy int arguments

Which of the following is the example of objects in school?

Books , pages
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Suppose student is a class, which of the following constructor with one parameter for class
student?
Student()

If you have three classes in a C++ program A, B, and C where class A inherits from class B,
then class contains all the characteristics of class .
A,C

In base class can be replaced by the derived class.

Extension

The concept of derived class is involved in

Inheritance

Suppose person is a class which of the following statement defines an object of class person?

Create person object

Which of the following is true about Accessor Functions?

All of the given options.

The other name of subtyping is

Extension

Which of the following statement best describes the constructor

Constructor is used to initialize the data member of a class.

Which of the following is true about inline function?

It is used by compilers to improve efficiency of the program
Which of the following is defined as stream extraction operator in c++?
>>

An object has
interfac
e(s)One or more than one

Which of the following is an advantage of

encapsulation?Better understanding

Which of the following represents the two-way

association?Employee works for the company

is the weakest link between

object.Simple association

In composition are called from composing objects to compound

objects.Constructor

In OOP we can achieve reusability though Inheritance

Generalization is implemented through

Inheritance

Suppose str1, str2, and str3 are objects of class string. Choose appropriate declaration of
overloaded
Assignment operator for the following statement to work
correctly.String& operator=(const String &)
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In C++ which of the following is defined as stream insertion operator.
<<

Abstraction hides the

deta
ils.Relevant

Minimum classes required in a program for implementing multiple

inheritance.3

Composition is and aggregation is relationship.

Strong, weak

Minimum classes required for implementing multiple

inheritance.At least 3

We can access a private static variable through.

Static data member

The process of extracting common characteristics from two or more classes and
combiningthem into generalized superclass is called

Generalization

Which of the following is true about

polymorphism?All of the given

Which of the following can be the behavior of an object “Usman”?

pg. 1 0304-1659294
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Eat

Composition is
relations

hipPart whole

Which of the following is a strong

relationship?Composition

Which of the following defines default constructor for class student?

Student(){/…

This car is composed of wheels. What is the relationship between car and wheels?
Composition

In base class can be replaced by the derived

class.Extension

defines the order of evaluation of an operator is an

expression.Operator precedence

In composition are called from composing objects to composed

objects.Destructor

pg. 2 0304-1659294
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How many objects of a given class may be constructed in an
application?As many as the application asks for

Relationship in which child object gets destroyed, If parent object is

destroyed.Composition

Which of the following is not true about constructor?

Constructor is a special function which can have different name than class name.

Suppose test is a class, void show() is its public member function. Which of the following is
correct call of
Show() function using Test pointer
ptr?Ptr->show()

Which of the following features of OOP is used to deal with only relevant
details?Abstraction

In C++ the subscript operator must be overloaded as a of the class, with one parameter
of
type.
Member function, int

Identify the abstract class from the given statement

“vehicle class is base class. Bus, Car and truck are derived classes”
Vehicle

In Object Oriented programming objects communicate with each other through

Messages

pg. 3 0304-1659294
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associates the objects of the exact three
classes.Ternary Association

An objects has attributes, operations and

Unique identity

In C++ which of the following keywords works only with constructors?

Explicit

Which of the following allows to reuse characteristics of more than one parent class?
Multiple Inheritance

How many objects are involved in the Binary

association?2

Which of the following features of OOP is used to deal with only relevant details?
Abstraction

The overloaded ‘-‘ operator for complex class will be called with reference to in the
following
Statement
Complex C3 = C1 –
C2
Complex

Static data member is declared

Inside the class

pg. 4 0304-1659294
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Class is blue print of Object

Which of the following is true about inline

functions?All of the given options

How many objects can be created once a class is

declared?As many as needed

Suppose you have following C++

statementsIntoldValue=10

intviewValue * ++ old/Value
What will be the value of old/Value and new/Value after executing above statement?
Old/Value=11, new/Value=11

In base class can’t always be replaced by the derived class.

Specialization

Which of the following will happen when a constant function tries to change the value of
datamembers of the class?
Complex time error will occur

is set of functions of an objects exposed to other

objects.Interface

How many objects are involved in the Ternary

association?3

pg. 5 0304-1659294
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Mermaid is an
example ofMultiple
inheritance

Which of the following is the correct syntax of declaring static variable ‘count’ of type int?
Static int count

Which of the following operators operate on one

operand?Unary Operators

Object Data includes

Both static and attributes of an objects

pg. 6 0304-1659294
 CS304- Object Oriented Programming
LATEST SOLVED MCQS FROM Nov 07,2011
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 MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which part of an object exhibits its state?

► Data (Page 23)

► Operations
► Any public part
► Any private part

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Inheritance is a way to

► organize data.
► pass arguments to objects of classes.
► add features to existing classes without rewriting them. (Page 27)
► improve data-hiding and encapsulation.

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Suppose you have been given the following design,
"A person has a name, age, address and sex. You are designing a class to represent a type of person
called a patient. This kind of person may be given a diagnosis, have a spouse and may be alive".
Given that the person class has already been created, what of the following would be appropriate to
include when you design the patient class?

► registration date and diagnosis Click here for Detail

► age and sex
► sex and diagnosis
► diagnosis and age

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What problem(s) may occur when we copy objects without using deep copy constructor?

► Dangling pointer
► Memory Leakage
► All of the given (Page 147)
► System crash

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.
► True (Page 114)
► False
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A static member function cannot be declared.

► Static
► Implicit
► Explicit
► Virtual Click here for detail

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_______ remain in memory even when all objects of a class have been destroyed.

► Static variables (Page 111)

► Instance variable
► Primitive variables
► None of given

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Friend functions are _____________ functions of a class.

► None of given
► object member
► non-member (Page 136)
► data member

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

___________, which means if A declares B as its friend it does NOT mean that A can access private data
of B. It only means that B can access all data of A.

► Friendship is one way only

► Friendship is two way only
► NO Friendship between classes
► Any kind of friendship

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The statement objA=objB; will cause a compiler error if the objects are of different classes.

► True
► False

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Identify which of the following overloaded operator function’s declaration is appropriate for the given
call?
Rational_number_1 + 2.325
Where Rational_number_1 is an object of user defined class Rational_number.

► Rational_number operator+( Rational_number & obj);

► Rational_number operator+(double& obj); (Page 145)
► Rational_number operator+(Rational_number &obj, double& num);
► operator+(double& obj);

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which operator can not be overloaded?

► The relation operator ( >= )

► Assignment operator ( = )
► Script operator ( [] )
► Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

To convert from a user-defined class to a basic type, you would most likely use

► a built-in conversion operator.

► a one-argument constructor.
► an overloaded = operator.
► a conversion operator that’s a member of the class.

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The technique in which we visualize our programming problems according to real life’s problems is
called
----------------
► structured programming
► object oriented Programming (Page 9)
► procedural programming
► non of the given

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In object orientated programming, a class of objects cans _____________ properties from another class
of objects

► Utilize
► Borrow
► Inherit Click here for detail
► Adopt
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A C++ class is similar to --------------------

► Structure Click here for detial

► Header File
► Library File
► None of the given

MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What problem(s) may occur when we copy objects without using deep copy constructor?

► Dangling pointer
► Memory Leakage
► All of the given (Page 147)
► System crash

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Suppose that the Test class does not have an overloaded assignment operator. What happens when an
assignment a=b; is given for two Test objects a and b?

► The automatic assignment operator is used

► The copy constructor is used Click here for detial
► Compiler error
► Run-time error

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

a’A static member function can be called, even when a class is not __________.

► Declared
► Define
► Instantiated C++ How to Program, Fifth Edition(Page 871)
► Called

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Identify which of the following overloaded operator function’s declaration is appropriate for the given
call?
Rational_number_1 + 2.325
Where Rational_number_1 is an object of user defined class Rational_number.
 ► Rational_number operator+( Rational_number & obj);
► Rational_number operator+(double& obj); (Page 145)
► Rational_number operator+(Rational_number &obj, double& num);
► operator+(double& obj);

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

__________ provide the facility to access the data member.

► accesser function (Page 68)

► private function
► inline function
► None of the given

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Constant objects cannot change their state,

► True (Page 105)

► False

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The ________ relationship indicates that an object contains other objects.

► None of given (Page 53)

► ‘has-a’
► ‘is-a’
► ‘be-

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which one of the following features of OOP is used to derive a class from another?

► Encapsulation
► Polymorphism
► Data hiding
► Inheritance (Page 25)

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_______ is a relationship

► Inheritance (Page 25)

► Polymarphism
► abstraction
► encapsulation
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
__________ satisfy the condition of polymorphism

► Carbon
► Diamond
► Coal
► all of the given (Page 56)

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A generalization-specialization relation between classes are implemented using

► data hiding
► friend classes
► encapsulation
► inheritance (Page 49)

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The >= operator can be overloaded.

► True (Page 140)

► False

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In order to free the memory occupied by the object, we use -------------

► Constructor
► Destructor (Page 92)
► Shallow Copy
► Deep Copy

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which of the following is not an example of multiple inheritances?----------

► Mermaid
► Woman (Lecture No.5)
► None of the given
► Amphibious Vehicle

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Static variable can be initialized more than once.
► True Click here for detail
► False
 Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A generic class showing all the common attributes and a behavior of other classes represents a very
important feature in oop called --------

► Inheritance (Page 26)

► Encapsulation
► Polymarphism
► Abstraction

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Spring 2010

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

We can get only one unique value which can be used by all the objects of that class by the use of,

 ►static variables Click here for detail

 ►dynamic variables
 ►instance variables
 ►data members

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A member function having the same name as that of a class and a ~ sign with it is called,

 ►Constructor
 ►Getter
 ►Setter
 ►Destructor (Page 92)

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Using encapsulation we can achieve

 ►Information hiding (Page 16)

 ►Least interdependencies among modules
 ►Implementation independence
 ►All of given options

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Inheritance is a way to

 ►make general classes into more specific classes. (Page 27)

 ►pass arguments to objects of classes.
 ►improve data hiding and encapsulation.
 ►providing class growth through natural selection.
 Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Static variable can be initialized more than once.
True
False (Page 107)

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

For classes with common behavior, you can save effort by placing the common behavior in a __________.
 ►Derived Class
 ►Base class (Page 29)
 ►Deprived Class
 ►Named class

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which of the following are an advantage of OOP?

 ►OOP makes it easy to re-use the code

 ►It provides an ability to create one user defined data type by extending the other
 ►It provides the facility of defining Abstract data types through which real world entities can be
defined better.
 ►All of the given options Click here for detail

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The >= operator can be overloaded.

 ►True (Page 140)

 ►False

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A static member function cannot be declared.
 ►Static
 ►Implicit
 ►Explicit
 ►Virtual Click here for detail

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Static variables act like a global variable in the context or scope of the class.

 ►True click here for detail

 ►False

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The compiler won’t object if you overload the * operator to perform division.

 ►True Click here for detail

 ►False
 Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
We can use "this" pointer in the constructor in the body and even in the initialization list of any class if
we are careful,

 ►TRUE
 ►False

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A C++ class is similar to --------------------

 ►Structure Click here for detail

 ►Header File
 ►Library File
 ►None of the given

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which operator can not be overloaded?
 ►The relation operator ( >= )
 ►Assignment operator ( = )
 ►Script operator ( [] )
 ►Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

An overloaded operator always requires one less argument than its number of operands.
 ►True (Page 896)
 ►False

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A generalization-specialization relation between classes are implemented using

 ►data hiding
 ►friend classes
 ►encapsulation
 ►inheritance (Page 49)

Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In OOP a class is an example of _____
 ►Data Type
 ►Abstract Type
 ►User Defined Type (Page 66)
 ►None of the given
 Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A class can be identified from a statement by -------------
 ►Noun (Page 58)
 ►Pronoun
 ►Verb
 ►Adverb

Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The members of a class that can be accessed without creating the object of the class is called

 ►Private member
 ►Data Member
 ►Public Member (How to Program page 983)
 ►Static

MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Suppose there is an object of type Person, which of the following can be considered as one of its
attributes
► Name
► Age
► Work()
► Both Name and Age (page 13)

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What a derived class can add?

► New data members

► New member functions and New friend functions
► New constructors and destructor
► All of given Click here for Detail

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

________ is/are used to access information hidden within an object?

► Interface
► Private data members
► Private member functions (Page 69)
► Both public and private members
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.

► True (Page 14)

► False

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A static member function cannot be declared.

► Static
► Implicit
► Explicit
► Virtual Click here for detail

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

C++ compiler does not allow to dynamically allocate memory for objects

► False Click here for detail

► True

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Given the following class
class Base{
int Age=33;
}
How you can improve above class with respect to accessing the field Age?

► Define the variable Age as private

► Define the variable Age as protected
► Define the variable Age as private and create a get method that returns it and a set method that
updates it
Click here for detail
► Define the variable Age as protected and create a set method that returns it and a get method that updates it

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Friend class and friend function can be used as an alternate to each other

► True Click here for detail

► False

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which of the following operators always takes no argument if overloaded?

►/
►-
►+
► ++

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Suppose that the Test class does not have an overloaded assignment operator. What happens when an
assignment a=b; is given for two Test objects a and b?

► The automatic assignment operator is used

► The copy constructor is used Click here for detail
► Compiler error
► Run-time error

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Assume a class C with objects obj1, obj2, and obj3. For the statement obj3 = obj1 - obj2 to work
correctly, if the overloaded - operator must

► take two arguments.

► return a value Click here for detail
► create a named temporary object.
► take four arguments

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which operator can not be overloaded?

► The relation operator ( >= )

► Assignment operator ( = )
► Script operator ( [] )
► Conditional operator (? : ) (Page 141)

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

We achieve independence of internal implementation from its external interface through-----------

► Encapsulation
► Information Hiding
► Abstraction Click here for detial
► both encapsulation and information hiding

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which one of the following is not an object association?

► Simple Assocation
► Inheritance (Page 49)
► Aggregation
► Composition
Keeping in view the principle of abstraction, which of the above information the company needs to save
as employee’s record?

► 2, 4
► 1, 3, 5
► 1, 2, 3 (Lecture No.3)
► 1, 2, 3, 4

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What a derived class can add?

► New data members

► New member functions and New friend functions
► New constructors and destructor
► All of given Click here for Detail

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The concept of derived classes is involved in,

► inheritance (Page 25)

► encapsulation
► structure
► array

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Your chief Software designer has shown you a sketch of the new Computer parts system she is about to
create. At the top of the hierarchy is a Class called Computer and under this are two child classes. One is
called LinuxPC and one is called WindowsPC. The main difference between the two is that one runs the
Linux operating System and the other runs the Windows System (of course another difference is that one
needs constant re-booting and the other runs reliably). Under the WindowsPC are two Sub classes one
called Server and one Called Workstation. How might you appraise your designers work?

► Give the goahead for further design using the current scheme
► Ask for a re-design of the hierarchy with changing the Operating System to a field rather than
Class type Click here for detail
► Ask for the option of WindowsPC to be removed as it will soon be obsolete
► Change the hierarchy to remove the need for the superfluous Computer Class.

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Consider the code below,
class Fred {
public:
Fred();
...
};
int main()
{
Fred a[10];
Fred* p = new Fred[10];
...
}
Select the best option,

► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 09 times

Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times
► Produce an error
► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 11 times
Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 11 times
► Fred a[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times
Fred* p = new Fred[10]; calls the default constructor 10 times

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which construct is the source for the creation of an object?

► Destructor of the class

► New operator Click here for detial
► Delete operator
► Constructor of the class

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.
► True (Page 14)
► False

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

When a variable is define as static in a class then all object of this class,

► Have different copies of this variable

► Have same copy of this variable Click here for detail
► Can not access this variable
► None of given

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_______ remain in memory even when all objects of a class have been destroyed.
► Static variables (Page 111)
► Instance variable
► Primitive variables
► None of given
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Given the following class
class Base{
int Age=33;
}
How you can improve above class with respect to accessing the field Age?
► Define the variable Age as private
► Define the variable Age as protected
► Define the variable Age as private and create a get method that returns it and
a set method that updates it Click here for detail
► Define the variable Age as protected and create a set method that returns it and a get method that
updates it

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The life of sub object is not dependant on the life of master class in ___________.

► Composition
► Aggregation (Page 134)
► Separation
► None of the given

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which one is not keyword in C++?

► operator
► B_op Click here for detail
► const
► None of given

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The >= operator can be overloaded.
► True (Page 140)
► False

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Identify which of the following overloaded operator function’s declaration is appropriate for the given
call?
Rational_number_1 + 2.325
Where Rational_number_1 is an object of user defined class Rational_number.

► Rational_number operator+( Rational_number & obj);

► Rational_number operator+(double& obj);
► Rational_number operator+(Rational_number &obj, double& num);
► operator+(double& obj);
 MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A template provides a convenient way to make a family of

► variables and data members

► functions and classes Click here for detail
► classes and exceptions
► programs and algorithms

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which one of the following terms must relate to polymorphism?

► Static allocation
► Static typing
► Dynamic binding (How to program , page 1103) Click here for more detail
► Dynamic allocation

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What is true about function templates?

► The compiler generates only one copy of the function template

► The compiler generates a copy of function respective to each type of data (Page 257)
► The compiler can only generate copy for the int type data
► None of the given.

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which of the following is the best approach if it is required to have more than one functions having
exactly same functionality and implemented on different data types?

► Templates Click here for detial

► Overloading
► Data hiding
► Encapsulation

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

template <>
class Vector<char*> { }

This is an example of partial specialization.

► True (Page 281)

► False
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Classes like TwoDimensionalShape and ThreeDimensionalShape would normally be concrete, while
classes like Sphere and Cube would normally be abstract.
► True
► False Click here for Detail

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A non-virtual member function is defined in a base class and overridden in a derived class; if that
function is called through a base-class pointer to a derived class object, the derived-class version is used.

► True
► False Click here for Detial

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Assume a class Derv that is privately derived from class Base. An object of class Derv located in main()
can access

► public members of Derv. Click here for Detail

► protected members of Derv.
► private members of Derv.
► protected members of Base.

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In order to define a class template, the first line of definition must be:

► template <typename T> (Page 281)

► typename <template T>
► Template Class <ClassName>
► Class <Template T>

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

If there is a pointer p to objects of a base class, and it contains the address of an object of a derived class,
and both classes contain a nonvirtual member function, ding(), then the statement p->ding(); will cause
the version of ding() in the _____ class to be executed.

► Base
► Derived
► Abstract
► virtual (not sure)
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When the base class and the derived class have a member function with the same name, you must be
more specific which function you want to call (using ___________).

► scope resolution operator

► dot operator
► null operator
► Operator overloading (Page 204) Click here for Detail

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Non Template Friend functions of a class are friends of ________instance/s of that class.

► All Click here for detail

► One specific
► All instances of one date type
► None of the given options

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The find() algorithm
► finds matching sequences of elements in two containers.
► finds a container that matches a specified container.
► takes iterators as its first two arguments. Click here for Detail
► takes container elements as its first two arguments.

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

If you define a vector v with the default constructor, and define another vector w with a one-argument
constructor to a size of 11, and insert 3 elements into each of these vectors with push_back(), then the
size() member function will return ______ for v and _____ for w.

► 11 for v and 3 for w.

► 0 for v and 0 for w.
► 0 for v and 3 for w.
► 3 for v and 11 for w.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following may not be an integral part of an object?
► State
► Behavior
► Protected data members
► All of given (not sure)

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which is not the Advantage of inheritance?

► providing class growth through natural selection.

► facilitating class libraries.
► avoiding the rewriting of code. Click here for Detail
► providing a useful conceptual framework.