Module-1

Module-1 Chassis & Power Plant

History of Automobile, Classification of Automobile w.r.t Usage, Chassis, Body, Power
Sources, capacity, main components of Internal Combustion Engines and their Functions,
Fuel supply system, Cooling System, Lubrication System & Ignition System, Engine
Management System, super charged engines, hybrid engines, modern GT engines.
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History of Automobile
Development of the automobile started in 1672 with the invention of the first steam-
powered vehicle, which led to the creation of the first steam-powered automobile capable of
human transportation, built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769. Inventors began to branch out
at the start of the 19th century, creating the de Rivaz engine, one of the first internal
combustion engines, and an early electric motor. Samuel Brown later tested the first
industrially applied internal combustion engine in 1826.

Development was hindered in the mid-19th century by a backlash against large vehicles, yet
progress continued on some internal combustion engines. The engine evolved as engineers
created two- and four-cycle combustion engines and began using gasoline as fuel. The first
modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—and the first car put into
series production appeared in 1886, when Carl Benz developed a gasoline-powered
automobile and made several identical copies. Later automobile production was marked by
the Ford Model T, created by the Ford Motor Company in 1908, which became the first
automobile to be mass-produced on a moving assembly line.

Power sources
The early history of the automobile was concentrated on the search for a reliable portable
power unit to propel the vehicle.
Steam-powered wheeled vehicles
17th and 18th centuries
Cugnot's steam wagon, the second (1771) version
Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built a steam-powered vehicle
around 1672 as a toy for the Kangxi Emperor. It was small-scale and could not carry a driver
but it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile').
19th century
A replica of Richard Trevithick's 1801 road locomotive 'Puffing Devil'

During the 19th century, attempts were made to introduce steam-powered vehicles.
Innovations such as hand brakes, multispeed transmissions and better steering developed.
Some successful vehicles provided mass transit until a backlash against these large vehicles
resulted in the passage of legislation such as the UK Locomotives Act 1865, which required
many self-propelled vehicles on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot waving a red
flag and blowing a horn. This effectively halted road auto development in the United
Kingdom for most of the rest of the 19th century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts

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to improvements in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the
need for the red flag was removed in 1878.

20th century
Pre-WWII
1924 Doble Model E
Steam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons, reached the peak of their development
in the early 1930s with fast-steaming lightweight boilers and efficient engine designs.
Internal combustion engines also developed greatly during World War I, becoming simpler
to operate and more reliable. The development of the high-speed diesel engine from 1930
began to replace them for wagons, accelerated in the UK by tax changes making steam
wagons uneconomic overnight. Although a few designers continued to advocate steam
power, no significant developments in the production of steam cars took place after Doble in
1931.

Post-WWII
Whether steam cars will ever be reborn in later technological eras remains to be seen.
Magazines such as Light Steam Power continued to describe them into the 1980s. The 1950s
saw interest in steam-turbine cars powered by small nuclear reactors (this was also true of
aircraft), but the fears about the dangers inherent in nuclear fission technology soon killed
these ideas.

Some examples of cars of the period included

 1907 Takuri—the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car produced by

Komanosuke Uchiyama in April 1907. Also, in Japan, the Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd. is
formed, which was later renamed in 1951 as Daihatsu Kōgyō Kabushiki-gaisha.
 1908–1927 Ford Model T—the most widely produced and available four-seater car of the
era. It used a planetary transmission, and had a pedal-based control system. Ford T was
proclaimed as the most influential car of the 20th century in the international Car of the
Century awards.
 1909 Hudson Model 20—named after its rated power output, and sold on its first market
for US$900 (equivalent to $29,313 in 2022).
 1909 Morgan Runabout—a popular cyclecar, cyclecars were sold in far greater quantities
than four-seater cars in this period.[52]
 1910 Mercer Raceabout—regarded as one of the first sports cars, the Raceabout
expressed the exuberance of the driving public, as did the similarly conceived American
Underslung and Hispano-Suiza Alphonso.
 1910–1920 Bugatti Type 13—a notable racing and touring model with advanced
engineering and design. Similar models were Types 15, 17, 22, and 23.
 1914–1917 Dattogo—a two-cylinder, 10 hp (7,500 W) "all-Japanese" car manufactured
in seven units by the Kaishinsha Motor Works operated by Masujiro Hashimoto in
Tokyo, while importing, assembling, and selling British cars. Kaishinsha was the first
automobile manufacturing business in Japan.
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 1917 Mitsubishi Model A—an all hand-built car built by Japanese

company Mitsubishi in limited numbers for Japanese executives.

The first production of automobiles was by Carl Benz in 1888 in Germany and, under
license from Benz, in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others, including
tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Léon Bollée.
The modern automobile, developed in the late 1800s, is based on the internal combustion
engine, invented by Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens in the late 1600s. Here, William D.
Packard is driving his Model B Packard near the company's first plant.

The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in
1886, when German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen.
The automobile was first invented and perfected in Germany and France in the late 1800s,
though Americans quickly came to dominate the automotive industry in the first half of the
twentieth century. Henry Ford innovated mass-production techniques that became standard,
and Ford, General Motors and Chrysler emerged as the “Big Three” auto companies by the
1920s. Manufacturers funneled their resources to the military during World War II, and
afterward automobile production in Europe and Japan soared to meet growing demand. Once
vital to the expansion of American urban centers, the industry had become a shared global
enterprise with the rise of Japan as the leading automaker by 1980.

When Were Cars Invented?

The 1901 Mercedes, designed by Wilhelm Maybach for Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft,
deserves credit for being the first modern motorcar in all essentials. Its thirty-five-
horsepower engine weighed only fourteen pounds per horsepower, and it achieved a top
speed of fifty-three miles per hour. By 1909, with the most integrated automobile factory in
Europe, Daimler employed some seventeen hundred workers to produce fewer than a
thousand cars per year. Nothing illustrates the superiority of European design better than the
sharp contrast between this first Mercedes model and Ransom E. Olds‘ 1901-1906 one-
cylinder, three-horsepower, tiller-steered, curved-dash Oldsmobile, which was merely a
motorized horse buggy. But the Olds sold for only $650, putting it within reach of middle-

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class Americans, and the 1904 Olds output of 5,508 units surpassed any car production
previously accomplished. The central problem of automotive technology over the first
decade of the twentieth century would be reconciling the advanced design of the 1901
Mercedes with the moderate price and low operating expenses of the Olds. This would be
overwhelmingly an American achievement.

Why cars are called automobiles?

It is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting goods or passengers, which also carries its
own engine or motor. The word automobile comes from the ancient Greek word (autós,
meaning 'self') and the Latin word mobilis (movable), therefore automobile means a vehicle
that moves itself.
Who is the father of automobile?

Alexander Winton Pierre-Jose... Ravel

Karl Benz

George B. Selden Arthur Constantin Krebs

Étienne Lenoir

What is the first automobile?

Benz Patent Motor Car

On January 29, 1886, Carl Benz applied for a patent for his “vehicle powered by a gas engine.” The patent
– number 37435 – may be regarded as the birth certificate of the automobile. In July 1886 the newspapers
reported on the first public outing of the three-wheeled Benz Patent Motor Car, model no. 1.

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Who started car in India?

The first car to come to India in 1897 was owned by The Crompton Greaves boss, an Englishman named
Foster. However, in the following year, Mr. Jamsetji Tata of the Tata Group became the first Indian to own
a car in the country.

Which is first car in India?

Ambassador was the first car to be made in India.
Earlier its name was also called Hindustan Ambassador and later HM Ambassador. Production of the
Ambassador began in 1948 at Hindustan Motors. After Gujarat, this company started running in Calcutta or
Kolkata.

Who started Maruti?

Government of India
Maruti Suzuki / Founder
The Company, formerly known as Maruti Udyog Limited, was incorporated as a joint venture between the
Government of India and Suzuki Motor Corporation, Japan in February, 1981. Presently, Suzuki Motor
Corporation owns equity of 56.2%.
Classification of Automobile
An Automobile can be defined as a vehicle that is self-propelled and is primarily used for the transportation
of passengers and goods. Automobiles are commonly propelled using an internal combustion engine which
is powered by a volatile fuel. The fuels used are generally Petrol, Diesel, CNG, Electricity, etc.

Automobiles can be classified into types based on various criteria. The following are the classification of
automobiles:

1. Based on the purpose of the vehicle:

Automobiles are classified on the purpose of the vehicle depending on whether the vehicle is used to carry
passengers or used for transportation of goods or USD for any special purpose.

 Passenger vehicle – Car, bus, taxi, etc.

 Commercial vehicle – Trucks, tempos, containers, etc.
 Special purpose vehicle- Ambulance, fire brigade, police vehicle, etc.

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2. Based on the load-carrying capacity:

This classification is done on the basis of the load-carrying capacity of the vehicle. This also implies
classification based on the motor and body of the vehicle.

1. Light motor vehicle (LMV) – Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc.

2. Medium motor vehicle (MMV) – Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc.
3. Heavy motor vehicle (HMV) – Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle bus, etc.

3. Based on the number of wheels:

The number of wheels used in a vehicle is also classified.

1. Two-wheeler – Scooter, Motorcycle, etc.

2. Three-wheeler – Autorickshaw.
3. Four Wheeler – Car, jeep, mini van, tractor, etc.
4. Six-wheeler – Bus, mini truck, etc.
5. More than six wheels – Truck, trailer, container, multi-axle bus, etc.

4. Based on the fuel used in the vehicle:

The fuel used is a very important component in terms of the classification of vehicles. Fuel plays a major
role in the performance and efficiency standards of the vehicle.

Petrol – The system which uses petrol is called the Spark ignition system. The octane number of petrol
decides the anti-knock, performance, and efficiency factor. Generally, the octane numbers available are 87,
89, and 91-93. Mostly used in passenger vehicles and two-wheelers.
Diesel – The system is called a Compression ignition system. The cetane number of diesel decides the
compression and fuel needed for ignition. Generally, the cetane numbers range from 45 to 55. Mostly used
in commercial and heavy vehicles.
CNG – Compressed natural gas in another form of fuel used as an alternative to petrol. The advantage is
that it produces less toxic emissions from the vehicle and the disadvantage is that it reduces the
performance of the vehicle as compared to that of petrol. These are mostly used in public transportation
vehicles and passenger cars.
Electric – Electric vehicle is relatively a new technology used as an alternative to combustible fuels. These
vehicles use electricity as fuel from the high-capacity battery.
Hydrogen – The hydrogen fuel cell is an upcoming invention in the automobile industry which is currently
in full swing research. It is expected to provide a safer and more economical route for the automobile
industry.

5. Based on the transmission system of the vehicle:

Automobiles can be classified into three types based on the transmission system. They are the following:

Manual transmission system – This system uses a frictional clutch attached to the driving shaft. The
linkage between the fictional clutch and flywheel is used to clutch and declutch the transmission.
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Automatic Transmission system – A torque converter is used to transmit rotational energy in this system.
The gear changes are controlled by the computer systems in the automobile which uses planetary gears,
clutches, and brakes.
Semi-automatic transmission system – It can be referred to as a hybrid of automatic and manual
transmission systems. The input is manual and the output is automated in this system, the only difference
being the absence of a manual clutch.
Continuously variable transmission (CVT) – In CVT transmission, the push belt transfers torque from
one pulley to another. This is used to smoothly change the gears.

6. Based on the power source of the vehicle:

The power supply of an automobile is an important factor and the classification of power supply used in
automobiles is the following:

Internal combustion engine (ICE) – As the name suggests, IC engines use combustible fuel for power
generation in the engine. It consists of parts such as an intake manifold, intake valve, cylinder
head, pistons, crankshaft, camshaft, flywheel, exhaust manifold, exhaust valve, and spark plug (only in
petrol engines).
Electric battery (EV) – These vehicles use one or more electric motors for propulsion instead of an IC
engine. The electricity is supplied by the high voltage batteries present in these vehicles. These vehicles are
currently on a high rise in the market as a solution to the rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural
resources, etc.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCEV) – Hydrogen fuel cell is the next-gen technology that uses hydrogen
as fuel. HFEV is considered a permanent replacement for combustible fuels as hydrogen resources are
available in abundance. The reaction is hydrogen with oxygen is used to produce power which is used to
run the motor. The exhaust of the system is in the form of water vapor.

7. Based on the suspension system of the vehicle:

The suspension system decides the load distribution and comfort level of the vehicle. Vehicles are
categorized on the basis of suspension systems as follows:

Independent Suspension system – In this type of system, only the wheel under load adjusts its position
and there is zero to little effect on the opposite wheel. It is generally used for the front axle. Examples are
Mac person strut, wishbone, etc.
Non-independent or rigid suspension system – In this type of system, when one wheel is in contact with
any bump or uneven road the other one will also change its position and may tilt or move upwards or
downwards. This is mostly used in heavy vehicles.
Air suspension system – Airbags fed with air are used as shock absorbers in this type of system.
Compressed air under the pressure of around 5.6-7 kg/sq.m is used with the help of the air compressor in
the suspension system.
Pneumatic air suspension system- This system is an electrically controlled air suspension system. It
consists of an electronic control unit (ECU) that feeds and releases the air pressure inside the airbags
according to the bumps or uneven surfaces. It also consists of a motor that runs the control unit and air
compressor.

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8. Based on the wheel drive of the vehicle:

Wheel drive of a vehicle implies the axle of the vehicle which is used for the driveshaft. The driver shaft
transmits the power of the vehicle from the engine to the wheels. These are classified as follows:

Front-wheel drive (FWD) – As the name suggests, the propeller shaft is connected to the front axle and
it’s used as the driver shaft of the vehicle. The front wheels rotate and move the vehicle. Front-wheel drive
has better traction and efficiency than rear-wheel drive as the vehicle is more weighted at the front.

Rear-wheel drive (RWD) – In rear-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is connected to the rear axle and the
rear wheels of the vehicle rotate. These types of vehicles have better stability and cornering control as the
front wheels are used for the sole purpose of steering and it has less effect on the front wheels.
All-wheel drive (AWD) – In all-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is attached to both the axles of the vehicle.
All the wheels in the vehicle rotate with the power distributed equally. These types of vehicles utilize the
maximum power of the engine.

9. Based on the drive end of the vehicle:

Vehicles are also classified based on the position of the steering system. It consists of two types:
Right-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the right side of the car are right-hand
drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the right and move on the left side of the road.
Left-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the left side of the car are left-hand
drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the left and move on the right side of the road.

10. Based on the engine location of the vehicle:

The location of the engine in a vehicle is different in various vehicles. These are categorized as follows:
Front engine – In this system, the engine is located at the front end of the vehicle over or ahead of the front
axle. These vehicles are weighted at the front end.
Mid-engine – In this system, the engine is located near the rear end of the vehicle but forward of the rear
axle. These vehicles have weight evenly distributed.
Rear engine – In this system, the engine is located beyond the rear axle. These are less common as
compared to other systems.

What is an Internal Combustion Engine?

An internal combustion engine (IC engine) is a type of heat engine that converts the chemical energy stored
in fuel into mechanical energy. It is commonly used in vehicles, power generators, and various industrial
applications. Fuel and air are mixed, combusted, and burned in an IC engine within a combustion chamber.
The resulting high-pressure gases exert force on a piston, which translates the pressure into rotational
motion through a crankshaft. This mechanical energy is then used to power the vehicle or operate
machinery. IC engines come in different variations, such as gasoline engines and diesel engines, each with
its own combustion process and characteristics.

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Main components of Internal Combustion Engines and their Functions:

The main Components of IC Engine are:

1. Exhaust camshaft 6. Exhaust valve 11. Connecting rod

2. Exhaust valve bucket 7. Intake valve 12. Engine block
3. Spark plug 8. Cylinder head 13. Crankshaft
4. Intake valve bucket 9. Piston
5. Intake camshaft 10. Piston pin
These are explained below:
 Exhaust camshaft: A rotating shaft that controls the opening and closing of the exhaust valves.
 Exhaust valve bucket: A component that sits on top of the valve stem and transfers the motion from
the camshaft to open and close the exhaust valve.
 Spark plug: A device that ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber to initiate the
combustion process.
 Intake valve bucket: Similar to the exhaust valve bucket, it transfers the motion from the camshaft to
open and close the intake valve.
 Intake camshaft: A rotating shaft that controls the opening and closing of the intake valves.
 Exhaust valve: A valve that opens to allow the exhaust gases to exit the combustion chamber during
the exhaust stroke.
 Intake valve: A valve that opens to allow the fresh air-fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber
during the intake stroke.
 Cylinder head: The topmost part of the engine that houses the combustion chambers, valves, and
spark plugs.
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 Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down inside the cylinder, driven by the force
generated by the combustion process.
 Piston pin: Also known as a wrist pin, it connects the piston to the connecting rod, allowing the
piston to pivot.
 Connecting rod: Connects the piston to the crankshaft and transfers the linear motion of the piston
into rotational motion.
 Engine block: The main housing of the engine that contains the cylinders and provides support for
various engine components.
 Crankshaft: Converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotational motion, which drives
the transmission and, ultimately, the wheels.

Working Principle of IC Engine

Intake Stroke
At the start of the intake stroke, the piston is near the top dead center (TDC). The intake valve opens,
initiating the piston's downward movement towards the bottom dead center (BDC). During this stroke, the
cylinder draws in fresh air or an air-fuel mixture. This phase is known as the intake stroke, as it involves
the intake of new air/mixture into the engine. The intake stroke concludes when the piston reaches the
BDC. Throughout the intake stroke, the engine expends energy as the crankshaft rotates due to the inertia
of its components.

Compression Stroke
The compression stroke commences after the completion of the intake stroke, with the piston positioned at
the Bottom Dead Center (BDC). During this stroke, both the intake and exhaust valves remain closed as the
piston moves towards the Top Dead Center (TDC). As the air or mixture becomes compressed, the pressure
within the cylinder increases, reaching its maximum when the piston nears the TDC. Just before the piston
reaches the TDC (in close proximity), specific actions occur depending on the engine type:

For gasoline engines, a spark is generated to initiate the combustion process.For diesel engines, fuel is
injected into the highly compressed air to trigger combustion.

Power Stroke

The power stroke commences with the piston positioned at the Top Dead Center (TDC). During this stroke,
both the intake and exhaust valves remain closed. At the end of the compression stroke, combustion of the
air-fuel mixture begins, resulting in a substantial rise in cylinder pressure. This increased pressure
forcefully drives the piston downward towards the Bottom Dead Center (BDC). During the power stroke,
the engine generates energy, converting the force exerted by the pressure into mechanical work.

Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust stroke commences as the piston reaches the Bottom Dead Center (BDC), following the
completion of the power stroke. Throughout this stroke, the exhaust valve opens, allowing the movement of
the piston from BDC to Top Dead Center (TDC). This piston motion effectively expels the majority of the
exhaust gases from the cylinder, directing them into the exhaust pipes. Similar to the previous strokes, the

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engine expends energy during the exhaust stroke as the crankshaft rotates due to the inertia of its
components.
Fuel supply system,

A fuel system for use in an internal combustion engine includes a plurality of fuel injectors, each injector
including at least one capillary flow passage, the at least one capillary flow passage having an inlet end and
an outlet end, a heat source arranged along the at least one capillary flow passage, the heat source.

What is the fuel supply system of an engine?

The fuel supply system in a petrol engine comprises various components that work together to transfer a set
amount of fuel from a car's fuel tank to its engine for combustion. These components include a fuel tank,
fuel pump, carburetor, fuel injectors, fuel filters and fuel lines.

Components of Fuel Supply System in Petrol Engine

In automobiles, the basic fuel supply system with a petrol engine consists of the following components:

o Fuel tank o Fuel filter

o Fuel pump o Carburettor
o Fuel lines o Inlet manifold
o Air cleaner o Supply and return pipelines
Fuel Tank
The fuel tank stores gasoline or diesel fuel and is typically located at the rear of the vehicle, providing a
reservoir for the engine's fuel needs.
Fuel Pump
Responsible for pressurising the fuel and delivering it to the engine, the fuel pump ensures a consistent
flow of fuel to meet engine demands.
Fuel Lines
These pipes transport fuel from the tank to the engine, maintaining its flow under pressure and ensuring a
steady supply for combustion.

Air Cleaner
The air cleaner filters incoming air, removing impurities and contaminants to ensure clean air for
the combustion process.
Fuel Filter
Positioned along the fuel line, the fuel filter removes debris and impurities from the fuel, preventing clogs
and maintaining fuel system integrity.
Carburettor
In older engines, the carburettor mixes fuel with incoming air to create a combustible air-fuel mixture
before it enters the engine's cylinders.
Inlet Manifold
The inlet manifold distributes the air-fuel mixture evenly to each cylinder's intake valve, ensuring uniform
combustion.
Supply and Return Pipelines

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These pipelines are used in fuel injection systems to deliver fuel to the engine (supply) and return excess
fuel to the tank (return) to regulate fuel pressure and prevent overheating.

Working of Fuel Supply System in Petrol Engine

The working of the fuel supply system can be understood by visiting the following pointers:

o The process begins with fuel storage in the vehicle's fuel tank, typically containing gasoline or a
gasoline blend.
o A high-pressure fuel pump pressurises the fuel and delivers it to the engine compartment.
o The fuel passes through a filter to remove impurities, ensuring clean fuel enters the engine.
o A pressure regulator maintains the appropriate fuel pressure in the fuel lines.
o A carburettor mixes fuel with air in older engines. In modern engines, a fuel injector precisely
sprays fuel into the intake manifold, creating an air-fuel mixture.
o Intake Air is drawn into the engine's intake manifold through the air filter.
o In the intake manifold, the fuel injector (or carburettor) combines the pressurised fuel with the
incoming air, creating a combustible air-fuel mixture.
o The throttle valve controls the amount of air entering the engine, affecting the air-fuel mixture's
richness or leanness.
o The intake valve opens to allow the air-fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber during the
intake stroke.
o The piston moves upward during the compression stroke, compressing the air-fuel mixture.

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o When the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, a spark plug produces a spark, igniting
the air-fuel mixture.
o The ignited mixture rapidly burns, generating high-pressure gases that force the piston down during
the power stroke.
o The exhaust valve opens to allow the exhaust gases to exit during the exhaust stroke.
o The exhaust gases flow through the exhaust manifold, catalytic converter (if equipped), muffler and
out of the tailpipe.
o The engine repeats this four-stroke cycle—intake, compression, power, and exhaust—thousands of
times per minute, producing mechanical power to drive the vehicle.
o Modern engines incorporate sensors and an Engine Control Unit (ECU) to monitor and optimise the
air-fuel mixture, ignition timing, and other parameters for maximum efficiency and emissions
control.
o Catalytic converters and other emissions control devices reduce harmful exhaust emissions.
o The fuel supply system adjusts fuel delivery during idle and deceleration to conserve fuel and
minimise emissions.

Types of Fuel Supply Systems in Petrol Engine

Fuel supply systems in petrol engines play a crucial role in ensuring the efficient delivery of fuel to the
engine cylinders. Various systems have been employed over the years to achieve this goal. The various
types of fuel supply systems in SI engines are:

1. Gravity system
2. Pressure system
3. Pump system
4. Fuel Injection System

1. Gravity System:
o In this system, the fuel tank is mounted at a high position.
o Fuel flows into the carburettor float chamber solely by gravity.
o Simple and cost-effective.
o Primarily used in two-wheelers due to its design limitations.

2. Pressure System:
o Utilises a sealed fuel tank where pressure is generated using the engine exhaust or a separate air
pump.
o Requires priming using a hand pump for startup.
o Maintains pressure to facilitate fuel flow to the carburettor's float chamber.
o Offers flexibility in the placement of the fuel tank.

3. Pump System:
o Employs a steel pipe to transport fuel from the tank to the fuel pump.
o The engine camshaft drives the mechanical pump.
o Electrically operated fuel pumps are common in modern vehicles, offering placement flexibility and
reducing vapour lock risks.
o Widely used in contemporary automobiles.

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4. Fuel Injection System:

o Replaces the carburettor with a more precise fuel injection system.
o Achieves accurate control of the air-fuel mixture for each cylinder.
o Atomises fuel through injector nozzles before delivering it into the air stream.
o Allows separate fuel injection for each cylinder, offering precise control under various load and
speed conditions.
o Frequently managed electronically, making it the most accurate fuel supply system.

Cooling System,
System components include a radiator to dissipate heat, a fan or fans to ensure adequate airflow for radiator
cooling, a thermostat valve that opens when the desired operating temperature is reached and a water pump
(or coolant pump) to circulate coolant through the engine, hoses and other components.

What Is a Cooling System in Automobiles?

The main function of a cooling system is to manage your car engine’s temperature, which tends to rise due
to internal combustion. Coolant in this system flows through the passage in an engine, absorbing heat from
combustion. After travelling through multiple channels, this coolant returns to the radiator. This is where it
loses heat and returns to a cooler temperature with the help of an air stream.
Internal combustion engines of recent times use both air and water or either of these components as
coolants to reduce heating levels in your car’s engine. There are also special purpose engines that
incorporate air from the atmosphere to cool down the engine. These cooling systems are small, less
complex and lightweight
Even though water works better than air in speeding up this cooling process, it adds more complexity, cost
and weight to an engine. These particular systems work best for vehicles with a higher power engine, which
generates more heat and can handle more weight.

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What Are the Parts of a Cooling System?

A cooling system comprises these few parts-
1. Cooling fan 6. Water pump 11. Cylinder head
2. Heater core 7. Freeze plugs gaskets
3. Radiator 8. Intake manifold
4. Thermostat gaskets
5. Pressure cap and 9. Bypass system
reserve tank 10. Hoses
What Are the Types of Cooling Systems in Vehicles?
There exist two types of cooling systems in vehicles:
1. Air Cooling System
In this form of cooling, heated air is dispersed into the atmosphere. Any amount of heat reflected by the
parts of the engine is dissipated in air. There are metallic ridges on the fins that direct air toward engine
components. The amount of heat blown away by these fins depends on their size.
The cooling intensity completely relies upon air's velocity, the surface area of fins and temperature. This
cooling system works well for scooters, small aircraft, motorcycles and tractors of minimum horsepower.
Advantages:
 Antifreeze not necessary
 Weighs less
 Has simple design
 Appropriate for places facing water scarcity
 No need to tap out the water
 Can fit in small spaces
Disadvantages:
 Efficiency is less as heat transfer does not take place properly
 Produces noises while operating
2. Water Cooling System
The most commonly used cooling system reduces heat using water circulation. Water travels through
jackets around the cylinder and then flows through radiator, absorbing the heat. There are two types of
water vehicle cooling systems- pump circulation system and thermosyphon.
Advantages:
High heat transfer rate
Generally used in vehicles with larger engine sizes and power
Greater thermal conductivity
Water being the main component, it is easily accessible
Disadvantages:
 Radiator, pipe or storage might show signs of corrosion
 Without regular maintenance and cleaning, the heat transfer rate goes down

In the above sections, we have discussed the function and working of cooling systems in automobiles. This
system is essential for maintaining your car engine’s temperature at levels necessary for its functioning.
Therefore, if your car’s cooling system is not working properly, make sure to visit a garage to get it
working as soon as possible.

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What is Engine Lubrication?

Engine lubrication is the process in which robing metal parts are separated by the flow of lubricating
substances between them. lubricants are available in liquid, solid, or gas, but liquid is the most form of
lubrication used in engines.

Functions of Engine Lubricating System

Below are the functions of lubricating oil in an engine:

 The primary purpose of engine lubrication is to minimize wear by securely closing the clearance
between moving parts such as shafts, bearings, etc. Lubrication also avoids the moving parts not to
come in direct contact with each other.
 Oil serves as a cleaning agent in an engine as it moves the dirt particle to the oil pan. Smaller particles
are filtered out by the oil filters while larger ones are retained in the oil pan.
 Another purpose of engine lubrication is that it serves as a cooling system. Lubricating oil cools the
moving parts of the engine and transferred the hot oil into the cooler oil in the oil pan.
 The oil creates a seal between the cylinder walls and the piston rings. It also reduces the exhaust gas
blowby.
 Clearance between the rotating journals and bearing is filled with oil. The oil acts as a cushioning
agent when the bearing suddenly experiences heavy loads. Oils reduce the wear on bearings.
IGNITION SYSTEM IN AUTOMOBILE

The ignition system's job is to ignite the air-fuel mixture in a gasoline engine. In addition to the spark plugs
that spark in the combustion chambers, the ignition system consists of an ignition coil, which converts
battery voltage to higher voltage, and the spark plug wires that join these components.
The ignition system is a system used to generate a very high voltage from the car battery and to send
it to each sparkplug in turn thereby igniting the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber of the engine.
Types of Ignition System:
1. Magneto ignition systems
2. Battery coil ignition systems
3. Electronic ignition system.
The internal combustion engine is an amazing machine that has evolved for more than 100 years. It
continues to evolve as automakers manage to squeeze out a little more efficiency or a little less pollution
with each passing year. The result is an incredibly complicated, surprisingly reliable machine.
Ignition System Timing
The ignition system on your car has to work in perfect concert with the rest of the engine. The goal is to
ignite the fuel at exactly the right time so that the expanding gases can do the maximum amount of work. If
the ignition system fires at the wrong time, power will fall and gas consumption and emissions can
increase.
When the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder burns, the temperature rises and the fuel is converted to exhaust
gas. This transformation causes the pressure in the cylinder to increase dramatically and forces the piston

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down. In order to get the most torque and power from the engine, the goal is to maximize the pressure in
the cylinder during the power stroke. Maximizing pressure will also produce the best engine efficiency,
which translates directly into better mileage. The timing of the spark is critical to success. There is a small
delay from the time of the spark to the time when the fuel/air mixture is all burning and the pressure in the
cylinder reaches its maximum. If the spark occurs right when the piston reaches the top of the compression
stroke, the piston will have already moved down part of the way into its power stroke before the gases in
the cylinder have reached their highest pressures. To make the best use of the fuel, the spark should occur
before the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, so by the time the piston starts down into its
power stroke the pressures are high enough to start producing useful work.

Spark Plug

The spark plug is quite simple in theory: It forces electricity to arc across a gap, just like a bolt of lightning.
The electricity must be at a very high voltage in order to travel across the gap and create a good spark.
Voltage at the spark plug can be anywhere from 40,000 to 100,000 volts.
The spark plug must have an insulated passageway for this high voltage to travel down to the electrode,
where it can jump the gap and, from there, be conducted into the engine block and grounded. The plug also
has to withstand the extreme heat and pressure inside the cylinder, and it must be designed so that deposits
from fuel additives do not build up on the plug. Spark plugs use a ceramic insert to isolate the high voltage
at the electrode, ensuring that the spark happens at the tip of the electrode and not anywhere else on the
plug; this insert does double-duty by helping to burn off deposits. Ceramic is a fairly poor heat conductor,
so it seals in heat during operation. Some cars require a hot plug. This type of plug is designed with a
ceramic insert that has a smaller contact area with the metal part of the plug. This reduces the heat transfer
from the ceramic, making it run hotter and thus burn away more deposits. Cold plugs are designed with
more contact area, so they run cooler.
Engine Management System (EMS):
EMS stands for Engine Management System, consisting of a wide range of electronic and electrical
components such as sensors, relays, actuators, and an Engine Control Unit. They work together to provide
the Engine Management System with vital data parameters. These are essential for governing
various engine functions effectively. Furthermore, modern-day engine technologies incorporate the EMS.
The engine management system is the arrangement of the devices for controlling a vehicle's engine. If the
car is stolen, the unit will block the vehicle's engine management system and prevent the engine being
restarted. The engine management system shuts down four of the eight cylinders when the power isn't
needed.

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What are the two types of engine management systems?

There are different types of engine control units (ECUs). The most common type is the engine control
module (ECM). The ECM controls the engine's ignition timing, fuel injection, and emissions control.
Another type of ECU is the powertrain control module (PCM).
What is the EMS system in the engine?
Modern Engine Management Systems (EMS) use an oxygen sensor in the exhaust to monitor the air to fuel
ratio (AFR). This information is then fed back to the EMS which will adjust the fuel flow to maintain the
correct AFR.

Super Charged Engines,

A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure of air supplied to an internal combustion
engine. This aids in higher power output as the engine gets more oxygen in each of its intake cycles and
helps it to burn more fuel.
The supercharger provides this optimum boost throughout the rev band without any lag. This direct
connection to the engine makes superchargers more powerful than turbochargers, but this also makes
superchargers considerably less efficient. In the end, they are designed to produce engine power by drawing
engine power.
The design of a supercharger, which pulls its power from the engine, actually hurts efficiency by adding to
the engine's load. That typically shows up in lower fuel economy averages. Beyond that, superchargers
work best with large, already powerful engines. And that hurts the fuel economy even more.

Fig: supercharged engine

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Advantages Of A Supercharger :
 No Lag. A supercharger has no lag and consistent power delivery. ...
 Increased Horsepower. Adding a supercharger is a quick way to boost power to any engine.
 Low RPM Boost. ...
 Low Price. ...
 Less Efficient. ...
 Lacks Reliability. ...
 Future of the Supercharger.

Disadvantages Of A Supercharger
 Less Efficient
 Superchargers require engine power and are therefore less efficient than turbos. Simply put,
superchargers deplete engine power, simply to produce more engine power.
 Lacks Reliability
 All forced induction systems (including turbos) require the engine internals to be exposed to higher
temps and pressures which may negatively impact the life of the engine.
 Future of the Supercharger
 As was mentioned earlier, turbochargers are on the rise at the expense of the supercharger. Even to
the surprise of some industry experts, turbochargers are increasing at a dramatically fast rate and are
leaving supercharger production in the dust. This is because a turbocharged engine offers a "no
compromise" solution for automakers that need to meet increasingly strict fuel economy and
emission standards, while meeting customer demand for better-performing vehicles. Manufacturers
are also combining turbochargers with direct fuel injection technology to allow them to offer
smaller gasoline engines, which saves fuel without sacrificing power. The final added benefit that
many green consumers love is that turbochargers help reduce harmful exhaust emissions and help
improve fuel efficiency.
HYBRID ENGINES,
 Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more electric
motors, which uses energy stored in batteries. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot be plugged in to
charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative braking and by the internal
combustion engine.
 Hybrid owners enjoy better fuel economy, helping them save money, and can see their driving has
less impact on the environment. However, while there are plenty of advantages to driving a hybrid,
it's important to consider whether it's the right move for you. Hybrids may not suit everyone's
lifestyle.
 There are three major types of hybrid vehicles available: mild hybrid, full hybrid, and plug-in
hybrid.
 A hybrid car has both a gas engine and an electric motor, whereas a gas-powered car only has a
conventional gas engine. Hybrid cars are typically more fuel-efficient than their gas counterparts
since they can switch between their gas and electric motors while being driven.
 Pricey to buy: The initial cost of hybrids is more expensive than conventional vehicles' in most
cases. Higher running costs: Due to their engine and continuous development in technology, it may
not be easy to find a mechanic with the required expertise.

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 Less power: this isn't a steadfast rule, but because hybrids have better fuel economy and emissions,
the electric technology can mean that there's less overall horsepower than petrol cars. The power is
shared between the EV battery and a smaller engine so acceleration and power might be less.
 A newly released report from the Highway Loss Data Institute (HLDI), which is part of the
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), finds that hybrids are safer in crashes - 25 percent
safer than standard cars.
 They emit fewer greenhouse gases and cost less to run than gas-only autos. They also recharge as
they drive, so there's no need to plug in, and there's none of the range anxiety that can come with
EVs. Hybrid owners also are more satisfied with their vehicles.
Advantages of Hybrid Cars

1. Fuel Economy
Hybrid cars are proven to be more fuel efficient than conventional petrol/diesel vehicles due to
improvements in weight reduction, aerodynamics and a smaller engine. Hybrid cars will also run purely on
the electric motor whenever possible, which makes a large impact on the car’s fuel economy.
2. Require Less Maintenance
Hybrid cars require less maintenance than traditional gas-powered cars, as hybrids are designed to last
longer and run better than gas-powered cars. They have fewer parts, which means they require less
maintenance than a traditional car.
3. Light Materials
Hybrid cars are made up of lighter materials and the engine is significantly smaller and lighter so that less
energy is required to run the vehicle.
The petrol engine used in hybrid cars is smaller and lighter as they aren’t solely responsible for powering
the car because there’s an electric motor to support powering the car.
4. A More Reliable Fuel Type
In a recent Which? Car Survey on Hybrid Car Reliability, Hybrid cars were found to be the most reliable
by fuel type by having fewer faults. This is because hybrid models are mechanically simpler and have
fewer parts than other car types, which keeps their fault percentage much lower.
5. Good Resale Value
Hybrid cars often have a higher resale value compared to petrol/diesel cars because they achieve a higher
gas mileage.
Similarly to petrol/diesel cars, the value of a hybrid car will depreciate, but its resale value will typically be
higher because of less maintenance being required and its higher gas mileage
Disadvantages of Hybrid Cars

1. Higher Insurance
Hybrid cars usually have a higher insurance cost than petrol or diesel cars because the technology used
inside them is much more expensive to repair or replace.
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Some insurance companies offer discounts on insuring hybrid vehicles as an incentive to drive one because
hybrid cars are much better for the environment than regular petrol or diesel cars.

2. Higher Upfront Cost

Electric and hybrid cars are more expensive than traditional petrol/diesel cars, and with this will come a
higher upfront cost.
Once you start driving your hybrid car, the running costs will be considerably lower, so the savings on this
will make the higher upfront cost worth it in the long run.
3. Performance

Hybrid cars are often manufactured with the goal of improving fuel efficiency and being better for the
environment. This means the car is often designed with this in mind, fuel efficiency is improved at the
sacrifice of performance.

A fully hybrid car will be slower in speed compared to its counterparts.

4. Poorer Handling
Hybrids are built with two engines into one car, and this weight affects the handling of the car. This is
important to keep in mind when looking to either purchase or lease a hybrid car.
5. Battery Replacement Can Be Expensive
A lot of hybrid cars and electric vehicles use a battery that uses specific rare-earth materials that can only
be mined in certain areas of the world. Due to the rarity of these materials, the batteries in hybrid cars are
quite expensive when it comes to replacing them.

MODERN GT ENGINES.

These limited-edition supercars will feature a twin-turbo V6 engine and a racing gearbox designed by
Multimatic Motorsports. According to Ford, the last Ford GT will surge up to speed with more than 800
horsepower. The 2023 Ford GT Mk IV powertrain specs include: Twin-turbo V6 (800+ horsepower).
A grand tourer (GT) is a type of car that is designed for high speed and long-distance driving, due to a
combination of performance and luxury attributes.
A grand tourer (GT) is a type of car that is designed for high speed and long-distance driving, due to a
combination of performance and luxury attributes.[1] The most common format is a front-engine, rear-
wheel-drive two-door coupé with either a two-seat or a 2+2 arrangement. Grand tourers are most often the
coupé derivative of luxury saloons or sedans. Many iconic car models, such as the Ferrari 250 GT, Jaguar
E-Type, and Aston Martin DB5, are considered classic examples of gran turismo cars.

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1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing Coupe 34 right

Lancia Aurelia B20 GT, a GT car from the 1950s.

Front-engine, rear-wheel drive coupe: 1964 Jaguar E-Type. Automotive designers call the position of the
driver's hip close to the rear axle "close-coupled".

Origin in Europe
The grand touring car concept originated in Europe in the early 1950s, especially with the 1951
introduction of the Lancia Aurelia B20 GT, and features notable luminaries of Italian automotive history
such as Vittorio Jano, Enzo Ferrari and Johnny Lurani. Motorsports became important in the evolution of

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the grand touring concept, and grand touring entries are important in endurance sports-car racing. The
grand touring definition implies material differences in performance, speed, comfort, and amenities
between elite cars and those of ordinary motorists.

Characteristics

 The engines "should be able to cope with cruising comfortably at the upper limits on all continental
roads without drawbacks or loss of usable power".
 "Ideally, the GT car should have been devised by its progenitors as a Grand Tourer, with all associated
considerations in mind."
 "It should be able to transport at least two in comfort with their luggage and have room to spare —
probably in the form of a two plus two seating arrangement."
 The design, both "inside and out, should be geared toward complete control by the driver".
 Its "chassis and suspension provide suitable handling and road holding on all routes" during travels.
Gas turbine
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine.
The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas
generator or core) and are, in the direction of flow:

 a rotating gas compressor

 a combustor
 a compressor-driving turbine.
Additional components have to be added to the gas generator to suit its application. Common to all is an air
inlet but with different configurations to suit the requirements of marine use, land use or flight at speeds
varying from stationary to supersonic. A propelling nozzle is added to produce thrust for flight. An extra
turbine is added to drive a propeller (turboprop) or ducted fan (turbofan) to reduce fuel consumption (by
increasing propulsive efficiency) at subsonic flight speeds. An extra turbine is also required to drive a
helicopter rotor or land-vehicle transmission (turbo shaft), marine propeller or electrical generator (power
turbine). Greater thrust-to-weight ratio for flight is achieved with the addition of an afterburner.
Types Of Engines, Based On The Same Basic Concept
Gas turbine engines have come a long way in the past 100 years. And while turbojets, turboprops, turbofans
and turbo shafts all have their differences, they way they produce power is essentially the same: intake,
compression, power, and exhaust.
 Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors,
and tanks.
 As hot combustion gas expands through the turbine, it spins the rotating blades. The rotating blades
perform a dual function: they drive the compressor to draw more pressurized air into the combustion
section, and they spin a generator to produce electricity.
 Turbo shafts are gas turbine engines that are used to rotate a shaft, which can for example be used to
propel a ship or a set of helicopter blades. Land-based gas turbine engines are turboshafts that are
used to entrain an electrical generator.
 By far the most important use of gas turbines is in aviation, where they provide the motive power
for jet propulsion. Because of the significance of this application and the diversity of modern jet
engines, the subject will be dealt with at length in a separate section of the article.

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Examples of gas turbine configurations: (1) turbojet, (2) turboprop, (3) turboshaft (shown as electric
generator), (4) high-bypass turbofan, (5) low-bypass afterburning turbofan

The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid: atmospheric
air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure; energy is then added by spraying fuel
into the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow; this high-temperature
pressurized gas enters a turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the compressor;
the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work, such as directly
producing thrust in a turbojet engine, or rotating a second, independent turbine (known as a power turbine)
that can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine determines
the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The
fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open
systems that do not reuse the same air.

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