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Module-3 Control & Safety systems

Syllabus
Steering system - mechanisms & Linkages, Steering gear boxes- Rack & pinion, worm & wheelconstruction
& working, power Steering construction & working, steering geometry, Wheel balancing

Braking System - Mechanism and Linkages; Mechanical Brakes, Hydraulic Brakes, Power Brakes, Parking
brakes, ABS,

Safety system – Safety measures in modern vehicle – safety frames – working of - air bags, seat belt, collapsible
steering, spoilers, defoggers, fire safety measures in heavy vehicles, bullet proof vehicles

Notes

Steering system

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STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
It is necessary to run the automobile in a desired direction; this can be accomplished by providing
steering system. Besides brakes and accelerator, steering is very much essential to control the vehicle,
without which an automobile will never exist.
The main purpose of a steering system is to provide angular motion to the front wheels, when the
vehicle is taking a turn. Different steering gears and linkages are used to steer the front wheels.
The purpose of a steering system is to convert rotary motion of the steering wheel in the driver's
hands into angular motion of the front road wheels, and to multiply the driver's effort by leverage or
mechanical advantage so as to make it fairly easy to turn the wheels. The steering system also absorbs large
part of the road shocks, thus preventing them being transmitted to the driver.

Apart from the above object, the steering system also serves other purposes like,
1. It gives perfect steering condition. It means perfect rolling motion of road wheels under all
conditions.
2. When the car is moving in a straight line, it gives directional stability.
3. To reduce tyre wear.
4. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing the turn. The
steering system has to fulfill the following requirements.
1. The system used should be very accurate and should be easy to handle.

2. The steering effort (for driver) should be minimum.

3. It must give directional stability.

Till recently front wheel steered vehicles were designed. In these vehicles front wheels were steered
with rear wheels followed them. However, lately all-wheel steering or four- wheel steering has been
designed and used in some selected vehicles.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF STEERING LINKAGES

Based on vehicle type i.e., a 'vehicle which has independent front suspension or a vehicle which has
a rigid axle type front suspension (commercial car), different steering linkages are used.

Steering Linkage used in the Vehicle with rigid axle front suspension
It consists of a drop arm or pitman arm connected between steering gear and link rod. Thelink
rod in turn connects steering arm through 1 a ball joint and the stub axle mounted with road wheel is rigidly
attached to the steering arm as shown in figure O. Each stub axle has a forged track rod arm rigidly fixed
to the wheel axis. To the ends of track rod arms, a track rod is attached by using '0’ ball joints as in figure.
An adjuster is also used in the track rod and it changes length of the track rod for adjusting wheel alignment.
The steering gear provides the required leverage (mechanical advantage), so that driver's effort
required is less at the steering wheel to apply much larger force to the steering linkage. It also

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gives the desired velocity ratio so that larger angular movement of the steering wheel gives much smaller
movement of the stub axle.
By turning the steering wheel, drop arm swings and imparts a linear movement to the link rod. The
steering arm transmits this movement to the stub axle, and turns it about pivot (may be a king pin or ball
joints). The other wheel is steered through the track rod; hence only one wheel is positively steered.

Steering Linkage used for Independent front suspension

In the previous type, the main axle beam allows the stub axle to move in the horizontal plane only.
The effective track rod length does not change as there is no vertical deflection of the suspension.

In the independent suspension, the two stub axles can move up and down independent of each other and
causes the length of the track rod to change. For this reason, a single track rod is not suitable.
The arrangement consists of a three piece track rod, the centre being called relay rod, one end of

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which is connected to idler arm supported on body structure. The other end of the relay rod is connected to
the drop arm of the steering gear through ball joints. The relay rod is confined to move in horizontal plane
only. Movement in vertical plane is provided by the tie rods about the end ball joints.

STUB AXLE
Stub axle is one on which the front road wheels are mounted. The king pin connects main axle
beam to the stub axle. Stub axles are made up of Nickel steels and alloy steels containing chromium and
molybdenum. Usually front axle is a dead axle and is manufactured by drop forging of steel. As it has to
withstand bending loads due to vehicle weight and torque loads due to brakingof wheels the central
portions is made 'I' section and the ends of the beam are made either circular or elliptical. This dead front
axle is used in heavier vehicles.
The figure shows the arrangement of the stub axle in which king pin has been replaced byball
joints.

Fig: Stub axle arrangement with king ball joints

STEERING GEOMETRY

It is not enough to simply place the front wheels on hubs, stand them up straight and device a
mechanism to swivel them left or right. The car could be driven but it would steer very poorly and at higher
speeds it would become dangerous to handle, and also tire life would be short.

Wheel alignment refers to the positioning of the front wheels and steering mechanism that promotes easy of
steering, provides directional stability, reduces tire wear to a minimum. To secure easy steering, smooth
operation and several front wheel alignment factors must be considered suchas camber, king-pin or steering
axis inclination, caster, toe in and toe out and turning circles (angles) etc.

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(a) Camber

Camber angle is the inclination between the centre line of the tyre and the vertical. If the wheels are
inclined or tilted outward at the top, it is called "positive camber", and if the wheels are inclined inward at
the top, it is called "negative camber". t is also called as 'wheel rake angle:.
Front wheels are not mounted parallel to each other; instead they are tilted slightly outward at the
top. This is done to prevent the top of the wheels from tilting inward too much due to excessive loads or
play in the king pins and wheel bearings.
Effect: It is noted that, to make the tyre wear more uniform, tyre should roll vertically on the ground.
Tyre will wear more on one side than the other side, when it is tilted inward or outward. The positive camber
causes the tyre to roll like a truncated cone. The positive camber makes the wheel to toe out and tyre will
wear more on the outer side. Similarly the negative camber makes the wheels to and tyre will wear more
on the inner side. Initially the wheels are provided with positive camber, after loading automatically they
come to vertical position.
It is clear that, when the vehicle is running with average load, zero camber angle gives maximum
tyre life. If the two front wheels are not provided with equal camber, the vehicle will try to pull towards the
side where the camber is higher. In the same way, if the wheels are provided with equal camber, the crowned
road has a tendency to pull away the vehicle to the side of the road. To obviate this, usually slight higher
camber is provided on the right wheel in case of right drivevehicles which have to move on the left
side. For left hand drive vehicles, left wheel is sided with higher camber.
Camber angle is usually less than 2° and exact amount depends upon king pin inclination.

Fig (a): Camber and king pin inclination

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

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Fig: Camber and king pin angle (steering axis inclination) on exaggerated scale.

(b) Kingpin angle or Steering axis inclination

The kingpin or Ball joints are mounted in such a way that they slant inward. The kingpin inclination
is the inward tilt of the kingpin or ball joint centre line from the vertical i.e., the angle between vertical and
kingpin or ball joint centre line]. In case of kingpin, this is called king pin angle and if ball joints are used,
then it is called steering axis inclination.
Effect: Kingpin inclination in combination with caster provides directional stability. Whenthe
vehicle turns, the vehicle body is lifted up slightly due to kingpin inclination. After completing the turn,
driver leaves the steering wheel and vehicle weight causes the wheels to recover straight ahead position.
The kingpin angle is kept about 70 to 80 and exact amount depends upon wheel rake angle. This kingpin
angle also; uses suspension shocks to be transmitted to and absorbed by the heavy inner spindle and knuckle
assembly.

(c) Included angle and Scrub radius

It is the angle obtained in the vertical plane between the wheel centre line and the king pin or ball
joint centre line. It is equal to camber plus king pin inclination (X + Y).
The king pin centre line when extended meets the road surface near the tyre centre line. The distance
between these two centre lines at the point where they intersect on the road surface is called "Scrub Radius".
It is positive when steering axis or ball joint centre line meets the road surface inside the tyre centre line. If
it meets the road surface outside the tyre centre line, the scrub radius is negative. A small scrub radius is
desirable as it reduces steering wheel shock from road irregularities and reduces steering effort.
Effect: The figure explains, how the combined angle affects scrub radius and hence' forces acting
to turn the wheel in a rear wheel drive vehicle. It is seen that unless scrub radius is zero, a torque acts to
turn the wheel away from the straight ahead position.
A negative scrub radius causes the wheel to toe in as in figure (a). A positive scrub radius causes
the wheel to toe out as in figure (c)
A zero scrub radius keeps the wheel in straight position without any tendency to toe in or toe out as
in figure (b). In this case, wheel centre line and king pin or ball joint centre line exactly meets on the ground.
This condition is called "centre point steering".
By experience, it has been proved that, if the ball joint centre line and wheel centre line meets below
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the ground, it gives best results.

If both the wheels are not provided with equal combined angle, the vehicle will pull towards the
side where scrub radius is high.
Combined angle varies from 90 to 100 and scrub radius ranges up to 12 mm.

Fig: The wheel and king pin centre line meet (a) above the ground (negative scrub radius) -
wheels toe in (b) Exactly on the ground (zero scrub radius - 0 effect and (c) below the ground
(positive scrub radius) - wheels toe out

(d) Castor
The kingpins are tilted slightly from the vertical as shown in figure 6.15 (a) and (b). The angle
between the kingpin centre line and vertical, obtained in the plane of wheel is called the castor angle. If the
kingpin centre line contacts the ground at a point in front of the wheel centre, it is called Positive Castor
and if it meets behind the wheel centre line it is called Negative Castor. The castor angles should not exceed
30. In modern vehicles negative castor ranges from 20 to 80.
Effect: Castor produces a trailing effect and hence gives directional stability by making the wheels
to lead or follow in the same direction as the vehicle moves. Incorrect castor angle results in- hard steering,
when brakes are applied vehicle pulls to one side, tendency to wander due to lack of directional stability.
Example: Castor angle provided on the furniture rollers and on the front wheels of the bicycles, the
positive castor provided in both these cases causes the wheels to be pulled in any direction.

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Fig: (a) Castor; (b) Castor on front wheel of the bicycle.

TOE IN AND TOE OUT CONDITIONS

Toe in is accomplished by placing the front of the wheels closes together than the back, when viewed
from the top and vehicle is stationary. Toe in is nothing but the difference between the centre to centre
distances of the rear ends and the front ends i.e. (B - A)
If the wheels are set closer at the back end than at the front, i.e. (A - B), then the difference of
distances between the wheels at the front and at the rear is called Toe out.
Effect: When the wheel is cambered, the tire engages the road at an angle. Since the tire will adopt
itself to the road, the rolling edge of the tire will not be at right angles to the centre line of the wheel. This
will cause it to roll in the form of truncated cone and thus causes more wear on outer surface of the wheel,
the purpose of toe in is to neutralize the cone rolling effect of front wheels caused by camber angle.
Therefore, the amount of toe in depends up on the camber angle, and in modern cars it is usually kept 2 to
4 mm.
In some front wheel drive cars, initial toe out has been provided to counter the tendency to toe in.
Excessive steering linkage looseness will allow the wheels to toe out under dynamic loads. Excessive toe
in or toe out will cause tyre wear.

Fig: Toe - in

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TOE OUT ON TURNS

When a vehicle takes a turn, the inner wheel must turn on a smaller turning circle than the outer
wheel. This causes the wheels to toe out on turns due to difference in their turning angles .:This essential
action is allowed by bending both steering arms so they angle slightly towards the centre of the vehicle.
When the vehicle takes turn, the steering arm on the inside of the turn swivels more sharply, due to
angle of the arm at this point.

Fig: Toe out on turns as viewed from top

STEERING GEARS
Steering gear is the heart of steering system and the driver controls the direction of front wheels
with the steering gear. It converts rotational motion of the steering wheel into to and fro motion (arc motion)
of the link rod of the steering linkage which in turn swivel the front wheels.
Steering gear also provides torque multiplication. It multiplies the drives steering effort to provide
adequate force for steering column. For cars, the steering ratio or torque multiplication factor ranges
between 10 : 1 to 22 : 1 and for trucks it ranges between 24 : 1 to 32 : 1.
There are many types of steering gears used in automobiles. The important steering gears are
a) Worm and Wheel steering gear
It consists of a worm and worm wheel. In place of worm wheel, only a sector may also be used. As
the steering wheel turns, the rotation of the worm drives the worm wheel. A drop arm is rigidly attached to
the wheel spindle. So rotation of worm wheel through steering wheel causes the drop arm to move to and
fro, thereby, actuates the link rod connected to it and swivels the front wheels.
b) Worm and Nut steering gear
It consists of a worm and a ball nut and these are arranged as shown in figure. The rotation of
steering wheel turns the worm and hence the nut moves along its length. This movement of the nut actuates
the drop arm end to move linearly and thus actuates the link rod and swivels the wheels.

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Fig: Worm and wheel steering gear.

Fig: Worm and out type steering gear.

c) Recirculating ball type steering gear

The figure shows a recirculating ball type steering gear. It consists of a worm and nut arrangement
as in figure. The steering shaft carries the worm and a nut rides on the worm with two sets of balls in the
grooves in between nut and worm. These balls reduce friction during movement of the nut on the worm.
The drop arm is rigidly attached to the wheel sector and the teeth of wheel sector meshes with teeth of the
nut. The drop arm in turn connected to the link rod, through which it swivels the road wheels.

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Fig: Recirculating ball type steering gear.

When the steering wheel is turned, the nut rides on the worm and the balls roll in the groove and
makes the nut to travel along the length of the worm. These two sets of balls are recirculated through the
guides. As the nut rides on the worm, its movement drives the wheel sector and hence link rod and thus
steers the wheels.

CONDITION FOR TRUE ROLLING

Fig: Condition for exact steering

The condition for true rolling is obtained when all four wheels are rolling perfectly under all
conditions of running. If the vehicle takes a turn, this fundamental condition of correct steering is satisfied
when all four wheels rotate about a common centre called as Instantaneous centre. The axes of front wheels
when produced meet the rear wheel axis at this point 'I'. It is also seen that, the inside wheel turns through
a greater angle than the outer wheel. The larger the steering angle, the smaller is the turning circle. However,
there is maximum limit to the steering angle, and is limited to 440. The extreme positions on both sides are
called 'Lock' positions.
The turning circle is defined as the diameter of the smallest circle which the outer front wheel of an
automobile can traverse and obtained when the wheels are at lock positions.
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STEERING MECHANISM
We know that for perfect steering all four wheels must rotate about Instantaneous centre. To achieve
this, inner wheel has to turn more than outer wheel. Several mechanisms are used, among which two are
important.
1. Ackermann Mechanism
2. Davis Mechanism.

The Ackermann mechanism is based on a four- bar chain mechanism, which has two longer links
RS and AB of unequal length and other two shorter links 'RA' and 'SB' of equal lengths. By using track rod
'AB' shorter than RS (distance C or distance between kingpins), the inner wheel is forced to turn a greater
angle, when the car is taking a turn. When the car is going straight ahead, all four wheels are parallel, but
while turning, the inner and outer wheel angles become different.
The figure (a) and (b) shows the Ackermann's mechanism. It is seen that shorter links are made
integral with stub axles and are connected together through track rod. In the straight ahead position, the
shorter links makes equal inclination 'a' with the centre line of the vehicle. The dotted line shows position
of links when the car is taking left turn.
Let, I = length of the track rod 'AB' and r = Length of shorter links RA and SB

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

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From figure (b), after neglecting obliquity of link AB in the turned position, the pivots A and B moves
through same distance 'X' in horizontal direction.

POWER STEERING
In heavy duty trucks and tractors, driver has to apply inadequate effort to turn the wheels. Theuse
of booster arrangement in steering system overcomes this drawback. The booster is put in to operation
when the steering wheel is turned. It does most of the work for steering. The power steering system uses
compressed air, electrical mechanisms, and hydraulic pressure.

Fig: Oil assisted power steering

The figure shows a simplified diagram of hydraulic booster. The arrangement consists of a worm
and worm-wheel, distributor slide valve, booster cylinder etc. When the steering wheel is turned, the worm
turns the sector of worm wheel and hence actuates the arm. The arm in turn actuates the road wheels
through drag link. If the resistance offered to turn the wheels is too high and driver's effort to the steering
wheel is too weak, then the worm, like a screw in a nut will be displaced axially together with the distributor
slide valve. This axial movement will admit compressed air or oil in to booster cylinder through the
pipeline. The piston in the booster cylinder will turn the road wheels via the gear rack, the toothed worm
sector, arm and drag link. In the mean time, the worm sector will actuate the worm and will shift it along
with distribution slide valve to its initial position. This movement of slide valve will stop the piston travel
in the booster cylinder. Here the system uses power assistance in proportion to the effort needed to turn the
wheels.

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Wheel balancing
Wheel balancing is a critical aspect of vehicle maintenance and is essential for ensuring a smooth and safe
ride. It involves adjusting the weight distribution on a vehicle's wheels to ensure that they rotate evenly.
Here's a basic overview of wheel balancing:

Why Wheel Balancing is Important: When a wheel and tire assembly is manufactured, it may not have
uniform weight distribution. Additionally, as the tire wears over time, its weight distribution can change.
Imbalances in a wheel and tire assembly can lead to several issues, including vibrations, uneven tire wear,
and decreased handling performance.

Signs of Wheel Imbalance: Some common signs that vehicle wheels might be out of balance include:

 Vibrations in the steering wheel or the vehicle itself, especially at certain speeds.

 Uneven tire wear.

 Steering wheel wobbling or shaking.

Balancing Process: Wheel balancing is typically performed using a balancing machine.

 The technician will remove the wheel and tire assembly from the vehicle.

 They will mount the wheel and tire assembly on the balancing machine, which spins the
wheel to determine where imbalances exist.

 The machine calculates the exact weight and location of counterweights needed to balance
the assembly.

 The technician attaches small weights to the wheel's rim to counteract any imbalances.

Types of Balancing: There are two primary methods of wheel balancing:

 Static Balancing: This method identifies imbalances in a single plane. It is useful for
addressing vertical imbalances.

 Dynamic Balancing: This method identifies imbalances in multiple planes, addressing both
vertical and lateral imbalances. It's more comprehensive and results in a smoother ride.

Frequency of Balancing: Wheel balancing should be done whenever install new tires, replace a tire, or if
you experience any of the signs of imbalance mentioned above. It's also a good idea to have wheels balanced
periodically as part of routine maintenance.

BRAKES

Brakes are used as a stopping medium to stop or slow down the vehicle or to prevent the vehicle
movement when it is parked (parking brakes). During braking the kinetic energy of the vehicle is
dissipated as heat and is the reverse of accelerating a vehicle. When driving a vehicle engine torque
produces a tractive effort at the driving wheels, and during braking, the braking torque at the brake
drums produces a negative tractive effort or retarding force at the braking wheels. Similar to
acceleration, the retarding force and rate of deceleration are also limited by adhesion available
Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.
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between tyre and the ground.

The brakes must be capable of decreasing vehicle speed faster than the engine accelerates it. While moving
down a steep gradient, the brakes are used to control the vehicle and brakes remain in action for a longer
period. This needs efficient cooling of the braking system.

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BRAKING REQUIREMENTS
The function of the brakes is to develop suitable retarding force to stop the vehicle within minimum
possible distance and converts kinetic energy of the vehicle in to heat which is being dissipated to
atmosphere.
To perform the above function, the brake system has to satisfy the following requirements.
1. Irrespective of vehicle speed, load conditions, type of road, the brakes must produce maximum
possible retarding force and deceleration.
2. Irrespective of road condition and load, the pedal effort required should be same.
3. The response time of the braking system should be minimum possible.
4. The brakes must have good anti fade characteristics. The brake effectiveness should not decrease due
to prolonged application (While descending hills). This needs efficient cooling of the brake system.
5. In an emergency, the brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle and in the mean time, driver
must have proper control over the vehicle. The vehicle should not skid and should be consistent with
safety.
6. The brake system should not be affected by water, dust, road grit etc.
7. The braking system should be as light as possible, easy to maintain and should give long,
economical life.
8. The braking system should produce less noise and vibrations.
9. The system should facilitate the use of independent secondary brake and parking brake.

BRAKE EFFICIENCY AND STOPPING DISTANCE

It is noted that to obtain maximum deceleration each wheel must have a brake and the ratio of
retarding force to wheel load should be same for all wheels. The maximum deceleration (retarding force)
attainable depends upon the tyre-road adhesion (coefficient of friction) and higher value of )t' gives shorter
stopping distance. The maximum deceleration attainable is independent of the total (gross) vehicle weight,
but requires greater braking force. We can write
F = f.l*W
Where, F = Maximum retarding force
f.l = Coefficient of friction
W = Component of vehicle weight on the wheel.
The total retarding force at the wheels is equal to the vehicle weight itself, when coefficient of friction is
unity. In this case, the brakes are 100 percent efficient and the vehicle experiences a deceleration which is
equal to acceleration due to gravity.
In ordinary vehicles, by considering passengers safety in passenger vehicles and safety of cabin in
goods vehicles, 100 % efficient brakes are not used. If the brakes suddenly stop the vehicle

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due to high deceleration, it might injure the passengers or would cause the load to slide and breaks the
cabin. Highly efficient brakes also causes rapid wear of tyres, (thus reduces tyre life), and brake linings
and it is difficult to control the vehicle during the application of brakes.
Thus, in general brakes with efficiencies of 50% to 80% are used to stop the vehicle within
reasonable distance. For any vehicle, the minimum brake efficiency is said to be 50% for foot brakes and
30% for hand brakes.
The following table shows the approximate stopping distances at different speeds for various brake
efficiencies.
Table: Shortest stopping distance.

Efficiency % mate stopping distance (m) for different speeds

30 krn/h 50 km/h 80 krn/h 100 km/h

100 3.5 9.5 25.5 40.0
80 4.5 12.0 31.5 49.0
60 6.0 16.0 42.0 65.5
30 12.0 32.5 85.0 131.0

The values given in the table vary depending on type of road surface, condition of tyre treads etc.

WEIGHT TRANSFER PHENOMENA

It is observed that, for maximum deceleration the amount of braking effort applied to each wheel
should be proportional to the load carried by that wheel. Thus the total retarding force 'F' is the sum of
retarding forces produced at front and rear wheels i.e. F = F, + Fe'
In a vehicle, the front and rear wheels supports different loads and the static weight distribution
depends on the design and type of vehicle. Also the static load on each axle changes depending on strength
of passengers and other loads. It becomes difficult to decide braking effort distribution between front and
rear wheels.

Fig (a): Weight transfer

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

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Fig (b): Forces on vehicle moving on an incline

The figure (a) and (b) shows forces acting when brakes applied to a moving vehicle.
During retarding period, the inertia force acts through the centre of gravity of the vehicle, and the
retarding force acts at the road surface. These two forces produces an over turning couple as shown in
figure. This over turning couple reduces the load on the rear wheels and increases the same on front wheels.
This effect is called 'weight transfer effect'. Some vehicle weight is thus transferred to the front axle. This
can be further explained as follows;
When brakes are applied, a retarding force' F' between the tyre and road causes the vehicle to
decelerate. The inertia force F1 equal to magnitude of force 'F' acts through C.G of the vehicle the direction
opposite to 'F'. These forces F and F1constitute an overturning couple of magnitude equal to F x h. This
overturning couple causes the rear wheels to ri e about front wheels as pivot int. Thus, some of the vehicle
weight is transferred from rear to front wheels and balances the overturning couple. This causes a small
decrease in 'R' at the rear wheels (reaction) and increasing same .at the front wheels. The forces '+R' and '-
R' results in a righting couple to balance returning couple.
i.e.

TYPES OF BRAKES
The automobile brakes are classified by considering several factors.

(i) Primary and Secondary Brakes

Primary brakes are the service or main brakes which are used to stop the vehicle within a minimum
possible distance, when the vehicle is in motion.
Secondary brakes are the parking brakes which are used to hold the vehicle on a slope, when it is
stationary.

(ii) Transmission Brakes and Wheel Brakes

The location of brakes may be either at the transmission or at the wheels. In transmission brakes,
heat dissipation rate is very poor and it consists of only one brake drum. In this type, the braking torque
has to be transmitted through universal joints, propeller shaft, differential and back axle. This needs
additional care while designing these components and also sizes have to be increased proportionately. The
differential distributes the braking torque equally between two wheels. These brakes are stronger than
wheel brakes.
In wheel brakes, each wheel may consist of one brake drum and this increases the area

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS,Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia
Department of Mechanical ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 Sandesh K. J.18
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Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

available for heat dissipation and thus provides efficient cooling of brake drums. (Also the brake
drums are exposed to atmosphere).
The automobiles are usually provided with wheel brakes.

(iii) Drum Brakes and Disc Brakes

Depending on the construction, brakes are classified in to disc and drum brakes and thesehave
been explained in detail at later portions of this chapter.

(iv) Mechanical, Hydraulic, Electric, Vacuum and Air Brakes

Depending on the method of actuating the brake shoe, the brakes are classified into mechanical,
Hydraulic, vacuum and air brakes.

BRAKE SHOE ARRANGEMENTS

The drum brakes essentially consist of brake shoes and the arrangement of brake shoes is very
important. The relative braking torque acting at the brake shoes for the same force applied bythe pedal
changes depending on whether expander which forces the brake shoe is fixed to the back plate or kept
floating; whether anchor is fixed or floating and whether the brake shoes are leading or trailing.
Fig: Components or a Drum Brake

(i) Fixed Expander Type

The expander unit provides the necessary force required to apply the brakes. If it is fed to the back
plate, the brake shoe' A' will become leading shoe and shoe' B' will become trailing shoe. Lending shoe
means, even when there is no braking force, the shoe will tend to drag along the brake drum. Trailing shoe
means, it will tend to drag opposite to the direction of rotation of brake drum (refer fig.). Thus, when brakes
are applied, the net force on the leading shoe becomes more than that of on the trailing shoe. This would
result in unequal braking effect at the two shoes. The trailing shoe has better anti fade characteristic than
leading shoe. At higher temperature due to increased braking effect, with prolonged application of brake,
the friction coefficient decreases in case of leading shoe and it fades quicker.

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Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.
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(ii) Floating Expander Type

In this type, the expander unit is kept floating and automatically balances the braking effect at the
two shoes and thus produces equal braking effect on two shoes. The floating expander also compensates
lining wear by moving to one side so that both the shoes receive equal actuating force. However the lining
wear on both the shoes is still unequal.

(iii) Floating Anchor Type

In this type, the two brake shoes are connected together at the anchor which is kept floating. These
two shoes have a common anchor fixed to the back plate. The floating anchor makes both shoes leading.
Fig: Brake in which anchor is kept floating

(iv) Two Leading Shoe Type

When anchor is kept floating, both the shoes tend to act as leading type. It has a high degreeof
self energisation and this increases the braking torque. The lining wear is also uniform on both the shoes.
These brakes are very sensitive [0 friction changes and thus will not be best suited for brakes meant f r
prolonged application. Also both the shoes acts as trailing shoes when the vehicle moves reverse and this
reduce the breaking effect. These brakes have better fading characteristics.
(v) Two Trailing Shoe Type
When both the shoes are trailing, braking effort at the wheels decreases. For this reason, trailing
brakes are generally used with servo brakes or power brakes to reduce driver's fatigue. These brakes have
better anti fade properties and thus provides more consistent braking.

DRUM BRAKES
These brakes are most commonly used and brake shoes are actuated by mechanical means am or
toggle lever) and makes contact with the inside of the brake drum. The rods and levers decreases the pedal
effort required by the driver through mechanical advantage or lever.
This consists of a brake drum which is fixed to the hub of the road wheel and the back plate is
mounted on the axle casing. On the front a .le side, the back plate is fixed to the steering knuckle through
bolts. The expander, anchor and brake shoes all are supported on the back plate which is made from pressed
steel sheet. It protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust. As it absorbs the complete torque
reaction of the shoes, it is also called as "torque plate". Two brake shoes which are semi circular in shape
are anchored on the back plate. Friction linings are attached on the

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 20

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outer periphery of the brake shoes, through which it makes contact with the drum. The brake shoe rubs
against wheel rim through friction lining and locks the wheel. One or two retractor springs are used which
keeps the brake shoes away from the drum, when brakes are not applied. The brake shoesare anchored at
one end and on the other ends force is applied by using some brake actuating mechanism, may be an
expander or wheel cylinder. The expander is operated by using a link rod which is connected to the brake
pedal. The expander forces the brake shoe to rub against revolving wheel drum from inside, there by
applying the brakes. An adjuster serves to adjust the wear of friction lining with use.

FACTORS INFLUENCING BRAKING EFFECT

The factors which affect the ability of brakes are (refer fig.).
Radius of brake drum (R1) and radius of the wheel (R2), If 'F' is the retarding force at the ground, then, F
= F1*R1
Where F, = Retarding force on brake drum F, = Retarding force on brake drumF, =
µ B X Fn, where

µ B = Coefficient of friction between brake lining and drum. F = Normal force applied on brake
shoes.
From the above discussion, it is clear that, the retarding force' F' is dependent on dimensions or sizes of
brake drum and wheel.
a) The braking effect can be increased by area of brake lining and pressure applied at the brake
lining.
b) The braking effect also depends upon the coefficient of friction between braking surfaces and
between tyre and road, but too higher friction coefficients may lock the wheels.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 21
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Fig: Braking effect

Consider the brake drum and various forces acting on brake shoe as shown in figure For the given
rotation of brake drum, shown in figure 8.6, brake shoe' A' becomes leading one and '8' will act as trailing
shoe.

CALCULATION OF HEAT GENERATION DURING BRAKING

Fig: Forces acting between shoes and drum

Let P Land P T are the normal forces acting between shoe and the drum for leading and trailing
shoes respectively. This produces friction forces on the shoes which act perpendicular to the forces P Land
P T" To make the calculation simple, the following assumptions are made.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 22

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(i) The brake consists of symmetrical linings.

(ii) The normal and friction forces act at the lining contact centre point of leading or trailing shoe.
(iii) The normal forces on leading and trailing shoes are equal.
(iv) The value of' ~B' is independent of pressure and velocity.

WKT, Work done in braking = Braking force x distance moved = F. S Nm Amount

of heat generated during this braking operation = F.S Nm (J) Heat generated
at each wheel = F.S J
Heat generated per second at each wheel F.S FV = 4t = 4 J/S or WWhere V
= Speed in m/s.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia

ARUN.R, Ass
CHANDRAKEERTHY istant
MS, ME DEPT, Pro
DR SMCE, fessor, Dept., of Mech., Engg. SVIT, B’LURU-64.23
BENGALURU-562132
Sandesh
Page
K. J.
152
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Table: Types of brakes used in Indian automobile

SI. No. Vehicle Make Type of Brake

1. Maruti (Suzuki) 800 Hydraulic
Front - Disc Type
Rear - Drum Type
2. Hindustan Ambassador Hydraulic
3. Fiat 1000 (Premier Padmini) Hydraulic
4. Jeep CJ Series Hydraulic
5. Ashok Layland Comet Air Pressure
Passenger, Viking Diaphragm - operated
6. Tata 1210 E Hydraulic, assisted by single
chamber air pressure booster
7. Standard 20 Hydraulic
8. Swaraj Mazda Hydraulic with vacuum booster

DISC BRAKES

Fig: Disc brake (fixed caliper type)

The disc brake differs from drum brakes in the use of heavy disc or rotor (a circular plate) which
replaces the drum. The disc is bolted to the wheel hub and revolves with it. The caliper is a stationary
housing connected to axle casing or stub axle and consists of two hydraulic pistons, to the end of which
brake friction pad are attached, one on each side of the disc. Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid
to enter and .leave each housing. Disc brake has excellent cooling characteristics, making it highly resistant
to brake “fade". When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure is built up behind the pistons and the
friction pads are forced inward against the revolving disc, providing braking effort. This force of the
friction pad on both side, will retard the disc. On releasing the brakes, the rubber sealing rings (not shown
in figure) acts as return springs and causes the pistons

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 24
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Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

and hence friction pads to move away from the disc, there by releasing it.
This requires higher operating force than drum type. More than one caliper may be used, but this
reduces the cooling rate.
The torque output of the disc brake is given by T = 11. W. R n,
Where, W - Force applied to each of friction pads.
n - Number of friction pads.
R- Mean radius of friction pad (r1+r2)
This torque output is not affected by the direction of disc rotation.

Fig: Disc brake of swinging caliper type

A swinging caliper type disc brake uses a single piston on one side only. One friction pad is fixed
to the caliper which is hinged about a fulcrum point as shown in fig. When brakes are applied, the high
pressure fluid presses the other friction pad against the revolving disc and caliper exerts reaction from
opposite side and causes the fixed friction pad to move slightly inward. The caliper automatically changes
its position by swinging about the fulcrum pin and thus exerts pressure- onthe other side of the disc,
thus provides braking effort.
A sliding caliper type as shown in fig, uses two pistons "PI and P/' and the high pressure fluid
directly exerts pressure on one friction pad "8" through the piston "P I". The piston P2 causes the caliper
to move slightly to right, there by moving the friction pad' A', attached to it. Thus the friction pad' A' exerts
pressure on the disc, through the sliding motion of the caliper, and required braking effort can be obtained.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 25
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Fig: Disc brake of sliding caliper type

Fig: Typical front wheel disc brake.

Comparison of Disc and Drum Types of Brakes

Sl.No Disc Brakes Drum Brakes

1 More efficient cooling Less efficient cooling
2 As flat friction pads are used, wear is Semi-circular friction linings on the brake
more uniform. results in non uniform wear.
3 The weight is less, resulting in lower Comparatively, the weight of the drum is
inertia. more
4 These are more stable. Comparatively less stable.
5 Maintenance and service of the drum is For service and other works, the drum should
to be brakes is easy. be removed which takes more time.
6 These have better anti-fade The braking effect decreases with prolonged
characteristics. application of brakes.
7 These do not have self-servo action and The brake shoes experience self-servo action
decreases the braking force required. and hence require greater operating force.
8 Total frictional area available is less. Total frictional area available is more.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 26
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Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

MECHANICAL BRAKES
All modern cars have been using hydraulic brakes as service brakes since 1940, but mechanical
brakes are still used in parking and emergency brakes. In the mechanical brakes, the pressure from the
brake pedal is transmitted to the wheel brakes through rods and shafts or cables and shafts.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia

ARUN.R, Ass
CHANDRAKEERTHY istant
MS, ME DEPT, Pro
DR SMCE, fessor, Dept., of Mech., Engg. SVIT, B’LURU-64.27
BENGALURU-562132
Sandesh
Page
K. J.
156
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Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Brake Shoe Operation

The shoes are operated against the revolving drum by cams or toggle lever as shown in fig.
(a) and (b). These cams or toggles levers are in turn operated by various mechanical linkages. The
mechanical linkage also multiplies the pedal force through leverage to obtain effective braking effort
against the drum.
The fig. (c) Shows the use of Girling mechanism in mechanical brake system which makes both the
shoes leading type. When brakes are applied, the force at the expander pushes the arm of upper bell crank
lever, this transmits its motion to the lower part of the mechanism and causes lower arm of the bell crank
to move towards left. But the presence of adjuster mechanism gives a reaction and makes the whole of the
brake shoe at the lower end to move toward right, thus making it to act as leading type. The other shoe is
already leading. Hence the Girling mechanism makes both the shoes of leading type. The drawback of the
system is, when the automobile is moving reverse, both the shoes will become trailing and the braking
effect available at the shoes is considerably reduced. This is not the point to be considered, as on reverse,
vehicle moves slowly and braking effort required is also less.
Fig. (d) Shows one method of making both the shoes leading in both the direction of rotation of the
drum. When the vehicle is moving in reverse direction, the brake shoes bear against the expanding
mechanism and consequently become leading. This overcomes the disadvantage of one - struct
arrangement in reverse. Anyhow two leading shoe system are used only on front brakes, where more
braking effort is required due to weight transfer.

GIRLING MECHANICAL BRAKE

It mainly consists of expander and adjuster unit as known in fig. (c). the expander provides the actuating force
required to operate the brake shoes and the adjuster compensates for wear of friction lining.

Fig: Expander

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 28
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Fig: Adjuster
The expander consists of a shaft, the end portion of which is made conical shape as in fig. (a). The
rollers are- used between arc portion of the shaft and brake shoes to reduce the friction. When the shaft is
pulled, conical portion moves up, moves the shoes apart through rollers. Thus the brake shoes tend to drag
on the inner surface of the brake drum, there by applying the brakes.
The adjuster is used to compensate the lining wear on the brake shoes. By screwing the conical
portion' A', brake shoes moves apart, thus taking the wear of lining.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Basically, the car hydraulic braking system consists of a master cylinder, steel tubing to form
connecting lines and one or two wheel cylinders for each wheel. In this type, the pedal force is transmitted
to the brake shoes through brake fluid. The force applied to the pedal is multiplied and is transmitted to all
the brake shoes. The brake fluid is incompressible and it exerts equal pressure in all directions. The brake
pedal force is equally applied on all the wheel cylinders and produces equal braking effect on all the wheels.
This force transmission is based on pascal's law which states that "when pressure is exerted on a confined
liquid, it transmits pressure without loss, equally in all directions".
When the driver operates the brake pedal, it exerts a force on the piston of master cylinder which
is being transmitted to each wheel cylinder. The piston in the wheel cylinder transfer this force [increased
or decreased, depending on piston area, (mechanical advantage)] to the brake shoes.
The movement of piston in master cylinder causes the pistons in wheel cylinders to moveuntil
the brake shoes engage the revolving brake drum. If an attempt is made to depress the master cylinder
piston beyond this point will transmit only pressure, but not motion.
The fig. shows schematically the hydraulic system of a car having drum brakes on all four wheels.
On the front wheels disk brakes may be used, instead of drum brakes. In Hindustan Ambassador car, on
front wheels, a separate wheel cylinder is used to operate each brake shoe (both shoes leading) and on the
rear wheels only one wheel cylinder is used to operate both the shoes (one leading - other trailing). Here
all the shoes are of floating anchor type.
A small pressure of about 50 kpa is maintained in the steel piping to keep the wheel cylinder
pistons in the expanded position, when brakes are not applied. This avoids entry of air in to wheel cylinders
when the brakes are released.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 29

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Fig: Hydraulic Brake system

Master Cylinder
Master cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic braking system in which hydraulic pressure is
developed. Its working is similar to a pump and converts the mechanical force on the brake pedal in to
hydraulic pressure. It is rigidly fastened to the car frame and linked by means of a pedal rod to the service
brake foot pedal. Pressure of the driver's foot on the brake pedal is transmitted through various linkage
arrangements, to a piston in the master cylinder. The forward motion of the piston in the cylinder pushes
the brake fluid. Since the brake lines and wheel cylinders are filled with brake fluid, the piston acts on a
solid column of fluid, thus forcing the wheel cylinder pistons. When the wheel cylinder pistons have
pressed the brake shoes against the drums, fluid movement ceases and pressure increases depending on
force on the piston of master cylinder.

Construction
The fig. illustrates the construction of master cylinder. Essentially it consists of a supply tank or a
reservoir and compression chamber in which the piston operates. The reservoir will supply additional fluid,
when needed, to compensate for loss of fluid in the pipe lines due to temperature variations and due to
minute leakage. The air vent provided in the cap will keep the brake fluid always at atmospheric pressure
and allows expansion and contraction of the fluid without forming pressure or vacuum.
The compression chamber consists of an aluminums piston which is covered with rubber seals on
both the ends to prevent leakage of brake fluid. The inner face of the piston presses against a rubber primary
seal and this prevents leakage past the piston. The outer piston end has a rubber

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Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

secondary seal to prevent fluid from leaving the master cylinder. The inner piston head has several small
bleeder ports (piston holes) that pass through head to the base of the rubber primary seal. The piston is
prevented from coming out by using stop washer and circlip as shown in figure. A push rod is used to
apply the pressure and it connects the piston to the brake pedal linkage. A fluid check valve with a rubber
cup inside is held against a rubber seat by a coil spring. The spring presses against the check valve, while
the other end is against the piston primary seal. This serves to retain the residual pressure in the brake lines,
even when the brakes are released.
On the primary seal side, a number of holes are located in the piston head. The bypass port
(compensation or relief port) and intake (recuperation or filler port) port are used to connect the fluid
reservoir to the compression chamber.

Working
When the brake pedal is pressed, push rod moves the piston inward (left) against the spring force,
till it covers the bypass port. With bypass port closed, the further movement of the piston builds up the
pressure in the compression chamber. This pressure forces the check valve inner rubber cup to open and
pass fluid in to the lines. This fluid enters the wheel cylinder and causes the pistons in it to move out ward
and force the shoes tightly against the rotating drum, thereby applying the brakes.
When the brake pedal is released, pressure from the brake shoe return springs forces fluid back
against the check valve and the master cylinder piston moves outward (right) due to spring action in the
master cylinder. The fluid under pressure will lift the check valve off its seat, allowing fluid to return to
the cylinder.

Fig: Master Cylinder

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The spring force in the master cylinder keeps the fluid check valve pressed on its seat for some
time and hence delays the return of fluid from lines to the compression chamber. Some delay is also caused
by fluid inertia in the lines. This creates a vacuum in the compression chamber andwould result in air
leakage in to the system and makes the brake useless. This problem is avoided by having an intake port as
shown. As vacuum is created, the fluid reservoir in which the fluid is at atmospheric pressure, forces the
fluid through intake port and holes in the piston which deflects the rubber cup and enters the compression
chamber, thereby destroying the vacuum. In this way a complete column of liquid is always maintained
between master cylinder piston and wheel cylinder pistons, ready for the next brake application.
But, by the time fluid from reservoir fills the vacuum; the fluid from the lines comes back and lifts
the check valve of its seat. But compression chamber is already full and this extra fluid has to be
accommodated somehow. Otherwise, this would cause the brakes to jam, as pressure in the lines has not
been relieved fully. This problem is solved by means of a bypass port. The extra fluid from the lines passes
through the bypass port to the reservoir, where atmospheric pressure is maintained.

Wheel cylinder
In the brake system, wheel cylinder is used to transmit the pressure of the fluid in master cylinder
to the brake shoes and force them against the revolving drum. One wheel cylinder (in some system, two)
is used to each wheel to operate the brake shoes.
The figure shows the construction of wheel cylinder and the figure shows the simplified view of
the wheel cylinder which is forcing the brake shoes outward against the drum. It consists of cast iron
housing, two aluminum pistons (in some cases sintered iron pistons are used), rubber seals (cups), cup
spreaders, coil spring and rubber boot (dust cover). The brake line from the master cylinder is connected
to the inlet port. The cylinder is drilled to provide a bleeder screw, to bleed the air from the system,
whenever required. The wheel cylinder is usually bolted to the brake backing plate.
When brakes are applied, master cylinder forces fluid in to wheel cylinder through inlet port and
forces the pistons to move apart. This outward movement of the pistons pushes the brake shoes against the
drum.
When the brakes are released, the piston move inward due to spring force and forces the brake
fluid out of wheel cylinder.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM

Advantages
1. The fluid pressure is same everywhere in its circuit and thus equal braking effort is obtained at
all the four wheels.
2. Comparatively, rate of wear is less due to absence of joints.
3. The system is self lubricating.
4. Due to absence of joints, brake linkages, it is simple in construction.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 32

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Disadvantages
1. It is suitable for intermittent brake applications. Mechanical linkage has to be provided for
parking purposes.
2. Even a small leakage of air in to the system makes the brake useless.

Fig: Wheel Cylinder

Fig: Simplified wheel cylinder action, arrow marks shows fluid pressing on rubber cup

POWER BRAKES
When the vehicle weight is more, driver cannot apply the brakes comfortably without fatigue, some
external source of energy is used-to supplement his effort which makes the brake application easier. For
this reason, many of the vehicles are equipped with power brakes. The power brakes are used to reduce the
amount of pedal pressure necessary to stop the vehicle. If energy for these brakes are taken from the
transmission of the vehicle itself, which partly helps the driver i.e., driver still has

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 33

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.
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to put some effort while applying the brakes, then such brakes are 'called "Servo brakes or Power assisted
brakes". Practically when none of the braking effort is applied by the driver, then the brakes 'are termed as
"Power brakes or Power operated brakes".
The mechanism which supplements the driver's effort in applying the brakes is called a "servo
mechanism". This servo action or self energization of brakes helps the driver to apply the brakes without
fatigue.
Mechanical servos were used initially, but these have become obsolete after the introduction of
vacuum operated servos. In vacuum servo brakes, the brakes are applied by utilizing engine suction from
inlet manifold, A small vacuum reservoir may be provided to have enough vacuum for several brake
applications even after engine has stopped. Vacuum servo brakes are of two types, bothtypes consists of a
piston or a diaphragm operating in a cylinder and are incorporated with suitable linkage for brake
application. In the first type, on both the sides, piston is exposed to atmosphere, when the brakes are not
applied. When the brakes are applied, engine vacuum will act on one side of piston and the differential
pressure on both sides of the piston causes the linkage to operate the brakes. In the second type, both sides
of the piston are subjected to vacuum when the brakes are in the released position. When brakes are
applied, one side of piston is exposed to atmospheric pressure and the differential pressure on both sides
of the piston, causes the linkage to operate. This system is more rapid in operation and hence preferred
over the first type. The second type is called "Suspended Vacuum" system.

Fig: Second type; suspended vacuum type Brakes in released position & when brakes are

The figure shows one type of servo vacuum or power brake. It consists of a piston and cylinder
arrangement as in figure. Master cylinder piston is connected to the one side of the piston and the other
side of it is connected to the brake pedal. A vacuum control valve is placed between the brake and the
piston. This valve admits vacuum to one side of the piston, while the other side is kept at atmospheric
pressure. This valve can also allow atmospheric pressure to reach both sides of the piston.
When brakes are applied, the control valve closes off the atmospheric pressure to the master
cylinder side of the piston (i.e. on the right side of the piston). Further movement of the brake pedal opens
a vacuum inlet passage to this same side, and thus vacuum acts on this side of the piston. So,on the left
side atmospheric pressure is acting and a partial vacuum is acting on the right side of the

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piston. This differential pressure forces the piston to move to the vacuum side. 'As the master cylinder piston
is connected to this piston (say P), it moves toward right and thus apply pressure to the brake system.
The power brakes have three stages of operation.
1. Brakes released
2. Applying brakes
3. Holding constant apply pressure.

Fig: Simplified Power brake system

Another type of vacuum servo brake is as shown in figure .It consists of a vacuum reservoir which
is connected to the inlet manifold between carburetor and engine. It also consists of a servo cylinder, one
side of which is connected to vacuum reservoir through control unit, while the other side, it is direct
connection. The control unit is provided with a piston and two valves 'A' and '8'. Through upper valve (A)
atmospheric pressure acts on the left side of the piston in servo cylinder, when valve' A' is open. When
lower valve (8) opens and' A' closes, vacuum acts on the left side of the piston in the servo cylinder. On
the right side of the piston in the servo cylinder, always vacuum will be acting. Through master cylinder,
the brake pedal operates the piston in the control unit.
When the brake is in released position, valve' A' is closed and valve' 8' is open. Thus engine
vacuum is acting on both sides of the piston in servo cylinder.
When brake is applied, the pressure of the brake fluid pushes the control unit piston up and hence
closes valve '8' and opens valve 'A'. This opens left side of the piston in servo cylinder to atmospheric
pressure, while on the right-side vacuum is already acting. The differential pressure causes "the piston to
move towards right and is used to apply the brakes through suitable linkages, which may be mechanical or
hydraulic. This system reduces the driver's fatigue considerably and practically engine vacuum supplies
whole of the braking effort.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 35

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Fig: Vacuum Servo Brake

AIR BRAKES
As vehicle weight increases (like heavy buses and trucks), heavier braking effort is requiredto
stop the vehicle. Compressed air powered brakes are suitable for these heavy vehicles. These brakes consist
of flexible diaphragms in brake chambers and are connected to the brake rods and controlled by hand or
foot operated valve. The compressed air pressure acts on flexible diaphragm. The brake rods connect to
brake operating cams on the wheel brakes. The braking operation is controlled by a brake valve which
directs the air flow from reservoir against the diaphragms in the brake chambers during brake application
and from brake chambers to the atmosphere, when brake is released. When the pressure in the reservoir
falls below certain value, air compressor which is driven by engine, supplies the compressed air.
The layout of an air brake system is as shown in figure. The filtered air from the compressor passes
to the reservoir through the unloaded valve which sends the air at a predetermined reservoir pressure (about
900 kpa). The reservoir supplies air to various accessories and diaphragm units (brake chambers) at each
wheel through the brake valve.
In the air brake system, dust and other matter present in air is removed by passing it through an air
filter. An air compressor driven by the engine, raise the pressure of air to the required level and supplies
high pressure air to brake chambers at wheels through un loader valve. This valve mainly consists of a
governor valve, plunger and non-return valve and regulates the brake line pressure in the system. A
reservoir or air tank made from steel sheet stores the compressed air at the specified pressure and is used
for brake application. The reservoir is also provided with a safety valve to control the air pressure in
it. The brake valve (application valve) is used to regulate the braking intensity in an air pressure system.
Tile brake valve supplies air to the various brake chambers at the required pressure. One brake chamber is
installed on each wheel. In the brake chambers the pressure energy of compressed air is converted in to
useful mechanical work (piston movements) and is used for brake application.

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS, ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 36

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Fig: Layout of air brake system

Brake Valve
The brake valve consists of a spring loaded hollow piston inlet and exhaust valves, air bleed hole
and exhaust port. The compressed air from the reservoir is admitted to the brake valve through inlet valve
and on one side it goes to various accessories like stop light switch etc. and on the other side, it goes to the
brake chamber at each wheel.
When brake is applied, the force is transmitted through the linkage to the brake valve, so that
piston is moved down against the force of graduating spring. This piston movement closes the exhaust
valve and opens the inlet valve and the compressed air from the reservoir goes to the brake chambers for
applying brakes. Simultaneously air also enters the chamber under piston, through the bleeder hole. So that
bottom of the piston is subjected to air pressure and automatically balances the mechanical force applied
on the piston by the driver.

Fig: Brake valve

CHANDRAKEERTHY MS,Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia
Department of Mechanical ME DEPT, DR SMCE, BENGALURU-562132 Sandesh K. J.37
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The piston is lifted up when the air force is greater than the mechanical force. In this position
exhaust valve opens and air escapes through the exhaust port till the differential pressure on two sides of
the piston is balanced.
For increasing braking intensity, driver has to apply more mechanical force on the piston through
brake pedal. Due to force on the piston, it moves down, thus opening inlet valve more and admitting more
air under pressure. The piston reaches a new position of balance.
Whenever the driver wants to decrease the braking intensity, he will release the brake pedal. This
causes the piston to move up slightly, thus opens the exhaust valve for air to escape through exhaust port,
till a balance of forces is again established on the piston.
If the brake pedal is fully released, there is no mechanical force acting on the piston. The piston
moves up due to air pressure underneath of it, thus opens exhaust valve and closes inlet valve. The whole
pressure is released through exhaust valve and exhaust port. As the inlet valve is closed, there is no entry
of air from the reservoir and hence brakes at the wheels are released.

Brake Chamber
In brake chamber, pressure energy of compressed air is converted into useful
mechanical energy for applying the brakes. Front wheel brake chambers are usually provided
with push rods while sliding forks are fitted in rear brakes.

Fig: Simplified brake chamber of single diaphragm type.

Figure shows the simplified view of a brake chamber of single diaphragm type. It consistsof a
diaphragm which is fitted in a chamber as shown. The left side of diaphragm is open to air pressure from
brake valve and right side of it is exposed to atmosphere through a breather hole. When brake is applied,
the brake valve delivers air at high pressure to the pressure chamber and the differential pressure on both
sides of the diaphragm causes it to move towards right, there by operating the push rod which in turn
actuates the cam at the wheel to apply brakes.

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Parking brake

A parking brake, also called an emergency brake or e-brake, is a mechanical hand lever or foot- operated brake
that is a backup braking system. It is located either between the front two seats or to the left of your gas and
brake pedal. A parking brake controls the rear brakes and is a completely separate device from your vehicle’s
regular hydraulic brakes. It is in charge of keeping a parked vehicle stationary; it will prevent the car from
rolling down a hill or moving. The emergency brake name comes from the brake’s ability to stop the car if the
regular hydraulic brakes totally fail. Parking brakes are completely mechanical and use only cables and levers
to operate. When a parking brake lever is pulled (or when a parking brake pedal is pushed), these cables transmit
the necessary force to keep your vehicle in place or to stop the vehicle. The steel cables are attached to the
parking brake, and when the parking brake is pulled, the steel cablesare tightened. Most vehicles have drum
brakes on their rear wheels; so, when the parking brake is pulled, the cables will pull a lever that compress the
brake shoes to stop the vehicle. If your vehicle has rear disc brakes and you pull the parking brake, then the
cables engage a corkscrew device that pushes a piston into the brake pads, which stop the vehicle. In both
instances, the parking brake bypasses the regular hydraulic brakes to stop the vehicle. Parking brakes also have
a self-locking system, which means that the brake won’t be released unless the lever or footbrake is
released.

Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) is a safety feature in vehicles designed to prevent wheels from locking
up during braking. It helps maintain traction between the tires and the road surface, allowing the driver to
maintain steering control during emergency braking or slippery conditions.

ABS works by using sensors to detect when a wheel is about to lock up. When this occurs, the system modulates
brake pressure by rapidly pulsating the brakes, allowing the wheel to continue rotating. This pulsating action
helps prevent skidding and allows the driver to steer the vehicle while braking hard.

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The system operates through a control unit that continuously monitors the speed of each wheel. If it detects
any wheel slowing down too quickly (indicating imminent lock-up), it adjusts the braking force to that wheel
to maintain traction.

Working principle:
Wheel Speed Sensors: ABS relies on wheel speed sensors located at each wheel or sometimes within the
differential. These sensors monitor the rotational speed of each wheel.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU): The information from the wheel speed sensors is sent to the ECU, which
constantly analyzes this data.

Pulse Modulation: When you apply the brakes, if the ECU detects that a wheel is on the verge of locking
(rotating significantly slower than the others), it modulates the brake pressure by rapidly releasing and applying
the brakes. This pulsating action happens multiple times per second.

Preventing Lock-Up: By momentarily releasing and then reapplying the brakes, ABS preventsthe wheel
from fully locking up, allowing it to continue rotating and maintaining traction withthe road.

Maintaining Steering Control: Because the wheels are still rotating, you can continue to steer the vehicle even
under heavy braking. This helps in avoiding obstacles or maneuvering around hazards while braking.

ABS Indicator: Most vehicles equipped with ABS have a warning light on the dashboard that illuminates if
there's a problem with the system.

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Safety system
Safety measures in modern vehicle
Modern vehicles are equipped with a variety of safety measures designed to protect occupants, prevent
accidents, and mitigate the severity of collisions. Here are some key safety features found in many modern
cars:

Airbags: Multiple airbags are placed strategically throughout the vehicle, including frontal airbags, side
airbags, curtain airbags, and sometimes knee airbags. These inflate rapidly during a collision to cushion
occupants and reduce the risk of injury.

Anti-lock Braking System (ABS): As mentioned earlier, ABS prevents wheel lock-up during braking,
maintaining steering control and reducing the risk of skidding.

Electronic Stability Control (ESC): ESC helps maintain vehicle stability and control, especially in situations
where the car might lose traction. It adjusts braking force on individual wheels and sometimes engine power to
assist the driver in maintaining control.

Traction Control System (TCS): TCS prevents wheel spin during acceleration on slippery surfaces,
improving traction and stability.

Forward Collision Warning (FCW) and Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB): Thesesystems use sensors
(such as radar, cameras, or lidar) to detect imminent collisions with vehicles or pedestrians. FCW alerts the
driver, while AEB can autonomously apply the brakes to mitigate or avoid a collision.

Lane Departure Warning (LDW) and Lane Keeping Assist (LKA): LDW alerts the driver when the vehicle
unintentionally drifts out of its lane, while LKA actively helps steer the vehicle back into its lane.

Blind Spot Monitoring (BSM): BSM uses sensors to detect vehicles in the driver's blind spots and alerts the
driver to their presence, often through visual or audible warnings.

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC): ACC maintains a set speed but also automatically adjusts the vehicle's speed
to maintain a safe following distance from the vehicle ahead.

Backup Cameras and Parking Sensors: These assist in parking maneuvers by providing a view of the area
behind the vehicle and alerting the driver to nearby obstacles.

Structural Design: Modern vehicles are engineered with advanced materials and structural designs to better
absorb and distribute impact forces in the event of a collision, enhancing occupant safety.

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These safety features work together to provide a comprehensive safety net, reducing the likelihood of accidents
and minimizing the severity of injuries in case of a collision

Safety frames

Safety frames, often referred to as safety cages or safety cells, are structural components in modern vehicles
designed to enhance occupant safety in the event of a collision. One of the most notable examples of this is the
usage of reinforced passenger compartments in cars, commonly known as a "safety cell." Here are some key
aspects of safety frames in modern vehicles:

Rigidity and Strength: Safety frames are constructed using high-strength materials like high- strength steel,
aluminum, or composite materials. These materials provide rigidity and strength to the vehicle's structure,
forming a protective shell around the occupants.

Crash Absorption: In the event of a collision, the safety frame is engineered to absorb and distribute impact
forces away from the passenger compartment. This helps to minimize the transfer of energy to the occupants
and reduces the risk of injury.

Crumple Zones: Vehicles are designed with specific areas, often at the front and rear, known as crumple zones.
These zones are engineered to deform and absorb the impact energy during a collision, thus reducing the force
transmitted to the passenger compartment.

Side Impact Protection: Safety frames also incorporate reinforcements in the doors, pillars, and roof to provide
protection in the event of a side collision. This reinforcement helps to maintain the structural integrity of the
passenger compartment.

Airbag Deployment: Safety frames often work in conjunction with airbag systems. During a collision, the
sensors trigger airbag deployment to provide an additional cushioning and protection for occupants.

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Advanced Safety Features: Modern vehicles may include additional safety features like pre- tensioning
seatbelts, active safety systems (such as collision avoidance systems), and post- collision braking, all of which
work in conjunction with the safety frames to enhance overall safety.

Testing and Compliance: Vehicle manufacturers conduct rigorous crash tests and simulations to ensure that the
safety frames meet or exceed safety standards set by regulatory bodies. These tests evaluate the structural
integrity and effectiveness of the safety measures.
Working of air bags

Airbags are a critical safety feature in vehicles, designed to supplement seat belts and provide additional
protection for occupants during a collision.

Sensors and Crash Detection: When a collision occurs, the vehicle's sensors detect the impact. These sensors
are usually accelerometers or gyroscopes strategically placed within the vehicle.

Signal to the Airbag Control Module: The sensors send signals to the airbag control module, which processes
the data to determine the severity and type of impact.

Ignition of the Airbag: Based on the information received, the airbag control module triggers the deployment
system. This system ignites a chemical reaction, often using sodium azide (NaN3), which rapidly produces
nitrogen gas to inflate the airbag.

Inflation of the Airbag: The inflated airbag bursts out from its housing, rapidly expanding to cushion the impact.
This happens in a fraction of a second, as fast as 1/20th of a second.

Protection and Absorption of Impact: The inflated airbag creates a cushioning barrier between the occupant
and the hard surfaces within the vehicle, such as the steering wheel, dashboard, or

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side panels. It helps to slow down the forward motion of the occupants, reducing the force exerted on their
bodies during the collision.

Deflation and Impact Absorption: After deployment, the airbag starts to deflate immediately to allow for a
gradual impact absorption and to prevent additional injury to the occupants.

Supplemental Safety Measure: Airbags are designed to work in conjunction with seat belts. They are not a
standalone safety feature but rather intended to enhance the effectiveness of seat belts by providing an
additional layer of protection.

Airbags are deployed based on specific criteria related to the speed and direction of impact, and they're typically
placed in various parts of the vehicle, including the steering wheel, dashboard, side panels, and sometimes
even in the seat or roof areas, to provide comprehensive protection for occupants in different types of
collisions.

Working of seat belt

Seat belts are a fundamental safety feature in vehicles designed to restrain occupants during sudden stops,
collisions, or accidents. They work based on straightforward principles:

Restraint and Distribution of Force: When you fasten a seat belt, you create a harness that secures you to the
seat. In the event of a sudden stop or collision, the seat belt restrains your body, preventing you from being
thrown forward.

Reduction of Impact Forces: The seat belt spreads the force of a collision across the stronger parts of your
body—the hips, chest, and shoulders. This spreading of force helps to reduce the risk of severe injuries by
preventing your body from hitting the vehicle's interior or being ejected from the vehicle.

Locking Mechanisms: Seat belts often have a locking mechanism that activates during sudden movements. In
modern vehicles, these mechanisms can be pretensioners or retractors that automatically tighten the seat belt
upon sensing a rapid deceleration or impact.

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Three-Point Seat Belts: Most modern seat belts are three-point seat belts, consisting of a lap belt and a shoulder
belt. The lap belt goes across the hips, while the shoulder belt goes diagonally across the chest and shoulders,
providing more comprehensive protection.

Preventing Secondary Collisions: Seat belts are also crucial in preventing secondary collisions. By keeping
occupants restrained within the vehicle, seat belts reduce the risk of hitting other passengers or objects inside
the car during a crash.

Supplemental Restraint System (SRS): In conjunction with seat belts, some vehicles are equipped with an
airbag system as part of the Supplemental Restraint System. Seat belts and airbags work together to provide a
higher level of protection during a collision.

Seat belts are vital safety devices that significantly reduce the risk of injury or death in accidents. Their proper
use, including wearing them correctly and ensuring they are in good condition, is essential for maximizing their
effectiveness.

Working of collapsible steering

A collapsible steering column is a safety feature designed to minimize injury to the driver in the event of a
frontal collision.

Design: The steering column is engineered with multiple sections that can telescope or collapse into each other.
This design allows the column to absorb energy and reduce the impact force transmitted to the driver.

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Impact Absorption: During a collision, the force generated by the impact is transmitted through the vehicle's
structure to the steering column. The collapsible design allows the column to compress or collapse in a
controlled manner, absorbing some of the energy from the impact.

Reduction of Forward Movement: As the steering column collapses, it helps to reduce the distance that the
steering wheel moves toward the driver. This minimizes the risk of the driver being thrown forward and hitting
the steering wheel, dashboard, or other hard surfaces in the vehicle's interior.

Protection of the Driver: By absorbing energy and reducing the movement of the steering wheel toward the
driver, the collapsible steering column aims to decrease the risk of chest, head, and upper body injuries that
might occur upon impact.

Engineering Standards: Collapsible steering columns are designed to meet safety standards set byregulatory
bodies, ensuring they function effectively in various collision scenarios.

Supplemental Safety Features: Collapsible steering columns work in conjunction with other safety features like
airbags and seat belts to provide comprehensive protection for the driver in the event of a crash.

Working of spoilers

Spoilers are aerodynamic devices installed on vehicles to modify the airflow around them, enhancing stability,
handling, and sometimes fuel efficiency. Here's how they work:

Airflow Manipulation: Spoilers are strategically placed on vehicles to disrupt and control the airflow. They
alter the way air moves over the vehicle's body, reducing drag and improving aerodynamic performance.

Reducing Lift: In many cases, spoilers are used to counteract lift. Lift is the force that tends to make a vehicle's
body lift or become unstable at higher speeds. Spoilers create downward force (downforce) by altering the
airflow, pressing the vehicle down onto the road, which helps improve traction and stability.

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Minimizing Drag: Some spoilers are designed to minimize drag by reducing the amount of turbulent air behind
the vehicle. This can help improve fuel efficiency by making the vehicle more streamlined and reducing
resistance as it moves through the air.

Types of Spoilers: There are different types of spoilers, including lip spoilers (small spoilers attached to the
edge of the trunk or hood), pedestal spoilers (larger spoilers mounted on pedestals), and active spoilers (spoilers
that can change position based on speed or other factorsto optimize aerodynamics).

Vehicle-Specific Design: Spoilers are often designed with specific vehicles in mind, taking into account factors
like the vehicle's shape, speed capabilities, and intended use. Performance cars, for instance, might have larger
or more intricately designed spoilers to optimize aerodynamics at higher speeds.

Balance and Handling: By controlling airflow, spoilers can help maintain balance and improve handling by
reducing the tendency of a vehicle to become unstable, particularly at high speeds or during sudden maneuvers.

Working of defoggers

Defoggers, commonly found in vehicles, are systems designed to remove condensation or fogging from the
interior surfaces of windows, particularly the windshield. Here's how they work:

Heating Elements: Defoggers typically use electrical heating elements embedded in the windshield or rear
window glass. These elements are usually made of very thin wires or conductive material that can generate heat
when an electrical current passes through them.

Activation: When you turn on the defogger system, electricity is sent to these heating elements, which start to
generate heat.

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Heat Distribution: The heat generated by these elements warms up the glass surface where they are located.
This warmth helps to raise the temperature of the glass, preventing condensation or fog from forming on the
interior surface.

Condensation Prevention: By keeping the glass surface slightly warmer than the dew point of the surrounding
air, the defogger system prevents moisture from condensing on the window. This prevents fogging and keeps
the window clear for better visibility.

Time to Clear: Depending on the severity of the fogging or condensation and the efficiency of the defogger
system, it may take some time for the window to completely clear. Initially, you might notice the fogging
dispersing in specific areas where the heating elements are located.

Rear Window and Side Mirrors: Similar defogger systems can also be present in rear windows and sometimes
in side mirrors, using heating elements to prevent fogging or ice buildup for better visibility.

Fire safety measures in heavy vehicles

Fire safety in heavy vehicles, such as trucks and buses, is critical due to the potential for catastrophic accidents
and the presence of combustible materials and flammable liquids. Here are key fire safety measures:

Fire Suppression Systems: Heavy vehicles often employ fire suppression systems, including automatic
extinguishing systems in engine compartments and other critical areas. These systems can detect fires through
heat or smoke sensors and deploy fire suppression agents, such as dry chemicals or foam, to extinguish the fire
or prevent its spread.

Regular Maintenance: Proper maintenance of the vehicle's engine, exhaust systems, and electrical components
is essential. Regular inspections help identify potential fire hazards, suchas worn-out wiring or leaking fuel
lines, which can be addressed before they cause a fire.

Emergency Equipment: Heavy vehicles are equipped with fire extinguishers that meet safety standards and are
easily accessible. Drivers and operators should be trained in their proper use to contain small fires before they
escalate.

Fuel System Safety: Ensuring the integrity of the fuel system is crucial. This involves regular checks for leaks,
proper installation of fuel lines, and the use of fire-resistant materials where possible.

Electrical System Safety: Proper insulation and maintenance of electrical wiring can prevent short circuits and
subsequent fires. Overloading circuits should be avoided, and damaged wiring should be repaired promptly.

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Driver Training and Awareness: Drivers should be educated on fire safety protocols, including identifying
warning signs of potential fires, responding to emergencies, and safely evacuating passengers or cargo if
needed.

Emergency Response Planning: Establishing emergency response protocols in case of a fire is crucial. This
includes having evacuation procedures, communication plans, and coordinationwith emergency services.

Fire Risk Assessment: Conducting regular fire risk assessments specific to the vehicle type and its cargo is
vital. Identifying potential fire hazards and taking preventive measures can significantly reduce the risk of fires.

Cargo Handling Safety: Transporting hazardous materials requires strict adherence to safety protocols, proper
labeling, and compliance with regulations to prevent fires caused by reactive or flammable materials.

Design Enhancements: Continuous improvements in vehicle design incorporate fire-resistant materials and
technologies to minimize fire risks and enhance safety measures.

Bullet proof vehicles

Bulletproof vehicles, often referred to as armored vehicles, are specially designed and modifiedto offer
protection against ballistic threats, including bullets and explosives. Here's an overview of how they're
constructed and the measures they employ:

Armored Materials: These vehicles are reinforced with specialized ballistic materials such as hardened steel,
ballistic fiberglass, Kevlar, and composite materials. These materials provide varying levels of protection
against different types of ballistic threats.

Bulletproof Glass: The windows are a crucial component. They are made of laminated glass layers combined
with polycarbonate materials to create a multi-layered structure capable of resisting bullets and providing
transparency.

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Reinforced Structure: The vehicle's body is reinforced to withstand ballistic impacts. The doors, pillars,
roof, and floor are typically strengthened with ballistic steel or composite materials to increase resistance
against gunfire or explosives.

Run-Flat Tires: Some bulletproof vehicles are equipped with run-flat tire systems that allow the vehicle to
continue moving even after the tires are punctured, providing a means of escape during an attack.

Sealed Interiors: The cabin is often sealed to protect occupants from chemical or biological threats. This
may include airtight seals on doors and windows to prevent the ingress of harmful substances.

Additional Security Features: Some armored vehicles also come equipped with other security features such
as sirens, intercom systems, fire suppression systems, and emergency exit options.

Vehicle Customization: Armored vehicles can be customized based on the level of protection required.
Different armor levels (such as B4, B6, B7) offer varying degrees of protection against firearms, explosives,
and grenade blasts.

Weight Consideration: The added weight of the armor and modifications can affect the vehicle's
performance. Engineers need to balance the level of protection with the vehicle's mobility and handling.

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