Diagnostics for

Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors 2
Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors 2
Edited by

Peter E. Stott
JET Joint Undertaking
Abingdon, Oxfordshire, England

Giuseppe Gorini
Paolo Prandoni and
Elio Sindoni
University of Mi/an
Mi/an, Italy

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Onfile

ISBN 978-1-4613-7442-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-5353-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5353-3

Proceedings of the International School of Plasma Physics "Piero Caldirola" Workshop on

Diagnostics for Experimental Fusion Reactors, held September 4-12, 1997, in Varenna, Italy
ISBN 0-306-45835-7
© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1998
Softcover reprinl of Ihe hardcover 1si edition 1998
http://www.plenum.com
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10987654321
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilm ing, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher
PREFACE

This book of proceedings collects the papers presented at the workshop on "Diagnostics
for Experimental Fusion Reactors" held at Villa Monastero, Varenna (Italy) September 4-12,
1997. This workshop was the seventh organized by the International School of Plasma
Physics "Piero Caldirola" on the topic of plasma diagnostics and the second devoted to the
diagnostic studies for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The
proceedings of the first workshop on ITER diagnostics were published by Plenum Press in
1996 with the title "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors". While
many of the ideas and studies reported in the first workshop remain valid, there has been sub-
stantial progress in the design and specification of many diagnostics for ITER. This moti-
vated a second workshop on this topic and the publication of a new book of proceedings.
ITER is a joint venture between Europe, Japan, Russia and USA in the field of con-
trolled thermonuclear fusion research. The present aim of ITER is to design an experimental
fusion reactor that can demonstrate ignition and sustained burn in a magnetically confined
plasma. To achieve this goal, a wide range of plasma parameters will have to be measured
reliably. It is also anticipated that diagnostics will be used much more extensively as input to
control systems on ITER than on present fusion devices and this will require increased relia-
bility and long-term stability.
The workshop opened with a series of papers on general issues concerning ITER diag-
nostics. Other oral sessions dealt with the application to ITER of magnetic diagnostics, re-
flectometry and ECE, interferometry and polarimetry, Thomson scattering, passive and active
spectroscopy, fusion products and divertor diagnostics. Special attention was paid to issues
such as radiation effects in diagnostic components and control applications of diagnostic
systems. The workshop was attended by 81 participants from the ITER parties with strong
participation from the USA, Japan and Russia as well as Europe. There were 50 invited talks
and 30 contributed papers presented in 2 poster sessions. Five discussion sessions were dedi-
cated to neutron diagnostics, Thomson scattering, reflectometry, radiation effects and spec-
troscopy. The 75 papers collected in these proceedings were produced by the authors either
before or shortly after the conference. The papers have not been refereed and authors remain
responsible for their own views.
Thanks are due to the institutions which have contributed financially to the organisation
of this Workshop, in particular the Istituto di Fisica del Plasma "Piero Caldirola" of CNR, the
DG XII of the European Commission, the Department of Physics of the University of Milan,
the Province of Lecco and the Camera di Commercio of Lecco.

P. E. Stott, G. Gorini, P. Prandoni, E. Sindoni

v
CONTENTS

THE ITER PROJECT

ITER Physics Basis, Machine Design and Diagnostic Integration

ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams, G. Janeschitz, D. Boucher,
T. Burges, K. loki, H. Pacher, R. Parker, D. Post, R. Thome, C. Walker

Role and Requirements for Plasma Measurements on ITER

V. S. Mukhovatov, R. Bartiromo, D. Boucher, A. E. Costley, L. de Kock,
K. Ebisawa, P. Edmonds, Yu. Gribov, G. Janeschitz, L. C. Johnson, S. Kasai,
E. Marmar, A. Nagashima, M. Petrov, D. E. Post, P. E. Stott, V. S. Strelkov,
G. Vayakis, C. I. Walker, 1. Wesley, S. Yamamoto, K. M. Young,
V. S. Zaveriaev, and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams 25

Overview of the ITER Diagnostic System

A. E. Costley, K. Ebisawa, P. Edmonds, G. Janeschitz, L. C. Johnson, S. Kasai,
L. de Kock, V. Mukhovatov, P. E. Stott, G. Vayakis, C. Walker, S. Yamamoto,
K. M. Young, V. Zaveriaev, and the ITER Joint Central and Home Teams 41

Diagnostic Access for ITER

C.1. Walker, T. Ando, A. E. Costley, L. de Kock, K. Ebisawa, P. Edmonds,
G. Janeschitz, L. C. Johnson, V. Mukhovatov, G. Vayakis, S. Yamamoto 57

Diagnostic Requirements for the ITER Divertor

L. de Kock, G. Janeschitz, A. Kukushkin, H. D. Pacher, T. Ando, A. Costley,
K. Ebisawa, M. Sugihara, G. Vayakis, C. Walker . . . . . . . . . 67

Integration of Vacuum Coupled Diagnostics

P. H. Edmonds, R. Barnsley, N. Hawkes, A. Kislyakov, G. Vayakis, C. Walker,
L. de Kock, G. Janeschitz, A. E. Costley, T. Steinbacher, H. S. Hurzlmeier,
and the ITER Joint Central and Home Teams. . . . . . . . . . . 79

Plasma Control Concepts for ITER

1. B. Lister . . . . . . . 83
Ignition Burn Control and Diagnostics in ITER
O. Mitarai and K. Muraoka 93

vii
 REFLECTOMETRY AND ECE

Overview of the ITER Reflectometry Diagnostic Systems

G. Vayakis, T. Ando, N. Bretz, L. de Kock, A. J. H. Donne, E. J. Doyle, 1. Irby,
E. Martin, M. Manso, A. Mase, 1. Sanchez, V. A. Vershkov, D. Wagner,
C. I. Walker, and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams. . . . . 97

ITER Reflectometry Diagnostics for the Main Plasma

V. Vershkov, M. Manso, G. Vayakis, A. 1. Sanchez, D. Wagner, C. Walker,
S. Soldatov, L. Kuznetsova, V. Zhuravlev, B. Sestroretskii,
and ITER Joint Central Team, Russian and EU Home Teams . . . . . 107

Design Basis for the ITER Plasma Shape and Position Control Reflectometer System
E.1. Doyle, N. L. Bretz, K. W. Kim, W. A. Peebles, and T. L. Rhodes. . . . . . 119

ITER Position Control Reflectometry - Conceptual Design

N. L. Bretz, C. Kessel, E. 1. Doyle, G. Vayakis . . . . . . . . . . 129

Reflectometry in the ITER Divertor

M. Manso, L. Cupido, G. Leclert, D. Wagner, G. Vayakis, A. Donne, L. de Kock,
C. Laviron, 1. Sanchez, F. Serra, A. Silva, C. Walker,
and the ITER Joint Central Team and EU Home Teams. . . . . . . . . . 139

Reflectometry Density Profile Measurements in Turbulent Plasmas

1. Sanchez, T. Estrada, E. de la Luna, V. Zhuravlev, M. Frances, B. Brafias. . . . 151

Profile Initialization from O-Mode Reflectometry

M. Manso, F. Silva, I. Nunes, J. Santos . . . . . . . . 155

Transmission Line Design for Broadband Microwave Diagnostic Systems

D. Wagner, W. Kasparek, M. Thumm, G. Gantenbein, and H. Zohm . . . . . 161

Physics Aspects of ECE Te Measurements in ITER

D. V. Bartlett and H. Bindslev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

ECE Diagnostic on ITER in the Presence of Superthermals

M. Bomatici and U. Ruffina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
The ITER ECE Diagnostic Front End Design
G. Vayakis, D. Bartlett, P. Edmonds, H. Hartfuss, D. Wagner, C.1. Walker,
and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams. . . . . . . . 185

The Non-Imaging Flux Collector as a Compact ECE Antenna for ITER

H. Hartfuss, M. Zerbini, P. Buratti, P. de Bemardis, and M. De Petris . 189

INTERFEROMETRY, POLARIMETRY AND THOMSON SCATTERING

Baseline Design of a Multi-Channel Interferometer and Polarimeter System for Density

Measurements on ITER
T.N. Carlstrom, R.T. Snider, C.B. Baxi, C.L. Rettig, and W.A. Peebles . . . . . 193

viii
Polarimetry for Poloidal Field Measurements
A. J. H. Donne, T. Edlington, E. Joffrin, H. R. Koslowski, Ch. Nieswand,
S. Segre, P. Stott, C. Warrick, and V. Zanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Faraday Rotation Calculations for a FIR Polarimeter on ITER

C. Nieswand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

LIDAR Thomson Scattering for the ITER Core Plasma

P. Nielsen, L. de Kock, C. Gowers, F. Orsitto, H. Salzmann, C. Walker. . . . . 217

ITER Edge Thomson Scattering

D. W. Johnson and B. Grek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Status of Thomson Scattering Diagnostic Design for ITER X-Point and Divertor Plasmas
G. T. Razdobarin and E. E. Mukhin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Ti:Sapphire Laser for ITER LIDAR Thomson Scattering System

F. Orsitto, E. Nava, P. Nielsen, H. Salzmann. . . . . . . 247

Mirror Construction and Characterization for ITER LIDAR Thomson Scattering System
F. Orsitto, A. Brusadin, M. Di Fino, C. Gowers, P. Nielsen, H. Salzmann 251

Collective Thomson Scattering (CTS) System on ITER

F. Orsitto, G. Giruzzi, S. Nowak. . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Development of New Vacuum Window Seal for ITER Optical Diagnostics

A. Nagashima, T. Fujisawa, T. Sugie, S. Kasai. . . . . . . . . . 257

RADIATION EFFECTS

Radiation Problems and Testing of ITER Diagnostic Components

E. R. Hodgson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Irradiation Tests on ITER Diagnostic Components

S. Yamamoto, L. de Kock, V. Belyakov, D. Orlinski, F. Engelmann, E. Hodgson,
S. Kasai, T. Nishitani, E. Farnum, K. Young, S. Bender, V. Chernov,
D. Griscom, R. Heidinger, T. Iida, E. Ishitsuka, T. Kakuta, H. Kawamura,
A. Krasilnikov, V. Lopatin, R. Macaulay-Newcombe, K. Noda, T. Matoba,
Y. Oyama, P. Pells, A. Ramsey, Y. Revyakin, T. Shikama, R. Snider, P. Stott,
V. Stepanov, U. Tarabrin, I. Valeri, K. Vasili, V. Voitsenya, K. Vukolov,
V. Zaveriaev, S. Zinkie, A. Costley, T. Ando, K. Ebisawa, P. Edmonds, H. Iida,
L. Johnson, R. Santoro, S. Tanaka, V. Mukhovatov, G. Vayakis, C. Walker,
G. Janeschitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Change of the Optical Reflectivity of Mirror Surfaces Exposed to JET Plasmas

M. Mayer, R. Behrisch, C. Gowers, P. Andrew, and A. T. Peacock. . . . . . . 279

ix
Investigation of the Fiber Optic Radiating Resistance
and Radioluminescence under IR-8 Reactor Condition
A A Ivanov, S. N. Tugarinov, I. N. Rastyagaev, V. N. Amosov,
Y. A. Kaschuck, A. V. Krasilnikov, S. E. Bender . . . . . . . . . 287

Rad-Hard Optical Fibres for Diagnostics of Experimental Fusion Reactors

O. Deparis, P. Megret, M. Decreton, M. Blondel,
K. M. Golant, A. L. Tomashuk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

PASSIVE SPECTROSCOPY AND NPA

XUV and VUV Spectroscopy of ITER

N. C. Hawkes, R. DeAngelis, S. Dillon, P. Edmonds, J. Edwards,
R. M. Giannella, P. Gray, G. Janeschitz, K. D. Lawson, M. O'Mullane,
N. J. Peacock, M. Valisa, C.1. Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

X-Ray Spectrometry Systems for ITER

R. Bamsley, P. H. Edmonds, R. M. Giannella, M. G. O'Mullane . . . . . . . 307

Photoelectron Plasma Diagnostics

Yu. V. Gott, V. A. Shurygin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Divertor Impurity Monitor for ITER

T. Sugie, H. Ogawa, J. Katsunuma, M. Maruo, K. Ebisawa,
T. Ando, Y. Kita, S. Kasai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

VUV Divertor Impurity Monitor for ITER

K. Ebisawa, T. Ando, A. Costley, G. Janeschitz, E. Martin, T. Sugie . . . . . . 337

Luminescent Efficiency of Thin Phosphor Screens

A Baciero, K. J. McCarthy, L. R. Barquero, A Ibarra, B. Zurro . . . . . . . 345

Thermonuclear Plasma X-Ray Diagnostics with Compton Scattering

D. V. PortnOY, Yu. A Kaschuck, A. V. Krasilnikov. . . . . . . . . . . . 349
NPA at ITER: Physical Basis and Conceptual Design
A I. Kislyakov, V. I. Afanassiev, A. V. Khudoleev, S. S. Kozlovskij, M. P. Petrov . 353

ACTIVE SPECTROSCOPY

Prospects for Core Helium Density and Related Measurements

on ITER Using Active Charge Exchange
D. M. Thomas, K. H. Burrell, M. R. Wade, R. T. Snider . . . . . . . . . 361

Active Spectroscopy on JET and ITER

R. W. T. Konig, H. Anderson, P. Breger, W. G. F. Core, J. P. Feist, N. Hawkes,
M. G. von Hellermann, A. C. Howman, A C. Maas, P. D. Morgan,
M. F. Stamp, H. P. Summers, J. Svensson, M. Tunklev, P. R. Thomas,
K.-D. Zastrow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

x
Measurement of the HlDff Mixture Based on Doppler-Free Two-Photon
Spectroscopy and Neutral Beam Injection
D. Voslamber and W. Mandl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Quantitative Measurements of Two-Photon Induced La Fluorescence:

a Proof for Tokamak: Edge Diagnostics
K. Griitzmacher, A. Steiger, Ch. Seiser, M. I. de la Rosa, U. Johannsen . . . . . 385

BOLOMETRY

Progress of the Reference Design for ITER Bolometers

and Development of a High Performance Alternative
R. Reichle, M. Di Maio, L. C. Ingesson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Imaging Bolometry Development for Large Fusion Devices

G. A. Wurden, B. J. Peterson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

FUSION PRODUCTS

Overview of Fusion Product Diagnostics for ITER

L. C. Johnson, C. W. Barnes, K. Ebisawa, A. V. Krasilnikov, F. B. Marcus,
T. Nishitani, G. J. Sadler, C. I. Walker, and the ITER Joint Central Team
and Home Teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
A Radial Neutron Camera Design for ITER with Integral Shielding
F. B. Marcus, J. M. Adams, P. Batistoni, D. S. Bond, T. Elevant, N. Hawkes,
G. Janeschitz, O. N. Jarvis, L. Johnson, L. de Kock, M. Loughlin, M. Rapisarda,
G. Sadler, P. Stott, N. Watkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

Role of Neutron Spectrometers for ITER

T. Elevant and J. Scheffel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Natural Diamond Neutron Spectrometer

A. V. Krasilnikov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

MPR Neutron Spectrometry at JET and Its Next Step Implications

J. K1i.llne, E. Traneus, and the NPF Team. . . . . . . . . . 449

High Performance Calibration of Neutron Spectrometer Detectors with a-Particles

P. Prandoni, L. Ballabio, S. Conroy, G. Ericsson, J. Frenje,
J. Kallne, M. Tardocchi, E. Traneus . . ......... . . 459

Fuel Density Measurement in Burning Plasmas Using Neutron Spectrometry

G. Gorini, L. Ballabio, J. K1i.llne, S. Conroy, J. Frenje, G. Ericsson, P. Prandoni,
M. Tardocchi, and E. Traneus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

xi
Improvement of the Neutron Spectrometer, COTETRA (Counter Telescope
with Thick Radiator)
M. Osakabe, M. Sasao, M. Isobe, S. Itoh, T. Uda, A. L. Roquemore, L. C. Johnson. 471

Experimental Estimation of Threshold Properties of the Bubble Chamber

for Knock-on Neutron Measurements
V. A. Agureev, V. P. Romanikhin, V. G. Rumyantsev, G. N. Cheryomukhin,
T. S. Trusillo, V. S. Zaveryaev. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

Design Considerations for Neutron Activation

and Neutron Source Strength Monitors for ITER
e. W. Barnes, D. L. Jassby, G. Le Munyan, A. L. Roquemore, C. Walker . . . . 479
In-Vessel Neutron Monitor Using Micro Fission Chambers for ITER
T. Nishitani, K. Ebisawa, L. C. Johnson, C. Walker, Y. Kita, S. Kasai . . . . . 491

Calibration Issues for Neutron Diagnostics

G. J. Sadler, J. M. Adams, C. W. Barnes, P. Batistoni, D. Bond, N. Hawkes,
O. N. Jarvis, L. e. Johnson, F. B. Marcus, M. Loughlin, A. L. Roquemore,
P. van Belle, N. Watkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Gamma Ray Spectrometry in ITER: Conceptual Design

V. G. Kiptily, T. Kondoh, V. O. Naidenov, I. A. Polunovski,
Yu. V. Tuboltsev, I. N. Chugunov, A. E. Shevelev . . . . . . 511

Data Base for Ensuring the Works on Gamma-Diagnostics of Tokamak Plasma

V .G. Kiptily, S. M. Taova, A. G Zvenigorodskii . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Development of a Thin-Foil Faraday Collector Array as a Lost Alpha

Particle Diagnostic for High Yield d-t Fusion Plasmas
F. E. Cecil, J. C. Barbour, P. v.Belle, D. Darrow, M. Hone, O. N. Jarvis, S. Kern,
M. Loughlin, S. S. Medley, A. NOWak, A. L. Roquemore, G. Sadler,
Y. Takimoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

OTHER DIAGNOSTICS

Magnetic Diagnostic for ITER

L. de Kock, S. Bender, A. Costley, J. Leuer, P. McCarthy, F.e. Morabito,
A. Portone, I. Senda, T. Shoji, R. Snider, C. Walker . . . . . . . . . 529

Realtime Identification of Plasma Shape and Position on ITER Using an

Equilibrium Database
P. J. Mc Carthy and F. e. Morabito. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

Steady State Magnetic Sensor in a Fusion Device

S. Hara, Y. Neyatani, M. Abe, A. Nagashima, S. Kasai . . . . . 545

Plasma Viewing in JET Using Endoscopes and a Detailed Design for ITER
J. P. Coad, J. Lingertat, J.-B. Migozzi, P. E. Stott, C. I. Walker, C. H. Wilson. . . 549

xii
Pressure Gauges and Neutral Pressure Measurement in ITER
G. Haas, H.-S. Bosch, D. Coster, L. de Kock, R. Maingi, J. Neuhauser,
R. Schneider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

High Resolution IR Temperature Monitoring System for the ITER Target Plates
A. Herrmann and H. Salzmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

DIAGNOSTICS OF OTHER FUSION EXPERIMENTS

The Use of X-Ray Diagnostics in Plasma Control

A.W. Edwards, B. Alper, K. Blackler, R. D. Gill, M. Lennholm. . . . . . . . 573

Status Report of Preparation for Neutron Measurement on LHD

M. Sasao, M. Isobe, H. Yarnanishi, M. Osakabe, T. Iguchi . . . . 583

Status and Prospects of Pulse Radar Reflectometry on the START Tokamak

V. F. Shevchenko. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

Bolometric and SXR Tomography in RFX

P. Martin, A. Murari, G. Gadani, G. Manduchi, L. Marrelli, A. Parini, C. Taliercio . 597

About the Effects of the Movements of the Critical Reflecting Layer on Swept
Reflectometric Measurements
R. Cavazzana, M. Moresco, E. Spada 601

Index ........... 607

xiii
Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors 2
ITER PHYSICS BASIS, MACHINE DESIGN
AND DIAGNOSTIC INTEGRATION

ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams

G. Janeschitz and D. Boucher, T. Burges, K. loki, H. Pacher, R. Parker,
D. Post, R. Thome, C. Walker

ITER Garching Joint Worksite

Max Planck-Institut fur Plasma Physik
Boltzmannstrasse 2
85748 Garching bei Munchen, Germany

INTRODUCTION
In the last Diagnostic Workshop, which took place at the mid-point of the ITER
EDA, the ITER machine design and physics performance was presented [1] based on the
Interim Design Report (IDR). Whereas the design of several major machine components
(e.g. TF-coils) were changed considerably compared to the earlier Outline Design (OD), it
was pointed out at the time that the overall objectives and the plasma performance
remained in line with the requirements stated by the Special Working Group(SWG 1).
Since then the design of all machine components as well as of the auxiliary systems
and buildings evolved further, as documented in the Detailed Design Report (DDR) in
December 1996. However, the main machine parameters and the general design concepts
for the various components have remained unchanged compared to the IDR.
In addition to the more detailed design available now, a considerable increase in
knowledge concerning the physics basis for ITER has been gained through the work of the
Expert groups. On the basis of this knowledge a physics basis document is presently being
written by the 7 Expert Groups which is planned to be published in early 1998. A brief
summary of the present understanding and the resulting predictions for the performance of
ITER will be given in this paper concentrating on areas where changes occurred compared
to the last workshop.
The goal for the design work after the DDR is to develop an integrated design of
the ITER machine and of the auxiliary systems with an emphasis on the various interfaces
and to optimise the design of the machine components further. The result of this work will
be documented in the Final Design Report (FDR) to be issued in January 1998. An update
of the machine design including the tokamak building and the pit layout at the present time,
the mid-point between DDR and FDR, will be given in this paper.
A major evolution of the design sir.ce the IDR and even since the DDR has
occurred in the area of diagnostic integration. This relatively late progress is due to the fact
that the boundary conditions for diagnostic integration, namely the design of the major
machine components, have to be sufficiently mature before diagnostics can be integrated.
From the machine design point of view the diagnostic integration is performed in 4 major
areas, namely the in-vessel sensors, the diagnostics in the divertor cassettes, the diagnostics
in the equatorial ports and the diagnostics in the top ports.
Whereas only a brief overview of the diagnostic integration will be given here, a
more detailed discussion of it can be found in [2].

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998
PHYSICS BASIS
During the interval between the last ITER Diagnostics Workshop and today,
substantial progress has been made in the physics basis of ITER through the physics Rand
D program coordinated by the ITER Expert Groups.

Energy Confinement:

Three methods have been used to predict the energy confinement requirements and
plasma performance for ITER: statistical analysis of the dependence of the confinement
time on the parameters of present experiments, theoretically developed models for energy
confinement, and scaling from experiments with similar dimensionless parameters as
ITER. Based on these scalings the sensitivity of the performance of ITER to uncertainties
in the confinement projections has been quantified using the I 112 dimensional transport
code PRETOR. A simple model for supplying edge boundary conditions for PRETOR has
been developed and coupled to the code. The results of this model indicate that the
pumping provided in the ITER divertor is sufficient to reduce the estimated central helium
fraction during ignited bum from previously - 15% to - 10%, resulting in a reduction of
the required operating density from 1.3 10 20 m- 3 to - 0.90 1020 m- 3 (nefnGreenwald - 1.1)
for the ITER93-H scaling. The coupled model also showed that it is possible to control the
fusion power and divertor heat loads by simultaneous feedback control of the density,
heating power and impurity puffing.

10 Fusion Power (OW) and Q

21 MA 24MA
HH n=now
n ~nGW n=ocw n~nGW
,I
1.3
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
H JET ignited ignited ignited ignited
JFT·2M
1.5
~

1.0 1.4 1.5 1.5

PBX·M
U
CII
1
ignited Q=15 ignited ignited
POX
!!. 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.3
:I
1\1
8 AUG
0.7 Q=75 Q=8 ignited Q=15
I- C·MOO
m p CCMPASS·O
E p JT-60U Nonnalized Bela: b = <b> aBlI
Qj
~
I-
0. 1 ., ITER
HH
21 MA 24MA
n~GW = now n~GW n="aw

1.3 2.7 2.7 3.5 3.5

ignited ignited ignited ignited

1.0 1.5 2.4 2.7 2.7

ignited Q=15 ignited ignited
0.01 RMSE = 15.0%
0.7 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
0.01 0.1 10 Q=75 Q=8 ignited Q=15
Tau fit (sec)
Figure 1: Comparison of H-mode thermal energy confinement time with the scaling
expression in equation (I) for ELMy data in the ITER H-mode database version DB3[1] and a
summary of the ITER performance for variations of the confinement for ± 1 (J from the
nominal prediction. The perfonnance projections were calculated with the PRETOR code using
a transport model constrained to reproduce the ITER97 scaling.
Recently the ITER Confinement Database and Modelling Expert Group has
developed an improved H-mode confinement database (ITERH.DB3) to correct some of
the deficiencies of the previous databases (ITERH.DB 1,2). The newer database includes
data from a wider range of experiments and experimental conditions and heating methods.
Analysis of the new database results in a new scaling (Eq. 1, Fig. 1) [3]. This new scaling
satisfies the Kadomtsev and high ~ constraints[4] and roughly has a gyro-Bohm scaling.

2
 (1)

The new scaling is better conditioned than prior scalings (e.g. ITER93-H) and has
been developed explicitly for ELMy conditions rather than for the ELM-free conditions
used for ITER93-H. The prediction for the ITER confinement time is 5.S s, and the scaling
gives slightly worse performance than ITER93-H (e.g. 'r:LMy = 0.S5 x 'r:~-:;';;H') for the
95% confidence level. A key determining factor for the plasma performance is the
maximum plasma density. Constraining the density to be below the "Greenwald" limit [5]
reduces the fusion power (Fig. 1). For HH = 1 ('r E = HH x 'r:~ER97)' neinGreenwald =1.3 for
1.5 GW fusion power. Additional margin is available by operating ITER with a plasma
current of 24 MA (with a reduced pulse length) (Fig. 1).
Local transport models have also been used to predict the performance of ITER [3].
These models include the most widely accepted theoretical and semi-empirical local
transport coefficients. The performance of these models is roughly consistent with the
variations of the HH factor illustrated in Fig. 1. Many of these models are very sensitive to
the temperature inside the edge transport barrier, which must be specified independently of
the models. All of the models predict fusion powers of 1.2 GW or greater for edge transport
barrier temperatures of 4 keY, but the IFSIPPPL and GLF23 models predict fusion powers
as low as 100 MW for 1 keY edge temperatures. These two models are based on gyro-fluid
calculations of the Ion Temperature Gradient (ITG) turbulence. There are preliminary
indications from potentially more accurate gyro-kinetic calculations that the gyro-fluid
calculations strongly overestimate the turbulent transport. In addition, extrapolations to
ITER of the emerging measurements of the edge pedestal conditions on present tokamaks
indicate that the edge pedestal temperature on ITER will likely be above 4 keY (e.g.[6]) for
which all of the models predict ignited bum. The validation and development of these
models is still in an early stage, and their present extrapolations have large uncertainties.
The third approach to predicting the performance of ITER is to scale directly from
present tokamak discharges using the dimensionless parameters, p., v· ,13. Similar v* and ~
can be obtained in present experiments, but P * in ITER is at least a factor of 2 to 3 smaller
than present experiments. The scaling in p* is Q;'rE = F(p·, v· ,13) DC (pT 2- a (for fixed v*,
~), where Qj is the ion gyro-frequency, and a is 0 for "Bohm"-like scalings and 1 for
"gyro-Bohm" scalings. Scaling experiments on JET, DIII-D, ASDEX Upgrade, Alcator C-
Mod, COMPASS-D and JT-60/U support the general conclusion that Qj 'tE is constant for
constant p*, v*, and ~. For ELMy H-mode discharges, the general result is that a is close
to 1, and that the confinement time in ITER will roughly scale as a 3 B4 T-3/2[3]. Since a
and B in ITER are 2.8 m and 5.7 T in ITER and 1 m, 1.1 T and 0.56 m, 2.1 T for JET and
DIII-D, respectively, the p* scaling is quite strong. The predicted confinement time for
ITER based on these scaling experiments on JET and DIII-D ranges from 6.4 s (JET) to 21
s (DID-D) (Table 1).
Table 1. Experimental Determination of the p *-Scaling Exponent o..
Tokamak P*/P*ITER a 30. 3't (0)
~N 'tth,IlER (s)
DID-D 2.0 7.3 1.15 ±O.44 21 ±12
JET 2.2 5.5 0.7 ±O.32 6.4 ±3
Reduction of the uncertainties requires experiments with a greater range in p' DC I;'I'R-Y. ,.
Experiments with the widest size range, JET and COMPASS-D, will be very important.
H Mode Power Threshold Requirements:
A new scaling for the H-mode threshold power in terms of global parameters has
been developed from the updated H-mode threshold database (Equation 2, Fig. 2)[7]. Like
the previous scaling[S], it is not consistent with the dimensionless parameter constraints,
indicating that non-plasma processes, such as atomic physics, probably playa strong role in
determining the threshold.

3
 Pthr = 0• 65neO.93 LIT
r:tQ.86 R2.J5 [MW, 1020 m- 3, T, m] (2)
The lowest threshold powers (about 60% of the scaling in Equation 2) were
obtained with single null divertors, grad B drift direction toward the divertor, low wall
recycling conditions, and improved neutral retention in the divertor. The ITER divertor and
fust wall are designed to achieve these conditions, so that the threshold power in ITER will
likely be consistent with the lower threshold powers achieved (Fig. 2). In addition, there
are indications that the H-mode power threshold with early DT experiments on JET is
lower than with D alone (consistent with the lower threshold with D operation compared to
H). The next JET DT campaign will quantify the threshold power reduction. Both this
scaling (Equation 2) and prior scalings have significant uncertainties for projecting to
ITER.

0 ASDEX
10 •
0
A G
CMOD
• COMPASS-D
•
+
DrU-D
JET
Pthre hold (MW)

6. new 60%
ne

[ 0
III
X
0.25 75 43
o.. . .J 0.5 137 82
l.0 260 156

0.1

0.1 1 10

Figure 2 : Measured H-mode Power Threshold vs. scaling expression. The dashed line is 0.6
time, the scaling expression [7].

The uncertainties have not yet been examined in detail yet for this scaling but are
expected to be similar to those of the old scaling. For the old scaling, they can be expressed
in terms of the dependence on n and R using the exponent a in Equation (3):

Pthr = 0 . 45no.75 B R2(O 6nR2)a [MW, 1020 m-3 , T, m] (3)

e T •

Taking a to be either -0.25 or 0.25 results, for ne "" 0.5 1()20 m- 3 in a threshold
power of 50 and 200 MW, respectively, and for ne "" 1.0 1()20 m- 3 in a power of 70 and 425
MW, respectively.

4
 Whereas further versions of the global database will reduce the uncertainties in
these global scalings, there are strong indications from experiments that the L to H mode
transition requirements depend on the local edge parameters, such as the local edge
temperature and edge pressure just inside the separatrix(e.g. [9]) rather than the global
parameters. The ITER Divertor Modelling and Database Expert Group is assembling a
database of edge pedestal parameters to characterise the dependence on the local edge
parameters, and several groups are developing models for L to H transition in terms of
those parameters.

Edge Temperature:

An initial analysis of the published edge data and the data being assembled by the
ITER Divertor Modelling and Database Expert Group indicates that the temperature at the
top of the H-mode transport barrier will be in the 4 ke V range or higher [10]. A projection
of the edge pedestal width AlTER for ITER using a scaling roughly proportional to size
gives AlTER'" 19 cm and a weaker size scaling gives AlTER'" 9 cm. The assumption that
the limiting pressure gradient is determined by local ballooning stability results in edge
pedestal temperatures of 4 to 8 keY at ne-Ped - 6. 10 19 m- 3 [11]. This is likely to be a
conservative assumption since the edge pedestal electron pressure in DIII-D and JET is
consistent with local ballooning stability based on the total local plasma pressure.

Density Limits:

The ITER97H scaling indicates that ne/noreenwald - 1.3 is required to reach 1.5 GW
fusion power. In addition to the difficulty of achieving ne/noreenwald;;:: 1, energy
confinement is degraded in many experiments with the density close to the Greenwald
limit. Whereas this poses a potential difficulty for ITER operation, there is strong evidence
that nelnoreenwald is not a universal constraint on the plasma density. The density limit in
present tokamaks appears to be a limit on the edge density (e.g.[9]). A number of
experiments have exceeded the Greenwald limit with gas puffing and with pellet fuelling.
In shallow fuelling pellet experiments, the fuelling efficiency is low and the confinement is
often significantly degraded. However, high velocity pellet injection in DIII-D allowed the
achievement of nelnGreenwaid of up to 1.5 without significant confinement degradation [12].
Deep fuelling techniques, such as high field side injection in ASDEX-Upgrade [13], can be
used to increase the central density with minimal increases in the edge density.
Furthermore, the recent compact toroid fuelling experiments on TdeV offer the promise of
another central fuelling technique [14].
Edge parameter measurements indicate that the effective density limit is reached in H-
mode by gas puffing, which reduces the edge temperature sufficiently for the plasma to
make a transition to the L-mode. As a consequence the particle flux increases and a
disruption often follows. For ITER, the temperature for the H-L mode transition is likely to
be substantially below the edge pedestal temperature, leading to adequately high edge
densities (- 5-710 19 m-3).

Power and Particle Control:

Experiments on divertor and limiter tokamaks have identified new phenomena and
have provided increased understanding of divertor operation. This gives added confidence
that most of the heating power in ITER can be radiated to the main chamber and divertor
chamber walls resulting in acceptable peak heat loads on the divertor plates without
unacceptably high confinement degradation.
All of the divertor experiments have been able to reduce the peak heat flux on the
divertor plates by a factor of five or more by a combination of gas puffing and impurity
injection. The detailed understanding of divertor physics has benefited greatly from recent
advances in divertor diagnostics. Two-dimensional temperature and density measurements
have allowed the validation of divertor models to a much greater extent than before [15]. In
addition, impurity injection experiments on ASDEX Upgrade, DIIl-D, Alcator C-Mod and
JET have identified the significance of hydrogen recombination for detachment (Fig.
3)[13]. Whereas the confinement often degrades as PradlPtot approaches 1, ASDEX

5
Upgrade and DIII-D have been able to achieve good confinement for high values of
PradlPtot. Good confinement appears to require that the plasma remain partially attached,
i.e. detached near the strike point and attached further out in the SOL.
Two-dimensional divertor models have been validated with the help of the
improved diagnostic data, and are being used to project potential divertor operational
regimes for ITER. B-2 EIRENE calculations for ITER including a moderate degree of Ne
puffing and a source of carbon from chemical and physical sputtering from the divertor
plates indicate that most of the SOL power can be radiated from the divertor by acceptable
levels of Ne, carbon, He, and Dff with Zeff < 1.8 [16], [17]. The calculations also show
that these regimes are compatible with He exhaust requirements. This operating point is
therefore favourable in several respects: low radiated power in main plasma, low neutral
density in main chamber, well-distributed radiation, low peak power on the plates, and
adequate He pumping.

0111-0 Radiation
Radiati from
Carbon
Detached
Region Deut.

o 2 3 4 5
MW/m 3
Figure 3: Bolometer measurements of the radiated power from Olli-O with gas puffing. The
radiation near the X point is due to carbon and the radiation in the lower region is due to
hydrogen, particularly hydrogen recombination[151.

While the present expectation is that between 100 to 200 MW power conducted
across the separatrix will be needed to sustain the H-mode and maintain a high temperature
edge pedestal, the capability to radiate most of the power from the main plasma without
excessive levels of plasma dilution and central radiation losses would offer additional
margin. Recent experiments on TEXTOR and TFfR with limiters, as well as divertor
experiments on ASDEX Upgrade, showed that losses of 80% or more of the heating power
from the main plasma can be sustained without substantial loss of confinement, and
tokamak transport calculations indicate that the fuel dilution and central radiation losses
from such regimes are acceptable.

Disruptions:

Experiments on many of the major tokamaks have led to improved characterisation

of the magnitude and toroidal symmetry of the halo currents during vertical displacement
events. This, in turn, has led to improved (and somewhat more severe) design guidelines
for disruption forces on the ITER internal components. The forces from halo currents are
among the most severe mechanical requirements for the design of the internal components.
During the past two years, there has been mounting evidence that their toroidal distribution
is not uniform (e.g.[18]).

6
 4.0

*,
I
d, 0.75 o C-MOO
o c.MC)O
O.SO o C-MOO
3.5
" C·MOO
• c.MOOi")
• C-MOO(96)
3.0
X 0111-0
!L <> ASDEX-U
a.
t:. 2.5

.
(;
'0
u.
'"
c 2.0

.,'"
:;;:
a.
"iii 1.5
:2
e0
I-
1.0

0.5

Halo Current Database 27.11 .96 (1 .5 SI()( S 2.0 )

0.0
0.0 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Normalized Maximum Halo Current (lh.ma:xllpO)

Figure 4 Toroidal peaking of halo currents in various tokamaks, for plasmas with 1.5 ::; kx ::;
2.0. High peaking factors occur only at low halo current fraction. The hyperbolic curves show
limiting bounds for the data.
A database of the measured halo currents and their toroidal peaking has been
assembled by the MHD Stability and Disruption ITER Expert Group (Fig. 4). Ratios of
Ihalo/Io as large as 0.5 and toroidal peaking factors up to a factor 4 have been observed.
Fortunately, the highest values of these two factors do not occur simultaneously, and a
design guideline of Ihalollo x TPF (toroidal peaking factor) of 0.58 appears consistent with
all but the most severe conditions. There is no data from the largest divertor experiments in
the database (JET and JT-60/U), but preliminary data from JET not yet in the database
indicates that Ihaloflo x TPF is lower than 0.5.

ITER OVERALL MACIDNE DESIGN

As already mentioned in the introduction no major change in the layout or in the

parameters of the ITER machine occurred since the last workshop. The emphasis in this
section will therefore be on an overview of design improvements and of new engineering
solutions for the various machine components and the status of the major R&D supporting
the design solutions. All the improvements or changes were driven by simplifications, cost
(seek reductions), by maintenance considerations, by major interfaces or by safety issues.
Fig. I shows a cross section through the present ITER device including the pit, the cryostat,
the magnet system, the VV, and the in-vessel components.

Magnet System:

The magnet system is described in [20J and [21]. The magnet system including the
central solenoid and the VV support constitutes a closed mechanical system where all
forces except gravity are short circuited [22]. This closed system is then supported on the
cryostat through a ring of laminated gravity support columns which are attached to the
lower outer intercoil structure. The lower outer intercoil structure has been extended
downwards and provides the connection to these gravity supports (Fig. 5). The advantage
of this approach is that all disruption forces are short-circuited in a very compact
mechanical system. This removed the concern about relaying e.g. halo current forces onto
the VV through two different gravity support rings and the cryostat into the magnet system
(IDR-design). Because the gravity supports now have to support only the weight of the

7
machine and related seismic loads a greatly simplified design has become possible. Thus
the new gravity supports consist of Inconel plates which provide the required flexibility in
the radial direction (thermal contraction during cool down).

INSPECTION INTERCOIL
TF-COIL SYSTEM STRUCTUR

UPPER HTS VAUL T

LEVEL

_PATH TO
HOTCELL

if"'E~.M;j,~l.A!::......J~L--~iIii:i~~1iE7 UPPER MAGNET

INTERFACE LEVEL

EQUA TOR LEVEL

DIVERTOR LEVEL

EQUA TOR LEVEL

RII TRANSFER CASK

LOWER MA GNET
INTERFACE LEVEL

GALLERY

DIVERTOR LEVEL
RII TRANSFER CASK
DRAIN
TANKS
BASEMA T LEVEL

I 0 10 20 30 40 50

I 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 III
Figure 5: Cross section through the ITER machine the cryostat and the tokamak pit

As mentioned in [1) a segmented central solenoid has been considered, which

would result in a reduction of manufacturing risks (smaller sub components), would allow
building all other PF coils with NbTi superconductors (reduced cost, improved fabrication
schedule, and feasible under-machine replacement if required) and would provide greater
flexibility for plasma shape control. In these studies a fully segmented solenoid as well as a
so called hybrid solution with a shorter central section (- 9m high) and two additional coils
on top and bottom were investigated. The fully segmented solenoid had to be ruled out
because joints between pancake to pancake which would work in a 13 T field were not
considered practical. Therefore a fully segmented solenoid would require adoption of a
wedged instead of a bucking approach to support the TF coils (with significant increase of
the major radius) in order to bring the joints outside the solenoid into an area with lower
field.
A hybrid solution, however, seemed to be very promising initially. It would not
reduce the manufacturing risks considerably (9 m high layer-wound CS) but all the PF
coils could be manufactured from NbTi and it would improve shape control as well as

8
allow higher triangularity, which has considerable benefits for high density operation in H-
mode. In this approach a gap of - 1.5 m between the central solenoid and the additional
coils would provide room for the joints resulting in a field at the joints of - 6.5 T which
would be considered acceptable. However, more detailed stress analysis showed that due to
the field penetrating through these gaps a significant increase of the out of plane forces
occurred for the TF coils, resulting in a reduction of the fatigue lifetime of the TF cases by
a factor of 2. In addition it was found that the shear stresses in the central solenoid coil
itself were unacceptably high. Consequently, this approach had to be abandoned.
The solution adapted for the FDR design therefore retains the monolithic 12m high
central solenoid. However, to reduce cost, improve manufacturing schedule and in order to
allow a possible replacement of the PF coils trapped below the machine, it was considered
important to manufacture all PF coils with NbTi which limits the maximum field in these
coils to 5 T. In order to retain at least the IDR shaping capability it was necessary to split
the PF2 and the PF7 coils into two. These new PF coils have to be supported by clamps
which penetrate the upper and lower crowns. The resulting PF system consists of 9 PF coils
(Fig. 5), with all but the CS coil manufactured using NbTi superconductors. It has similar
shaping capabilities as that of the IDR while allowing somewhat higher average
triangularity (095-0.26).
Because all PF coils are manufactured with NbTi a replacement of the trapped PF
coils is now feasible should it become necessary. The procedure envisages that a ring
below the damaged PF coils is opened in the now flat cryostat floor (see below) and the
damaged PF coil is lowered into the - 7.5 m high room below the cryostat. This coil is then
cut into pieces and removed. A winding machine will be installed in this room after fitting
a temporary shield into the opening of the cryostat floor and a new PF coil will be
manufactured. The new coil will then be lifted into its place and the cryostat floor will be
rewelded.
A concern for ITER are the error fields due to manufacturing and installation errors
in the magnet system. Data on the scaling of the onset of locked modes in present machines
shows an unfavourable scaling, indicating that locked modes in ITER are expected for error
fields exceeding 2.10-5 BT. Whereas tight manufacturing and installation tolerances will be
applied and an attempt will be made to measure the error fields early on, it is anticipated
that error fields smaller than several 10-4 BT will not be achievable. Therefore three sets of
superconducting correction coils are foreseen, one set at the top of the machine inside the
PF coils, one around the equator outside of the PF coils and one below the machine. These
coil sets will allow to reduce the most important error field components (n:m = 1: 1, 2: 1,
3:1) to < 2.10-5 BT.
Another concern for ITER operation was the relatively high ripple in the outer
upper region of the plasma, which causes considerable alpha losses in particular for
advanced tokamak regimes. Therefore ferromagnetic inserts are foreseen in the VV
segments at locations under the TF coils between the equatorial ports and the vertical ports.
Calculations show a factor of 2.6 reduction in the ripple can be achieved at full field, from
1.6% to 0.62% at the plasma edge, resulting in acceptable alpha losses for all envisaged
equilibria. Other detailed changes and improvements to the magnet system are described
elsewhere [20].
Beside the design effort two large R&D projects are underway for the magnet
system, one aiming at manufacturing a model CS coil by the US HT & JA HT and one
manufacturing a model TF coil by the EU HT. However, all 4 HTs are deeply involved in
the various manufacturing processes of both model coils. Presently all strands for the CS
coil and 75% of the strands for the TF coil have been fabricated. A 300 m jacketing line
and a 1000 m jacketing line is in operation for the CS type and the TF type of conductors
respectively. Winding of 12 out of 18 layers of the model CS has been performed and four
layers were heat treated, forging of the TF coils radial plates and trial windings and heat
treatments are underway. Test facilities in JA for the CS and in EU for the TF coil are
either complete or well advanced.

Cryostat:

The cryostat, which consisted of a double wall cylinder and two double wall domes
on top and bottom, has been completely redesigned (Fig. 5). In order to make room below
the cryostat for several services such as drain tanks and the pressure suppression system as

9
well as for the possible replacement of a PF coil without increasing the overall height of the
machine and thus its cost, a flat floor was designed. The gravity supports for the machine
which penetrate the cryostat floor and the gravity supports used for the CS installation,
which are radially further inboard, support a double wall flat floor which is thus able to
sustain the atmospheric pressure (Fig. 1).
The cylindrical walls of the cryostat are supported at the bottom on the bio-shield
and consist of 60 rom (in some areas 50 rom) thick SS plates strengthened by toroidal and
vertical ribs resulting in a simpler and thus cheaper solution.
The main problem for the new cryostat design was to design a flat cryostat lid
which also should have a central flange big enough to allow the removal of the CS as well
as of the two innermost PF coils without having to lift the whole lid. This allows a
changeout of a damaged TF coil.
In order to be able to sustain the atmospheric pressure the single wall 40 rom thick
lid is supported by 60 rom thick and - 1m high toroidal ribs and a bridge like structure
(Fig. 5). The previously separate bio-shield lid is now integrated into the cryostat lid where
part of the shielding is performed by shielding blocks on the lid itself and part of the
shielding rests on top of the bridge structure. The bridge structure is only present above
every second port and above the two adjacent TF coils providing good access to the area of
the 10 vertical diagnostic ports. The large central flange also consists of a 40 rom thick lid
supported by 60 rom thick and up to 2 m high radial ribs.

Tokamak Building and Hot Cell:

The general layout of the Tokamak building has not changed considerably since the
IDR but the pit and also the Hot Cell building has evolved considerably. The tokamak pit
now consists of a 60 m diameter cylinder which can be separated by a seismic gap and by
shock absorbers from the rest of the building if required. All major machine components
including the primary heat transfer systems (PHTS) are inside this cylinder (Fig. 5). There
are two cylindrical HTS vaults on top and bottom of the pit connected by 20 vertical shafts
which also contain the divertor and part of the blanket cooling pipes. The top vault contains
10 HTS loops for the blanket and the bottom vault 8 HTS loops, four for the divertor and
four for the blanket/limiter. The water holdup in each loop is such that a major leak would
not exceed the pressure design limit for the two connected HTS vaults (safety requirement).
Outside the pit a 10 m wide ring of galleries is foreseen providing space for toroidal
services routing and for movements of transfer casks which are foreseen to transport RH
equipment and machine components to and from the Hot Cell building. These casks move
on a railway system which is connected to all equatorial and divertor ports. Within the
gallery there is a lift shaft allowing the casks to be moved up to the -9m level from which a
tunnel leads to the Hot Cell building.
The Hot Cell building consists of a lower level with docking ports for the various
casks as well as storage areas for divertor cassettes, for diagnostic and heating systems, VV
plug assemblies, as well as for RH tools. The upper level houses several repair sections
where divertor cassettes and diagnostic plugs can be remotely refurbished and thus can be
reused in order to minimise radioactive waste. It also contains a waste processing area
mainly foreseen for compacting and detritiating waste before shipping it off site. A storage
area for all the RH casks is foreseen in the basement of the laydown hall in the Tokamak
building.

Vacuum Vessel:

Only changes in details occurred in the VV design [19] whereas the general concept
of a double-walled structure constructed from two toroidal shells (40 - 60 rom thick) and
joined by ribs cut from 40 - 60 rom plate is the same as reported in [1]. The space between
shells is filled with Boron doped SS shield plates directly cooled by water. As already
mentioned the vessel is attached on the bottom directly to the magnet structure by supports
which permit differential radial displacement. In addition toroidal supports joining the
vessel equatorial ports with the TF structure limit possible differential horizontal
displacements, as might occur due to seismic or vertical displacement events (VDE's).
Because of the positions of these supports, the out of plane forces acting on the TF coils
cause a toroidal rocking of the vessel in the region of the horizontal port by ± 25 rom in the

10
course of a discharge.
No direct deposition of the plasma thermal energy on the vessel is possible.
However, body forces exerted on the in-vessel systems must ultimately be reacted by the
vessel and its supports. The most troublesome load in this respect originates from Vertical
Displacement Events (VDE's). An axisymmetric VDE with a limiting plasma safety factor
of q =1.5, yields a net vertical force of Fv:::; 150 MN. Toroidal peaking of the halo currents
as described in the physics section above can cause the force per unit area to exceed the
average value locally. Experimental data also suggest that net horizontal forces can arise.
In the absence of a sufficient database, these have been evaluated by a model assuming a
tilted plasma, yielding - 50 MN net horizontal force. For the bounding case of a non-
axisymmetric VDE the maximum membrane stress in the vessel due to the vertical load is
90% of allowable (131 MPa), whereas for the specified horizontal component of the load
the maximum stress, occurring in the area of the equatorial ports, is 60 % of allowable. The
maximum stresses resulting from SL-l and SL-2 seismic loads are also well within
allowable stresses.
An R&D task aiming at building a full VV sector is under way in the JA HT. Two
different manufacturing methods are used for each toroidal half of this sector: one using a
conventional TIG+MAG welding approach and closure plates to manufacture the double
wall structure and one using an advanced electron beam welding technique, for which the
welding is performed through the outer shell into the ribs. Two thirds of the VV sector
parts are already finished and await assembly.

Blanket:

The blanket modules, their attachment to the backplate and the backplate itself were
changed considerably since the IDR and even since the DDR. The changes were necessary
to solve a number of problems, discovered by detailed analysis, when joining two strong
structures (modules and backplate) with different thermal time constants leading to
transient differential thermal expansions. While this requires flexibility of the attachment,
the modules (and the backplate) are subject to very high electromagnetic loads and thus
additional locking devices are required to sustain shear loads between modules and
backplate or between adjacent modules.
In addition it was found that the hoop stresses arising on the backplate from either
radial disruptions (- 75 MPa) or asymmetric VDE's (115 MPa) require a minimum material
thickness for SS of 120 mm in order to be below the allowable membrane stress (131
MPa). A single plate design with this thickness had to be ruled out due to cooling problems
leading to a solution with a double wall backplate which also constitutes the cooling
manifold for the blanket modules. The double wall approach with a gap of 40 mm between
two plates (inner 50 mm, outer 70 mm) also improves the resilience against bending
stresses induced at the bottom of the blanket during VDEs. The new manifolding allows to
concentrate the cooling pipes which connect the blanket with the HTS in 10 vertical ports
thus freeing the other 10 ports for diagnostic access and off-line in-vessel viewing. As an
additional benefit, the increased manifold volume raises the module cooling water
residence time in the machine thus reducing the activation caused by 17N decay (produced
by I70(n,p)17N reactions)with T1I2.= 4.17 s [23] as well as radiation loads caused by
16N.
In port areas, reinforcement must be used to reduce peak stresses and to limit
distortions arising from high local load. These arise because the presence of the port
interrupts electrical continuity, modifying the current path, and because of the missing
material in the port area, reducing the resistance to the hoop stress. These reinforcements
consist of toroidal and poloidal ribs which are introduced in the space between backplate
and VV in case of the horizontal ports and in form of rectangular extensions into the
vertical port.
As in previous designs, the modules have a first wall consisting of a 20 mm thick
copper alloy mat on top of which (facing the plasma) is a 10 mm thick array of Be tiles.
The copper mat is bonded to a water cooled stainless steel block, which serves as a neutron
shield, and is cooled by water flowing through an embedded array of stainless steel tubes
(typical ID = 10 mm, thickness = 1 mm, and pitch = 22 mm). This configuration
accommodates the design heat flux of 0.5 MW/m2 with substantial margin.
As can be seen from Figure 6, the modules are oriented with their long side in the

11
toroidal direction. They are attached to the backplate by means of 4 flexible connections,
which are slotted inconel cylinders approximately 200 mm long and 150 mm in diameter
which can bend or flex in the direction transverse to their cylindrical axis in order to permit
differential expansions of order 1 mm between the backplate and the module for 104
cycles. Each "flexible" can be bolted or welded to the module and is attached to the
backplate by means of a single M45 high strength bolt. The flexible fits in a hole recessed
in the backplate. Adjustment for tolerance and backplate deformations is accommodated by
an insert which is machined after survey of the positions and orientations of the backplate
holes. Four 30 mm holes are situated in the module to permit access to the bolts from the
plasma side.

Flexible Hole Blanket Module

Figure 6: Blanket modules and attachment scheme

The pipes connecting the backplate manifolds with the water cooling circuits in the
module are sufficiently flexible to allow ± 2 mm displacements when connected to the
flanges. The new backplate design, the concern about the reliability of welding the branch
pipes from the modules to the cooling manifold with a crawler device introduced into the
manifold as well as the new attachment scheme resulted in an approach where all
mechanical, hydraulic and electrical connections from the module to the backplate are
made from the plasma side. This resulted in nine 30 mm diameter access holes, 4 for the
attachment, 2 for the branch pipe welding, 2 for attaching two electrical connectors and 1
RH hole needed for gripping in combination with 3 of the existing holes. Analysis shows
that the reduction of shielding as well as nuclear heating (bolts) and He production (branch
pipe weld) due to these holes at the level of the backplate is acceptable.
The electromagnetic loads on the blanket system from centred disruptions induce a
current in the blanket and vacuum vessel. Most of the current appears in the backplate,
reaching 1.2 MAIm near the inside equator. Such current densities also appear in the
adjacent equatorial modules, flowing in the toroidal direction in the first wall and returning
again in the reverse toroidal direction in the rear surface of the module. Since there is no
net toroidal current in the module (the modules have an electrical connection at only a
single toroidal location) , the radial pulling force on the module is negligible. Instead, this
force (a radial pressure of 1 MPa) is applied directly to the backplate.
Although the net force on the modules is negligible, there are strong moments
created by the induced currents as they cross the toroidal field near the toroidal ends of the
modules. On the inside equator the radial torque (poloidal forces) reaches 1.3 MNm. This
torque is reacted by (insulated) keys linking each module with its toroidally adjacent
neighbour which experiences the same torque. Whereas the radial torque diminishes in

12
modules above and below the equator, such modules experience a poloidal torque (radial
forces) whose origin is less obvious than that of the radial torque just described. It arises
from poloidal currents crossing the toroidal field, also at the toroidal ends of the module,
which are associated with penetration of radial magnetic field through the poloidal gaps
between modules. EM modelling indicates for example that in the number 8 module,
counting from the lowest module on the inside, the poloidal current reaches 110 kA and
produces a poloidal torque of 0.7 MNm depending on the location [24]. This torque must
be reacted by the flexibles and produces their dominant axial load.
In addition to the standard blanket modules there are special areas with higher heat
load and I or neutral CX fluxes. Two of these areas are the toroidal belts of modules in the
vicinity of the X-point forming the baffle. A compromise between neutrals back-streaming
from the divertor and direct neutral recycling on these modules results in arranging their
FW along the 6 cm flux surface (- 6 power e-folding lengths outside the separatrix). The
relatively high neutral density near these modules is expected to produce a significant flux
of low energy CX neutrals (:5 100 eV). To mitigate the erosion from these neutrals,
tungsten has been selected as the first wall material for the lower row of baffle modules
while beryllium is retained for the upper row. The peak heat fluxes on the baffle first wall
are expected to be -3 MW/m2, - 0.5 MW/m2 from CX neutrals and up to 2 MW/m2 in
cases where MARFEs develop at the X-point while the surface-averaged heat load is only 1
MW/m 2.
Another special area is the startup limiter. While previous designs included a belt
limiter below the equatorial ports consisting of modified blanket modules, two or three
local limiters situated in up to three dedicated RH ports are foreseen for the FDR design.
The reason for this change is that the alignment requirements for which a toroidal belt
limiter becomes attractive « 1 mm absolute to the field lines) are too stringent for a
machine like ITER. This would furthermore require a first wall designed for 5-10 MW/m2,
of which only a small fraction ( a few %) would be used at this level, resulting in a very
inefficient cooling scheme.
The design of the discrete port limiters follows a similar approach as the divertor
vertical target/albeit with a Be FW. The heat load capability is in the range of 8 to 10
MW/m2 and will thus allow limiter plasmas with - 20 MW conducted into the SOL
(accounting for some additional heating) if two (10 MW/m2) or three limiters (8 MW/m2)
are utilised. In order to utilise more than one limiter, again a minimum alignment tolerance
of 1 mm of the limiter modules relative to the limiting surface has to be achieved. In
contrast to the belt limiter, the alignment for these local port limiters is feasible through
adjustments which can be performed after initial operation. Additional advantages are the
relatively fast replacement possibility should the necessity arise and the more localised
cooling required for this limiter system.
A comprehensive R&D programme for the blanket led by the ED HT is presently
under way albeit somewhat delayed. However, many small and medium size mockups
addressing the manufacturing of modules and of the FW have been made and were
successfully tested. Among them was a 5 t module mock up produced by powder HIP and
many small FW mockups demonstrating the feasibility of hipping the Be-Cu-SS FW mat.
One full size mockup will be fabricated within the EDA, but testing will be done during the
post-EDA period.

Divertor:

The general design approach of the divertor has not changed since it was presented
in [1] and [25]. It still consists of 60 cassettes onto which all HHF components are
mounted. Also, the choice for plasma facing materials (C at strike zones on the vertical
target (VT) and short dump target and W everywhere else) has not changed. The expected
lifetime due to erosion in particular of the VT is of the order of 3000 full power discharges.
Based on R&D results, the reference concept adopted for the lower part of the VTs and the
short dump targets consists of CFC monoblocks joined to Cu pipes while rectangular Cu
heat sinks clad with 4x4 mm 10 mm thick W tiles are use in the upper part of the VT. The
monoblocks and the Cu heat sinks are supported by SS plates (slices) which form a
backplate when all 18 (outboard) or 13 (inboard) slices of a VT are assembled. Swirl tube
technology is used to enhance the heat transfer coefficient in the lower part of the VT and
the short dump targets. Critical heat fluxes (CHF) of up to 27 MW/m2 have been achieved

13
in this geometry with ITER-relevant thermal hydraulic conditions in R&D performed by
the EU Home Team [26] giving sufficient margin to the expected maximum transient heat
load of 20 MW1m2 . HHF tests on mockups with CFC monoblocks and others with the
above mentioned W cladding survived> 1000 cycles of up to 30 MW/m2 (CFC) and 10
MW/m 2 (W) respectively.
Minor changes have been also made in many other areas (Fig. 7): a slightly bigger
dome to optimise neutral baffling, the design of maintenance-friendly attachments for the
HHF components, a cassette body design considering manufacturing constraints, a dome
body design following the modular slice approach of the VT as well as the increase of the
heat load capability of the short dump target to - 16 MW/m2 are among them.
Recently the concern about C-T codeposition and about the related cleaning
techniques together with the adoption of semi-attached operation as the reference, reducing
the need for the wings in the private region, has resulted in a design option without wings
(Fig. 7). The driver for this new design was to try to keep the surfaces in the private region
sufficiently hot (> 450·C) in order to prevent- or to reduce the T trapped with C in
codeposited layers. In addition it was attempted to design smooth surfaces in order to allow
local ECH discharges in oxygen, which, beside baking in air, is one of the most promising
techniques to remove C-T codepositied layers.

OUTER TARGET

Figure 7: Cross section through the divertor

Due to these requirements and in order to standardise the manufacturing and

attachment of HHF components, again a similar design approach as for the vertical target
(VT) was adopted for this new liner albeit with a different kind of W cladding and with
pumping slots between the slices forming the liner. In order to keep the surface temperature
sufficiently high, special W tiles with a narrow neck (limits heat conduction) which are
attached by active metal casting to the Cu heat sink are envisaged. The design is such that
the W temperature near the surface will be in the range between 450·C and 1200·C for
radiation heat loads calculated to be between 0.3 and 1.0 MW/m2 . In order to provide a
smooth surface for cleaning purposes the pumping holes are fully covered by this new
liner. However, due to the modular design consisting of slices, pumping slots between each
subsection of this HHF component together with a 50 mm gap between cassette body and
liner provide enough conductance to retain - 90% of the previous pumping speed. Further

14
physics analysis applying a Monte Carlo code for neutrals including n-n collisions and as
well as discussions with industry about this concept are presently ongoing in order to
enable a final judgement on this new approach by the end of October.
The main electromagnetic loads in the divertor are experienced during downward
VDEs. The resulting halo currents and eddy currents lead to - 4 MPa loads on the HHF
components and a maximum downward force of 4.5 MN on each cassette body and its
supports. The cassette body as well as the HHF components are designed to withstand
these loads.
R&D coordinated by the US HT and aiming to build close to full size HHF
components and a toroidal half of a full size cassette is well under way. All HTs participate
in this task, in particular in the development and manufacturing of HHF components. Many
results which are already available from small and medium size mockups (see above)
support the present design choices and provide also several viable backup options for the
HHF components as well as for the cassette body. Further results from close to full size
components are expected during 1998.

Fuelling and Pumping System:

The fuelling and pumping systems have evolved considerably during the last two
years but it would go beyond the scope of this paper to describe in particular the various
pumping systems in detail. Therefore only a brief description of the fuelling system and
some aspects of the torus pumping system will be given here. The fuelling / pumping
system is designed to provide a range of fuelling rates based on the following
considerations: replacement of the DT bumup requires 50 Pa-m3/sec assuming 10% He
concentration in the core plasma, a He enrichment in the divertor of 0.2 (experimental; B2-
Eirene gives 0.15), and a He production rate of 2 Pa-m3/sec for 1.5 GW of fusion power.
The upper limit chosen for the fuelling rate is 200 Pa-m3/s: a compromise between the need
to generate some SOL flow for impurity entrainment, and the pumping / T processing
capability of the ITER plant. Up to 500 Pa-m3/s are foreseen for up to 50 s for density ramp
up as well as divertor and bum control actions. Control of the DT mix and of the divertor
target power load requires injection of up to three hydrogenic gases (D, T, DT) and of up to
three impurity gases (e.g. Ne, Ar, He) at the same time. To mitigate local erosion of the
first wall (0.2 mm Be after 10000 discharges) from CX sputtering, five evenly spaced
injection locations are provided around the torus at the top of the machine and in the
divertor. An injection time response of - 0.5 sec, required for divertor and bum control,
allows pipes 25 m long (10 mm diameter) from the injection valve to the plasma chamber.
The gas fuelling system consists therefore of 5 valve containers (6 injection valves
each) evenly distributed around the torus inside the upper Heat Transfer vault and of 5
valve containers in the divertor level pit. The valves inside each container are arranged for
independent injection of 6 fuelling gases via a common 10 mm dia; discharge manifold
(-20 m long) connected to the plasma chamber and the divertor volume, respectively. Two
safety isolation valves controlled by the safety system can isolate the fuelling system from
the torus in case of a pressure excursion, and can also stop fuelling of the plasma instantly
to shut down the fusion power within - 10 sec. Two additional puffing valves also
controlled by the safety system can bypass the flow controllers of two of the impurity
injection lines to provide strong impurity puffing for an even faster fusion power
shutdown (FPSS).
In addition to gas injection, a pellet fuelling system is provided to inject up to
100 Pa-m3/s of hydrogenic species (3 to 8 mm pellets with 1.5 kmIsec) from the high field
side. This pellet injection system consists of: (a) two centrifuge pellet injector drivers, (b)
three extruders per injector, (c) a feed manifold for the gas supply (6 gas lines and a
pumping/ flushing line), (d) a continuous regenerating cryopump per injector, (e) a flight
tube routed through a divertor port below the cassettes behind the inner blanket penetrating
the backplate between two modules, (f) a diagnostic, control & data acquisition system.
The two pellet injector assemblies are installed inside a transport cask (6 m long x 4 m
high x 3 m wide) located at the divertor level.

The primary pumping system for ITER comprises two major subsystems: the torus
roughing system and the high vacuum system (cryo-pumps). The former must perform two
primary functions: to evacuate the torus to < 50 Pa from atmosphere in less than 60 hours

15
with the torus back-filled with air, helium or nitrogen, and to regenerate the primary
cryopumps to < 5% of their initial inventory in < 75 s during plasma bum. The latter
requirement is the design driver for the roughing system, (two mechanical pump sets, one
for redundancy) located in the vacuum pump room [27].
The high vacuum system consists of 16 batch regenerating cryosorption pumps
designed to provide the required - 200 m3/sec pumping speed in the divertor private
region. The minimum gas throughput (D, T and He) of 50 Pa-m 3 /s can thus be provided at
- 0.3 Pa pressure in the divertor private region whereas the maximum throughput
(200 Pa-m3/s) requires O.S Pa. These or even higher pressures are readily observed during
detached or semi-detached divertor operation in present day machines and when modelling
the ITER divertor.
The cryo-pumps are independently controlled to allow individual pumps to be
regenerated, shut down in the event of failure, or to regulate the pumping speed. They
consist of a cylindrical SS housing 1500 mm OD x 1500 mm long into which charcoal
coated cryopanels (S m2 I pump) and an SO K radiation shield are mounted. A
pneumatically driven inlet valve is used to control the pumping speed and to isolate the
pump from the torus during regeneration. Each cryopump is mounted on the inside of the
vacuum vessel port closure flange within the divertor port duct.
During the plasma discharge 12 pumps are in pumping mode and 4 pumps are in
various states of regeneration, namely rapid warm-up to -SOK, gas desorption and
evacuation, and rapid cool down. Thus each cryopump will pump for 900 s followed by a
300 s regeneration cycle. The tritium content in the 16 cryopumps reaches a maximum
steady state value of 170 g after 900 sec. The total 4.5 K refrigeration required to operate
the cryopumps is an estimated 10 kW and depends on the flow rate required for rapid cool
down [27].

REMOTE MAINTENANCE APPROACH FOR IN-VESSEL COMPONENTS

It would go beyond the scope of this paper to describe the Remote Maintenance approach
for ITER in detail (see [2S]). However, a brief description of the general concepts for
maintaining the divertor, the blanket and the equipment inside the equatorial and the
vertical ports will be given here. Generally all maintenance operations are performed by
docking so called transfer casks to divertor or equatorial ports (Fig. 5) which then insert the
various maintenance tools into the machine. These casks also transport components and
tools to and from the Hot Cell [29]. A slight deviation of this approach is the Blanket
maintenance where a mixture of cask operated tools and permanently installed RH tools are
used. The maintenance approach for the vertical ports is not as far developed as the one for
the other areas in the machine but a concept using crane operated vertical casks is presently
envisaged.
While it is planned to store the casks during plasma operation in the basement of
the laydown hall, the RH tools are stored and maintained in the lower level of the Hot Cell
building. During RH operations the tools will be picked up as needed by docking casks to
this area and inserting or removing tools from the casks. As already mentioned above, all
spare or damaged in-vessel components of the divertor, the blanket, the heating systems
and diagnostics will be also stored in the Hot Cell building and can be accessed by cask
dockings.

Divertor:

The cassette solution is fundamental to the remote maintenance concept [30], which
is based on installation of a small number of integrated components inside the vessel to
provide short RH times and high reliability. Connections to the cooling system and the
locking mechanism are in an area of low neutron flux to permit frequent rewelding and
bolting. The cassettes are locked on toroidal rails from the side (the last one from the port),
avoiding access holes through the HHFC's.

Remote maintenance ([2S]) is performed in parallel through four dedicated RH

ports (one per quadrant) serving 15 cassettes each. A Cassette Toroidal Mover (CTM)
handles the cassettes between their in-vessel location and the central position in front of the

16
RH port. Not larger than a cassette, it is introduced in the vessel once the central cassette
(in front of the RH port) and the second cassette (next to the central one) have been
removed. It uses a dextrous manipulator arm which locks (bolting tool) the supports and
mounts the earth-straps. The CTM is guided by the toroidal rails and driven by two rack-
and-pinion assemblies. It handles the cassette using three grips and two wheeled lifting
forks inserted between toroidal rail grooves and the cassette bottom (Fig 8).
A Radial Tractor (RT), driven by a rack-and-pinion and combined with a set of
rolling carriers, moves the cassettes and the CTM along the RH port radial rail, between
the vessel and a transport cask which is docked to the cryostat flange to confine T and
radioactive dust [29]. The RT includes a manipulator arm for RH operations inside the port
(pipe handling, connections) and is supplied from the cask (Fig. 8). This cask is also used
to transport cassettes and tools between the Hot Cell and the machine.

Figure 8: Divertor Remote maintenance showing TCM and radial tractor

Cutting and welding of the cassette water feeds (6 pipes per port connecting three
cassettes) is performed in a parallel process. A set of hands-on assisted RH pipe tools cuts,
welds and inspects the pipe end caps outside the bio-shield (orbital tools) and the joints
located inside the vessel (bore tools) between the cassette water-feeds and the fixed straight
pipes inside the 20 ducts (Fig. 6). Due to radioactive corrosion products inside the
pipework, the tools are confined in glove boxes or casks.
A preliminary assessment of replacement times for the whole divertor and for a
single faulty cassette yielded less than 6 months and less than 3 month, respectively.
Beside the design effort an R&D programme led by the ED HT [31] is underway
aimed on building a full size 70" mockup of the ITER divertor area including 4 ports. Full
size cassette and mover mockups will allow assessment of the divertor RH concept. First
operation of this RH platform is expected in early 1998. In addition to the in-vessel RH a
so-called refurbishment platform will test the Hot Cell operations required to repair
damaged divertor cassettes. In the post-EDA phase the scope of this refurbishment
platform will be extended and will also include diagnostic cassette refurbishment trials.

Blanket:

While the backplate constitutes a semipermanent structure (RH class 3) the blanket
modules have to be exchangeable in a reasonable time frame for repair and also for
installing a breeding blanket for the Extended Performance Phase (EPP). The modular
concept of the blanket together with an in-vessel transporter are fundamental for the ITER
blanket maintenance concept. The in-vessel transporter when installed consists of a

17
toroidally continuous rail located at the centre of the plasma chamber supported by four
beams extending from the four dedicated RH ports (Fig. 9). The rail itself consists of 2
times 8 segments connected by hinges and a locking clamp. On this rail up to four so-called
vehicles can move toroidally. Each of these vehicles has an extendable arm with 6 degrees
of freedom and is therefore able to reach every position at the FW. It has a net lifting
capability of 4.3 t and thus limits the weight of the blanket modules. The end effectors on
these arms are capable of performing all operations for module attachment to the backplate
(see above).
The two halves of the rail are stored during plasma operation in the form of two
storage rings inside dedicated RH cells in the pit in front of two of the RH ports. The rail is
installed by first inserting two support beams from casks at the RH ports located 90' from
the ones where the rail is stored. Then the support arms in the handling cells on which a
vehicle and the first segment of the rail is fixed are extended into the vessel pulling the rail
from the circular storage ring. Once the support beams are extended the vehicle pulls the
rail further into the vessel directing it into the toroidal direction. At each hinge a special
bolting tool mounted on the vehicle closes the locking clamp thus producing a stiff rail.
Once both rail halves have been fully installed they are connected to form the above
described rigid toroidal structure. The two vehicles are then released from the support arms
and can now move along the rail. Two more vehicles as well as all the blanket modules are
introduced / removed through the RH ports located 90° from the RH cells.

Figure 9: In-vessel transporter and RH cells

In addition to its function for blanket maintenance the in-vessel transporter will be
used for several ancillary operations such as leak checking and maintenance of the
in-vessel diagnostic sockets mounted on the backplate [2].
The JA HT leads an R&D task [32] to manufacture a full size 180' rail system and a
full size 20' blanket segment. The task is well advanced and test results from this full size
system can be expected in 1998. Previous mockups with reduced size have already shown
satisfactory operation and thus support the design choices made for the blanket, its
attachment, and the RH scheme. An additional subtask within this effort is the manufacture
and test of a transport cask and its docking to the cryostat flange. This test also includes a
double door mechanism which is a general feature of all the casks envisaged for ITER to
avoid contaminated external surfaces after undocking the casks.

18
 Equatorial ports:
Nearly all the equatorial ports including the RH ports are equipped with standard
plug assemblies (Fig. 10) and are maintained by standardised maintenance tools. An
exception is the NBI ports and port 7 which is obstructed by the NBI where different RH
schemes are used.
The integrated plug assembly (weight up to 90 t) consists of a blanket section of the
size of the port (back plate opening 1.6 x 2.6 m x 0.5 m deep, port opening 1.8 x 2 .8 x4.0
m) mounted on a VV shielding block which also includes the closure plate. The whole
assembly is supported by rollers on the floor of the port and is mechanically fixed onto the
VV flange . The vacuum seal is provided by a welded lip seal. These integrated assemblies
contain the front ends of heating systems or diagnostics or constitute the port limiter
assembly (in 2 to 3 RH ports). On the bottom of the port below the VV flange 4 blanket
cooling pipes exit the vessel and are routed in the port interspace through a platform
mounted on the cryostat which constitutes shielding (N 16) and provides support for RH
tools and for shielding blocks in case this is required.
Maintenance of such a port is performed by removing the bio-shield plug with
hands-on assistance, inserting tools to cut and remove the VV plug cooling lines, and
remove the cryostat closure plate. Then a cask is docked to the port remove the shielding
assembly in the port interspace (rolling it onto a platform extended from the cask) where it
exists. In a subsequent cask docking operation a RH platform supported by the above
mentioned floor is inserted into the port interspace and a vehicle moves forward to cut the
lip seal and to remove the mechanical locking on the VV plug assembly (Fig. 10). The
same vehicle then grips the VV plug and pulls it - 1.5 m forward then a floor segment from
the inserted platform is lifted to support the plug behind the VV flange, allowing to pull the
assembly fully onto the platform with subsequent floor segments lifted for additional
support. The platform is then retracted into the cask and the VV plug assembly is
subsequently transported to the Hot Cell where detailed maintenance and testing will be
performed. The concept of handling inside the machine (only a few big assemblies), and
the standardisation, permit fast maintenance times to be achieved, so that the downtime of
the machine can be minimised if spare VV plug assemblies are available.

Figure 10: Port plug handling

The maintenance of the port 7 area is very similar, but the NBI results in more
limited space and mandates the use of curved rails. Therefore, an integrated plug assembly
is not possible in this environment [33] and more docking operations are required. The NBI
maintenance will be performed by special casks docking at the back of the beam line

19
aiming to maintain mainly the filaments of the ion sources.

Vertical Ports:

As already mentioned there are two types of vertical ports namely 10 ports
dedicated to blanket cooling pipes and 10 diagnostic ports. While for the cooling pipe ports
no frequent maintenance is foreseen (RH class 3), regular maintenance is expected on the
10 diagnostic ports. These 10 ports provide space for diagnostic access but have to
incorporate also the in-vessel inspection ( viewing) system consisting of insertable probes
and the also insertable glow discharge electrodes. Access to the plasma is provided through
a 150 mm wide slot over the whole length of the port. On the blanket either special
modules with side wall cooling locking into keys on a frame like extension of the backplate
or an integrated blanket plug inserted through the port will be used (decision pending).
Behind this slot in the blanket custom made VV plug assemblies will provide shielding and
will include the VV closure plate and its vacuum seal. This shielding plug incorporates a
number of cylindrical holes, one for the inspection system (- 150 mm wide) at the radially
innermost area of the port and either four 300 mm holes or two 300 mm holes plus one 500
mm hole. A re-entry structure of the size of the vertical port protrudes from the cryostat lid
to within 150 mm of the VV flange. Bellows connecting the holes mentioned above with
this structure provide vacuum tight continuity thus avoiding a vent of the cryostat for
maintenance of the diagnostic subassemblies. A closure flange at the level of the cryostat
lid provides secondary confinement.
The in-vessel inspection systems are located in 9 ports. They require an opening to
the plasma of - 150 mm diameter and a space above the VV flange inside the re-entry
structure of - 500 mm diameter. These systems are maintained by closing valves located at
the bottom of the re-entry structure and then using a special cask and tools to open the
vacuum seals and mechanical attachments and finally lifting the whole assembly into the
cask. This cask is then moved into a special area where hands on maintenance in protective
suits is possible.
The rest of the port space is occupied by diagnostics and by glow discharge
electrodes which are inserted as cylindrical assemblies into the holes mentioned above and
then sealed to the flanges on the bottom of the re-entry structure. Maintenance of these
components also makes use of a crane operated cask holding all required RH tools.
However, these components are transported into the Hot Cell for refurbishment.
Maintenance or modification of the RH class 3 components (VV plug assembly,
blanket plug) needs venting of the cryostat and will therefore be performed only a few
times in the life of ITER.
R&D on the remote maintenance of the above described port assemblies (vertical
and equatorial ports) will be performed in the post EDA phase.

GENERAL APPROACH FOR DIAGNOSTIC INTEGRATION

Some aspects of diagnostics integration have already been mentioned throughout the paper
when describing machine components or the maintenance approach. The detailed
engineering aspects of the diagnostic integration are the subject of a separate paper in this
conference [2] and will be therefore not be addressed here. In this section a short
description of the general approach and the present distribution of diagnostics on the
machine will be given.
Diagnostic integration in ITER takes place in four generic areas, namely the blanket
and VV mounted diagnostics (in-vessel diagnostics), the divertor diagnostics, the
equatorial port diagnostics and the diagnostics at the vertical ports.

In-Vessel Diagnostics:
The majority of the in-vessel diagnostics will be mounted on the plasma facing side
of the backplate while only a few flux and voltage loops as well as a few magnetic pick-up
coils in the divertor region will be mounted on the VV, serving as a back-up for the much
more extensive magnetic diagnostics on the backplate.
There are two generally different types of in-vessel diagnostics which pose different
kinds of problems for diagnostic integration. They can be divided into localised diagnostics

20
(coils, bolometers ... ) and into diagnostics consisting of flux loops or toroidal voltage loops
[34]. The problem for installation of toroidal voltage loops is that due to the assembly
procedure of the machine, toroidally unimpeded access to the VV walls and also to the
blanket backplate is not possible (installation of backplate and pre-installation of blanket
modules). In addition, provisions have had to be found for reconnecting toroidal loops after
the possible replacement of a TF coil which requires the removal of a complete VV -
blanket sector. The solution found is that on every sector joint a connection bridge is
foreseen. It is spot welded into special sockets on each side and a spare connection is
provided for a possible repair action [2]. This approach allows flexibility and reliable
installation of voltage loops for both assembly and repair. Another special case are
waveguides for high field side reflectometer systems which are routed through the vertical
ports and then poloidally downward on the plasma facing side of the backplate similar to
the cable looms decribed below.
All the other types of diagnostics (magnetic pick up coils, bolometers, SX detectors,
and microfission chambers) are mounted in standardised cylindrical inserts in the backplate
which are very similar to those for the flexible attachments of the modules. These inserts
are located in the middle of a poloidal gap between blanket modules allowing bolometers
and SX diagnostics to view the plasma. Magnetic pickup coils are hidden behind one
module while a removable plug connecting the diagnostic in the insert to a cable loom is
protected by the adjacent module. Each of these inserts can be exchanged against a new
one if the two blanket modules on top of it are removed [35].
A row of these inserts is integrated into each blanket sector served by a cable loom
routed poloidally on the plasma facing side of the backplate behind modules. The cable
looms penetrate the backplate below the equatorial ports and are then routed along the
blanket supports to the cryo-pump ports. All cabling for electrically connected in-vessel
sensors exits the machine at the divertor level through the cryo-pump ports [2] and is
terminated in cubicles situated in the pit at the divertor level.

Divertor Diagnostics:

These are described in [36]. Diagnostic access into the divertor is provided at the 4
RH ports. The so-called central cassettes in front of these ports are modified to incorporate
optical and microwave diagnostics. While the microwave diagnostic is integrated into
cooled plates attached on the side of the cassette body, the optical diagnostics use a mirror
rack located in the space between the cassette and the VV (200 mm high) viewing the
divertor targets through slots in the cassette body and liner [2]. A - 20 mm wide slot
between the central cassette and its two neighbours is used as a viewing slot for e.g. the X-
point LIDAR system. Routing of the microwaves as well as of the optical signals between
the cassettes and the VV closure plate is performed by means of four dedicated diagnostic
blocks which are handled by the same tool as the central cassette. They are used as
platforms for waveguides as well as for optical assemblies (VUV spectrometers, LIDAR
system, relay optics ... ). All connections to these blocks are designed for fast removal in
order to minimise the time penalty for the divertor maintenance .
The standard cassettes on each side of these central cassettes are modified to
incorporate electrically connected sensors such as magnetic coils, bolometers, pressure
gauges and Langmuir probes. All of these sensors are incorporated in plates similar to
those of the microwave diagnostic, mounted on the two sides of the cassette body. The
cables of these diagnostics end in a plug which automatically connects to its counterpart on
the VV during cassette installation. Cables from these diagnostics are also routed through
the cryo-pump ports.

Diagnostics in Equatorial Ports:

Up to seven equatorial ports each 1.6 x 2.6 m wide are fully or partially available
for diagnostic integration and thus provide the main access to the ITER plasma (Fig. 11)
[2]. As already mentioned in the RH section all equipment in these ports has to be
incorporated in standard integrated VV plug assemblies (Fig 10). Due to the size of these

21
ports and the numerous diagnostic demands several diagnostic systems have to share a
port. The diagnostic components will be assembled into such a VV plug inside the Hot Cell
using a multi-purpose repair street. Included in this street will be a testing area where all
functions of these diagnostic components have to be checked. Only after a detailed test has
been passed will such a plug be installed on the machine.

'7
(I) F.OI R"'leetorre ..y (milin) _ _- - - , .4
(3) E.OS X-Ray C1y$UI !Peet,. (I) S.S.H Dogno5li: Nou .... II<!om
vIN Secrorretty (I) B.08 Nou .. Act 9151. A(solid)
(1)E .08NPA ~
'3
F".
rrograph/i
'8 ~"' (1) B.04 NIIl'. MorltDr
(1) G.OI Wide ""gle VIe.mglR
(I) G.06 DIv ...ID, R Th ...
(I) E.OI Ac~"" Speetroscopy .2

(I(
(I) C.06 ~Iorlrre ..y (I) G.Ol WldoAn~e VlewirgllR
(1) G.06 [)I""rtO( rR Thormqjnpl>j
(I) G.OS Hard X-Ilays
'9 118
(I) C.OS Ta . Int ./Polo,. (TIP) --fn---=~~-.....,,-:::+--- (I) G.OI Wi deAn~. VlewirgllR
(1) G.06 [)IIotIrtO( IR Thormqjrapl>j
(1) B.OI Rad . Nou,,0'1 eo".."" I) E.OI H.... ",. Spec: .. oscopy
(2) B.OS Rad . Nou,,0'1 Spec .. cm .
(3) B.07 ~rnI !Peelro"",...
(I) 0.01 lkIo""aolS (main) .17
(2) E.07 SOft X-Ray Any (1) E.06 Violblo Conthwm "'''''t

.,3 (I) E.03 I"l>url!y MOI IID' (m"n)

(2) FDI EeE Startup
(I) B.04 Nout Au. MOIko'
~ (2) f .OI feE Main
(3) C.07 Cdleetivo Scatt ... hg

[I) C.OI" UDAR

6 (co'e)
[1) G.OI Wide An~e lIIewirgllR
(I) G.06 [)I""rtor IR r"'rmQl'""'"
s • wlth wott,. PPes:
(2J F.03 PI1>Smo ~ (P7 & P81
(2J B.08 Hill' Act . Syst. A(sold)

(1) G.OS Hard X... oys

Figure 11: Diagnostic access at the equatorial level. diagnostics labeld with [I] belong to the
control set, the ones with [2] belong to the advanced control set and ones labeld with [3) belong to
the set with physics evaluation

As can be seen in Fig. 11 four ports are dedicated to diagnostics, of which one is
somewhat obstructed by the NBI. Due to the fact that this port can be included in the NBI
vault it is used for vacuum extended diagnostics [33). In addition to the dedicated
diagnostic ports the two RH ports without a handling cell can be used for diagnostic
equipment which allows fast removal (e.g. optically coupled diagnostics). The number of
RH ports which can be shared with diagnostics will depend on the number of port limiters
needed and will be decided at a later stage. An additional opportunity for diagnostic
integration is to use or share one of the Test Blanket Module (TBM) ports at least for a
limited time. Small diagnostics like neutron flux monitors which do not need a direct view
of the plasma could be mounted in the ports where the limiters are situated. By sharing two
RH ports and one TBM port all diagnostic systems envisaged so far can be integrated into
the machine, however, a final decision on the number of ports available for sharing can
only be made in the medium term future when the boundary conditions will be better
known.

Diagnostics in Vertical Ports:

The general approach of diagnostic integration in the vertical ports has already been
briefly explained in the RH section. Therefore the point remaining to be made here is that
regardless of spatial limitations in the 10 vertical diagnostic ports due to the inspection
system and the glow discharge electrodes, all diagnostics envisaged have been
accommodated so far. While 9 of the ports are configured as described in the RH section
one is specially modified to incorporate the vertical neutron camera [37) and thus neither
houses an inspection system nor a glow discharge electrode. Vacuum extended diagnostics
(X-ray, VUV- spectrometers) are foreseen in two ports. The boundary condition here is that
all the diagnostics have to be placed below the cryostat lid for reasons of secondary
contfinement.

22
SUMMARY
The physics basis as well as the machine design have evolved considerably since
the last workshop but as already pointed out above the major machine parameters as well
as the performance predictions for ITER have not changed. Due to the excellent
collaboration of the fusion physics community and its coordination through the ITER
Expert Groups, it has been possible to establish a physics basis for a reactor class machine
such as ITER: While some uncertainties remain which ultimately will have to be resolved
by operating ITER the present physics knowledge allows one to be confident that ITER
will reach its performance goals (1.5 GW fusion power for 1000 sec). In addition,
evolution in divertor physics has made a divertor design with acceptable lifetime and He
removal rates possible. A disruption database based on improved input from many divertor
tokamaks is instrumental for defining the design requirements in particular for the in-vessel
components (blanket and divertor).
During the last two years the design of all the major machine components was
optimised for performance, assembly schedule, maintenance, safety and if possible cost
reductions. An R&D program focusing on 7 Large Projects which aim to manufacture and
test full size or representative sized mockups of the major machine components and the RH
tools is well under way. Preliminary results from this programme have influenced design
solutions and further optimisation is expected on the basis of results to come in 1998.
However, it is not expected that these will result in major changes of design solutions but
rather in further refinements taking into account manufacturing processes and their cost.
Due to the well-advanced machine design diagnostic integration has progressed
significantly, in particular during the last year. Already now it becomes clear that it is
feasible to achieve an extensive diagnostic coverage also in a reactor class machine like
ITER despite the many constraints imposed by radiation and safety issues. This diagnostic
coverage together with its performance capability will make ITER the most interesting
physics and technology tool for the world-wide fusion community once it is operational.

REFERENCES
[1] R. Parker, et.al, Proceedings of Diagnostic Workshop, Varenna, September 1995
[2] C. Walker, et.al. this conference
[3] J. G. Cordey, Energy Confinement Scaling and the Extrapolation to ITER, Plasma
Physics and Controlled Fusion to appear (EPS meeting, 1997) (1997).
[4] J. W. Connor and 1. B. Taylor, , Nuclear Fusion 17, 1047 (1977).
[5] M. Greenwald, J. Terry, S. Wolfe et al., A New Look at Density Limits in Tokamaks,
Nuclear Fusion 28, 2199-2207 (1988).
[6] A. Loarte and et aI., Experimental Edge Results and Multi-machine Comparison,
Contributions to Plasma Physics to appear (1998).
[7] J. Snipes et al, Proceedings of the EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled
Fusion, Berchesgarten, June, 1997.
[8] F. Ryter and H-Mode Database Working Group, H-mode Power Threshold Database
for ITER, Nuclear Fusion 36, 1217 (1996).
[9] M. Kaufmann, J. Schweinzer, M. Albrecht et al., "Overview of ASDEX Upgrade
Results," presented at the 16th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Montreal, Canada,
1996IAEA-CN-64/02-5.
[10] A. Loarte, et aI, "Experimental Edge Results and Multi-machine Comparison", to
appear in Contributions to Plasma Physics, 1998.
[11] G. Janeschitz, A. Hubbard, Yu. Igitkhanov et al., "ITER operation space in terms of
Te and ne at the plasma edge," presented at the European Physical Society,
Berchesgarten, Germany, 1997.
[12] M. Mahdavi, R. Maingi, R. LaHaye et aI., "Recent H-Mode Density Limit
Experiments on DIII-D," presented at the 1997 EPS Conference on Plasma Physics
and Controlled Fusion, Berchesgarten, Germany, 1997.
[13] V. Mertens, A. Herrmann, A. Kallenbach et al., "Edge and Divertor Physics in
ASDEX Upgrade with emphasis on density limit characteristics," presented at the
Sixteenth IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Montreal, Canada, 1996 IAEA-CN-
64/A4-4.
[14] R. Raman, F. Martin, B. Quirion et al., Experimental Demonstration of

23
 Nondisruptive, Central Fuelling of a Tokamak by Compact Toroid Injection, Physical
Review Letters 73 (23), 3101-3104 (1994).
[15] S. Allen, D. Hill, T. Carlstrom et al., Measurements of Electron Temperature and
Density with Divertor Thomson Scattering in Radiative Divertor Discharges on DIII-
D, Journal of Nuclear Materials to appear (1996).
[16] A. Kukushkin, H. D. Pacher, V. Abramov, et al., "Analysis of The Performance of
The ITER Divertor And Analysis of The ITER Tokamak Edge Parameter Database,"
presented at the Sixteenth !AEA Fusion Energy conference, Montreal, Canada, 7-11
October, 1996 IAEA-CN-64/FP-27.
[17] A. Kukushkin, H. D. Pacher et at., 24th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and
Plasma Physics, Berchtesgaden, Germany, 9-13 June, 1997. Paper P3.013
[18] R.S. Granetz, ,Nuclear Fusion 36, 545 (1996).
[19] K.loki et aI, "ITER Vessel and Blanket", presented at the Sixteenth IAEA Fusion
Energy conference, Montreal, Canada, 7-11 October, 1996 IAEA-CN-64/FP-7.
[20] Thome, R., Barabaschi et aI, "Recent Progress on ITER Magnet Systems, Proc.
SOFE 1997
[21] M. Huguet., "ITER Magnets and Plasma Control", presented at the Sixteenth IAEA
Fusion Energy conference, Montreal, Canada, 7-11 October, 1996 IAEA-CN-64/FP-
11
[22] c. Sporchia et al, "Mechanical Structrues for the ITER Magnet Systems", Proc. 19th
SOFT, Lisboa, 1996
[23] V. Khripunov and R. T. Santoro, Radionuclide production in the ITER coolant water,
ITER Report, Garching Joint Work Site, G 30 RI 1 96-07-10, 1996.
[24] M. Roccella, Private communication.
[25] Janeschitz, G. et al, ,Proc. 4th ISFNT, Tokyo, 1997.
[26] 1. Schlosser, 1. Boscary, F. Escourbiac, et. aI., Comparison between various thermal
hydraulic tube concepts for the ITER divertor, 19th Symp. on Fusion Tech., Lisbon
(1996)
[27] Janeschitz, G. et aI, "ITER Divertor, Pumping, and Fuelling System Designs,
presented at the Sixteenth !AEA Fusion Energy conference, Montreal, Canada, 7-11
October, 1996IAEA-CN-64/FP-2
[28] T. Burgess et aI, Remote Maintenance of In-Vessel Components for ITER, Proc.
Fourth International Symposium on Fusion Nuclear Technology, Tokyo, Japan, April
1997, to appear.
[29] R. Haange et al, Radiation and Safety Aspects of Removal of Activated Components
from the ITER Vacuum Vessel, Proc. Fourth International Symposium on Fusion
Nuclear Technology, Tokyo, Japan, April 1997, to appear.
[30] E. Martin et aI, Design of the ITER Divertor Remote Handling System, Proc. 19th
Symposium of Fusion Technology, Lisbon, Portugal, Oct. 1996, to appear.
[31] D. Maisonnier et aI, Status of Development of Remote Maintenance of ITER
Divertor Cassettes, Proc. 16th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Montreal, Canada,
Oct. 1996, to appear.
[32] E. Tada et al, Development of Remote Maintenance Equipment for ITER Blankets,
Proc. Fourth International Symposium on Fusion Nuclear Technology, Tokyo, Japan,
April 1997, to appear
[33] P. Edmonds, et aI., this conference
[34] B. de Kock, et al, this conference
[35] P. Barabaschi, Private communication.
[36] G. Janeschitz, B. de Kock et al, this conference
[37] L. Johnson et al, this conference

Acknowledgement
This report is an account of work undertaken within the framework of the ITER EDA
Agreement. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of
the Parties to the ITER Agreement, the IAEA or any agency thereof. Dissemination of the
information in this paper is governed by the applicabable terms of the ITER EDA
Agreement.

24
ROLE AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PLASMA MEASUREMENTS ON ITER

I . 2 I I
V.S. Mukhovatov, R. Bartlromo, D. Boucher, A.E. Costley,
L. de Kock,3 K. Ebisawa,l P. Edmonds,3 Yu. Gribov,4 G. Janeschitz,3
L. C. Johnson, I S. Kasai,5 E. Marmar,6 A. Nagashima,5 M. Petrov,7
1 8 9 . I 3
D.E. Post, P.E. Stott, V.S. Strelkov, G. VayakIs, C.I. Walker,
1 3 10 . 9
1. Wesley, S. Yamamoto, K.M. Young, V.S. Zavenaev,
and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams

lITER JCT, San Diego JWS, 11025 North Torrey Pines Rd, La Jolla, CA
92037, USA
2Instituto Gas Ionizzati del CNR, Padova, Italy
3ITER Joint Central Team, Garching JWS, Germany
4ITER Joint Central Team, Naka JWS, Japan
5JAERI, Naka, Ibaraki-ken, Japan
6MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Cambridge, USA
7Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia
8JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK
9NFI, RRC Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia
IOprinceton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton, USA

INTRODUCTION

Measurement of plasma and key first wall parameters will have three main roles on ITER.
Some of the measurements will be used in real time to prevent the on-set of conditions which
could potentially damage the first wall and other in-vessel components (machine protection);
others will be used in real-time feedback control loops to control the value of key parameters
at values required for specific plasma performance (plasma control); while others will be used
to evaluate the plasma performance and to provide information on key phenomena which may
limit ITER performance (physics studies). The measurements of some parameters may
contribute to all three roles although the requirements on the measurements (accuracies,
resolutions etc.) may be different depending on the role.
At the last diagnostic workshop in Varenna, the first work on the role and requirements for
plasma measurements on ITER was presented. I Since then both topics have developed
further and the demands for plasma measurements are now more clear. The current
requirements are presented in this paper.

MEASUREMENTS FOR MACHINE PROTECTION

The stored thermal and magnetic energies in the ITER plasma are high (-1 GJ each) as is
the power flow through the separatrix (-200-300 MW). Abnormal and uncontrolled behavior
of the plasma can cause severe damage of ITER in-vessel components. Therefore, timely

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 25
information about such an events must be available to activate protective techniques. The
major parameters that should be measured for machine protection are shown in Table I with
approximate limits that must be avoided for safe machine operation.

Table 1. Parameters to be measured for machine protection

Parameter Limit
Separatrix/wall gaps >5 cm
First wall surface temperature :<>400°C (hot spots)
Divertor plate surface temperature :<>800°C (hot spots)
Fusion power :<>1.8 GW (20% above nominal value)
Locked modes Avoidance
Runaway electron current :<>0.1 Ip
Type I (Giant) ELMs (at full parameters) Avoidance
Specific impurity emission To be defined
Line-averaged density (NBI shine-through) >0.3x102o m· 3 for DO beams

The precision of the separatrix positioning relative to the first wall is critical for keeping
first wall power load below the allowable limit (0.5 MW/m2 ). Even a relatively short (~.l-l
s) contact of the plasma separatrix with the first wall can result in localized surface melting
(-1 mm deep for Be wall). Similarly, an uncontrolled rise of the fusion power and/or a full
divertor attachment can increase the thermal load onto the divertor plates above the tolerable
level (5 MW/m 2 at steady state).
Plasma disruptions can deposit up to 100 GJ/m2 of energy on the divertor plates during a
thermal quench (1-10 ms) with consequential significant plate erosion. 2 Also, high
mechanical stresses can arise in the blanket/shield structure and divertor cassettes due to high
poloidal 'halo' currents through these components during the vertical displacement event
(VDE). In addition, the formation of runaway electrons during the disruption increases the
potential for damage to the plasma facing components. Since the disruptions will probably be
a major factor defining the life-time of the divertor plates, the number of disruptions should
be kept small and/or their effects mitigated. Experiments show that locked (non-rotating)
modes, especially those induced by the resonant mln=21l error field component, often lead to
disruptions. An early and reliable detection of locked modes is a prerequisite for their
unlocking (e.g., through a plasma rotation induced by neutral beam injection) or a controlled
plasma termination. Frequently, a clear disruption precursor is absent or observed too late to
be useful for disruption mitigation. An artificial neural network, combining signals from a
large number of plasma diagnostics, is a promising approach for predicting the disruption
boundary in a real time, as was shown recently for high-~ disruptions in DllI-D.3
The edge localized mode (ELM) is beneficial for impurity and helium expulsion from the
plasma edge but Type I ('Giant') ELMs can lead to a substantial pulse heat load (i.e. -25 MJ
for -0.1-1 ms every 1 s) to the divertor plates. This heat load is very close to, or above, the
ablation threshold and may increase significantly the erosion rate of the divertor plates. The
measurements of ELMs is therefore included as a machine protection parameter.
A sudden and strong increase in the emission of a particular impurity, e.g., Be, can be a
clear indication of increased plasma-wall interaction. Measurement of specific impurity
emission is therefore included.
The 50MWIlMeV neutral beam injection in the absence of plasma will produce a localized
heat load to the first wall up to 30 MW/m2, i.e., 60 times higher than design value. A
relatively high density plasma, i.e., ne;:::0.3 1020 m- 3 for deuterium beams and ne;:::O.4 1020
m- 3 for hydrogen beams, must be maintained during the neutral beam injection to reduce
beam shine through to acceptable level. Hence, reliable measurement of the line-averaged
electron density is required for machine protection.

MEASUREMENTS FOR PLASMA CONTROL

Many of the measurement requirements for plasma control in ITER are identical to those
successfully employed in the present generation of divertor tokamaks. However, operation

26
with a burning DT plasma results in additional plasma control requirements which are
inherent in a reactor-grade plasma. In particular, a simultaneous control of the fusion power,
divertor heat load and helium-ash density represents a new challenge that can not be fully
studied in present experiments.
Plasma control assumes coupling of a measurement of the parameter to be controlled with
an actuator that can modify the measured parameter in a required way. The concept of plasma
control adopted for ITER is represented schematically by a matrix shown in Fig. I. The
vertical structure of the matrix reflects the division of the plasma control system into four
hierarchical layers, i.e., operation scenario, control of magnetic configuration, kinetic control
and fast shutdown.

Operation Scenario
The operation scenario is pre-set and defines a sequence in which the plasma progresses
from initiation in a circular configuration near the outboard limiters through current ramp up
and plasma channel expansion and elongation, divertor formation, current flat top during
auxiliary heating and plasma bum to current ramp down and termination. It provides the
operational framework within which three other control levels effect their actions.

Control of Magnetic Configuration

This encompasses the dynamic control of plasma current, and plasma position and shape,
including the control of selected separatrix-wall clearance gaps, and the divertor
configuration. The essential requirement is to maintain the magnetic configuration suitably
positioned ideally independent of the changes in kinetic plasma parameters. This control
must provide feedback stabilization of vertical displacement of the plasma and keep the
plasma-wall clearance gaps within acceptable tolerance during the 'normal' operation and at
typical plasma disturbances, i.e., ELMs, sawteeth and minor disruptions. It leads to
requirements for measurements of the plasma current, critical separatrix-to-first wall clearance
gaps and position of divertor strikepoints.
Fig. 2 shows simulation results for a time behavior of six representative plasma-wall gaps
in ITER after a minor disruption with relatively large drops in the internal inductance, tlli =-
0.1, and the poloidal beta, tlf3 p =-0.2.4 Time behavior of the poloidal field coil power is also
shown. One can see that the control system restores the plasma position within 10-15 s after
initial large (10-12 cm) shift. The time scale for initial changes in the gap widths is -1 s
which translates into a required time resolution for the gap measurements of (0.1-0.3) s.

Plasma Kinetic Control

Plasma kinetic control in ITER addresses the problem of controlling simultaneously the
fusion power and semi-detached divertor conditions. The ITER divertor is designed for a
steady-state peak power load on the divertor plate Pdiv ss ~ 5MW 1m 2 with power transients
up to Pdiv,lr ~ 20MW 1m 2 for ~ 10 s. This means that under the normal conditions only a
small fraction (~12-16%) of the total heating power (PIOI = Pa + Paw:= 300-400 MW where
Pais the alpha particle power and Paw: is the auxiliary heating power) can be removed
through the divertor plates, and more than 80% of PIOI must be radiated from the main and
divertor plasma. It requires an admixture of a controlled amount of a specific impurity or a
combination of impurities (e.g., Ne, Ar) to the divertor and scrape-of-layer (SOL) plasma
while maintaining the bremsstrahlung power loss and plasma dilution in the core at the level
acceptable for the plasma bum. The kinetic control must also keep the plasma away from the
f3 and density limits and provide a sufficient power flow through the separatrix to insure the
H-mode of plasma operation. It is clear that a sophisticated mUlti-input, multi-actuator
feedback control scheme is required for the successful operation of ITER in the basic ignited
regime. This leads to requirements for a wide range of plasma measurements including
fusion power, divertor plate temperature, radiative power loss from plasma core, SOL, X-
point region and from divertor, plasma density, f3, nT InD ratio, locked and rotating MHD

27
modes and a degree of divertor detachment, i.e., 'ionization front' position and/or Te and ne
at the divertor plate. For advanced scenarios, e.g., that with the negative central shear, a
careful current profile tailoring and control is required along with some level of pressure
profile control in addition to the basic kinetic control. For this, measurements of the current
density profile (q profile) and the electron and ion density and temperature profiles are
required.
Fig. 3 shows the results of a simulation of simultaneous control of fusion power and heat
load on the divertor plates using the PRETOR transport code with simplified SOL and
divertor model. 4 In the simulations, three actuators are used, i.e., argon injection to limit the
divertor target power to an allowable value (SO MW); DT injection to keep fusion power at
preset level (1.5 GW); and auxiliary heating power - in order of decreasing priority - to (i)
maintain the plasma in H-mode, (ii) maintain the plasma density below a maximum value and
(iii) assist the control of fusion power. To test a control scheme, auxiliary power PRF=lOO
MW is intentionally added for 50 s during the sustained bum. As the figure shows, a
satisfactory control is obtained. The high-frequency oscillations of alpha-particle power
(P ex) and divertor target load (Ptarget) are likely simulation artefacts. Such simulations will
help in determining the optimum accuracies and resolutions for kinetic control. Further work
on this topic is in progress.

Fast Plasma Shutdown

Fast plasma shutdowns are necessary to limit damage to the first wall and divertor plates
which could arise from a loss of position control or positive fusion power excursions in
situations where the bum control is inadequate. These events will usually be followed by
VDEs and disruptions. Fast plasma termination may be desirable also in the case of a locked
mode development which usually leads to disruption. The proposed methodS provides
conditions for a radiative transfer of a major part of the thermal and magnetic plasma energy
onto the first wall for -300 ms. Theoretically, this can be achieved by a fast increase of
plasma density (by up to two orders of magnitude) using a massive (-SO g) injection of
hydrogen or deuterium. Injection of impurities ('killer' pellets) instead of hydrogen may
provoke the generation of a dangerous amount of the relativistic runaway electrons carrying a
large fraction of the plasma current. This leads to requirements of reliable measurements of
the parameters listed in Table 1.

MEASUREMENTS FOR PLASMA PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND

PHYSICS STUDIES
The ITER plasma will be the first in which there is significant alpha heating so the
experimental program will have an extensive physics component. 6 Key topics to be
investigated include confinement physics; operational limits; high-current plasma disruptions;
physics of high power radiative divertor; alpha-particle effects; and steady-state bum. An
extensive set of plasma measurements is required to support these programs.

Confinement Physics in Reactor-Scale Plasma

One can expect a certain change in confinement physics in a burning DT plasma compared
to the present-day experiments. In particular, a strong dependence of the heating power on
the ion density and temperature, Pex oc nDnrT2, will affect the temperature and pressure
profiles which in tum can influence the stability and transport properties of a reactor plasma.
Spontaneous formation and destruction of internal transport barriers may lead to thermal
stability and control issues. Besides, the heating source in a reactor is coupled with internal
injection of impurity (helium) that will affect the plasma performance due to the plasma
dilution and increase in the bremsstrahlung power loss. A change in the confinement physics
may be associated with a large step (a factor of -5) in the non-dimensional machine size,
J/p* =a/pci where a is minor plasma radius and Pci is the ion gyroradius.7 There is a
chance that in a burning plasma, new modes of operation will be discovered which are more
favorable for sustained ignition compared to the ELMy H-mode.

28
 The principal parameters that must be measure for confinement studies include the ion and
electron temperature and density profiles, radiation power profiles in the plasma core and at
the edge, alpha particle source profile, and density profiles of major impurities, i.e., He, Be,
e and W, and extrinsic impurities (Ne, Ar) injected deliberately for the divertor head load
control. Measurement of parameters of edge pedestal, edge and internal transport barriers
and plasma rotation profile are also be required.

Control Action (Controllable Parameter or System)

PLASMA CONTROL MATRIX
Scenario and Auxiliary Heating -'S~
• = Major direct effect Fueling and Exhaust and Current Drive w
Magnetics
o = Appreciable secondary effect (options) cjj

o = Possible secondary effect

blank = No appreciable effect
or not applicable

Measurable Quantity

1: Scenario Plasma current, qedae ••

2: Magnetics Plasma shape (R, a, !C, 3) •

Plasma shape (FW gaps) •

m=2mode

3(a):
Locked modes
Plasma density
• • • • • • 000
•
Core Kinetics Fusion pcwer • • • 0.000€)C1)
He density • • • 000.
••••
•••
Core DIT ratio
Zeff

••••••
•
Core radiation power
Core plasma rotation ('rot)

q profile
Sawtooth period
• • ••
3(b): ELM period, magnitude • • •
Edge Kinetics nedge ••• •
~~---------r~+-+-r;-+~~~+-r;~-+-r;-+-~r;
Impurity exhaust • •• •
X-pcint and SOL radiation • •
3(c): In-divertor radiation (x,y) ® ®• ®
Divertor
Target plasma (n,T) • 9 0 ••• 0 9 @ ®
Target temperature
Divertor neutral pressure 99 • • • • •
0 ••••••
•
Divertor He density
4: Shutdown Prus and Ip

Figure 1. ITER plasma control matrix for measurable parameters and control actions.

29
 CORSICA Plasma Control Simulation (Pearlstein and Bulmer): ll.~ =-0.2, ll.t, =-0.1 (no profile recovery)
12 Change In Gap (em)

10 Nominal allowable

-2~~~~~ 10 15 20 25 30 35
=
·50

·100

·150

·200 Total Power (MW)

·250 t!=::&==:":==:';:=::"L::=.!.A~II~OW~ab~le~_ _.... .J

10 15 20 25 3D 35 Gap Locations and Nomenclature
Tlme(.)

Figure 2. Results of simulations of time behavior of the separatrix/wall gap widths after a minor
disruption in ITER using the CORSICA code. Simultaneous drops in poloidal f3 and Ii by 0.2 and
0.1 respectively have been assumed at t=O. Also shown are the positions of the gaps gl - g6 in the
ITER poloidal cross-section and time derivative of magnetic energy of poloidal magnetic field coil
system (marked as total power).

15
(lie) (10'!m-3) , Argon Fraction (to"3)
'.0

'.0 !
/;

[\ h
~
2.5

I~ \.--~"-~ ""---~
2.0

0
200 300 400 0 100 200 300 100 200 :roo .00

P,,(MW)
:roo 300

250 250

200
10 I
150

\
100

50

ROT (1()ll'2 5-'1

100 200 200 300 '00

Time(s) Timals) Tima!s)

Figure 3: Simulation of simultaneous burn and divertor control. Additional heating power
Paux= 100 MW is intentionally added at t=230 s to test the response of control loops.

30
Operational Limits

ITER will operate at the f3 and Greenwald density limits and close to H-mode power
threshold. While the f3 limit is defined by stability of the plasma core, the density limit and
L-H transition are essentially edge phenomena, affected by atomic processes, although the
high beta physics seems to be involved in these phenomena as well. Due to a difference in
edge and core plasma physics, a plasma with an ITER-like core (i.e., the same normalized
beta f3N an collisionality v *) in present-day machines must necessarily be well below the
Greenwald limit and well above the H-mode power threshold, and a plasma with an ITER-
like edge will necessarily have a cold, collisional core. 8 This means that the integrated
demonstration of reactor-like core and reactor-like edge can be made only in an ITER-scale
experiment.
The f3 limit is a key parameter for a demonstration reactor (DEMO) design, and
experiments on ITER should address it. The 'neoclassical' magnetic islands with n= I that
are expected to be a major f3 limiting factor in long-pulse discharges at low v *, have a rather
long growth time, i.e., 10-30 s, and experiments aiming at increasing the p-limit by the
electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD) stabilization of the islands are planned on ITER.
Poloidal magnetic field fluctuations (f - 500 Hz) associated with rotating islands will be used
as input signal for the feedback ECCD control system. Measurement of the island size will
also be necessary for this program.
Studies of L-H transition and density limit will require careful measurements of Te , T;
and ne at the plasma edge, i.e. in the region of the edge transport barrier and pedestal, with a
space resolution of 0.5 cm because of steep gradients expected there. Also, measurements of
neutral density between plasma and the first wall, and the radiation power loss within the
separatrix (to determine the power flow through the separatrix), are required.

High-Current Plasma Disruptions and Runaway Electrons

The physics of a plasma disruption in a reactor is expected to be essentially the same as in
present-day tokamaks although the consequences of disruptions in a reactor can be much
more severe as discussed above. Also, due to high electric field produced at disruption and
substantial population of high-energy electrons created in the plasma by Compton scattering
of gamma-rays emitted by the wall, a high runaway current can be produced through knock-
on avalanche multiplication of the fast electrons.
To document the physics phenomenology of disruptions, fast (-0.1 ms) time and space
resolved measurements of major plasma parameters, i.e., Te , T; and ne are essential. Also,
time and space resolved measurements of energy deposition on the first wall, divertor
entrance baffle and divertor target are required for documenting energy partitioning in
disruptions. Magnetic measurements of both plasma current and configuration evolution and
in-vessel component halo current flow will be required to document VDE and halo current
characteristics. These measurements and the associated plasma equilibrium reconstruction
methods must be capable of accurately resolving configuration and in-vessel halo current
evolution on a 10-ms or faster time scale. Measurement of the toroidal distribution of the in-
vessel currents is required. Measurement of synchrotron radiation from the plasma and hard
X-ray emission from the wall will be necessary to characterize the onset and evolution of the
runaway electron current.

Physics of Radiative Divertor

The radiative divertor concept is based on reduction of power reaching the divertor plates
due to radiation of impurities introduced into the divertor chamber.9 The main issue is a
compatibility of partially or fully detached radiative divertor with low impurity level in main
plasma and high-confinement operation mode.
Several measurements are needed for understanding the divertor physics. In particular, (i)
parallel and perpendicular particle and energy fluxes in the two divertor legs; (ii) gradients in
the plasma parameters perpendicular to the flux surfaces with scale lengths of mm's; (iii) 2-D
profiles of electron and ion temperatures and densities in the divertor and edge region; (iv)

31
concentrations and fluxes of the impurities; (v) partial pressures of the constituents of the gas
in the divertor chamber; (vi) edge plasma profiles during transient phenomena (e.g.,
MARFE's and ELMs). These data are essential to calibrate the divertor models which are
required for extrapolation to the DEMO. The role of the diagnostic measurement in the ITER
di vertor is discussed in greater detail by deKock et al.I 0

Alpha Particle Effects

The classical losses of the alpha-particles in ITER will be caused mainly be the ripples of
the toroidal magnetic field and should be low (~I %) in the 21-MA plasma. They are
expected to be low also at reduced currents (e.g., in a 12-MA reversed-shear steady state
mode) because of the planned installation of ferromagnetic inserts which will reduce the field
ripple. Therefore in the absence of anomalous alpha-particle loss, the fusion power in an
ignited plasma will constitute the heating power, and the power deposition profile will
coincide closely with the neutron emission profile.
Several candidates for the anomalous loss of the alpha-particles have been identified. The
toroidicity-induced Alfven eigenmode (T AE) is considered to be the most important one. I I
Calculations show that low-n T AE modes observed in present-day experiments will be stable
in ITER. However, modes with lO~n~50 can be unstable and their effect on alpha particle
confinement is not yet known. Alpha-particle transport can also be affected by the sawtooth
crash and low frequency MHD modes such as internal kinks, fishbones and kinetic
ballooning modes. On the other hand, fast alpha particles can stabilize sawteeth for a long
period to -100 s on ITER. Experiments on ITER should determine the importance of
anomalous loss of the alpha-particles in reactor-scale plasma. Detection of these instabilities
and the measurement of associated alpha-particle losses are required for this program.

Studies of Ignition Domain

The size of the ignition domain in a reactor is defined by the range of plasma parameters
which can provide sufficient alpha-particle heating to compensate the transport and radiation
power loss from the plasma. The plasma parameters must be compatible with the operational
· ' s, pdiv <
I1m1 t' f3 f3max max
I.e., N < N ' ne <ne ,Q95% >Q95%'
min psep /pL-H
tr thr > J,an d psep
Ir - rad-,

P;I~~ where P!rep is the power flux through the separatrix, Pt~;H is the H-mode power
threshold and P::''d is the radiation and charge exchange loss from the SOL and divertor
plasma. This program is similar to studies of the operational limits with an emphasis on the
energy balance of the main plasma. Measurements required for this program are those for
plasma confinement and operational limits.

Steady-State Burn and Advanced Operation Scenarios

Demonstration of steady-state burn of the D-T plasma is an ultimate goal for ITER.
Because of low efficiency of non-inductive current drive, a true steady-state mode at a limited
auxiliary power can be achieved in ITER only at high bootstrap current and, hence, at high
f3N > 3. It is presently expected that requirements for steady-state operation of ITER can be
met by reversed (or weak) shear modes with the internal transport barrier. 12 Such regimes
with high performance are at present transient, and a high level of plasma profile control
seems to be necessary to extend them to steady state.
The principal parameters that must be measured for understanding and optimizing the
steady-state burn are radial profiles of the safety factor Q( r) and plasma pressure p( r) with a
good spatial resolution (-10 cm), and profiles of the poloidal and toroidal plasma rotation and
radial electric field. Measurements of plasma shape, f3 N' escaping alpha particles and key
divertor parameters are also required.

32
SELECTED MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR ROLES
The above requirements imply a need for a large number of measurements. Table 2
classifies the measurements according to their major role, i.e., those that are required for
machine protection and basic control (group la); those that could potentially be used for
advanced plasma control (group lb); and additional measurements that provide data for
plasma evaluation and physics studies (group 2). The separation of control measutements
between basic and advanced is somewhat arbitrary but it recognizes the fact that some
parameters will have to be under real-time control for every ITER pulse, for example the
plasma shape and position, plasma current and line-averaged electron density, while others
will only have to be controlled for specific programs. Examples of the latter are the plasma
rotation and q profile which may have to be under real-time control for specific high
confinement modes of operation but are not necessarily controlled on every ITER pulse.
Some parameters will have multiple roles: for example, measurements of the plasma density
are required for machine protection, plasma control and for physics studies. Many
parameters required for physics studies will be measured for plasma control, although as a
rule, better space and time resolutions will be needed.

Table 2: Measurements for machine protection and plasma control and for performance
evaluation and physics studies

Group la Group 1b Group 2

Measurements for machine Measurements for advanced Additional measurements for
protection and basic control control performance evaluation and
physics studies
Plasma shape and position, Neutron and a-particle source Confined a-particles
separatrix -wall gaps profile
Plasma current, q(a), q(95%) Helium density protile (core) TAE Modes, fishbones
Fusion power Plasma rotation (toroidal and Te profile (edge)
~N = ~tor(aBlI) poloidal) ne, Te profiles (X-point)
Line-averaged electron density Current density profile Ti in di vertor
Impurity and D,T influx (divertor (q-profile) Plasma flow (divertor)
& main plasma) Electron temperature profile (core) nT/notnH (edge)
Surface temperature (divertor Electron density profile (core and nT/notnH (divertor)
plates) edge) Te fluctuations
Surface temperature (first wall) Ion temperature protile (core) ne fluctuations
Runaway electrons Radiation power profile (core, Radial electric field and field
'Halo' currents X-point, divertor) fluctuations
Radiated power (main plasma, :leff protile Edge turbulence
X-point, divertor) Helium density (divertor) MHD activity in plasma core
Divertor detachment indicator Heat deposition profile (divertor) Pellet ablation
(Jsat, ne, Te at divertor plate) 'Ionization front' position in
Disruption precursors (locked divertor
modes, m=2 mode) Impurity density protiles
H/L mode indicator Neutral density between plasma
:leff (line-averaged) and first wall
nT/nD in plasma core Alpha-particle loss
ELMs Low min MHD activity
Gas pressure (divertor & duct) Sawteeth
Gas composition (divertor & Net erosion (divertor plate)
duct) Neutron fluence
Loop voltage
Toroidal magnetic field

PARAMETER RANGES, TARGET MEASUREMENT RESOLUTIONS AND

ACCURACIES
The parameter ranges, target measurement resolutions and accuracies required for plasma
control, evaluation and physics studies have been presented at the 1995 Varenna Diagnostic

33
Table 3: Parameter ranges, target measurement resolutions and accuracies*

1) Plasma Current

Parameter Parameter range Time resolution Rate of change Accuracy

Plasma current 0.1-28 MA I ms 40-5x105 AS·I 1%
(forIp>1 MAl
0.1 ms <5 x 109 AS·I t -30%
t At current quench at a disruption

2) Plasma Position and Shape

Parameter Time resolution Rate of change Accuracy*

llin, llout, lltop 10 ms 10cm S·I Icm
(for Ip>2 MA)
10 ms 1m S·lt 2cm
Divertor channel 10ms 10 cm S·I Icm
positions (r-direction) 10 ms 1m S·lt 2cm
II is a width of gap between separatrix and first wall
t At current quench at a disruption
* For full bore plasma
3) Loop Voltage

Voltage range Number of loops Time resolution Rate of change Accuracy

0.01 - 30 V ~4 I ms 5 V S·I 0.005 V

< 500 V t I ms 5 kV S·I 10%
t At current quench at a disruption

4) Plasma Beta
Beta range Time resolution Rate of change Accuracy
.01<~p<3 I ms 0.05 S·I 5% at ~p-I
1 ms < I x 105 S·I t -30%
t At thermal quench of a disruption.
S) Radiated Power from Main Plasma, X-point and Divertor

Power Range Time resolution Accuracy

Main plasma ~ 0.6 GW 10 ms 10%
<100GW t 3 ms 20%
X·pointlMARFE ~ 0.6 GW 10ms 10%
Divertor ~ 0.6 GW 10ms 10%
t At current quench at a disruption.
6) Line-Averaged Electron Density

Density range Time resolution Accuracy

10 18 _ 4xlO20 m- 3 I ms 1%
up to 2xl022 m- 3 (after killer pellet injection) I ms 100%

*Time resolutions shown in this table are for plasma performance evaluation and optimization; time resolution
of -100 ms is estimated for plasma position and shape control.

34
7) Total Neutron Flux and Emission Profile

Parameter Parameter range Spatial resolution Time resolution Accuracy

Total neutron flux J014_J021 n s-I integral I ms 10%
Neutr.la source J014_4xJ018 s-l m -3 30cm I ms 10%
Fusion power ~2GW integral I ms 10%
Fusion power density ~JOMWm-3 30cm I ms 10%

8) Locked Modes

Parameter range Mode number Time resolution Accuracy

10-4_10-2 m1n=211 I ms 30%

9) m=2 MHD Mode, Sawteeth, Disruption Precursors

Parameter Frequency Spatial resolution Accuracy

m=2Mode Br I Bp 0-3 kHz 10%
Sawteeth i.ITe 0-3 kHz 10cm 10%
Disruption precursors Combination of
parameters (to be
defined)

10) Toroidal and Poloidal Plasma Rotation

Parameter Parameter range Spatial resolution Time resolution Accuracy

Vtoroidal 1-200 km/s 5 cm 10 ms 30%
vpoloidal I-50 km/s 5cm \0 ms 30%

11) nT/nD Ratio in Plasma Core

Parameter Parameter range Spatial re~Qlution Time resQlution ~

nT/nD 0.1-3 30cm 100 ms 20%

12) Impurity Species Monitoring

Impurity Influx (particles/s) Content Time re~Qlution ~

Be 4xlO J6 - 2xJOJ9 10-4 - 5x 10- 2 JO ms 1O%(reJ.)
C 4xlO J6 _ 2xJOl9 10-4 - 5xlO- 2 10 ms 1O%(rel.)
Cu 4xl0 15 - 2xlO lS 10-5 - 5x 10- 3 10 ms 10%(rel.)
W 4xlO14 - 2xlO17 10-6 - 5 x 10-4 10 ms 1O%(rel.)
Extrinsic (Ne, Ar, Kr) 4xlO J6 _ 8xlO lS 10-4 - 2x 10- 2 10 ms 1O%(rel.)

13) Zeff (Line-Averaged)

Time resolution Accuracy

10 ms 20%

14a) ELMs

Parameter Time resolution Accuracy

Da bursts 0.1 ms
ne fluctuations 0.1 ms 10%
T e fluctuations 0.1 ms 10%

14b) L-H Transition Indicator

Parameter Time resolution Space resolution

Da emission 0.1 ms
Edge pedestal (ne, Te) 0.1 ms Icm

35
15) Runaway Electrons

Parameter Parameter range Time resolution Accuracy

Max. energy 1-100 MeV 10 ms 20%
Runaway current (O.OS-0.7)Ip t 10 ms 30% reI.
t After thermal quench at a disruption
16a) Divertor Plate Temperature

Parameter Parameter range Time resolution

Max. surface plate
temperature 200-2S00oC 2 ms 10%

16b) Net Divertor Plate Erosion

Parameter Parameter range Spatial resol ution Time resolution Accuracy
Net plate erosion 0- 3 mm lcm 100 s (steady state) 10%
in real time I s (transients)

16c) Divertor Gas Pressure

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy
Divertor gas pressure 10-4 _ 20 Pa Several points SO ms 20% (during shot)

16d) Divertor Gas Composition

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy
Divertor gas composition A=I-IOO; ~A50.S Several points I s 20% (during shot)

16e) 'Ionization Front' Position in Divertor (detachment indicator)

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res.

'Ionization front'
position 0-2m -10 em I ms 10%

17) First Wall Visible Image & Wall Temperature

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res_ Time res_

First waJl visible image IOcm toO ms
Wall surf. temper. 200-ISOOoC IOms

18) Gas Pressure and Composition in Main Chamber

Parameter PillJ!!D!:ter range Timer!:s_ ~

Gas pressure 10-4 - 20 Pa 1s 20%
Gas composition A=I-100; M50.S 10 s SO% (during shot)

19) Gas Pressure and Gas Composition in Duct

Parameter Paramet!:r range Time res. ~

Gas pressure 5S x to- 2 Torr lOOms 20%
Gas composition A=I-100; ~A50.S I s 20% (during shot)

20) In-Vessel Inspection (under responsibility of the Remote Handling Group)

Insl'!:cted surface Spatial resolution

First wall 100% 1 mm
Divertor 100% 1 mm

21) Halo Currents

Parameter Parameter ranf,le Time res_ Accuracy
Poloidal current 50.2 x Ip I ms 20%
(10 toroidal locations)

36
22) Toroidal Magnetic Field

Parameter Parameter range Time res. Rate of change Accuracy

BT 3-6T Is steady state 0.1%

23) Electron Temperature Profile

Temp. range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Core (r/a:<>0.9) 0.5-30 keY 10cm 10 ms 10%
Edge (r/~0.9) 0.05-10 keY 0.5 cm 10 ms 10%

24) Electron Density Profile

Density range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Core (r/a:<>0.9) (0.3-3)1020m-3 10cm 10 ms 5%
Edge (r/~.9) (0.05-3)1020m- 3 0.5 cm 10ms 5%

25) q(r)

Range ofq Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

0.5-10 15cm 10 ms 10%

26) Zeff Profile

Zeffrange Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Steady state I-5 30 em 100 ms 10%
Transients 30 em 0.1 ms 20%

27) Fishbones, TAE Modes

Type of perturbation Frequency range Mode numbers

Fishbones (Bp I Bp' Te ITe • iie Ine) 0.1 - 10 kHz m/n=I!J

TAE modes (Bp I Bp' Te ITe • iie Ine) 30 - 300 kHz n=IO-50

28) Ion Temperature Profile

Temp. range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Core (r/a:<>0.9) 0.5-50keV 30cm 100 ms 10%
Edge (r/~0.9) 0.05-IOkeV TBD 100 ms 10%

29) Helium Density in Plasma Core (r/a:<>0.9)

llHeLne range Spatial res. ~

1-20% 30cm 10%

30) Confined Alphas

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Energy spectrum 0.1-3.5 MeV 30cm 100 ms 20%
Density profile (0.1-2) I 018 m'] 30cm 100 ms 20%

31) Escaping Alphas

Flux on first wall Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Steady state :<> 2 MW/m2 30cm 100 ms 10%
Transients :<> 20 MW/m2 10 ms 30%

37
32) Impurity Density Profile

Impurity Content range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Z~lO 0.5-20% 30 cm (core) 100 ms 20%
5 em (edge) 100 ms 20%
Z>IO 0.01-0.3% 30cm (core) 100 ms 20%
5 cm (edge) 100 ms 20%

33) Edge nT/nD, nH/nD

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

nT/no 0.1-10 100 ms 20%
nH/nO 0.01-0.1 100 ms 20%

34) Long-Term Neutron Fluence

8uenceran~ Spatial res ~ ~

First wall 0- 3 MWy/m2 - 10 locations lOs \0%

35) Impurity and D,T Influx in Divertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

rBe. re. rw 1O l7 - 1022 at/sec Icm I ms 30%
rD.rT 10 19 - 1025 at/sec Icm I ms 30%

36) Ion Saturation Current, ne and Teat Divertor Target

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res ~

n 10 19 - 1025 ion/sec 0.3 cm I ms 30%
ne 10 19 - 1022 m- 3 0.3 cm I ms 30%
Te leV - I keY 0.3 cm I ms 30%

37) Radiation Profile [see also 5]

Region Rad. power range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Plasma core 0.01-1 MWm- 3 20cm 10 ms 20%
X-pointlMARFE ~300MWm-3 20cm 10 ms 20%
Oivertor ~100MWm-3 Scm 10 ms 30%

38) Heat Loading Profile in Divertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Surface temperature 200 - 2500 °C 0.3 cm 2 ms \0%
Power loading ~25 MWm- 2 0.3 cm 2 ms \0%
(calc. from temp.) < 5 GWm- 2 t 0.1 ms 20%

t During disruption
39) Divertor Helium Density

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Accuracy

nHe 10 17 _10 21 m- 3 20%

40) nT/nD, nH/nD in Divertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res :riJIw.m. Accuracy

nT/no 0.1-10 100 ms 20%
nH/no 0.01-0.1 lOOms 20%

38
41a) Electron Density in Divertor

Parameter Parameter ran~ Silatial res. Time res. Accuracy

De 10 19 _10 22 m- 3 IDcm I ms 2D%
(along legs)
D.3 cm
(across legs)

41b) Electron Temperature in Divertor

PiIDl!ll~r Parj;\lIleter mnge Sllatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Te D.3 - 2DDeV IDcm I ms 20%
(along legs)
D.3 cm
(across legs)

42) Ion Temperature in Divertor

Par!!!!leter Pa!:l!!!leter ran~ Sllatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Ti 0.3 - 200 eV 10cm I ms 20%
(along legs)
D.3 cm
(across legs)

43) Divertor Plasma Flow

Parameter Parameter range Silatial res. Time res. Accuracy

vp ::;10 5 mls IDcm I ms 20%
(along legs)
0.3 em
(across legs)

44) nHlnO Ratio in Plasma Core

Pi!rlI!!leter P!!r!!m~~ ran~ Sllatial r~. Time res. ~

nHlnD O.QJ-O'! 3D em lOOms 20%

45) Neutral Density between Plasma and First Wall

Par!!.!lli:ter PiIDl!ll~r IiID~ Sll!l1ial res. Time res ~

DIT influx
in main chamber 10 18_ 1020 at.m- 2s- 1 Several points 100 ms 30%
in poloidal and
toroidal directions

39
Workshop. I Since then some changes in the requirements have been made resulting mainly
from more detailed analysis of the requirements by the ITER Physics Expert Groups,
especially the ITER Diagnostic Expert Group,13 and by the ITER Joint Central Team.
Parameters not normally measured, e.g., the neutral pressure between the plasma and first
wall, and poloidal plasma rotation, have been identified as potentially important for transport
barrier formation in ITER. Recent studies of the advanced regimes lead to requirement of
better space resolutions ($:10 cm) for core plasma measurements. Some requirements are still
under discussion, in particular those for space resolutions in the divertor. The present status
of the target measurement requirements is shown in Table 3.

CONCLUSIONS

The critical plasma and first waIl parameters that must be measured for machine protection
have been identified and operational limits specified. Further, the parameters that must be
measured for plasma control and for evaluating the plasma performance have been revised on
the basis of a more detailed consideration of the role of the measurements in the experimental
programme. The target measurement resolutions and accuracies have been updated. Further
work on the simulation of feedback schemes for simultaneous control of plasma burn and
divertor conditions is needed and work on this topic is in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement
among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government
of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on
Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA).

REFERENCES
I. A.E. Costley, R. Bartiromo, 1. de Kock, et al., Requirements for ITER diagnostics, in: Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P.E. Stott et aI., eds., Plenum Press, New York
(1996).
2.1. Wesley, et al., Disruption, vertical displacement event and halo current characterization for ITER, 16th
IAEA Fusion Energy Conference (Montreal, Canada, 1996), FI-CN-64IFP-25.
3. D. Wroblevski, G.1. Jahns, J.A. Leuer, Tokamak disruption alarm based on neural network model of the
high-~ limit, Nucl. Fusion, 37:725 (1997).
4. Plasma operation scenario and control, in: Technical Basis for the ITER Detailed Design Report. Cost
Review and Safety Analysis (DDR), Chapter III, 31 January 1997, unpublished.
5. M. Rosenbluth, at al., Runaway electrons and fast plasma shutdown, FI-CN-64IFP-26, in Ref. 2.
6. V. Mukhovatov, A. Costley, R. Bartiromo, et aI., ITER physics program and implications for plasma
measurements, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 68:1250 (1997).
7. The ITER Confinement Database and Modeling Working Group presented by J.G. Cordey, Energy
confinement scalings and the extrapolation to ITER, to be published in Control. Fusion Plasma
Phys. (Proc. 24th Eur. Conf. Berchtesgaden, 1997) Paper RL08.
8. F. Perkins, et al., ITER operational limits, FI-CN-64/FP-24, in Ref. 2.
9. A. Kukushkin et al., Analysis of the performance of the ITER divertor and analysis of the ITER tokamak
edge parameter database, FI-CN-64IFP-27, in Ref. 2.
10.1. deKock, G. Janeschitz, A. Kukushkin, et aI., Diagnostic requirements for the ITER divertor, these
proceedings.
II. C. Cheng, et ai., Energetic particle physics issues for ITER, FI-CN-64IFP-23, in Ref. 2.
12. D. Boucher, et aI., ITER scenarios including non-inductive steady state operation, FI-CN-64IFP-22,
in Ref. 2.
13. K.M. Young, A.E. Costley, T. Matoba, D. Orlinski, P.E. Stott, The ITER diagnostic programme,
in Ref. I.

40
OVERVIEW OF THE ITER DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM

A E Costleyl, KEbisawa l , P Edmonds2, G Janeschitz2, L C Johnsonl,

S Kasai 3, L deKock2, V Mukhovatov l , P E Stott4 , G Vayakis l ,
C Walker2, S Yamamot02, K M Young 5 and V Zaveriaev6 and the
ITER Joint Central and Home Teams.

1 ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, USA

2 ITER Joint Central Garching, Germany
3 JAERI,Naka,Japan
4 JET, Abingdon, UK
5 PPPL, Princeton, USA
6 Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia

ABSTRACT

The individual diagnostics which constitute the ITER Diagnostic System are
outlined and the present state of development of the designs is summarised. The results of
an assessment of the overall performance of the System are presented and the areas where
the probable performance falls below the target specifications are identified. The design
and R&D plans which are in place to address the shortcomings are outlined.

INTRODUCTION

Since the last diagnostics workshop in Varenna [1], the ITER Diagnostic System
has become better defined: in particular, the individual systems which together make up the
System have been chosen. The choice is influenced by a number of factors including the
anticipated reliability of the diagnostic in the application on ITER, the size, cost and
complexity of the diagnostic hardware, the number of ports available for diagnostics, the
difficulties of access and maintenance, the difficulties and cost of providing adequate
shielding for the diagnostic penetrations, and the effect of radiation on materials relevant to
the diagnostic construction. In all cases, the choice is guided by the need to satisfy the role
and detailed requirements for plasma measurements on ITER [2].

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 41
 In this paper, we outline the result of the selection: we describe briefly the
individual systems which constitute the ITER Diagnostic System. More details are given in
several accompanying papers which are referenced. The systems are being designed by an
ongoing combined effort which involves the diagnostic staff within the ITER Joint Central
Team and diagnostic specialists in the four Home Teams. We present the status of the
designs and the plans for the remainder of the EDA. Recently, an assessment of the
probable performance of the ITER Diagnostic System has been made and we summarise
the result of this exercise. We outline the R&D plans which are in place to address the
shortcomings identified.

THE ITER DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM

The ITER Diagnostic System comprises about 40 individual measurement systems

which can be conveniently grouped into seven generic groups:
• magnetic diagnostics
• neutron diagnostics
• opticallIR systems
• bolometric system
• spectroscopic and neutral particle analyser (NPA) systems
• microwave diagnostics
• plasma facing component diagnostics and operational systems
The full list of diagnostics is shown in Table 1.

Magnetic Diagnostics

The magnetic diagnostics [3] will provide the plasma shape and position, plasma
current, loop voltage, plasma energy and the magnitude of the 'halo' currents in some key
support structures.
The diagnostic consists of several individual sub-systems: pick-up coils and voltage
loops mounted on the inner wall of the vacuum vessel; coils, saddle loops and voltage loops
mounted on the plasma side of the back-plate; coils mounted in special divertor diagnostic
cassettes; four continuous poloidal (Rogowski) loops mounted on the outside of the
vacuum vessel; four poloidal diamagnetic loops; and small Rogowski loops on the earth
straps between the back-plate and divertor and around the supports of the blanket/shield
modules for the measurement of 'halo' currents.
The in-vessel equipment has to fulfill requirements on vacuum integrity, radiation
tolerance, temperature excursions and extreme reliability. This is solved by the choice of
materials and method of construction and by using shielded locations.
The pick-up coils mounted on the inner wall of the vacuum vessel are coils of
mineral insulated (MI) cable wound on a stainless steel form with a protective cover. They
are cooled by conduction. The voltage loops are also MI cables with a bridge at every
sector joint which is repairable after sector exchange. The coils and saddle loops mounted
on the back-plate and in the divertor cassettes will provide the plasma shape and position
on a fast time-scale (- 10 ms) and are not affected by axi-symmetric eddy currents. Special
coils with high frequency response mounted near the poloidal gap between shield modules
will give information on MHD modes up to - 200 kHz. These coils are made from ceramic
insulated wire wound on a ceramic former. The coils, the MI cable and other ceramics are
shielded by placing them in the shadow of the shield modules so that their life time is
comparable or longer than the life time of ITER.

42
Neutron Diagnostics

The principal neutronic systems are a radial neutron camera, a vertical neutron
camera, neutron spectrometers, neutron flux monitors, and a neutron activation system [4].
The radial neutron camera consists of a fan-shaped array of flight tubes, viewing the
ITER plasma through slots in the blanket/shield, intersecting at a common aperture defined
by a specialized shielding plug in a midplane port, and penetrating the vacuum vessel,
cryostat, and biological shield through thin stainless steel "windows" [5]. Each flight tube
culminates in a set of detectors chosen to provide the required range of sensitivity and
temporal and spectral resolution. The detectors are housed in an auxiliary shielded
enclosure outside the biological shield, and additional shielding along and between flight
tubes provides necessary collimation. All electronics are situated outside the biological
shield. The vertical neutron camera viewing from above has a similar configuration but is
installed on a top port. The cameras provide the measurement of the total neutron flux and
emission profile from which the fusion power and power density and the alpha particle
source profile are derived.
Several types of neutron detectors and spectrometers are being considered. These
range in size from compact natural diamond detectors to magnetic proton recoil (MPR) and
time of flight spectrometers. The present design of the radial neutron camera is sufficiently
flexible to accommodate many possible instruments and this is the preferred arrangement
for the installation of the spectrometers. From the measurements, the ion temperature
would be determined and possibly the tritium-to-deuterium ion density ratio in the core,
nT/nD.
The neutron flux monitors consists of a number of fission chambers containing
235U or other isotopes, situated at various locations around the tokamak inside the
biological shield [6,7]. The system measures the global neutron source strength from
which the total fusion power is obtained.
The neutron activation system uses pneumatic transfer methods to place a sample of
material close to the plasma where it is irradiated by neutrons. The system will provide a
robust relative measure of fusion power and allows an absolute calibration of fusion power
production.
The most critical design area is the access for the radial and vertical neutron
cameras. The cameras need a wide angle view in order to be able to measure the neutrons
from the full plasma cross-section and this has to be obtained simultaneously with
maintaining high levels of radiation and thermal shielding of the tokamak. Modifications
to the standard midplane and vertical ports are being designed, and additional shielding will
be installed outside the biological shield and on the ceiling above the tokamak.

OpticallInfrared Systems

The principal optical systems are two multipulse Thomson scattering systems and
an equatorial plane interferometer. One of the Thomson scattering systems is optimised for
making measurements in the core region while the other is optimised for making
measurements in the edge region. The core system operates on the time-of-flight (LIDAR)
principle [8]. Light from a high power laser is transmitted to the plasma using a folded
mirror system inside a shielded labyrinth located in a mid-plane port. The plasma-facing
mirror is an actively cooled metal mirror. The scattered radiation returns along the same
path to spectrometers and detectors sited remotely. The system provides the spatial profile
of the electron density and temperature.

43
 A LIDAR type system will not provide the spatial resolution necessary for
measurements in the edge region where high gradients are expected. Hence, the design of
the edge system is being based on a conventional Thomson scattering arrangement [9].
A vibration-compensated interferometer employing Faraday rotation techniques
will be used to measure the line-integrated density for use in the feedback control of the
plasma density [10]. The measurements will be made in the equatorial plane. The probing
beams will have wavelengths of 10.6 f..tm and 3.39 f..tm. The radiation will be transmitted
to and from the plasma through shielding labyrinths in an equatorial port and small
(- 100 mm diameter) retroreflectors mounted in other equatorial ports will return the
radiation. The lasers and detectors will be sited remotely.
Additional optical systems under investigation are Thomson scattering (LIDAR
type) systems for the X-point and divertor regions [11], a polarimeteric system [12], and a
collective scattering system. The polarimeteric system would provide measurements of the
current profile while the collective scattering system would provide measurements of the
confined alpha particle population.
The most critical design issue is the survivability of the first mirrors: these must
maintain a good optical quality in the presence of the nuclear heating, plasma radiation and
neutral particle bombardment. For the Thomson scattering systems, the mirrors also have
to handle the high level of laser power. The mirrors will be actively cooled, metallic,
mirrors possibly protected with shutters. Key tests on candidate mirror materials are being
pursued in the diagnostic R&D programme.

Bolometric System

The bolometric system aims to provide the spatial distribution of the radiated power
in the edge of the main plasma and in the divertor with a resolution of 10-15 cm, and in the
centre of the main plasma with a resolution of about 50 cm. The proposed method, as used
on many contemporary tokamaks, is sparse data tomography. The total number of lines of
sight (LOS) is approximately 300 [13].
The bolometer arrays will be installed in the equatorial and vertical ports, in the
specially instrumented divertor diagnostic cassettes, and in selected locations on the back-
plate viewing through the gaps between adjacent blanket/shield modules. From each of
these locations, several arrays of LOS observe the plasma.
In the equatorial and vertical ports, the bolometer arrays are integrated rigid units
with all wiring attached mounted in a port shield plug. In the divertor, the bolometer has
many small heads assembled in a rigid conduit with the wiring and attached to the side wall
of the instrumented divertor cassette. The wiring runs to an automatic remote handling
connector near the exit (pumping) port. The viewing is through the gap between cassettes,
nominally 1 cm. The bolometers on the back-plate are housed in removable carriers that
are plugged into permanent sockets in the back plate.
Designs of potentially suitable bolometers exist but further development is required
to ensure and validate that they are radiation hard.

Spectroscopic and Neutral Particle Analysis Systems

An extensive array of spectroscopic instrumentation will be installed on ITER

covering the X-ray to visible range: both passive and active measurement techniques will
be employed. The four main regions of the plasma - the core, the radiation mantle, the
scrape off layer (SOL) and the divertor - will be probed. The measurements can potentially
provide impurity species identification, ion densities, ion temperature, electron temperature,
Zeff, plasma rotation, internal magnetic field, impurity transport coefficients, and

44
information on MHD phenomena.
The specific instruments to be employed have not yet been finalized. However, for
the X-ray region it is probable that there will be two spectrometers: a medium resolution
survey instrument providing full coverage in the wavelength range 0.1 - 10 nm and a high
resolution (crystal) instrument with narrow coverage in the range between about 0.1 - 0.2
nm [14, 15]. For the UV and XUV region the spectrometers and detectors will have to be
directly coupled to the tokamak vacuum because it is not possible to use windows.
However, mirrors can be used at low angles of reflection and so it is possible to shield the
detectors from neutron and gamma radiation by using labyrinthine optical systems
imbedded in shielding blocks. Passive spectral measurements in the visible wavelength
range are of limited value for probing the core because of the high plasma temperatures.
However, active measurements employing charge exchange recombination spectroscopy
with beams of energetic neutrals are a rich source of information [16, 17]. For several of
the important measurements, the optimum beam energy is - 100 ke Vlamu which is
significantly below the energy of the heating beams (1 Me V). This generates a requirement
for a dedicated diagnostic neutral beam (below). The beams are viewed through
labyrinthine optical systems imbedded in shielding blocks. Motional Stark Effect
measurements of the current profile, however, benefit from the higher energy of the heating
beams and so an optical system to view one of these beams is also planned [18].
Measurements in the divertor region will be made through folded optical paths in
special divertor diagnostic cassette modules which will be located at each of the four
divertor remote handling (RH) ports [19]. The wavelength range is presently limited to
wavelengths > 200 nm due to absorption in the quartz windows. The light will be
transported with mirrors, lenses and optical fibres to the spectrometers sited outside the
biological shield. Mirror damage due to the deposition of target plate material during a
major disruption is a potentially serious problem which is presently being investigated.
The spectroscopic diagnostics will be supplemented by two neutral particle
analyzers, both viewing radially through an equatorial port along the same line of sight
[20]. One will be used for monitoring the nT/nD ratio in the plasma edge (ria> 0.7) and
the other will provide the fast alpha particle distribution function in the energy range 0.5-4
MeV.

Microwave Diagnostics

The principal microwave diagnostics will be a system to measure the electron

cyclotron emission (ECE) from the main plasma, and three reflectometry systems for
probing the main plasma, the divertor plasma, and for measuring the plasma position.
Additional systems under study are an electron cyclotron absorption system for use in the
divertor region, a fast wave reflectometry system and two microwave scattering systems.
The ECE system consists of an array of antennas, a system for transporting the
radiation, and spectrometers and detectors for analysing the emission [21]. The antennas
are mounted in a radial port plug. The transmission system carries the radiation through the
vacuum vessel, cryostat and shield and on to the spectrometers and detectors which are
located remote from the tokamak in the diagnostic hall. Calibration of the ECE system is
an important process and special equipment and procedures are employed. The system will
measure the electron temperature with good spatial and temporal resolutions.
The reflectometer for the main plasma has three sub-systems: (i) a system which
utilizes the upper cutoff (extraordinary mode) from the low-field side of the plasma to
provide measurements of the density profile in the scrape-off layer (SOL); (ii) a system
which utilizes the plasma frequency cutoff (ordinary mode) from both the low-field and
high-field sides of the plasma to provide the inboard and outboard density profile in the

45
gradient region; and (iii) a system which utilizes the lower cutoff (extraordinary mode)
launched from the high-field side of the plasma to provide the core profile [22].
The plasma position reflectometer provides the location of particular density layers
which occur in the vicinity of the separatrix [23]. This system is intended as a stand-by
reference to the plasma position and shape control system for very long ITER pulses (>
3000 s), so reliability is of the highest priority. The divertor reflectometer is intended to
provide density profiles across the divertor plasma.
For all systems, dog-leg structures in the transmission lines reduce neutron
streaming outside the vacuum vessel and bioshield. Distinct vacuum windows of fused
quartz directly bonded to metal structures provide pressure boundaries. The second window
is inclined at the Brewster angle for the appropriate polarisation. For the low field side
components, a third window at the Brewster angle is used at the exit of the NB cell.

Plasma Facing Component Diagnostics and Operational Systems

Several diagnostics will be dedicated to monitoring the condition of the high heat
flux components in the main chamber and the divertor. The principal system will be a
wide-angle optical system which will give views of the in-vessel components in the
infrared and visible. The design specification is for a 2 mm resolution at 10m and the
intention is to use several systems to achieve a high coverage (> 80%) of the area of the
first wall. The design of the system is based on the design of a similar system installed on
JET. On JET the first elements in the system are lenses but on ITER because of the high
level of neutron radiation the first components will be metal mirrors. The image is
transmitted through a rigid labyrinth using a series of plane mirrors to a catadioptric
flattening array immediately before the vacuum window. From here the image is
transmitted by lenses to the cameras which will be mounted on the shielded side of the
biological shield.
Several of the divertor diagnostics will be installed in special divert or cassettes.
These have special provisions for diagnostic sensors, for example Langmuir probes, and
have optical and microwave transmission lines.
Finally, several diagnostics will be installed to aid the protection and operation of
the tokamak: for example, pressure gauges, residual gas analysers, hard X-ray monitors and
'halo' current monitors.

Diagnostic Neutral Beam

The optimum beam energy for the diagnostic neutral beam is - 100 ke V [24]. This
is considerable below the energy of the heating beams ( 1 MeV) and so a dedicated beam is
required. To minimise the cost, a beam system is being designed which as far as possible
utilises the same components and can be maintained using the same tools and RH
procedures that are being developed for the heating beams. In order to achieve the required
measurement performance, the beam would have to have a power of about 5 MW, a narrow
beam divergence, a small beam footprint and be capable of modulation at frequencies of a
few Hz. An alternative approach is to use a very short pulse (IllS), intense (5 GW) beam
which can be pulsed at a repetition rate of about 100 Hz [25]. Such a beam would have an
average beam power requirement of about 500 kW, would be significantly smaller than the
conventional beam and would give an improved measurement performance. However, it is
at a much earlier state of development and is a subject of on-going R&D.

46
Diagnostic Integration

Diagnostic components will be installed inside the vacuum vessel - for example on
the back-plate - and in equatorial ports, upper ports and divertor ports [26]. Outside the
biological shield, they will be installed in the pit and in the remote diagnostic areas.
The ports available for diagnostics have been provisionally allocated. At the mid-
plane four ports are dedicated to diagnostics. In addition, diagnostics share two ports with
Remote Handling. During operation these ports are fully available for diagnostics but there
is some limitation on the type of systems that can be installed. Specifically, only optical
systems that can be removed in a short time can be installed on these ports. A provisional
allocation of diagnostics to the available ports has been made [26].
At the divertor level, special diagnostic cassettes are installed at four locations
equispaced toroidally. At each location, there are two cassettes instrumented with
'electrical' diagnostics and one which carries the optical and microwave transmission lines.
At the top of the machine, diagnostics can be installed in ten of the 20 ports. However, the
top diagnostic ports also have to accommodate the In-vessel Inspection System and other
equipment such as the Glow Discharge Cleaning System. Substantial progress has been
made with the integration of diagnostics into the available ports [27].

STATUS OF DIAGNOSTIC DESIGN

Activity in diagnostic design started shortly after the beginning of the ITER
Engineering Design Activities (EDA) in 1992 but the early work concentrated on designs
for generic diagnostic access, establisihng the R&D programme on irradiation effects on
materials relevant to diagnostic design, and on determining the role and requirements that
plasma measurements must meet in the ITER programme. Work on specific system
designs did not start in a substantial way until late 1994.
The design of individual systems is essentially being taken through four phases.
Phase I is an initial feasibility assessment in which the parameters to be measured are
determined; initial estimates are made of the parameter ranges, space and time resolutions,
possible signal/noise and accuracy; the system is outlined and the key areas of design and
required R&D are identified. In Phase II the concept and scientific design is developed.
The characteristics of the principal system components are determined, the port and space
requirements are estimated, the design work that must be completed during the EDA is
identified, and a first estimate of the system cost are made. Phase III is the engineering
design. In this phase it is necessary to demonstrate that there are engineering solutions to
(a) the critical system components (eg first mirrors, antennas ... ), (b) the transmission
systems through the diagnostic ports and into the pit without causing unacceptable nuclear
heating of the TF coils, and (c) the principal interfaces with the major machine components
- shield blanket modules, vacuum vessel cryostat etc. It is also necessary to demonstrate
that the installation and maintenance are feasible. The cost estimates are also improved.
Phase IV is the integration phase. In this phase the system is integrated into the available
ports, space in the pit, buildings etc. The systems are taken sequentially through Phases I
through III and only progress if satisfactory results are maintained. Phase IV is carried out
in parallel with Phases II and III.
The current status of the designs is shown in Table 1. A phase completed is
indicated with a X, a phase in progress is indicated with a (X), and an outstanding phase
which it is intended to complete before the end of the EDA is indicated with a O. The
principal party carrying out the design work is also shown.
Table I also contains other information. In particular, some of the diagnostics are

47
marked with an asterix. These are the diagnostics in the 'Start-up Set'. It is neither
necessary nor desirable to construct all of the diagnostics during the machine construction
phase: some diagnostics will not be required until later in the operational programme and a
phased installation of the diagnostics will permit the most advanced techniques and
technologies to be used. However, it will be necessary to construct all the interfaces for all
the diagnostics and to meet all the diagnostic requirements for space and services during
the machine construction phase in order to avoid expensive modification costs later. The
combination of the construction of the diagnostics required for first machine operation, and
the interface and service work, constitutes the work that must be done during the
construction phase.
The design of most of the systems is based on experience gained with similar
systems on present-day tokamaks. However, for a few of the required measurements
existing techniques are not applicable and new approaches are needed. The systems
involved are termed 'New Concept' diagnostics and marked N/C in Table I.
Finally, the plasma measurement(s) that each diagnostic is intended to address are
also shown. The number of the measurements corresponds to those in the accompanying
paper by Mukhovatov et al [2].

Table 1: Status Of Diagnostc Design: September 1997

DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM Measure- Principal

ments Party I II III IV
Magnetic Diagnostics
Yes. Wall Sens (Coils and Loops)* 1,2,3,8 JCT X X eX) (X)
Back Plate Sens (Coils and Loops)* 1,2,3,8, JCT X X eX) (X)
9, 14a, 27
Divertor Coils* 1,2, 14a JCT X X 0 0
Continuous Rogowski Coils* 1 JCT X X 0 0
Diamagnetic Loop* 4 JCT X (X) 0 0
'Halo' Current Sensors* 21 JCT X eX) 0 0
Neutron Diagnostics
Radial Neutron Camera* 7,28 EUlJCT X X eX) eX)
Vertical Neutron Camera* 7 US/JCT X eX) 0 0
Microfis. Chambers (In-Ves.)* N/C 7,34 JA X 0
Neutron Flux Mons (Ex-Vessel)* 7,28,34 US X eX) 0 0
Gamma-Ray Spectrometers 30 RF X (X)
Activation System 7 US X (X) 0
Lost Alpha Detectors* N/C 31 US 0 0 0
Knock-on Tail Neutron Spect. N/C 30 US (X)
Optical/IR Systems
Thomson Scattering (Core)* 6, 23, 24 EU X X (X) (X)
Thomson Scattering (Edge) 23, 24 US X (X) 0 0
Thomson Scattering (X-Point) RF X (X) 0
Thomson Scattering (Divertor)* 41 RF (X) 0
Toroidal InterflPolarim. System* 6, 24 US X X (X) (X)
Polarim. Svs (Pol. Mag Field Meas.) 25 EU (X) 0 0 0
Collective Scattering System N/C 30 EUIUS (X) 0

48
 Table 1: Status Of Diagnostc Design: September 1997 (Continued)

DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM Measure- Principal

ments Party I II III IV
Bolometric System
Bolom. Array For Main Plasma* 5,37 EU X eX) 0 0
Bolom. Array For Divertor* 5, 16e, 37 EU X (X) 0 0

Spectroscopic and NPA Systems

Active Spectroscopy 10,25,28, US X (X) 0 0
29, 30, 32
H Alpha Spectroscopy* 14,33,35, RF (X) 0 0 0
40,45
Impurity Monitor (Main Plasma)* 12, 32 EU (X) 0 0 0
Impurity Monitor (Divertor)* 12,16b, JA X X (X) 0
16e, 35, 39,
41,42,43
X-Ray Crystal Spectrometers 10,12,28, EU X 0 eX) 0
32
Visible Continuum Array* 6,13,26, US X (X) 0 0
29
Soft X-Ray Array 8,9,27 RF (X) 0
Neutral Particle Analyzers 11, 33, 44 RF X X (X)
Two Photon Ly-Alpha Fluo. N/C 45 EU (X)
Laser Induced Fluorescence N/C 39 RF (X)
Microwave Diagnostics
ECE Diagnostics for Main Plasma* 8,9,14a, EU X X (X) (X)
15,23,27
Reflectometers for Main Plasma* 14,24,27 EUIRF X X (X) 0
Reflectometers for Plasma Position 2 US X X 0 0
Reflectometers for Divertor Plasma 14, 16e, EU X 0 0 0
41a,
ECA for Divertor Plasma 41a, 41b EU 0 0
Microwave Scatt. (Main Plasma) 0
Fast Wave Reflectometry N/C 11, 29, 44 US (X) 0
Microwave Scatt. (Divertor) N/C 43 0
Plasma-Facing Components and
Operational Diagnostics
IR Cameras, VisiblelIR TV* 16a, 17, EUIRF X (X) 0 0
31,38
Thermocouples* 16a JCTIRF X 0 0 0
Pressure Gauges* 16c, 18, 19, EU X (X) 0 0
45
Residual Gas Analyzers* 16d,19 X 0
Hard X-Ray Monitor* 15 JCT 0
Langmuir Probesl Tile Shunts* 21,36,43 JCT X X (X) (X)
Diagnostic Neutral Beam 10,28,29, US/JCT X 0 0 0

49
ASSESSMENT OF THE MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY

Although the design of the diagnostic systems is still in progress, it is useful to try
to judge the performance that the systems will have at the end of the design process relative
to the specified measurement requirements. Such an exercise should identify any areas
where there are serious difficulties so that appropriate adjustments in the design and R&D
work can be made. With this motivation, a detailed assessment was carried out earlier this
year. The probable performance of each of the diagnostics was assessed and the results
expressed in terms of the capability to meet the target measurement requirements [28]. The
results were combined into a summary table (Table 3) which groups the parameters into
three categories: a) those which appear to be reasonably well diagnosed and for which we
expect to meet the target measurement requirements; b) those which have some difficulties
and for which more information is required before it is clear what the final outcome will be;
and c) those for which serious difficulties exist and it is already obvious that it will not be
possible to meet the target measurement requirements. Not surprisingly, most parameters
are in the middle category at this stage. However, there are some in the first category but
there are also some in the third and a few of these are potentially important.
A considerable cause of uncertainty in the assessments comes from uncertainty of
the performance and lifetime of the first mirrors of the optical systems and from the lack of
definition of the interfaces of the diagnostic components with the blanket and backplate.
These are subjects on which current design work is concentrating but this exercise
highlights their importance. Naturally the resolution of these difficulties are high priority
items in the current work.

R&D PLANS

An extensive R&D programme supports the design work. A radiation effects

programme investigates the effects neutron and gamma radiation has on materials relevant
to diagnostic components. Materials suitable for insulators, cables, windows, optical fibres,
mirrors, etc, are examined [29, 30]. A parallel programme aims to develop prototype
diagnostic components and to develop the new concept diagnostic techniques where these
are essential to meet an identified need in the measurement capability. A brief summary of
the ongoing work in this programme is given in Table 2. Finally, much relevant
development work is ongoing in the laboratories of the ITER Parties and the work directly
related to the needs of ITER diagnostics is approved by the ITER Physics Committee and
coordinated by the Diagnostics Expert Group [28].
For the post EDA phase, it is intended that this programme should continue but with
a change in emphasis towards developing and testing prototype diagnostic components.
The development of the new concept diagnostics will also continue.

50
 Table 2: R&D in progress for Diagnostic Components and New Concept Diagnostic
Techniques (September 1997)

Task Party
Development of radiation hard bolometers EU
Development of radiation hard calibration source for ECE EU
measurements
Development of in-vessel microwave components for EU
reflectometry_
Development and Testing of Pressure Gauges EU
Development of plasma viewing system EU
Development of neutron diagnostics (fluid flow activation EU
conceIJt, concept of compact fibre detectors)
Development of vacuum seals for diagnostic windows (fused JA
quartz, sapphire, ZnSe)
Development of optical fibre feedthroughs JA
DeveloIJment of steady state magnetic sensor JA
Development of synthetic diamond detectors for neutron JA
spectrometry
Development of particle detection system for Neutral Particle RF
Diagnostic with reduced sensitivity to neutron and gamma
radiation
Fabrication and study of high temperature multipin connectors RF
for iter backplate
Feasibility assessment of threshold bubble chamber for neutron RF
tails measurements in ITER
Development of technology for fabrication of first mirrors for RF
optical systems and study of their properties
Development of natural diamond detectors for neutron RF
~ectrome!ry_
Testing of a prototype magnetic coil. US
Demonstration of Fast Wave Reflectometry US
Demonstration of knock-on tail alpha diagnostic US
Feasibility assessment for measurement of confined alpha US
particles using C02 Collective Scattering Technique

CONCLUSIONS

The ITER Diagnostic System is now well defined: in particular, the individual
systems which constitute the System have been chosen. The design of many of the systems
is well advanced and the integration of the systems onto the tokamak is in progress. An
assessment of the integrated measurement capability has been made. This confirms that
many of the required measurements can be made to the target specifications but there are
some important shortfalls. Current and planned design and R&D work is addressing these
difficulties. For the post EDA phase, it is intended that the design and R&D should
continue along the same lines but with an emphasis towards the development of key
diagnostic components.

51
 Table 3: Results of Assessment of ITER Measurement Capability
V\
t-.>

a) Parameters which appear to be reasonably-well diagnosed

Meas Parameter Purpose Candidate Comment

no. Diaenostics
I Plasma current Current control Rogowski coils Magnetic probes mounted on the plasma side of the backplate are required for
Magnetic probes disruption studies. Accuracy may be a problem for tpulse ~lOOOs.
2 Plasma position and Poloidal field control Position loops & coils, Requires loops and coils on the plasma side of the backplate, connectors.
shape reflectometry (plasma position) Long term radiation effects. Back-up (reflectometry) may be necessary for long
pulses.
3 Loop voltage Ii, startup Magnetic flux loops Requires loops on the plasma side of the backplate.
6 Line averaged electron Plasma operation, Tor. interferometer/polarimeter, The key issue of installation of retroreflectors for interferometer/polarimeteris
density disruption avoidance, LIDAR, visible continuum is not yet solved. Calibration difficult for LIDAR.
NB Illrotection
9 m=2 MHD modes, Disruption avoidance Mirnov loops, ECE, Not all these techniques will work, especially soft X-rays. Determination of
Sawteeth reflectometry, neutrons, soft X- n-number requires multiple toroidal locations.
ray array
12 Impurity species Impurity control, wall Visible spectrometry, VUV, X- Plasma viewing system will also be useful.
monitor protection ray spectrom.
14a I ELMs Optimization control, Ha spectroscopy, ECE, At least some of these will work.
divertor protection reflectometry, magnetics, IR
camera, Langmuir probes
14b LJH mode indicators H-mode realization Ha spectroscopy, Both look promising but need further study.
reflectometry (fluctuations)
16c Divertor gas press. Divertor operation Pressure gauges Expect to meet requirements.
17 First wall vis. image, Startup, position & hot Visible & IR TV Present design of plasma viewing system looks promising but needs many
wall temp.&erosion spot monitor diagnostic ports 1
18 Base pressure Tokamak readiness Pressure gauges As 16e
19 Gas pressure (ductl Pressure gauges As 16e
22 Toroidal maj(n. field Current shunts, RQgowski coils I

23 Electron temperature Profile. control with ECE, LIDAR, Thomson Core: Expect to meet measurement requirements: ECE for outer half of
profile auxiliary heating, scattering (edge) plasma, LIDAR for mid-plane profile. However, there will be problems if the
confinement studies, operating scenario use plasmas that are not on the mid-plane. Edge: May meet
plasma energy requirements. Depends on implementation of Thomson scattering system on
top port.
24 Electron density profile Transport, fueling LIDAR, reflectometry, LIDAR and Thomson scattering (edge) need calibration, reflectometry probably
optimization, density & interferometry/polarimetry , OK but needs high field side antenna for inner edge, interferometry/polarimetry
beta control Thomson scattering (edge) have limite<i sig~t lilIes. Problems, as for Te profile out of mid-plane.
 Table 3: Results of Assessment of ITER Measurement Capability (continued)

a) Parameters which appear to be reasonably-well diagnosed (continued)

Meas Parameter Purpose Candidate Comment

no. Diagnostics
33 Edge nT/nD, nH/nD Fueling optimization, NPA, Ha spectrosc., fast wave Expect to meet measurement requirements.
plasma dilution reflectom., two photo Ly-a flour.
34 Long term neutron Activation transfer system Essential for absolute neutron calibration. Expect to meet requirement but
fluence implementation has not yet been studied.
45 Neutral density L-H transition, particle H-a1pha spectroscopy, Looks possible, need multiple locations.
between plasma and source pressure gauges
L -________ wall

b) Parameters which appear to have some difficulties

Meas Parameter Purpose Candidate Comment

no. Diagnostics
4 Beta Disruption avoidance Diamagnetic loops Cancellation of spurious signal is very difficult. Long term effects. Accuracy
is problematic for long pulses. Kinetic measurements will be necessary.
5 Radiated power (core, Disruption avoidance Bolometer arrays Requires fill! array (see #37) to characterize new configurations. Development
X-point and divertor) of radiation-hard bolometers, connectors, cables needs substantial R&D
7 Total neutron flux & Burn control, Neutron flux monitors, 2-D Calibration difficult. Needs neutron profile to accurately calculate total flux.
emission profile fueling control neutron camera Viewing angles of neutron cameras are limited.

8 Locked modes Disruption avoidance Magnetic flux loops, ECE, All have difficulties to positively identify locked modes but extended saddle
reflectometry, soft X-ray array loops should see large modes. ECE, reflectometry and X-ray array only see
slowinl!: down of modes.
13 Zeff (line averaged) Impurity control, VisiblelIR Bremmsstrahlung Calibration may be a problem. Plasma viewing system should be investigated.
He accumulation
15 Runaway electrons Runaway avoidance Tang. view X-ray monitor, ECE, Absolute measurement difficult for all techniques. Radiation background may
and measurements after synchrotron radiation be a problem for X-rays. Pitch angle distribution of runaways is required for
disruptions synchrotron radiation.
16a Divertor plate Divertor protection IR cameras, thermocouples Thermocouples too slow and unreliable. Viewing in IR through divertor
temperature optical cassette can give full poloidal coverage at fixed toroidal location but
I1l survivability of optics is unknown. IR plasma viewing cameras give good
spatial coveral!:e though 100% are hardly possible.
 Table 3: Results of Assessment of ITER Measurement Capability (continued)

~ b) Parameters which appear to have some difficulties (continued)

Meas Parameter Purpose Candidate Comment

no. Dia2nostics
5 Di vertor radiated power Divertor operation Bolometers Total rad power requires the measurement of the radiated power profile (see #37)
16e Divertor ionization Divertor optimization Visible spectrometry, bolometry, Needs sensor arrays in divertor region.
front position reflectom.
20 In-vessel inspection Viewing the damage Viewing camera #17 would probably function also as in vessel inspection system and would
from the preceding have the benefit of working also in real time. Requires addition of internal
pulse (when requested) illumination source.
21 Halo currents Monitoring of forces on Magnetic coils on structures Needs a'priori knowledge oflocations.
vessel structure
26 Zeff profile Impurity trans[>ort Visible continuum array see #13
27 Fishbones, Burn optimization, beta Mirnov loops, reflectometry, Needs high frequency magnetic probes.
TAEmodes limit indication ECE
-28 Ion temperature profile Burn optimization, X-ray crystal spectr., neutron None of these methods will be sufficient by itself. Measurement hardly
transport, reaction rate spectrometer, neutron flux, possible during H (and probably DD) phases. CXRS which gives best spatial
control CXRS resolution needs DNB and looks marginal.
29 He density in core Burn optimization & CXRS with DNB, vis. CXRS should be able to meet requirements if DNB installed. Measurements
transport, reaction rate Bremsstrahlung, in core (r/a<O.3) will be difficult/impossible in highest density range.
control fast wave reflectometry
32 Impurity density Tokamak condition, CXRS, VUV spectrometry, Visible spectrometry has serious problems of quantitative interpretation in the
profile necessary if high Z used X-ray crystal spectrometry core. X-ray and VUV spectroscopy requires vacuum extension beyond the
for radiative loss cryostat.
35 Impurity & D,T Divertor optimization Impurity monitors (div), High Spatially resolved spectroscopy below the divertor might have problems with
influxes in divertor & control resolution Ha spectroscopy (div) mirrors. Plasma TV from radial ports looks the best bet. Needs some UV
with spatial resolution spectroscQIlYfor Quantitative measurements.
36 Ion saturation current, Divertor optimization Langmuir probes, tile shunts Will Langmuir probes survive, do they give Te correctly?
ne, Te at divertor plate & control
37 Radiated power profiles Divertor optimization Bolometer arrays Requires many (-100 sight lines), especially viewing the divertor. Requires a
in core, edge, divertor & control robust radiation-hard bolometric detector. Serious worries about in-vessel
(combine with #5) cabling, connectors and lead-throughs. Needs to be in Category (i).
38 Heat deposition profile Divertor optimization IRcamera Needs several camera positions to cover significant fraction of the divertor.
in divertor & control Full coverage will not be possible.
39 Divertor He density Divertor optimization Impurity monitors, laser induced Measurement capability is not yet clear. LIF looks virtually impossible in
He pumping physics fluorescence (LIP) ITER divertor.
40 nT/nD, nH/nD in Fueling optimization, Ha spectroscopy H, D and T lines overlap. Needs design and modeling to assess measurement
divertor plasma dilution capability.
44 nH/nD in core Plasma dilution NPA, Fast wave reflectometry Probably cannot meet measurement requirements for ria::; 0.8. Fast wave
reflectometer in testing.
 Table 3: Results of Assessment of ITER Measurement Capability (continued)

c) Parameters which appear to have some serious difficulties

Meas Parameter Purpose Candidate Comment

no. Diagnostics
10 Toroidal & poloidal Disruption avoidance CXRS with diagn. NB, X-ray Both techniques have difficulties. Orthogonal views needed to determine both
plasma rotation confinement crystal spectrometry rotations. Velocity shear may be important but needs good spatial resolution
optimization & coverage.
11& nT/nD, nH/nD, in core Fueling control NPA, Fast wave reflectometry NPA can not see core, fast wave reflectometry needs demonstrating in principle
44 and application to ITER needs study.
16c Net divertor plate Plate erosion Impurity monitoring, Impurity monitoring is too insensitive and too late for localized erosion.
erosion reflectometry Reflectometry needs developing, also would not cover all vulnerable area.
Plasma viewing Plasma viewing & radar offers some possibilities.
25 q (r) profile Perform. evaluation, MSE with heating NB, MSE may have operational conflict with occasional brief modulating the
plasma stability, polarimetry heating beams. Polarimetry needs further design and will have constraints on
transport, adv. modes sight lines.
30 Confined alphas Alpha transport & Collective scattering, None of these techniques is working convincingly in a present day tokamak
confinement, CXRSINPA with DNB or and all would have serious problems in ITER.
fusion heating pellets, neutrons via
knock on tail effect, gamma
spectrometer
31 Escaping alphas Performance evaluation Lost alpha detectors, IR TV Development oflost-alpha detectors is an R&D issue.
41 fie, Te in divertor Divertor optimizat. & VisiblelUV spectrosc. Expect to be able to make measurements of line-averaged and peak density.
control reflectometry, ECA, Measurements of Te look difficult but only a preliminary investigation of
Thomson scattering measurement possibilities has been carried out.
42 Ti in divertor Divertor optirnizat. & Spectroscopy, CX
control
43 Plasma flow in divertor Divertor optirnizat. & Spectroscopy
control

VI
VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the
Agreement among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA).

REFERENCES

[1] Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, edited by P E Stott, G Gorini and
E Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York (1996).
[2] V S Mukhovatov et al, 'Role and Requirements for Plasma Measurements on ITER', these proceedings.
[3] L deKock et ai, 'Magnetic Diagnostics for ITER', these proceedings.
[4] L C Johnson et ai, 'Overview of Fusion Product Diagnostics for ITER', these proceedings.
[5] F B Marcus et ai, 'A Radial Neutron Camera Design for ITER with Integral Shielding', these proceedings.
[6] C W Barnes et ai, 'Design Considerations for Neutron Activation and Neutron Source Strength Monitors
for ITER", these proceedings.
[7] T Nishitani et ai, 'In-Vessel Neutron Monitoring using Microfission Chanbers for ITER', these proceedings.
[8] H Salzmann et ai, 'ITER Core Plasma LIDAR System', these proceedings.
[9] B Grek and D Johnson, 'Edge Thomson Scattering for ITER', these proceedings.
[10] T N Carlstrom et ai, 'Application of Interferometry for Density Measurements on ITER', these
proceedings
[11] G T Razodabarin, 'Status of LIDAR Thomson Scattering Project fOT the ITER X-Point and the Adjacent
Plasma Regions', these proceedings.
[12] A J H Donee et ai, 'Polarimetry for Poloidal Field Measurements', these proceedings.
[13] R Reichle et ai, 'Progress of the Reference Design for ITER Bolometers and Development of a High
Performance Alternative', these proceedings.
[14] PH Edmonds et ai, 'Integration of Vacuum Coupled Diagnostics', these proceedings.
[15] R Barnsley et ai, 'X-ray Spectrometry Systems for ITER', these proceedings.
[16] D M Thomas et ai, 'Prospects for Core Helium and Related Measurements on ITER using Active Charge
Exchange', these proceedings.
[17] R W T Konig et ai, Neutral Beam Based Spectroscopic Diagnostics for ITER Extraploated from Recent
JET Results', these proceedings.
[18] F M Levinton, 'The Motional Stark Effect Diagnostic Study for ITER', these proceedings.
[19] T Sugie et ai, 'Divertor Impurity Monitor for ITER', these proceedings.
[20] A I Kislyakov et ai, 'NPA at ITER: Physical Bais and Conceptual Design', these proceedings.
[21] G Vayakis et ai, 'The ITER ECE Diagnostic Front End Design', these proceedings.
[22] G Vayakis et ai, 'Overview of the Reflectometry Diagnostic Systems', these proceedings.
[23] N L Bretz et ai, 'ITER Position Control Reflectometry - Conceptual Design' these proceedings.
[24] E S Marmar, 'Active Spectroscopy' pp 281 - 290, in Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, edited by P E Stolt, G Gorini and E Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York (1996).
[25] H A Davis et ai, 'Progress Toward a Microsecond Duration, Repetitively Pulsed, Intense Ion Beam for
Active Spectroscopy Measurements on ITER', pp 332 - 335, Rev. Sci. Instrum., Qlh, 1997.
[26] G Janeschitz et ai, 'ITER Physics Basis, Machine Design and Diagnostic Integration', these proceedings.
[27] C Walker et ai, 'Diagnostic Access for ITER', these proceedings.
[28] Minutes of the Sixth Meeting of the ITER Diagnostics Expert Group, held in Naka, 10 - II March,
1997 (S CX MI 1297-04-23 FI)
[29] S Yamamoto et ai, 'Irradiation Tests on ITER Diagnostic Components', these proceedings.
[30] E R Hodgson, 'Radiation Problems and Testing of ITER Diagnostic Components', these proceedings.

56
 DIAGNOSTICS ACCESS FOR ITER

C.I.Walkerl , T.Ando l , A.Costley2, L.deKock l ,K.Ebisawa2, P.Edmonds 1,

GJaneschitzl, LJohnson2, V.Mukhovatov2, G.Vayakis2, S.Yamamatol

1 - ITER, Joint Central Team, Garching, Germany

2 - ITER, Joint Central Team, San Diego, USA

INTRODUCTION
The design of the major diagnostic systems for ITER has now progressed from generic
approaches I to the engineering and design integration phases. The design of relevant parts of
the ITER machine, in particular the access points for diagnostics such as ports and blanket
modules, has developed significantly2. Diagnostic equipment is still found in the three main
port areas (equatorial, vertical and divertor) and in the blanket back plate, but no longer in
the blanket modules. Diagnostic access at these sites is considered in terms of the access to
the plasma through the first wall and the implementation of the signal transmission paths
away from the Tokamak. The arrangements for the installation and maintenance of the
diagnostic components are described.
Access to the plasma is dominated by the requirement to minimise the penetrations
through the first wall. Nuclear aspects (radiation shielding, irradiation effects and removal of
nuclear heating) of the diagnostic components and of the torus systems influence the design.
Many systems are required to be integrated into limited positions with some degree of
standardisation for handling and access. The core plasma is probed through holes in special
blanket modules at horizontal and vertical ports, and through the gaps between the blanket
modules. Diagnostic sensors are mounted on the blanket back plate. In the divertor area
some cassettes are specially adapted for visible, IR and UV viewing. Waveguides are
mounted on the sides of these cassettes. Electrical sensors are located on standard cassettes
observing the plasma through existing gaps.
Signal transmission from diagnostics introduces further considerations of the relative
movements of machine components, requirements for safety and reliability and the general
layout configuration of ITER boundaries and buildings. In the ports the transmission path is
often labyrinthed through shielding but the peculiar requirement of straight beams has been
considered. Alignment considerations predominate in the design of these and of optical
systems. The strict requirements of integrity, for normal and foreseen fault conditions, of
components on the vacuum and tritium confinement barriers have been met.
Maintenance interfaces are developed to minimise the time and equipment
requirements for access. Depending on the location and time history of the various
components, maintenance will be performed from hands-on to entirely by remote handling
tools. The need to remove diagnostic equipment without venting the cryostat and the
modularity of the installed components stem from these considerations. Standardised
designs and procedures, with a small number of well developed solutions, are applied to a
majority of the diagnostic interfaces. Railed transfer arrangements are provided for the
removal of large components from the horizontal ports. These components, and the
diagnostic equipment within them, are refurbished and tested in the hot cell. After removal
of blanket modules, some diagnostic components on the back plate are accessible for remote
replacement.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Slott et al., P1enwn Press, New York, 1998 57
Equatorial Port Diagnostics

The equatorial (or mid-plane) ports are the preferred access for diagnostics: in total 9
are used. Three ports are assigned solely to diagnostics (Sectors 9, 16 and 17) for the larger
systems such as the radial neutron camera, the toroidal interferometer, and the LIDAR.
Smaller systems are integrated around these primary diagnostics. The port adjacent to the
neutral beams (Sector 7), with its limited access but pressurised vault beyond the bio-shield,
is used by directly coupled systems3 such as NPA, X-ray spectrometers, VlN
spectrometers. The diagnostic neutral beam (DNB) shares a port (Sector 4) with a heating
neutral beam. Diagnostic systems have been assigned to ports allocated to remote handling
for the removal of in-vessel equipment (Sectors 8 & 18) where they can be easily
disconnected, for example the plasma viewing system 4 . The in-vessel transport system of
the remote handling (in Sectors 3 & 13) is normally retracted in an enclosure in the access
cell and is deployed when in-vessel maintenance is required. The unused spaces behind the
two start-up limiters in these, diametrically opposed, ports make ideal sites for the Neutron
Flux Monitors.
Diagnostics in equatorial ports are incorporated in a modular port plug that comprises
the blanket shield plug, all of the diagnostic equipment in shielding (referred to as the
diagnostic block) and the primary vacuum flange. This weighs -90t, mainly from shielding,
and EM analysis indicates that the radial force on it is O.SMN towards the plasma with a
net moment about a radial axis of 13 MN-m during survivable disruptions (VDE).
DETECTOR' DLM>
<nt.UMATOR ----......

I NTEFt.el1ATE
BI0- 9-118..0 PLLG

SeooNoARY VA~
VleN INGAf'ERTLfE
BOLtl Do\ RY

~-i7<:::::::~~ PRIMARY VA~ 8O\..tl0ARf

1'-4--- DIA(}.lOSTIC BLoa<

"'--+--+-- BLANKET SHI8..0 MOOLl.E

Figure 1. Port Plug installed at the Equatorial Port, shown sectioned through the Radial Neutron Camera.

The arrangement for Sector 9 (Fig. 1) is used to illustrate the typical access
considerations at the equatorial ports. Here the neutron camera, interferometer, bolometers
and possibly soft X-ray cameras are combined. The radial neutron cameras consists of a fan-
shaped array of flight tubes, viewing the plasma through a slot in the blanket shield module
and precollimating shielding in the diagnostic block. To economise on blanket penetrations,
this view of the plasma is shared by modular arrays containing bolometers 6 and soft X-ray
cameras sensors. The toroidal interferometer7 requires a separate, horizontal, slot in the
blanket to acquire the best toroidal view while keeping the first mirror as deep within the
shielding as possible (Fig. 2). The second mirrors are in a slice of the diagnostic block on the
other side of the neutron collimator.
The number and size of holes in the first wall is kept to a minimum and the sides of
the holes are cooled when they are larger than -IOOmm. A number of alternative
construction techniques under consideration for the blanket shield plugs have been shown to
be modifiable for diagnostic holes. The first wall aperture is further minimised by attaching
the blanket shield plug to the diagnostic block guaranteeing alignment.
The diagnostic block is the first part of the port plug with active elements. It carries
the sensors, mirrors and shutters in modules within the massive shielding which is
assembled to most easily access these components. Shutter modules have simple plug-in
connectors for mechanical actuation. The relative merits of various designs is presently
under investigation. First mirror designs (cooled by the 4.0 MPa water of the vacuum vessel
cooling) have been developed further concentrating on surface and substrate materials.
Mirror mounts, with fixed adjustment features are under design. The construction of the

58
equatorial port plugs facilitates their remote handling, removal and maintenance (Fig.2). The
plugs are constructed on a substantial chassis that also acts as shielding. This is supported
on linear roller bearings from the vacuum vessel port. The diagnostic block is built up on
this chassis from the component segments of shielding, cooling lines are attached with
standard welded connections and the block is completed with a top cover for structural and
shielding purposes. The cover is tailored to fit local variations in the ports. Transmission of
signal from electrical sensors is by mineral insulated cables routed in channels to the back of
the diagnostic block.

Figure 2. Assembly of an Equatorial Port Plug.

The vacuum vessel seal plate is the main vacuum boundary component of the port
plug incorporating the main port seal, windows, electrical and water feedthroughs. All
components are rated at O.5MPa on this primary boundary. Aluminium diffusion bonded
windows and alloy solder materials (e.g. AgPbSn) have been shown to be adequate for all
ITER parameters8 with the exception of the anticipated radiation effects which are the
subject of further R&D. A new bond technique using a spring seal on the glass edge is
showing promising early results9 . More development work is expected to add this to the
acceptable techniques. Beryllium foil windows supported on a honeycomb frame have been
shown to survive to 1.7 MPa. Sealing to Zinc Selenide still remains to be demonstrated
within the current window development programme. The electrical feedthroughs on the
vacuum boundary are robust constructions of mineral insulated cables brazed into stainless
steel bulkheads. The irradiation characteristics of the terminations are presently under
investigation. Collimating shielding is installed in this port interspace. The total shielding
thickness in the port plug has been shown to be adequate for a number of individual
diagnostic penetrations 10 . The neutron streaming from the integration of many diagnostic
penetrations in one block has to be confirmed as acceptable when the final designs are fixed.
The interspace shielding thus can be used to increase the shielding if required without
increasing -the weight of the port plug.
80- SHEW
PLLG ~

S9.L PLAlE

Figure 3. Installation of Mid-Plate Port Plug & Diagnostic Equipment.

The equatorial port plug will be handled as one unit. It is removed in a contamination
containing transport cask running on rails into the port, which docks to the cryostat flange
or a complementary flange on the hot cell. It is dismantled and refurbished in the hot cell,
where the modular sub-assemblies can be replaced and tested. Reuse and refurbishment of
the port plugs is important to minimise the accumulation of activated waste. It is also

59
crucial that diagnostic commissioning and testing is completed before port plugs are
transported for installation. The diagnostics in port plugs are finally commissioned at the
hot cell in a clean room in diagnostic test stands with dedicated equipment. The second
vacuum boundary and the removable shield (that sits in the port) re installed by similar
techniques to the port plug. The bio-shield port plug collimator, detector array and any
necessary local cabling and cubicles are manually installed behind the cryostat.
An example of an equatorial port where many optical diagnostics are integrated is
sector 16 with the Thomson Scattering LIDAR, Wide-angle Plasma and Divertor Viewing,
and Ha spectroscopy (Fig.4).

Figure 4. Optical Diagnostics in an Equatorial Port Plug.

The LIDAR system II is positioned on the port centre line for optimal shielding, and
the Hex spectroscopy fan view array is on a side slice of the diagnostic block. For these
systems mirror mounts are adjustable through the cover and are removable without a
complete disassembly of the block.
Windows are in tubes on the vacuum seal plates and there are intermediate mirrors in
the port interspace located on the rail system use by the RH tools. Laser and collected light
is guided to the system through vacuum light tubes from the dia,p0stic hall. In the wide
angle plasma viewing system and the divertor viewing system, the front end mirrors
(probably of tungsten) need to be very close to the plasma on an extension of the diagnostic
block. The small entrance aperture mitigates the problems with charge exchange sputtering.
Image transmission is by reflective optics and lenses are only used near the vacuum
window. A close alignment of the front mirrors relative to the window optics is achieved
with cooled flight tube structures fixed only at the front of the port plug. Five of these tube
structures are shown, for two opposed wide angled views and for three views of the
divertor leg. The cameras are located outside the biological shield.
The only special handling requirements are for port 7, adjacent to the neutral beam
injection. Here vacuum extensions are provided for close coupled diagnostics such as X-ray
crystal and VlN spectrometry and neutral particle analysers. Reflectometer waveguides l2
are labyrinthed around these through windows on the vacuum boundaries.

Diagnostics in the Vertical Ports

The vertical ports give views of the core and edge plasma and some of the first wall
and divertor that are otherwise inaccessible. The main blanket cooling pipes are now routed
through alternate vertical ports, no diagnostics are foreseen on these ports. Thus the ten
even numbered vertical ports are assigned to diagnostics. It is necessary to share these ports
with the RH insertable in-vessel viewing (IVY) probe (required on all ten ports), the
retractable glow discharge cleaning (GDC) probes (required on at least 8 ports) and the gas
injection valves and pipes (required on 5 ports). Allocation of diagnostics to the remaining
space is mainly dependant on diagnostic access factors, for example, completeness of the
plasma and divertor viewing, NPA sight on to DNB, gas-free bolometer viewing, etc.
All vertical ports for diagnostics are standard in concept, they contain a range of holes
for the diagnostic views with special components in diagnostic plugs. Generally there will

60
only be radial and vertical viewing; shielding and replacement requirements detennine the
design and effectively preclude toroidal viewing.
There is a poloidal gap in the back plate, lSOmm wide, across the radial width of the
port. The dimensions of this slot are limited both by stresses in the back plate and by the
neutron loading on vacuum vessel joints and on the P2 poloidal field coil.
Optical systems, (such as edge spectroscopy and divertor viewing) can access the
plasma core, divertor and upper plasma using front end mirrors. Direct line of sight systems
have a much more limited access to the plasma by virtue of the other machine systems. This
can be extended somewhat by locating the detectors lower in the cryostat.
The method of completing the shielding blanket in this area under the port is still
under review. One approach is with normal blanket shield modules (but with side wall
cooling) leaving a 150m gap. An intermediate yoke is placed in the back plate hole to react
against the blanket torques. In the other design there is a slotted blanket shield plug
(complete with first wall armour and shielding) that is inserted from above the port. There
are significant implications on remote handling access to these two variants, but from the
point of view of the diagnostic access there is little to differentiate them. The latter lends
itself to wider angle cones and slightly non-radial viewing; for these reasons this design is
presently selected.
The gap in the shield plug is blocked where it is not required for access by the
replacement shielding, a simple water cooled, stainless steel, block shaped internally for
each local diagnostic requirement. There are no active or sensitive components here so
access will only be required for repair or altered diagnostic requirements. The diagnostic
shield block above this is again passive stainless steel shielding with a range of access holes.
This block may be attached to the primary vacuum seal plate which is welded to the port
above the level of the toroidal field coils. This plate is also considered to be permanent with
no normal maintenance requirements, (RH Class 3), but it is the access point for
maintainable systems.
There are three types of arrangement at the port seal plate: i) discrete vertical
diagnostic plugs, ii) straight vacuum extensions and iii) fanned collimation.
i) Discrete vertical diagnostic plugs are used for optical diagnostics (such as the
divertor viewing periscopes, impuri~ and H« monitoring), and electrical dia ostics such
--~ :
~~ ---~- - ~:~

SECONDARY
FLAN(!£SEAL

UPPER
CRYOSTAT X-PONT
UD - VEWING

PORT OWERTOR
NTERSPACE VEWliIG
DlAGNO STC
PRIMARY PLUG,
(Withd 1a'Ml)
VACWM
SEAL PLATE

DVlGNQSTC
PORT
SHELD
BLOCK

BLANKET

REPLACEMENT Details of In-Vessel Components

SHIELD - -#7A for another Pon
SHIELD - - --'1
PLOO

Figure 5. Vertical Port Arrangement for a typical diagnostic sector.

61
 as bolometry). Windows, relay optics, sensors, wiring and feedthroughs are all integrated
with the shielding of a diagnostic plug which serves as structure and vacuum seal. Most
ports are of this type, either with four plugs (each 300rnm diameter) or with three plugs
(2x300rnm, lx500rnm). The ODC probes also use these ports. The 500rnm ports are
provided, for example, for the viewing periscopes which require close dimensional stability
of the head mirror to the windows, while including a dog-legged labyrinth. It can be seen
that a significant part of the large plug is unused by a single diagnostic system. Other
systems, especially electrical sensors, will be integrated in the plug. The plugs are sealed to
tubes in the seal plate by automatic welding, the only RH class 2 component on the
primary vacuum boundary.
ii) The straight vacuum extension arrangement is used for directly coupled diagnostics
(such as NPAs, VlN and X-ray spectrometry), where there is little requirement for
replaceable equipment in the port shielding. The vacuum flange is extended with bellowed
vacuum flight tubes to the diagnostic detectors. Two ports of this type are anticipated.
iii) Fanned collimation is required for the vertical neutron camera l3, again with no
requirements to remove the plug but with some form of permanent collimating shielding in
the secondary vacuum volume. Only one of this arrangement is foreseen.
Micro-waveguides are brought through remotely handleable windows mounted in
tubes offset from the centre of the port flange. These appear on a number of ports.
Above the primary vacuum seal is one large port interspace, providing the secondary
containment. It is connected to the primary seal plate by small bellows and is supported by
the cryostat lid. The biological shielding is split, up to 1m lies directly on the top of the
cryostat lid. The remaining 1.5m is above the open frame structure which supports both the
cryostat vacuum and pressure loads and the biological shield weight. No diagnostic features
may extend beyond this biological shield into the non-radiation area above. Diagnostic
detectors and services are situated either in the port interspace, above the secondary seal
plate or in the plenum between the two layers of shielding. In all design solutions the top of
bio-shield is kept clear for other uses.
Replacement of all diagnostic equipment is from the top of the port. The port
interspace enclosure is an important feature of the maintenance procedures, allowing the
port to be accessed and plugs withdrawn without venting the cryostat. Maintenance at the
top of the biological shield will generally be manual down to the secondary vacuum seal
plate. For convenience the diagnostic equipment in the port interspace is made modular. As
soon as the interspace is opened maintenance will be with standard remote handling tools
because of the small aperture and long distance access as well as because of the radiation
levels. A vertical plug containment flask is introduced through the bio-shield and docked to
the secondary seal flanges.

Divertor Port

The central divertor cassettes in front of each of the four remote handling ports are
specially adapted to meet the diagnostic requirements. Space for viewing and components
has to be found within these diagnostic cassettes in areas that can use, as much as possible,
the natural gaps between the cassettes. The cassette structural integrity and cooling
provisions must be preserved. Channels are provided in the central plane of the diagnostic
cassette for optical access. Microwave access is along the sides using the gaps between the
target plates (10-25 rnm). The two cassettes either side of a diagnostic cassette are
instrumented with diagnostic sensors, such as magnetic pick up coils, bolometers and
pressure gauges.
The divertor impurity monitor diagnosticl 4 (Fig.6) illustrates many of the access
features of optical diagnostics. Here the divertor area is probed radially by intersecting
arrays of viewing chords for each leg. Mirror assemblies are located under the dome and a
space under the cassette left by the removal of RH tools. A diagnostic tray is located here
that is used for relay mirror elements. Mirror damage due to the deposition of target plate
material during a major disruption is a main consideration in this region. Mirrors are
protected as much as possible by collimating apertures in the structure. The concept of
direct viewing between the cassettes has been developed. For this approach no mirrors are
required in the divertor, but the side of the cassette must be locally modified and alignment
is especially critical. During a pulse the port movement relative to the cryostat is 28rnm in a
radial-vertical plane (from relative thermal expansions) and 23rnm toroidally (from magnetic

62
movement of the vessel).

a b

~
Figure 6. Views of the Divertor Plasma with Mirrors, a) on the Diagnostic Tray and b) in the Dome. Direct
Views are given between cassettes (c).

The optical relay continues (Fig.7), if necessary, through intermediate optical

elements in a diagnostic block located in the port, to windows in the vacuum boundaries.
Mirror labyrinths or optical fibres bring light through the bio-shield plug. Outside the bio-
shield the light is focused onto the different channels of the optical fibre array leading into
the spectrometers. Some spectrometers are set directly outside the biological shield on the
transport cask rails in the pit. Others (for longer wavelengths) are remote in the diagnostic
hall, fed by long optical fibre bundles. These allow greater freedom of access to the
spectrometers and help to minimise the access time to the divertor access ports.
I

Figure 7. Optical Relay out through the Divertor RH Port, using the Diagnostic Tray under the Cassette
and Diagnostic Blocks in port and in the interspace.

The divertor reflectometry system l5 and the divertor ECA each use a diagnostic cassette
(sectors 8 & 18). The reflectometry system illustrates the solutions found for microwave
diagnostic access. Special water cooled side plates are bolted on to the cassette (Fig.8), with
the antennas and wave-guides running from the plasma viewing area to the outboard end of
the cassette. There is space here for conversion and coupling boxes. A set of waveguides is
mounted on a trolley within the port (Fig.9). These are articulated to make a narrow
assembly for installation that is opened up for remote coupling to the back side of the
divertor cassette. The outboard end of these waveguides is expanded on to waveguides and
windows in the fixed part of the port flange. Within the port interspace there are modules
of flexibly jointed waveguides.

Figure 8. Waveguides in Side Plate of a Diagnostic Cassette.

63
 The concept of side plates is also used on instrumented divertor cassettes, for
electrical sensors including Langmuir probes, bolometer cameras, magnetic pick up coils,
pressure gauges and Rogowski coils around earth straps. Wiring looms are routed to a
connector at the back. During the installation of an instrumented cassette an electrical
connector automatically engages with a socket mounted on the vacuum vessel wall.
Permanent looms of mineral insulated cables are conduited to the diagnostic wiring in the
cryo-pumping ports either side of the divertor RH ports. The divertor cassette handling
operations are unaffected by the presence of diagnostic equipment. The remote maintenance
of systems on the cassettes is entirely performed in the hot cell. The modular side plates are
removed as the initial operation in the refurbishment of a cassette.
DIAGNOSTIC

WAVEGUIDES ON
VACUUM VESSEL
DIAGNOSTIC RACK
WINDOWS

Figure 9.Waveguide relay for the Divertor Reflectometry System, from the diagnostic cassette to the pit.

As well as viewing the divertor plasma from within the cassettes, as much use as
possible is made of the views from other parts of the Torus. The divertor IR thermography
system, mounted in the equatorial ports, probes both the inner leg from a straight radial
view and the outer leg by an oblique toroidal view. The vertical ports give a general view of
the divertor dome and some special arrangements, used for example by the bolometry
systemS, can allow the plasma in the inner leg to be viewed. The further requirement of
bolometery, to probe the divertor plasma other than through the main plasma, has led to the
development of a view from a downward viewing diagnostic socket in the back plate. The
nominal gap between the cassettes is closed on the top outside by a gas tight seal.

Systems Installed In-vessel (Blanket & Back Pate)

Use is made of the 20mm gaps (both toroidal and poloidal) between the blanket
modules, to give views of the plasma that cannot be attained from the other locations.
Diagnostic sensors and components that are possibly degradable are made remotely
removable by installing them in Diagnostic Plugs (Fig.lOa & b) mounted in sockets in the
back plate. Socket mounted diagnostics include the magnetic pick-up coils 16 , bolometers6 ,
soft X-ray cameras, micro-fission chambers l ?, irradiation foils, interferometer-
retroreflectors, and polarimeter mirrors or retroreflectors.
In each sector of the back plate a row of diagnostic sockets are permanently welded
under the poloidal gaps between blanket modules. The sockets are centred on poloidal gaps
but slightly offset from toroidal gaps to give well shielded locations with plasma views and
with the fastest response to field changes. Because of the blanket arrangement, some
sockets (on the inner wall) are located on the back plate sector joints. During the
construction of the back plate, groups of up to four sectors are assembled before installation
in the Tokamak pit. These groups are then joined together in the pit. Some (12) of these
rows of diagnostic locations are, therefore, better suited to sensors that require installation,
connection and commissioning before back plate completion. The other toroidal locations
are better used for systems, such as waveguide runs and neutron activation lines, installed
later.
The magnetic pick-up coils are the most demanding in terms of position and quantity.
Four orthogonal poloidal arrays of coils are provided with a further set for higher modes and
redundancy. Bolometers are the heaviest users of cabling and the limitations for any site are
given by wiring and connector space, at least 5 back plate sectors are used for these. In the
diagnostic carriers a number of cable types (mineral insulated, steel and glass braided) and

64
 configurations (twisted pairs, coaxial, multi-axial etc.) are under consideration.
The diagnostic plug is installed, when the two covering blanket modules are removed,
with a simple quarter turn bayonet action that both locates the plug and provides good
thermal contact to the cooled socket. Remote removal is possible with a single dedicated
tool mounted on the In-Vessel Transport system (IVT).

II 1 DIAGNOSTIC
I PLUG IN
BACK PLATE
SOCKET

a) b)
Fig 10. a) Back Plate Pick· up Coil in Diagnostic Plug and b) Voltage Loop behind Blanket Modules.

As well as these discrete sensors there is a need to provide for extensive diagnostics
on the back plate. The voltage and saddle loops of the magnetic system are attached directly
to the back plate in regions protected by the blanket modules. Loops are provided with
joints that are made permanent on assembly of the adjacent sectors. They can be replaced
with secondary links in the event of a possible sector replacement but are generally
considered to be permanent. Reflectometry waveguides and Neutron Activation sample
lines 18 run poloidally to the vertical port in sectors without electrical sensors using the
conduit grooves in the blanket.
Most of these back plate diagnostics require a wiring connection. Diagnostics in carriers
can be directly wired (e.g. some magnetic pick up coils) or incorporate a connector in the
carrier (e.g. Microfission chambers). Special provisions are made for bolometer camera
arrays, because of their large quantity of wires, with connector sockets on the sides of the
conduits. The back plate wiring is permanent and so only mineral insulated wires (with
stainless steel sheaths and Alumina insulation) are considered.

,'----'t-- BACK PLATE

CONDUT

K""-""""",Ll FILLER SHIELDS

BLANKET
CONDUT
GROOVE

"" ,,'

2)-
r I •. ~- ,

\ <.

c:o: o - PUMP
~ ~~c~ou,

Fig 11 Back Plate Conduit. The back plate is cut away to show the route along the sides of the blanket
modules. wiring looms cross the back plate above and below the level of the equatorial port holes

65
 These will be vacuum sealed, even where they do not cross vacuum boundaries, to
minimise the outgassing and to guarantee the integrity while in store prior to installation.
Throughout its length, there will be a number of joints in the cabling, militated by the
assembly sequence of the back plate and vacuum vessel. Where possible these joints and the
electrical connections will be 'friued' (with a high current pulse) or spot welded to ensure
their permanence. The cabling of each sector will be tested before it is installed in the pit. A
conduit system is welded to the plasma side of the back plate. The conduit is situated under
the protection of blanket modules, it runs generally poloidally within one sector with short
toroidal steps where the blanket segmentation changes (Fig.ll). There is a complementary
groove in the back of the blanket module over its full poloidal length. The wiring in the
conduits exits through holes in the back plate in the region near the equatorial ports. Outside
the back plate, the conduit is continued down the support legs to the vacuum vessel wall.
Here the wiring joins that from loops and coils of the vacuum vessel diagnostics and from the
divertor. Vacuum Vessel Loops also can be replaced with secondary links in the event of a
possible Torus sector replacement. Final exit from the vacuum vessel is made along the
divertor cryo-pumping ports with standard vacuum feedthroughs at the two sealing flanges.
These ports have been selected as they provide the best distribution of almost complete
toroidal access with a high level of standardisation and infrequent RH access requirements.

CONCLUSIONS & SUMMARY

Design solutions have been developed to give specific diagnostics viewing, signal
transmission and maintenance access. Most of the planned diagnostics for ITER have been
integrated in the available locations. The extreme radiation environment, life and safety
requirements have been taken into consideration. Some design and integration issues still
remain to be resolved. For the equatorial ports the handling of the port plugs must be
developed in more detail. For vertical port access an important issue is the inability to view
the full plasma and the design of the direct coupled diagnostics. Other developments required
include blanket shield plug compatibility with the main blanket assembly, and defmition of
the allowable slot dimensions in the back plate. The absence of NY on the vertical neutron
camera port must be compensated for and maintenance of it and its shield lock remain to be
developed. In the divertor region, for viewing through natural gaps, innovative solutions are
required for compensation of the differential movements for direct port viewing. The thermal
considerations of each back plate diagnostic require further analysis.

Acknowledgements
This report is an account of work undertaken within the framework of the ITER EDA
Agreement. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the
Parties to the ITER Agreement, the lAEA or any agency thereof. Dissemination of the
information in this paper is governed by the applicable terms of the ITER EDA Agreement.

References
1. C.I.Walker, L.deKock, ITER Plasma Diagnostics Generic Access, Varenna 1995
2. G.Janeschitz et aI., ITER Design and Diagnostic Integration, these proceedings.
3. P.Edmonds et aI., Integration of Vacuum Coupled Diagnostics, ibid.
4. P.Stott et aI., Plasma Viewing System, ibid.
5. F .Marcus et ai, A Radial Neutron Camera Design for ITER, ibid.
6. R.Reichle, et al,. Reference Designfor ITER Bolometers. ibid.
7. R.Snider et al,. Application ofInterferometry and Plasma Rotation Techniques for
Density Measurements on ITER:, Varenna. 1995.
8. C.Walker, Vacuum Window Seals for Diagnostic Windows, (ITER Task 019),1995
9. A.Nagashima .Development ofNew Vacuum Window Seal ......., these proceedings.
10. G.Shatalov, Neutronics For ITER Diagnostic Systems and Ports, ibid ..
11. H.Salzmann et al,. ITER Core Plasma LIDAR System, ibid.
12. G.Vayakis et ai, Overview of The ITER Rej1ectometry Diagnostic Systems, ibid.
13. L.Johnson et al,., Overview of Fusion Product Diagnostics: ibid.
14. T.Sugie, Divertor Impurity Monitor for ITER, ibid.
15. M.Manso et aI., Reflectometry in the ITER Divertor, ibid.
16. L.deKock et aI., Magnetic Diagnosticsfor ITER, ibid.
17. T.Nishitani, Micro-Fission Chamber Neutron Monitor, ibid.
18. C.Barnes, Design of Neutron Activation & Monitors, ibid.

66
DIAGNOSTIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ITER DIVERTOR

L. de Kockl, G. Janeschitzl, A. Kukushkinl, H. O. Pacher3, T. Ando l ,

A. Costley2, K. Ebisawa2, M. Sugihara l , G. Vayakis2, C. WalkerI

1. ITER JCT, Boltzmannstrasse 2, 0-85748 Garching, Germany

2. ITER JCT, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Rd, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
3. The NET Team, Boltzmannstrasse 2, 0-85748 Garching, Germany

1. INTRODUCTION

The requirements for the divertor diagnostics have originally been determined by the
examination of the diagnostic experience on present large divertor tokamaks. In the past years
the design of most diagnostic systems inclusive of those for the divertor has progressed
beyond the conceptual stage so that their expected performance can now be predicted using
this design information and the results of 2D modelling of the divertor plasma in a regime close
to the desired operating point. The profiles of plasma parameters and the line integrals of
spectral emission, which would be measured along the chords of the planned diagnostics, have
been calculated for 3 cases for which the 20 model predicts sustainable heat loads on the
divertor target. The results are assessed according to their capability to fulfil the requirements
for protection, plasma control and physics understanding.
The paper describes in detail the preferred plasma configuration as obtained from the
20 model, the reference case, and the role of the diagnostic systems in kinetic control and
physics evaluation and optimisation. It also shows a selection of relevant diagnostic profiles
and line integrals for the 3 cases in the relevant parameter range. In the last section it assesses
each diagnostic system in detail and concludes with recommendations.

2. 2D MODELLING OF ITER DIVERTOR PARAMETERS

ITER divertor operation has been described most recently in [1,2,3,4]. It is dominated
by the necessity to exhaust around 200 MW via the scrape-off layer (SOL), assuring
simultaneously good core confinement, adequate helium pumping, and peak power loads in
the order of 5 MW/m 2 on the divertor targets. A strong reduction of both energy and particle
flux near the strike point is needed to meet the latter requirement. Therefore, fully attached
operation of the divertor plasma at the plates is unacceptable and the plasma must be either
partially detached (detached near the strike point, attached further out in the SOL) or fully
detached. In order to attain this partially or fully detached state, a large fraction of the SOL
power must be radiated by impurities, either intrinsic (He plus C and/or Be) or seeded (e.g.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New Yolk, 1998. 67
 neon). Many present-day experiments (e.g. JET, ASDEX Upgrade) have shown that, as the
radiation fraction and/or density increases and the divertor plasma proceeds toward full
detachment, the core confinement is degraded, an effect which could be related to cooling of
the edge of the main plasma, either by an increase in the radiation from closed flux surfaces at
the plasma edge inside the separatrix or by the penetration of neutrals towards the core
plasma. For fully detached operation, radiation is located near the X-point because the
ionisation front and the radiation peak move close to the X point, cooling the edge plasma, and
the amount of neutrals in the main chamber is expected to increase because the plasma
plugging decreases and the divertor neutral pressure increases. A partially detached operating
point for ITER, which avoids strong radiation from the area around the X-point, is therefore
preferred.
Such an operation point has been found by 2D modelling for ITER [4]. Carbon
physical and chemical sputtering (using a simplified expression) at the target plate provide a
self-consistent influx of light impurities, a small amount (0.2%) of Ne seeding is added, and
10% concentration of He is assumed at the core-edge interface. Under these conditions, 140
MW are radiated from the divertor and only about 60 MW are transported to the plates by
plasma and neutrals. The plasma is more detached on the inner divertor leg than on the outer,
but remains partially attached for both. The plasma state can be clearly seen in Fig. 1, giving
the electron temperature and density. The electron temperature drops strongly toward the
plates, but the peak: electron temperature remains above 10 eV in the divertor SOL region for
both divertor legs, so the plasma remains partially attached. However, the temperature near
the separatrix strike point is much lower and the pressure in the flux tubes close to the
separatrix drops by an order of magnitude toward the plates, thus the plasma is detached on
those flux tubes. The low electron temperature near the strike point favours penetration of
neutrals (both DT and He) produced by recycling on the outer part of the vertical target
toward the strike point and the private flux region, increasing the neutral density near the
strike point to several 10 20 m-3 Neutrals from the private flux region can penetrate into the
SOL plasma upstream because of the strong radial gradients on the private flux side (Fig. 1),
enhancing somewhat the radial pressure profile upstream. Moreover, the high pressure in the
private flux region favours He pumping.

-3 .• - 3.0
150 IaZ
100
- 3.a 80
-:l.a. ozo,
80 Wli
,H,
....
- 4.0 40 - 4 .0
25
- 4.5 17 -4 .6
13
zzoo
10 '1:20
-6.0 -~,Q
till

-6,6 -5.6 DII

nat
- t .• - 1 .0
U 6,6 a ,6 7.6 U U s,a •. S 7.6 U

Fig. 1: 2D profile of electron temperature (eV) and density (rn-3) in the divertor region for partially attached case

In otder to avoid strong radiation from the edge plasma inside the separatrix, and also
strong local radiation loads near the strike point, it is important that the radiation source be
well-distributed along the entire divertor leg. For the partially detached case presented here,
the distribution of radiation power per unit volume for carbon (which provides most of the
radiation) is shown in Fig. 2, demonstrating this favourable poloidal distribution .

68
-1.0
~
.HodoooI
10 Ill(; (1136)
- 306
3
....0 - - t'illrt"oI')I'I

.3 - n o...
411

.1
- 1.0
.03 ·- .'I:.. lr."

.......
-111
.01
1MdI::-
I,,,
- 1.0
' .5 U III 7 .1 U
x x ......
Fig. 2: 2D proflle of radiation power per unit Fig. 3: Cumulative poloidal integral of
volume (MW/m3) from all carl>on charge states impurity radiation in inner divertor. edge
for partially detached case. region above X-point, and outer divertor.
for partially detached case.

This distribution is shown also in Fig. 3.Here, the cumulative poloidal integral of the
power radiated between a reference point (the targets for the divertor legs, the X point for the
edge) and the point under consideration, is shown. (Radial integration is performed first along
the cells of the computational grid, which is skewed so as to be parallel to the targets at the
strike point and orthogonal to the surfaces at the X point; poloidal distance is along the
separatrix). It is seen that essentially all the radiation comes from the divertor legs (only 5
MW from the edge plasma), and that, except for 30 MW radiated close to the outer target, the
remaining 110 MW of radiated power is well spread out along the divertor legs.
The partially detached case shown here as the preferred operating point results in a
Zeff of 1.8 at the core boundary and peak power loads on the target of about 5 MW/m 2 .
Furthermore, an average He partial pressure in the private flux region of about 0.1 Pa is
predicted. This is adequate to exhaust the He produced, 2 Pa-m 3/s, at the design pumping
speed of 200 m 3/s with some margin. This operating point is therefore favourable in several
respects: low radiated power in the main plasma, low neutral density in the main chamber,
well-distributed radiation, low peak power on the plates, and adequate He pumping.

3. ROLE OF DIAGNOSTIC MEASUREMENTS IN THE DIVERTOR

To bring the divertor plasma into a regime in which the heat load to the target can be
sustained, and to keep it in this condition, is one of the most challenging tasks in ITER, both
in terms of control and physics understanding.
The requirements for the measurements for control and for physics understanding are
quite different. For control, i.e. as part of a feedback loop, we require robust and simple
signals without complicated interpretation, where robustness is achieved by redundancy and
back up with related diagnostics. The control signals must show the essential features of the
parameter to be controlled e.g. the degree of detachment. In [5] the measurements for control
and protection and their specifications have been identified in category 1. For physics
evaluation we require detailed information on the essential physics aspects of the divertor.
These are mainly the profiles of density and temperature along flux tubes close to the
separatrix, the impurity content as distributed in the divertor legs, and the localised He
density . The profiles are generally very steep perpendicular to the flux surfaces leading to a
demand for high spatial resolution. The measurements have been specified in [5] as category 2.
The status of the design and the assessment of the capability of the proposed diagnostic
systems is given in [6].

69
Control and Protection

The main diagnostic for the protection of the target plates is IR thermography of the
target. The diagnostic purpose is to prevent too high target temperatures by a feedback loop
linked to a suitable actuator. A detailed power deposition profile is not required, but small
areas of excessive surface temperature must be distinguished. Ultimately a controlled shut-
down action may be necessary. This measurement needs to be supported by an impurity
influx monitor confirming the large impurity influx due to excessive local power load.
For kinetic control of the divertor plasma it will be necessary to provide the diagnostic
tools to keep the plasma in a partially detached regime in both divertor legs, the regime shown
in detail in section 2. This depends very sensitively on where the power is radiated, on where
the plasma looses contact with the target plates, and on the plasma temperature on and near
the target. One of the diagnostics having the required potential are the Langmuir probes
mounted between some of the cassettes. These take the form of triple probes giving
instantaneous measurements of density, temperature and floating potential. The saturation
current as measured by the Langmuir probes is a well tested relative indicator for detachment.
The obvious disadvantage is that Langmuir probes rely on plasma contact and are therefore
prone to excessive erosion from disruptive events, limiting the lifetime. The other readily
accessible signals are the line emission profiles along the separatrix. For well chosen lines these
represent the local temperatures and have the required characteristics. From the same viewing
chord the impurity influx along the target plate can be obtained giving similar information on
the degree of detachment, but without indicating where the flame front is. Other signals which
have the required robustness and capability are the bolometer measurements, which indicate
where the power is radiated.
The divertor control system will be a multiple input/multiple output system. The
actuators can only be gas feeds of various kinds and the heating systems. The kinetic control
loops for divertor operation are being developed in the major divertor tokamaks and a
substantial improvement in performance is to be expected with a concurrent increase in
diagnostic input. Therefore the ITER diagnostic set must be designed to have sufficient
capability to expand beyond today's standards. Because of the complexity of the control
problem the (kinetic) control of the divertor of ITER is being modelled numerically to gain
insight in the possibilities and limitations [5].

Physics Evaluation and Optimisation

For physics evaluation and understanding, the requirements on the diagnostic systems
are very demanding. The amount of information would ideally need to be of comparable
quality to that given by the 20 divertor model. This requires high spatial resolution of the 20
profiles expanding the requirements far beyond those for control. This paper endeavours to
quantify some of these requirements.
For the divertor to operate in the desired parameter regime with partially detached
plasmas in both legs a delicate internally consistent balance has to be struck between local
density and temperature, the amount of power radiated by the different impurity species and
their localisation, and the ability to pump the He ash. In order to understand the physics
mechanisms the requirements for the diagnostic system for the local parameters De and Te
show high spatial resolution (10 cm parallel and 0.3 em perpendicular to the flux lines).
However, for good understanding we need a similar resolution for the local impurity species.
Ideally this should consist of a system with measurements in the visible and VUV in both
divertor legs separately. Imaging systems with observation points from perpendicular
directions would be needed to achieve the required spatial resolution. Such a system would
provide a tomographic 20 profile of the impurity line radiation, which needs to interpreted
using the local plasma parameters. It is clear that this ideal situation can only partly be

70
achieved in the ITER environment with its restricted access and harsh environment. For the
physics evaluation and understanding it means that we need to combine the measurements of
the various available diagnostics and use them to our best interpretation capability. Other
measurements providing essential information on the degree of detachment are all observations
on the target. They need to show the power deposition (from IR thermography), recycling
(from measurements in visible light) and the target parameters (from Langmuir Probes) with
good (I cm) spatial resolution.
This overview of the requirements on the divertor diagnostic in the light of the
protection, kinetic control and the physics evaluation and understanding shows that in
practice there will be a hierachy of measurements. Some are very basic, both from an
interpretational and technical point of view, others seem to be ambitious either because of
interpretation difficulties or the technical implementation. The scientific and technical design
effort endeavours to resolve these difficulties.

4. PROFILES AND LINE INTEGRALS ALONG DIAGNOSTIC CHORDS FROM

MODELLING

In order to assess the capabilities of the proposed divertor diagnostics, observation

chords have been taken from the present diagnostic designs. The 2D divertor model B2-
EIRENE has been used to calculate the relevant plasma parameter profiles and line integrals of
spectral emission along these chords. Where no satisfactory diagnostic design seemed to exist,
explorative profiles and integrals have been produced along chords of a possible diagnostic
system to show the kind of information that is needed for an evaluation of the detailed
physics of the divertor plasma. This was the case for the divertor Thomson Scattering where
only a single chord has been considered as an annex to the X-point LIDAR system [8].

I 2 J 4 tI J1 I

Fig.4 a: Spectroscopic observation channels Fig. 4 b: Chords of the O-mode reflectometers

in inner (A) and outer (B) divertor. Input in inner (AI,2,3) and outer (B1 ,2,3,4,S)
beams of a possible Thomson Scattering divertor. X-point LIDAR chords go to the dump
system are show in inner and outer divertor on the left. Channel 2 is existing. Channel 1,3
are not foreseen now.

71
1\Im-') Denoityw- n 1m- 'J Density outer
21~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 21~·~__~~~~~~~~~~~
~ l h:·Ca<c l :--- nc ~,,\S~ 1
. . . _ n e Case 2 .. -n. .ease2
1.51 ············t·············t·············1·············~ I~'". ~c:c 3" 1.51021 ····....·!·.. ··········t· .... ······· --8-- nc C.\\:i' ~

11

51 , ·~-j-~I~~ 51

-0.2 o 0.2 0.' 0.6 0.8 I -0.2 o 0.2 0.4 0 .6 0 .8 1

x...... 1m) x 1m)
t....t

T. leV) T.inner T. leV) T. outer

~---r---r---r---r---r--~ ~---r---r---r---r---r--~
-"':" T~ C"';" l : -.- r~ Ctl:)t" 1
... ~ Te caS., 1 ·······+··· "- T.. ea",,·2 ... --~

.......:-T. C"""J : ~ Tt... C(1~t:'3

-0.2 o 0.2 0.' 0.6 0.8 I -0.2 o 0.2 0.4 0 .6 0.8 I

x...... 1m) x...... 1m)

Power per unit area to inner target Q ••• [MW/m'] Power per unit area to outer target

............ ~ ............. ;. ....:-..: Wtot C~<e 2 '"

_ _ \\'IC'( C"". 1
- - Wto l Case 2"
-&- \Vtul (~Slf 3 ___ ,\ II>! :l c.,,,,,
.. --- ..- ~.. -.... -.. ,,.. (...... , .. ,... i' ........... -. [- ....... - .---j_ .• -•...••. .
: :

, •••.~~
-0 .2 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1 -0.2 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1
~ ...... Im] x [m)
braet

Figure 5: Electron density and temperature along the target plates for 3 cases (l-semi-detahed reference, 2-inner
leg starts to detach, 3-fully detached). Also shown is the deposited power including that from optical (localised)
radiation. Note that on the horizontal axis zero is the strike point.

72
 Hen [photc>n_- "., ') Hell inner HeO [photo......,-'. ,'I Hell outer
710lt 710'9

610' ....~.. .....C"st;'1

" ... ,-" ...... 610'
- C a se 2
510' "'---e- CdSt' 1 .··.~· .... 510'
410' 410'
310'

2101
110'

-110'
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Chord n.o . Chord no.

Figure 6: Line integrated He II radiation as seen by the arrays A and B for the 3 cases

n by re/lectometry inner Case 1 n by re/leclOmetry outer Case 1

71 ·· -+- \1 71
61 61
51 5 I
41
. ....! .......... ~............ ;"

.+ ...-!-

o 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 o 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7

x. nt • nu lmJ x......... [m)

n [m - ") n by re/lectometry inner Case 3

n [m - "I n by re/leclometry outer Case 3
61~'............~""'T"~""T"".................,,.....~-..., --T-....,
2.S1ol' .............,...........,...................................

':)
_ _ II
-O-- ll ·1

;-:~ ..
51
-__ 6fl .~.~ B 5 ..-... -~.--
. ...... "t ......... ~ ..... ".. .
41

31 ·....r· ......
l
~.

't' Pl'e r
!, ..... .
"'?' ., ... ,~ ..... .-. ....-...... +.. ..
-~
1. . .
21 ..... ) .... -... 1''' and:

o 0.1 0 .2 0 .3 0.4 0.5 0 .6 0 .7 o 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0.7

x..... u[ml x...."".(ml

Figure 7: Density profiles along the chords of the O-node reflectometer. Note that on the horizontal axis zero
represents the mouth of the antenna. Moving from tIl( tcp to the strike point the distance to the density peak
becomes gradually smaller. Except in channels B1 anol 2 the onset of the density profile is the vertical target
plate.

73
 Il 1m"') Density 1homson outer
Il (m"') OensityThoouonu....-
1.2 1021,...................~....,.............................T""_................,
Ul~r-------T-------~~----~
- Ca.< cl j
11 ····:: ~:~ ···························r·················· ...... .
1 1021 "- C ast> 2·1····"··,,·· ........... ~ ...... ..
-s- a..",'3l
81 "................... + ...................+ ...................... ..
81

61

41
=--:~==~~~--:~~:I------- 61

41
·.. ·..·· .... ·..·.......... ·i .. ·......·......· ·.. 1"· ....· ......· ........·

21 21

o O.S 15 o O.S I.S

X,Ioo'" 1m) x'h .... [m)

T. leV)
~--~--~--~--~--~--~
.
T Thomson inner .
T Thomson outer

..._..t ...._..._.._._. ______ _

c~ lL~... ~.... _.. ~.... _
.
. . &0 . . . . . . . . . . .

---c~2i

o o.S o O.S 1.S

xch .... lm)

Figure 8: Electron density and temperature proflles as seen by the spectroscopic arrays A and B along chord 2 of
the laser input beam of the Thomson Scattering system for the 3 cases.

Il [m"') Density UDAR T [«V) T. LIDAR

tloZt,............'"T'""T'".....,............'"T'"..........,.............., ·1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
i . _ c., .... 1
81 . . . . . . . t. . · . . . . ·'. ·. ·....·. ·:. ·. -- ~ase
__
2 ·..
.,<0: )

6 lU-lr .... ·.......... ~ .... il

21

o 0.5 1.5 2 2 .S o O.S loS 2 2 .5

X,ho... 1mj .,h.... 1m)

Figure 9: Electron density and temperature along chord 2 of the X-point LIDAR system for the 3 cases.

74
 Profiles have been calculated along the targets and along the chords for reflectometry, a
Thomson Scattering system in the divertor legs, and the X-point LIDAR system. Line
integrals of the radiation from impurity species (He II, Ne II, Ne III, etc, CII, cm, etc.) have
been evaluated along the optical observation chords of the impurity monitoring system. The
calculations have been performed for 3 cases:
1. The semi-attached reference case of section 2.
2. The case for which the inner leg starts to detach.
3. The case for which both legs are fully detached.
The layout of the diagnostic chords is shown in Figure 4a and b. A selection of representative
examples, chosen to show a clear distinction between the 3 cases, are shown in Figures 5, 6, 7,
8,9.
Figure 5 shows the De, Te and power deposition profiles for the 3 cases along the
target. From the deposited power and the temperature profiles the differences can be clearly
distinguished. Note that the power deposition from optical (not from nuclear) radiation is
included.
Figure 6 shows the profiles of the He II luminosity (line integral) across the
spectroscopic arrays viewing the plasma from the bottom mirror in the diagnostic cassette.
The views from the mirrors under the dome are not significantly different (not shown here).
Figure 7 shows the density profiles along the reflectometer viewing chords in one inner
and one outer chord with the indications of the limits of the lower (20-60 GHz) and higher
(60-280 GHz) O-mode bands. Along the horizontal axis zero corresponds to the antenna
mouth and for most cases the onset of density corresponds to the target surface (except for
Bl and B2). The fully detached outer leg shows double-humped profiles that will make
interpretation difficult. It is clear that the lower O-mode band (4.8xlO 18 _43xI0 19 m- 3) is
important in the phase leading up to the desired operating point.
Figure 8 shows the ne and Te profiles along selected chords in the inner and outer leg
with observation points taken from the spectroscopic arrays representing a Thomson
Scattering arrangement. The laser input beam is represented by 4 parallel chords. Profiles are
given as function of the chord distance along chord 2 of the input beam between crossings of
array A and B. Since the input beam closely follows the poloidal flux lines, the Te profile is
broad and the ne profile shows the characteristic peak at the location of the ionisation front.
There is no sharp qualitative distinction between attached and detached regimes, but the
numerical values are different. A good spatial resolution ofne and Te, if achieved in this way,
will, in combination with a sufficiently detailed coverage of spectroscopic observation chords,
be essential to unfold the spectroscopic signals in terms of local impurity density.
Figure 9 shows the De and Te profiles along the chord of the X-point LIDAR system
[8]. The input laser beam has a dump between the cassette and the lower edge of the back
plate, determining its location. The data from this diagnostic would be the basis for obtaining
an impurity species distribution around the X-point if the spectroscopic measurements were
also available.

5. ASSESSMENT OF THE DIAGNOSTIC CAPABILITY

With the predicted plasma parameter ranges and the spatial profiles derived from the
numerical modelling the capability of the diagnostic systems to fulfil the requirements for
control and physics understanding can now be examined. However, it is important to
recognise that this analysis reflects the present state of the design and the modelling and that
this will develop further, which may change the conclusions of this assessment. Moreover, a
major question, and a challenge for the diagnostics, is the stability of the partially detached
solution. For example, JET [8] finds, for L-mode partially detached plasmas, oscillations of
the divertor plasma corresponding to a movement of the peak radiation zone from the target to

75
the X-point and back on a millisecond time scale. Whether such oscillations are to be expected
for the ITER conditions and divertor length remains to be investigated. These effects have not
been considered here and have consequences for the required time resolution of the diagnostics
and the response time of the actuators.
In the assessment either for control or physics understanding we will find that the
diagnostic systems have to be considered an interrelated system and not as single individual
systems.

Control and protection

We assume that the magnetic configuration has been established independently by the
PF system and kept under feedback control. For the protection of the target the specification
of the IR Thermography covers the range and resolution adequately and the impurity influx
monitor will support this measurement. In particular it will help to distinguish hot spots.
For the kinetic control of the divertor we assume that the desired operating point has
been reached. Then the main task is to keep the plasma in the semi-detached state. The
profiles along the target (figure 5) indicate that the clearest signal showing the degree of
detachment is the plasma temperature profile. This is difficult to measure with the Langmuir
probes but temperature effects are clearly seen in the intensity of the impurity line radiation.
This is shown in figure 6 for He II. Similar profiles can be found for other impurities such as C
m (not shown here). The line integrals of He II as seen by the arrays A and B give a very
sensitive signature of the degree of detachment with adequate spatial resolution. Important
supporting evidence is provided by the IR Thermography showing large variations of the
deposited power.
The role of the bolometers for control is to ensure that most power is radiated from
the divertor channels and not near the X-point. This will be accomplished by selecting a
limited number of channels which characterise these areas clearly.
Examining the profiles obtained for Thomson Scattering, reflectometers and X-point
LIDAR it appears that there is no clear and simple signature of the degree of detachment.
These measurements have a supporting role in the kinetic control of the operating point and
some may be essential in the pulse scenario leading from initialisation to ignition. An example
is the divertor density from the interferometer function of the reflectometer higher O-mode
system.
In the overall picture there seems adequate capability to control the operating point of
the divertor using the proposed diagnostic systems. How these diagnostics will be integrated
into the control algorithm remains a point of further study.

Physics Evaluation and Understanding

The reference frame for the evaluation and understanding is the magnetic configuration.
This has an estimated absolute accuracy of ±2 cm. Since the diagnostic systems are referenced
to the external frame, i.e. the structural elements of the machine, the relation between the two
has to be established with the spatial accuracy of the diagnostics (±3 mm). A good reference
point will be the ridge of electron density on the separatrix (from reflectometer measurements)
and the magnetic configuration should be adjusted to match this. This method should just
achieve the required accuracy.
The Thomson Scattering system will provide the basis for the 2D plasma parameter
profile in the form of an array of discrete measurement points. The design of this system has
not yet advanced sufficiently to be confident that it can be built. The obstacles to overcome
are alignment between input and output, the low signal to noise ratio due to the restricted
access and the limitations in input power, and the calibration system. The Thomson Scattering
on its own provides the 10 cm resolution along the flux surfaces but cannot match the OJ cm

76
perpendicular resolution. The refiectometers can in principle provide these high resolution
profiles at a limited number of locations along the leg. These profiles, together with the
discrete measurement points of the scattering system, should help reconstruct the spatial
distribution of!le. A combination of low and high frequency O-mode refiectometers in the
cm/mm bands «300 GHz) can measure over most of the profile, including the lower density
profiles immediately after the X-point formation (figure 7). Theoretically the profiles can be
measured with the required accuracy. For fully detached cases (channels B I and B2) one can
also encounter double-humped profiles, which increase reconstruction errors[12]. The
practical success of this measurement depends on the quality of the wave guide routing, as
(negative) experience on other tokamaks shows.
The impurity measurement system has a limited number of channels in the array but
just sufficient to match the parallel resolution. The measurements shown in this paper are
from mirrors in location A and B. There is also a set of mirrors higher up closer to the X-
point. Profiles from there show a very similar behaviour casting doubt on the ability of this
system to provide the perpendicular resolution. Ideally one would need a view looking into
the divertor channel from the mid plane. A 2D tomographic luminosity measurement of the
different impurity lines would need to be obtained to be able to produce the interpretation in
terms of localised impurity densities. Such a requirement is not quoted in the diagnostic
specifications [5] and will certainly be difficult to achieve. However, other diagnostic systems
will help in the interpretation. The bolometer system will have cameras specially adapted to
the divertor and the number and location suggest a best spatial resolution of 5 cm [7].
At the target very detailed measurements can be obtained. The Langmuir probes have a
pitch of 1 cm with tips of 3 mm wide. This allows an unrestricted profile measurement of IIe
and Te on the target. The same is expected for the surface temperature and power depostion
profile from the IR Thermography. The range of temperatures is adequate, but estimates of
the error bars indicate that the required accuracy cannot easily be obtained at low surface
temperature [II]. The impurity measurement in the visible part of the spectrum will quantify
the impurity influxes from the target and so support the overall picture of the impurities.
Near the X-point the flux expansion allows the application of a LIDAR system to
obtain the parameter profile upstream of the divertor [12]. The area around the X-point is also
a possible major source of line radiation. The main use of the data from the LIDAR system
would therefore be used for the analysis of this radiation but no spectroscopic system is
planned for this area. As preliminary studies show, in the near UV (200-500 nm), it will be
accessible through the slot between the target tiles of the divertor cassettes as used for the X-
point LIDAR. Other views from the equatorial port will be necessary to obtain a tomographic
analysis as a basis for the measurement of the density of the radiating species.
Not mentioned so far are the pressure gauges, which will be important to assess the
pressure in the private flux region in front of the pumping port, determining the pumping
speed. This is a strong function of detachment. The system will also comprise several Penning
type heads adapted for the observation of He II lines from which the local He concentration
can be obtained.
The overall picture is that on the target the planned diagnostics meet most of the
specifications for physics evaluation and understanding. In the divertor throat the present
design of the impurity measurement system will just meet the parallel resolution but not the
perpendicular one. A view into the divertor channel will be needed to achieve this. It remains
questionable if the local impurity content can be obtained. Required for this analysis is a high
spatial resolution 2D parameter profile. The result of reduced parameter and impurity
information is larger uncertainties in the evaluation and understanding of the physics.
Therefore the diagnostic design effort should aim to improve the coverage of the divertor
region.

77
6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

From the simulated profiles and line integrals it can be concluded that there is adequate
capability for kinetic control of the operating point of the divertor. The control requirements
of the development stages of the plasma have not been considered and need a separate study.
The main control inputs are provided by the Langmuir probes and the line integrals of the
spectroscopic arrays. The refiectometers have a supporting role in the control system due to
their robustness and they provide an essential confirmation of the density range. The target
protection can be achieved by the IR Thermography and the impurity influx from the
spectroscopic arrays
For physics understanding to a level that is judged to be necessary, the 2D profile
information in both divertor legs and near the X-point will be inadequate in the present
situation. 2D Ile and Te information in the divertor legs would have to be obtained from a
Thomson scattering arrangement as suggested and a quantitative interpretation of the
spectroscopy is only possible with high resolution primary chords as can be obtained with
imaging systems. The configuration suggests that a view from the equatorial port will also be
necessary. Near the X-point the LIDAR system should provide a single parameter profile
with doubts about the technical realisation. To achieve the desired performance further design
effort is necessary. The target measurements have adequate resolution and range for the
physics evaluation.

Acknowledgements:

This report is an account of work undertaken within the framework of the ITER EDA
Agreement. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the
Parties to the ITER Agreement, the IAEA or any agency thereof. Dissemination of the
information in this paper is governed by the applicable terms of the ITER EDA Agreement.

References:

1. A. Kukushkin, H.D. Pacher, et al. 12th PSI Conference, St. Raphael, 1996
2. A. Kukushkin, H. D. Pacher, et al. 16th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Montreal, 1996
3. G. Janeschitz, H.D.Pacher et al, 16th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Montreal, 1996
4. A. Kukushkin, H.D. Pacher, et 01., 24th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion
and Plasma Physics, Berchtesgaden, Germany, 9-13 June, 1997. PaperP3.013
5. V.S. Mukhovatov et al., these proceedings
6. A.E. Costley et ai, these proceedings
7. R. Reichle et al., these proceedings
8. A. Loarte et ai, to be publ. in Nuc\. Fusion (1997)
9. L. de Kock et ai, these proceedings
10. A. Herrmann, H. Salzmann, these proceedings
11. M. Manso et al., these proceedings
12. G.T. Razdobarin and E.E. Mukhin, these proceedings

78
INTEGRATION OF VACUUM COUPLED DIAGNOSTICS

P. H. Edmonds, R. Barnsleyl, N. Hawkes l , A. Kislyakov 2 ,

G. Vayakis 3 , C. Walker, L. de Kock, G. Janeschitz, A. E. Costley3,
T. Steinbacher, H. S. Hurzlmeier and the ITER Joint Central and Home
Teams.

ITER JCT, Garching JWS, Garching, Germany.

I JET, Abingdon, UK,
2 loffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia,
3 ITER JCT, San Diego JWS, USA,

INTRODUCTION
A special class of ITER diagnostics consists of those which extend the primary or
tokamak vacuum outside the cryostat wall. This diagnostic set consists of the x-ray crystal
spectrometers (XCS) [1], the vacuum ultra-violet spectrometers (VUV) [2], the neutral
particle analysers (NPA) [3] and the low-field-side microwave reflectometers [4]. Two XCS
systems are included, a high resolution five radial channel array system (XCS-A) designed to
view specific spectral lines for temperature and rotation velocity profiles and a survey
instrument package (XCS-S) to monitor a broad spectrum for identifying impurity
concentrations. The vacuum vessel rough-out line is also located at this port.
The diagnostics described here are combined into an integrated assembly located at the
mid plane port 7. This port is located between the neutral beam injector (NBI) port 6 and the
Remote Handling (RH) port 8. The NBI secondary enclosure will be extended to include the
port 7 diagnostic area. This secondary enclosure, required to provide tritium and
contamination containment in the event of a failure of the primary vacuum barrier, is designed
to withstand an over-pressure of 30 kPa. The present plan is to also include the port 8 RH
access cell inside this extended NBI secondary confinement boundary. Alternatively an
isolation door will be installed between ports 7 and 8. In either case, port 7 diagnostic
access and maintenance operations will be via the RH cell.
Radiation poses a number of additional problems for those diagnostics with a direct
plasma line of sight. The first problem is that the detector background count rates will be
increased by the direct streaming neutrons and gammas from the plasma. In addition to this
instantaneous effect, a second problem is the increased background count rate caused by
accumulation of local material activation from the streaming radiation. And finally there
exists the long term problem of neutron induced material damage, this effect is only serious
for components close to the plasma edge.. A preliminary study of the radiation expected
indicates that long term damage during the life of the machine should be insignificant and that
radiation levels at the detectors will be reasonable [5]. This study does not include the
reflectometer system or rough-out pump line penetrations, however they are not expected to
significantly increase the radiation levels behind the Bio shield.. Typical predicted rates at
reference detector locations are 105 to 106 cm- 2 s-I for both neutrons and gammas.

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 79
DESIGN DESCRIPTION
An overall perspective view of the port 7 diagnostic assembly is shown in Figure 1, a
detailed plan view of the front end is shown in Figure 2 and an elevation detail of the
components outside the cryostat is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 1. Oblique view of Port 7 and adjacent ports. (1) Port plug, (2) Diagnostic block, (3) Cryostat
bellows, (4) Cryostat door, (5) Bio shield, (6) RH cell, (7) NBI duct, (8) Neutral beam injector, (9) XCS-A,
(10) XCS-S, (11) VUV Spectrometer, (12) Neutral particle analysers, (13) Diagnostic instrumentation
package, (14) Vacuum extension sleeve, (15) Reflectometer waveguides and (31) wave guide bundle.

Figure 2. Detail of Port 7 plan view front end. Port plug (1) and diagnostic block (2) with penetrations for
the XCS-A array (21), the VUV (22) and the 100mm square NPA (23) sightlines. The graphite
Diffractor/reflector array (16) is attached to the end of the shielding plug (17). The shielding plug sleeve (20)
is connected to the vessel flange (19) with a large diameter bellows (18).

The diagnostics divide into two very different packages, consisting of those requiring a
collimated line of sight of the plasma, the VUV (11) and the NPA (12) or, for the XCS-A
system (9), a direct line of sight of a front end graphite mirror (16), and the microwave
reflectometry system (15, 31), which uses a series of bends in the waveguide to prevent
direct neutron streaming.
The essential design feature is the use of discrete modules, essential to maintain precise
sight lines. The ftrst module consists of the front end port plug (1) and the diagnostic block
(2), these provide shielding and contain no maintainable components. The oblique sight-
lines for the XCS-A (21) and the direct sight-lines (22) for the VUV and XCS-S through the

80
port plug and the diagnostic block are opened up to 50 rom dia. to provide additional
tolerance for differential movement, the vacuum vessel movements (thermal and
electromagnetic) relative to the cryostat wall are of order 50 rom for normal operation.
Similarly the NPA aperture (23) will provide 13 mm of additional clearance. The
construction will be for alignment at normal operating conditions, no provision will be made
for active alignment.

Figure 3. Detail of the outboard end of the Port 7 diagnostic set. (24) XCS-A Beryllium window array,
(25) Isolation gate valve for XCS-S, VUV and NPA sightIines, (4) Cryostat flange, (5) Bio shield, (26)
Isolation valves for secondary vacuum for XCS-A organ pipe array, (9) XCS-A assembly with crystal
diffractors (27) and multistrip gas chamber counters (28), (29) Primary vacuum gate valves for XCS-S, VUV
and NPA sightlines, (10) XCS-S scanning and Bragg rotor instrument, (12a) Low energy NPA, (l2b) High
energy NPA and (15) VUV spectrometer (31) Main vessel rough-out line, (30) Reflectometer waveguide
bundle.

Re-entrant into the diagnostic block and establishing the secondary vacuum seal with a
bellows (18) connected to the VV flange (19) is the shielding plug sleeve (20), this carries the
primary vacuum back to the cryostat flange area and to the isolation valves. The shielding
plug is mounted on rails inside the shielding sleeve. The sight-lines for the diagnostics are
coaxial penetrations within this plug, the xes and VUV sight-lines have a bore of 25 rom,
the NPA sight-line is a tapered rectangular cross-section hole, 100 rom square at the blanket
face and 20 rom by 10 mm at the analyser entrance slit. The viewing chords for the XeS-A
profile diagnostic will be established using graphite crystals (with about a 1% bandwidth)
mounted on the front surface of the shielding block (16). The orientation will be fixed at
assembly, no movable parts or other components requiring maintenance will be installed
close to the plasma.
The shielding sleeve is terminated at the cryostat end by an isolation valve (25) for the
xes-s, NPA and VUV sight-lines and by a thin Beryllium window (24) for the xeS-A
system.
The XeS-A spectrometer is enclosed in a diagnostic module outside the cryostat (9) and
Bio-shield (5) and connects to the cryostat secondary vacuum with an array of five pipes,
each with an individual isolation valve on the secondary vacuum (26). The diagnostic
module contains the Bragg crystals (27) and the multi-strip gaseous chamber counter array
(28). Specific wavelengths matched to the anticipated electron temperatures required to excite
the line at the tangency radii will be pre-selected. Extrinsic high Z noble gases (Ar, Kr) will
be puffed in as trace impurity sources in addition to the instrinsic impurities (Fe).
The three other diagnostics, the xes-s (10), the VUV (11) and the NPA (12), are
located inside a large secondary vacuum enclosure or diagnostic instrument package (DIP)
(13) connected to the cryostat flange by an extension sleeve (14), within this enclosure each
instrument is self-contained inside separate individual enclosures, each connected to the
primary vacuum through individual isolation valves (29). For maintenance the entire DIP is
disconnected from the tokamak and removed to a diagnostic maintenance cell.

81
 The reflectometry system consists of an number of transmit/receive antennas viewing the
plasma through an array of apertures in the port plug. The separate WIG runs (15) combine
into a bundle behind the port plug (31), the bundle exits through the cryostat door, below the
level of the shielding plug sleeve. A two bend labyrinth will prevent direct neutron
streaming.

MAINTENANCE AND REMOTE HANDLING

All components inside the cryostat boundary are Class 3 remote maintenance (no
maintenance expected) except for the large isolation gate valve (25) which is a Class 2
component. Access to the XCS-A spectrometer and to the DIP is expected to be hands on.
Isolation valves (25,29) will allow removal without breaking primary vacuum. Further
disassembly procedures require a transfer docking cask which will dock with the special
cryostat flange. The standard docking cask will dock to the rear door of this transfer cask.
Loads will be supported by rails which will be inserted into the secondary and primary
vacuum spaces as disassembly progresses. Space restrictions and the angled access require
that the vacuum vessel flange be both rotated and tilted during removal. The secondary
bellows may be required to be smaller than the standard cryostat bellows to allow removal,
this will be through a series of rotation and translation operations. All procedures inside the
cryostat wall will be fully remote handling compatible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement among
the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Co-operation in
the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA).

REFERENCES

1. R. Bamsley et ai., X-ray crystal spectrometry, in: These Proceedings.

2. N. Hawkes et aI., Core VUV impurity monitor, ibid.
3. A. Kisliyakov, NPA at ITER: physical basis and design, ibid.
4. G. Vayakis et ai., Overview of ITER refiectometry systems, ibid.
5. V. Khripunov et. ai., Radiation conditions along the NPA- and XCS- diagnostic channels in
the mid-plane port, ITER IdoMs No. NA:NAG-47-8-1-97.
6. R. Bamsley, K. D. Evans, N. J. Peacock, N. C. Hawkes, Bragg rotor spectrometer for tokamak
diagnostics, Rev. Sci. Instrument. 57(8) 2159 (1986).
7. R. Bamsley, U. Schumaker et ai., Double crystai spectroscopy at JET, Rev. Sci. Instrument.
62(4) 889-898 (1991).

82
PLASMA CONTROL CONCEPTS FOR ITER

Jonathan B. Lister

Centre de Recherches en Physique des Plasmas,

Association EURATOM-Confederation Suisse,
CRPP-EPFL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

INTRODUCTION

The ITER control specifications are in terms of goals and lirrtitations among which are:
• The ignited plasma bum must last for 1000 s;
• The fusion power must be 1500 MW ±20%;
• The shape control must reject specified disturbances, typical of Minor Disruptions and
ELMs;
• The 50 mm SOL surface must not touch the first wall for more than 1 s;
• The antenna-separatrix spacing must not vary by more than 50 mm;
• The strike points must be controlled to 100 mm;
• The nominal position must be restored as fast as possible after a disturbance;
• The plasma current must be controlled to within ±O.5 MA or ±O.5%;
• The total site power cannot exceed 650 MW;
• The total PF power cannot exceed 250 MW, with steps less than 60 MW and ramps less
than 200 MW/s.
The 21 MA nominal scenario, Figure 1, is the design basis of the ITER Plasma Control
System. This scenario has allowed the placing and dimensioning of the PF coils and will also
determine the additional heating power. However, other scenarios have subsequently been
tested against this PF design to demonstrate adequate flexibility for, among others, low
current Ohrrtic discharges for initial operation, 12 MA reversed shear steady state discharges
and 24 MA ignited discharges. The present design handles these within the assumed ranges
of the plasma parameters. Due to the cost of ITER, the PF coil current margins will be
rrtinimal and operation will be relatively close to these lirrtits.
We could generalise the control problem and design a huge feedback loop in which we
have available all the accessible measurements of the system, which we can compare with all
our nominal or reference values and then make a decision as to how to react with all of our
actuators. This defines the ultimate general feedback controller which would be a daunting
prospect to design. However, the overall Plasma Controller can certainly be simplified given
our a priori knowledge of the tokamak. Many of the control variables can be treated almost
independently with the interactions between them neglected, especially during initial plasma
operation. Since the generalisation of the problem leads to an overdose of complexity, the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et at., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 83
 End Pulse

::;
:::
::;
•.<GW··r"j
/ i
::""'. :

:::
·200 0 Tuna {a} 150200 1200 1300 1500 2000 I
~MA:
: ",,-.

·· ...
~
·. :
:
'"
'
" "
• •• •• •242Wb :
•
'"
•
'V
: :
.. - ..... . .. ~ • ..3;23;vb
OT
ref",eI ''''''''''Tt: :~ !
i: :~ 1: l...h!Q29rn-J •• : ••

::.

Figure I. The Nominal 21 MA Scenario

normal procedure is to identify sub-systems which can be treated separately and controlled
almost independently, with their interactions treated as perturbations. This is the approach
taken, for example, for Magnetic Control and to a lesser extent for Kinetic Control.
However, it should be made clear at the start that this separation is a design approach
which will ultimately require integration and testing on the basis of complete knowledge of
these interactions. The nature of the tokamak is such that most actuators are linked to most
variables, either transiently or statically, examples being:
eHeating, Density control ~ ~P' Ii ~ separatrix movement
eHeating, Density control ~ resistance ~ plasma current variation
eCurrent control ~ safety factor ~ confinement, stability ~ density, ~p
eGap control ~ q95, divertor ~ density control, confinement.

ITER Facility and Plasma Control Concepts (Schematic)

Control and o.tI AcqultJUon S)'Item (CODAC) HTSdtta

[ SupeNlsory C.ontrol Sy,"m

. (Facility Executive) .
I

Figure 2. General Overview of the ITER Plasma Control System

At present Magnetic Control of ITER is taken for the purposes of controller design as a
separable and linearisable part of the system, which has only minimal physics uncertainties

84
and allows us to demonstrate the existence of a control solution which can be tested on a full
non-linear evolutionary code. Due to this fact, Magnetic Control is the most advanced part of
the ITER Plasma Control System. Kinetic Control is considered to be a separable and non-
linear part of the system with large uncertainties in the model, for which we can only
demonstrate the existence of solutions within the assumptions of the models used. At a third
level, we consider all the systems as fully non-linear and fully coupled to demonstrate that the
interactions between the systems which are neglected in the controller design do not affect the
overall performance. Today, the interactions between Kinetic and Magnetic Control are rarely
considered in the feedback controllers, with the exception of the pre-programming of the
proposed scenario.
We can imagine a mixture of linear controllers, the most frequently encountered in
current tokamaks, non-linear controllers such as On-Off control or Neural Networks, "fuzzy-
logic" controllers or expert system rule-based controllers. Each tool should be used where it
is most suitable and all may find a role to play.
The overall ITER control layout illustrated in Figure 2 shows the planned actuators.

INTEGRATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

The Plasma Control will be fully integrated into an ITER CODAC system. The actual
implementation is not yet of concern to us. Some features have already been specified, such
as the independence of Plasma Control and Machine Safety and the existence of a Fusion
Power Shutdown System. However, a certain number of CODAC features will be have to be
specified to satisfy the requirements for Plasma Control.
Since Plasma Control will certainly rely on discrete-time controllers, the CODAC will
have to provide data at accurately sampled and regular intervals; delays in transmission must
be minimal and constant from sample to sample. For the fastest feedback loops, probably in
the Magnetic Control System, a privileged link between the data source and the Magnetic
Controller will be required. For the slower feedback loops, this requirement could be relaxed.
Inactive x-point - - - - - - L -;:=::::::::~-""'::::'.J-- tOO mm min. SOL-
wall vacuum gap,
exluding limiter
50 mm SOL - - - - I - H I and dlverto. bailie
envelope regions

±SO mm separatrix
deviation from ref.
(ICH antenna region)

-2

____- - t - - ±tOO mm sepa.atrlx

·4 deviation from ref.
(dlvertor channels)

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12m
Figure 3. The shape control requirements
Plasma Control will rely for a minimum level of control on a subset of the total
diagnostics, for which the diagnostic sensors may be duplicated or even triplicated.
However, for some diagnostics this may not be possible. In order not to exclude these
diagnostics from the optimisation role of the Plasma Control System, the diagnostic
information will have to be validated and their validation assessment transmitted to the
different feedback controllers. These controllers will then contain the intelligence to reject or
accept the relevant information. This feature could also treat temporarily malfunctioning
sensors.

85
MAGNETIC CONTROL OF ITER PLASMAS

The design requirements of the Magnetic Control have been simply stated. Figure 3
shows the steady state plasma shape control specifications which are the static variation of the
separatrix, especially in the divertor region, for different plasma currents, ~p and Ii.
Figure 4 shows the PF design and Figure 5 illustrates the evolution of the plasma separatrix
during the start-up of the scenario. These fix the current capability of the PF coils. Figure 6
shows how well these goals are achieved by the current PF design.
Having fixed the coil currents, the voltage limits on the PF coils must be chosen with the
criterion of minimising cost while guaranteeing controllability. The design methodology of
the ITER Poloidal Field Control System is quite advanced. Various linear and non-linear
models of the plasma+vessel+coils+power-supplies system have been developed and tested.
One of them, the CREATE-L linearised model, has been rigourously tested against TCV
experiments in limited and diverted plasmas [1,2]. The results of linearised models also agree
well with full TSC simulations.
ITeR . eoe tieR 0 Ramp - up
PFl PF2
I •
cs

Limiter
E
N ,

.,

." PF7
." L.....~~_~~~~~......=.;=
o • 10 U U ,. 4 S • 1 I- • 10 It "

R.m R,m

Figure 4. PF Design Configuration Figure 5. The controlled shape evolution

We assume that the uncertainties in the Magnetics Control models for ITER are small.
ITER Magnetic Control does not really present any serious differences with respect to
existing tokamaks, expect for four points:
• Minimising costs means minimising the power, voltage and current margins for
control;
• Unprecedented power flow to the first wall;
• Superconducting PF magnets;
• Massive passive structure with diagnostics far from the plasma.
On this basis, the design of complete Magnetic Controllers has demonstrated the
existence of a solution to the Magnetic Control problem given fixed limits to the coil voltages,
coil currents and total PF power. Different approaches to the design of the multi variable
Magnetic Controller have been studied, using low order PID controllers typical of current
tokamaks as well as higher order LQG controllers and H~ controllers. The implementations
of all these controllers are identical in structure and expressable as a recursive evolution at
discrete time steps of the general form:
Xn+l =A Xn + B Errorn ; Output. =C Xn + D Error.
The different design methods lead to different matrices A,B,C,D and different internal
state vectors X. Comparative studies have shown that all methods can provide an adequate

86
 6
5
." ,' .....
4
3
2

o
·1
·2
·3
6 7 8 9m
-4
-5 MiniRlJm SOL-wall vacuum gap
(above midplane): 100 mm
-6 ..........~~~~~-'
5 6 7 8 9 10 11m
20 3D 40 eo
TIme INC'
Figure 6. The static separatrix control achievable
Figure 8. Evolution of burning plasma parameters
performance. What distinguishes them is their "robustness" or tolerance to badly known parts
of the model and this is subject to current design work. They have been adapted to minimise
the required total PF coil power, the high frequency coil current variations when controlling
ELMs as well as minimising the separatrix gap variations. A baseline controller has been
designed using the H_ approach based on the CREATE-L linearised model of the
Plasma+Vessel+Coils system and the controller was tested on the TSC code. Figure 7 shows
the response of the separatrix gaps, the coil voltages and currents and the total PF power
during the rejection by the controller of a disturbance representative of a minor disruption,
= =
defined by a rapid drop of: ~~p -0.2 and Mi -0.1. The nominal requirements discussed
above are all met during the rejection of this disturbance.
In this simulation, the input to the controller was the value of the separatrix-wall gap.
Although the diagnostics on which Magnetic Control will be based will be dominantly
magnetic, this does not mean the exclusive use of magnetic information. Reflectometry is
being studied as an additional source of information for the control of the magnetic separatrix.
Infra-red imaging of the divertor strike points will give information on the footprint of the
divertor on the plates. Integration of information is available from various sources is possible
and especially if we have knowledge of the expected errors in the signals, typically as a
function of frequency, we can obtain an increase in precision.
Several other questions concerning Magnetic Control should be mentioned. Firstly,
there is the requirement of providing a poloidal stray field configuration for plasma
breakdown. Although the coil currents can provide the required breakdown structure,
obtaining it is a question of pre-programming and feedback control given errors and noise on
the measurements. Secondly, There is a requirement that the n>O poloidal error fields should
be <10.5
Error field compensation coils are designed to correct the likely error fields, but the
control of the currents in these coils is still an open issue. Pre-programming the error currents
may not be adequate, in which case a method of determining the amplitude and phase of the
error field correction field will have to be developed and tested.
The estimation of the AC losses in the superconductors during control actions and the
plasma noise are important issues. If the AC losses are severe, then the extended pulse length
for certain scenarios could be limited. If the losses could be reduced, then the cost of the
superconductor refrigeration plant could be reduced. However, since the scenario itself
provides a significant part of these losses during a cycle, the room for improvement is
limited. The variations in the controlled gaps and the feedback power required also depends
on the sensor noise which is dominated by plasma noise. Estimating this noise is not simple
for operational tokamaks and predicting it for a buming ITER plasma requires courage. This
issue will remain open until operation and all we can reasonably do now is to show that the
maximum tolerable noise is not too low to be credible.

87
 TSC(CRPP) - Minor Disruption at SOB - CREATE Controller

0.15

E
i . 01

~ 0.05

-2~~------+-------r------+------~--__~
0.8
I
I
O.S I
~
0.4
"
I' --
I "
0.2 _ . -"'"':>-.:
-,-·-r·-·- _ _ _ Iplasma[MAJ
o --
- --- - - - - - - - - - - - -
-O.2~-:::7S=0-------::7::::85:-------=77=0-------::7::::75:------=78=0----....J
timers]

Figure 7. Rejection of a Minor Disruption

KINETIC CONTROL OF ITER PLASMAS

Kinetic control of the plasma is much less advanced than Magnetic Control, since the
main EDA design requirement is simply to have adequate heating to achieve ignition and this
depends mostly on the assumptions on the confinement time. It is generally assumed that
Kinetic Control is of lesser importance to the design. The uncertainties in Kinetic Control are
in the properties of the confinement and impurity models rather than in the details of the
control dynamics. There are two main new problems of interest for Kinetic Control in ITER.
Firstly we have the problem of bum control, as yet unverified in a tokamak. This
problem is interesting from a control point of view since the plasma temperature will be
locally unstable at the ignition boundary if the temperature dependence of the confinement
time is not sufficiently strong, in which case ignition would be doubtful. The temperature will
saturate where d(nDnT<crv»/dTj + d(Losses)/dTj + d(Losses)/dTe - 0, somewhere midway
between the low and high temperature ignition points. This point can be modelled quite
simply in 2-D, I-D or O-D codes, but the results will always be dependent on the model,
since the system is intrinsically non-linear. We return to an example of this later.
Secondly, the control of the divertor flame will be extremely sensitive, requiring a
balance between local impurity radiation, local heat conduction, back-flow of the impurities
into the main chamber, interaction between the residual heat-flow to the divertor plate with the
plasma facing components. This is a highly coupled system for which the modelling is still
somewhat uncertain and the object of intensive development.
Control of the plasma density in ITER has been simulated, including the gas-fuelling.
There was no problem in obtaining satisfactory density control until the length of the gas-feed
piping was included, which is significant on ITER for size and routing reasons. Inserting the
delay due to the fuelling pipe removed stable operation of the fuelling feedback loop and to
regain control a more advanced controller will be needed which models not only the plasma

88
response, but also the fuelling delay, adding some form of phase advance to the controller
response. This is analagous to the effect of Power Supply delay in the magnetic control of
small tokamaks.
As mentioned, the burn temperature evolution is unstable once the ignition boundary is
crossed and the additional heating is turned off. At this time we lose the "dominant" actuator
for controlling the temperature, namely the auxiliary heating. During the subsequent
temperature excursion, the fusion power could increase significantly, depending on the
ignition temperature for the given confinement time and impurity level.
Recent results [3] have demonstrated the ability of non-linear controllers based on Neural
Networks for manipulating the plasma conditions during the burn to displace the working
point. The dependence of confinement on the plasma conditions is included and the modelling
includes the limited range of three actuators, namely the refuelling rate, the Helium impurity
injection rate and the additional power. Given these limits and a O-D model of the plasma, the
non-linear controller uses these actuators to make changes to the plasma which do not simply
drift in the direction of the desired change. In order to decrease the density and increase the
temperature, for example, the density can be reduced to increase the temperature by a large
amount, after which an increase in density can be achieved within the available power range
and limiting the fusion power excursion. Figure 8 illustrates this.
The study of kinetic control algorithms will also have to treat the discrete nature of the
power supplies themselves and not assume linear "heating/fuelling actuators".

COMBINED CONTROL OF ITER PLASMAS

Although we have treated the Magnetic Control and Kinetic Control as separate, they are
clearly linked through ~p and Ii which define the equilibrium. A couple of examples illustrate
this.
The antenna-separatrix spacing depends on ~p and defines the coupled power for ICH
or LHH. A sudden loss of ~p requires an increase in additional heating to recover it but at the
same time provokes a loss of coupled power. This system is thermally unstable and requires
feedback, as already performed on existing experiments.
We can demonstrate that the Magnetic Control is possible using the ~p drop as a
disturbance. We can demonstrate that the Kinetic Control is possible using the antenna
resistance as a control parameter. However, when we combine the Magnetic and Kinetic
Control into a single system, we find constraints on the controller dynamics which are not
apparent in either separately. If we do not have derivative gain on the magnetic control of the
antenna gap, then there is no stable solution to the ~p instability. Studying the Magnetic
Control of the antenna gap does not tell us this, nor does studying the Kinetic Control of ~p.
Another practical linking of Kinetic and Magnetic Control is the limitation of the total site
power which is not necessarily split between the different controllers in the same way
throughout the discharge. The controllers will have to be aware of each others power
requirements in order to respect the site limit, to reduce the site requirement and to optimise
their control within these limits. We must be careful that a surge in the required additional
heating power to regain ~p is not simultaneous with a surge in the PF power to compensate
the separatrix movement, for example.

SUPERVISOR ROLES AND CURRENT IMPLEMENTATION

A Supervisor could aid the present shot-to-shot discharge optimisation done by the
operational physicists. We will have to build into the control of ITER a set of rules for
obtaining and maintaining ignition given varying conditions of the tokamak. Although we
will define the scenario of a discharge with as much detail and precision as possible before its

89
execution, the optimisation of the discharge could be assisted by the Supervisor. During
initial operation, the supervisor would perform only simple tasks but its role would then
expand during operation to solve particular problems encountered or to automate the regular
decisions of human operators. Many methods could be envisaged to perform this real-time
optimisation and they could be tested against existing models.
An example is the replacement of present operator interventions and shot by shot
decisions such as "the XYZ coil saturated in the last discharge - if we change the shape here
and here a bit, it will come off saturation and we will get essentially the same shape for our
requirements". This intelligence could be embedded in the PFCS Supervisor, since at some
points in the discharge, the PF coil currents may be close to their limits. Although
simulations have shown that the PF control does not lose its stability during current saturation
of one or more PF coils, the loss of precise shape control should not be left to chance.
Alternative schemes for switching to a different PF controller once a coil has saturated are
being considered.
There have already been significant advances in the direction of autonomous control
during tokamak discharges. ASDEX-UG control has achieved an impressive degree of
autonomy in some auxiliary heated discharges during which a high-recycling H-mode
dropped back into a high-recycling L-mode. The feedback controlled radiated power fraction
was immediately decreased by the Supervisor and ramped back to its nominal value once the
H-mode was re-established, illustrated in Figure 9 [4].
dr·
HAH --- - -
HAL
H
L
OH 1-4-- - ; . - - - t - - - - - - - - , ---+1
1.0
0.6

0.2 F--7---c------'-----=~--'----....l..I
8X10'"/S

1.2

1.0

1.0

1.0 1.5 2 .0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Time I (5)
Figure 9. Supervisor autonomy during an ASDEX-UG discharge

The Supervisor could be responsible for maintaining the plasma operation in a safe
=
region, particularly in view of disruptions at high ~N or close to q95 3 or close to the density
limit. To do this, the Supervisor needs a model of the dangerous regions and a model of how
to "back off' from them safely. An example well known from DID-D is the high-~, high
density, high elongation, low-q operation. The zone with maximum performance is in an
acute region of operational space and backing away from any single limit is likely to
exacerbate another limit. DID-D have already started automating this for a single parameter,
for which "backing off' is well defined, namely the approach to the high-~ limit. In this work
[5], a parametrisation of the high-~ limit was obtained from a Neural Network description of
the disruption boundary based on experimental data. This limit was then imposed on
subsequent discharges to avoid crossing it and non-disruptive operation close to the limit was
obtained. Interestingly, this Neural Network description of the high-~ limit was more precise

90
than the "rule of thumb" modified Troyon limit PN < 4Ii Ip1aB. This provides an excellent
example of a posteriori control demonstrating advantages over a priori model control. The
DIII-D Supervisor was even able to adapt to Negative Central Shear discharges once they had
been included into its database.
An example of control using available observable quantities rather than the quantities
which are intended to be controlled is provided by Tore Supra, in which the internal
inductance and plasma current were separately controlled in a current profile feedback loop
using the parallel wave spectrum and total Lower Hybrid power as actuator inputs [6]. In this
way, the safety factor on axis was also indirectly controlled without being measured directly.
In general, to establish the use of advanced Supervisors with intelligent control, we
require simultaneous control over all actuators on the basis of more complete diagnostic
information and the decisions will have to be based on more accurated models relating the
actuators to the controlled variables.

CONTROL FOR OPTIMISATION

The Supervisor will have to execute particularly simple sub-tasks, some of which have
already been mentioned, such as avoiding the PN limit. avoiding current saturation. estimating
the accumulated AC losses, interruption of the pre-programmed scenario in particular
situations. However, such a level of intelligence is already within sight. A more adventurous
challenge for ITER would be the optimisation of the use of the available actuators to obtain
the best discharge conditions. At present. this level of intelligence is the realm of the
"physicist in charge", who interprets the available data and reacts to it from discharge to
discharge to obtain his optimum. The reduced number of ITER discharges and the length of
the nominal discharge suggest that the Supervisor might also contain an element of
optimisation. This will have to be done on the basis of the full diagnostic information
available. plus an understanding of the underlying trend of the device. Many techniques are
available for this type of optimisation, but have not been applied to a tokamak plasma.
Although the basic diagnostics will be capable of providing feedback control of the basic
plasma parameters. the use of more diagnostic information will be required for optimisation.
For this reason. advanced diagnostics are more linked to this Supervisor function than to the
lower feedback loops. Maintaining a 10'000 second reversed shear burning plasma discharge
does not sound too easy today and it would be negligent to assume that this will be achieved
with some nice pre-programming and a few feedback loops.

R&D REQUIREMENTS FOR PLASMA CONTROL

Work on intelligent control with an increasing degree of autonomy has already started on
several tokamaks. of which A-UG and DIII-D are the most advanced. Work has progressed
on several types of decision making processes and this work will have to continue over the
construction period so that the overall framework of ITER Plasma Control becomes clear.
The methodology used for designing the ITER plasma current. position and shape
controllers should be demonstrated experimentally in tokamaks with shaped plasma cross-
sections and their operational reliability should also be demonstrated.
Methods for diagnosing the error field and correcting them using the plasma response to
variations of the error field should be proposed and tested experimentally in large tokamaks.
since this represents one of the most serious unknowns for ITER operation.
Finally. a testbed for integrated modelling has to be developed. Each part of the ITER
control problem will have its separately identified codes and combining them all
approximately will be a hazardous step which could lead to a simulator which does not treat
any of the issues correctly. On the other hand, combining them in all their detail could lead to
a code so heavy that it can no longer be used for scoping studies. This issue will require care
and attention during the coming years to provide the right tools.

91
 An alternative approach is to rely pn identified models, derived from the observed
behaviour of the plasma rather than the a priori modelled assumptions of the plasma. Work
has started on this for Magnetic Control on TCV with encouraging results [7]. This approach
gives useable results for an unstable Multiple Input Multiple Output system for Magnetics
Control and ought to be extendable to the input-output relationships of all the actuators. This
technique also allows on-line identification, within limits, and could be extended to adaptive
control during a discharge, due to the very long ITER pulses. Research on present tokamaks
could lead to increased confidence in this approach.

CONCLUSIONS

This overview paper has skimmed over a wide range of issues related to the control of
ITER plasmas. Although operation of the ITER project will require extensive developmental
work to achieve the degree of control required, there is no indication that any of the identified
problems will present overwhelming difficulties compared with the operation of present
tokamaks. However, the precision of control required and the degree of automation of the
final ITER plasma control system will present a challenge which is somewhat greater than for
present tokamaks. In order to operate ITER optimally, integrated use of a large amount of
diagnostic information will be necessary, evaluated and interpreted automatically. This will
challenge both the diagnostics themselves and their supporting interpretation codes. The
intervening years will provide us with the opportunity to implement and evaluate most of the
new features required for ITER on existing tokamaks, with the exception of the control of an
ignited plasma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The control concepts for ITER are currently being developed by a large number of
people, whose often unpublished work has been extensively plagiarized in this paper, not
always with their explicit agreement. My apologies are due to those who feel misrepresented.
Special recognition should be given to contributions by particular individuals, namely Lello
Albanese, Pepe Ambrosino, Marco Ariola, Dominique Boucher, Dick Bulmer, Alan Costley,
Ber de Kock, Sergei Gerasimov, Yuri Gribov, Otto Gruber, Dave Humphreys, Chuck
Kessel, Jim Leuer, Brian Lloyd, Vitus Mertens, Yuri Mitrishkin, Pier Luigi Mondino,
Alfredo Portone, Gerhard Raupp, Peter Stott, Wolfgang Treutterer, Fabio Villone, Parag
Vyas, Mike Walker, David Ward, John Wesley, Izuru Yonekawa. This work was partly
funded by the Fonds national suisse de la recherche scientifique.

REFERENCES

1. F. Villone et aI., "Comparison of the CREATE-L plasma response model with TCV
limited discharges", LRP 569/97, accepted for publication in Nuclear Fusion
2. P. Vyas et aI., "The separatrbc response of diverted TCV plasmas compared to the
CREATE-L model", LRP 583/97
3. J. Vitela and J. Martinell, "Stabilization of bum conditions in a thermonuclear reactor
using artificial neural networks", submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
4. P. Franzen et aI., "Online regime identification for the Discharge Control System at
ASDEX Upgrade", 23rd EPS Conf. Contr. Fusion and Plasma Physics, Kiev, Vol 20C
(1996) 87
5. D. Wroblewski et al., "Tokamak disruption alarm based on a neural network model of the
high-{3limif', Nuclear Fusion, 37 (1997) 725
6. T. Wijnands et aI., "Feedback control of the current profile in Tore Supra", Nuclear
Fusion, 37 (1997) 777
7. A.c. Coutlis et aI., J.B. Lister et al., CDC Conference 1997, LRP 584/97

92
IGNITION BURN CONTROL AND DIAGNOSTICS IN ITER

Osamu Mitarail and Katsunori Muraoka2

1 Department of EE, Kyushu Tokai University, Kumamoto, Japan

2 Department of Energy Conversion, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, Kasuga,
Fukuoka, Japan

INTRODUCTION

As design of control algorithms and diagnostic systems for an ignited

operation has been a challenging task in the ITER project,l it is quite important at
the present ITER design stage to show what kind of control laws is applied and
how diagnostic system is incorporated in control system for the ignition burn
control.
In this study, we analyze the fusion burn rise-up, steady state and fusion
burn shutdown phases using zero-dimensional power balance equations with
the ITER93HP scaling, and consider the control algorithm including the
diagnostic systems to be used in ITER. We have found a unified feedback control
law applicable to all burn phases, using the external heating power and the
fueling rate which are based on the fusion power and the H-mode power
threshold. Discussions are given for areas of further studies.

FEEDBACK CONTROL LAW IN IGNITED OPERATION

In these analyses, we assume the plasma to fill the complete volume of the
ITER configuration with the assumed profiles of the temperatures, density and
impurities including helium ash, where central values of these quantities are
calculated using the zero-dimensional power balance equation. In this situation,
the ignited operation is controlled by the external heating power and fueling rate.
The external heating power is determined by the requirement of yielding a
specified fusion power as
(1)

where PEXTO = 100 MW, Gpf=20, Pf is the actual fusion power, and PfOis the target
value of the fusion power. The fueling rate is assumed to be given similarly as
(2)

with SDTO = 1x10 l9 m -3 / sand GSDT = 25.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New Yark, 1998 93
 In addition, we want the operating regime of the plasma in all three bum
phases to be in the H-mode. For the purpose of this criterion, we use an equation
for the H-mode power threshold proposed by Takizuka,2 MHL = Ph,netVo 106 /0.45
n200.75BtR2. Here MHL is the H-mode indicator (MHL>1 for the H-mode), n20 is
the line averaged density in the unit of 1020 m -3, Bt is the toroidal field, R is the
major radius, Ph.net is the net heating power density given by Ph,net =
PEXT(HL)/Vo+ Poh+ P a - {Pb+ Ps}'P oh is the Ohmic heating power'Pa is the alpha
heating power, P b is the bremsstrahlung loss, Ps is the synchrotron radiation loss,
and V 0 is the plasma volume. No hysteresis effect is assumed in the H-mode
power threshold. Rewriting this relation yields the necessary heating power for
the H-mode operation as

In the subsequent analyses, we take the larger value in the two external
heating powers given by Eqs. (1) and (3),

(4)

in order to satisfy the requirements of yielding a specified fusion power while

keeping the operating regime in the H-mode. It is to be noted that the fusion
power is also influenced by the fueling rate as given in Eq.(2).
Other constraints for the plasma operations are as follows: the energy
confinement time is decide by the ITER93HP scaling with confinement factor of
'YHH' the helium ash confinement time to the energy confinement time ratio is
'ta */'tE = 10, and the impurity is mostly Be and its fraction nBe/ne =2 %.

CALCULATED RESULTS ON IGNITION ACCESS, STEADY STATE, AND

SHUTDOWN PHASE

Ignition Access Phase

The temporal evolution of the plasma parameters and related quantities

5~----------------------.

3 .........

Fig. 1 Ignition access controlled by PEXT(HL) and 5DT(Pf)

94
during ignition access is shown in Fig. 1 for the confinement factor of YHH =1.
Here the Ohmic plasma has been established at t = asec and the heating power is
applied at 5 sec, after which the fusion power P fo is specified to increase linearly
to 1.5 GW in 50 sec and to be constant after 55 sec. The heating power of - 50 MW
is gradually reduced to zero, which is adjusted automatically to keep the H-mode
with a value above M HC 1.05. As can been seen from the figure, a smooth
transition has been realized from the initial Ohmic phase to the fully ignited
phase with a fusion power of 1.5 GW.
Effects of the confinement degradation, YHH ~ 1, have been studied for
attaining the specified fusion power. For YHH ~ 0.8, the plasma parameters begin
to oscillate after 80 sec, which is suppressed by application of the heating power
controlled by max{PEXT(HL),PEXT(Pf)} and SoT(Pf)' This control is possible down
to YHH - 0.72.

Steady State Bum Phase

Once a steady state is established, it is maintained unless some changes

occur in the plasma confinement. We consider two cases of the sudden change,
namely an increase or a decrease in the confinement factor. When the
confinement factor suddenly increases from YHH =1 to 1.8, the heating power and
fueling are automatically switched off during the fusion power surge. After that
MHL tends to decrease below 1, then the heating power is increased to keep the
H-mode and reaches 100 MW. H-L-H transitions take place at 100 MW, and the
H-mode with YHH =1.0 is assumed to come back, and then 1.5 GW fusion power
is recovered after transition to the H-mode. Thus we have found that the control
by max{PEXT(HL),PEXT(Pf)} and SDT(Pf) works properly for the sudden increase in
the confinement factor.
When the confinement factor suddenly decreases from YHH= 1 to 0.8, the
heating power and fueling are both increased to maintain the fusion power at the
constant level. The plasma is mainly controlled by PEXT(Pf)' but controlled by
PEXT(HL) for the short time to maintain the H-mode. Therefore, a set of control
law of ma'X{PEXT(HL), PEXT(Pf)) and SoT(Pf) can manage the sub ignited operation.

Fusion Power Shutdown Phase

It is very difficult to decrease the fusion power linearly in 100 sec without
the H-mode. We have applied the same control law of max{PEXT(HL), PExr(Pf))
and SoT(Pf) in this situation. As the heating power by the H-mode power
threshold is always larger than that by the fusion power during the shutdown
phase, the shutdown process is determined by the H-mode power threshold. The
analysis shows that the fueling is decreased by the feedback control and the
heating power is increased to maintain the H-mode and is limited by the
available heating power of 100 MW. While the H-mode becomes marginal at
this limit in the heating power and H-L-H transitions sometimes take place, the
fusion power is linearly decreased to the negligible level as required.

DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM FOR IGNITION CONTROL

In order to execute the control algorithm proposed here, we have to

measure the fusion power Pf to estimate Eqs. (1) and (2), and all the parameters
in Eq.(3) and the ITER93HP scaling. These quantities are analyzed, on real time,
to yield the necessary feedback values of the external heating power of

95
max{PE)(T(HL),PEXT(Pf)} and fueling rate SDT(Pf)' This situation is schematically
shown in Fig. 2.
The next stage of the necessary measurements is to demonstrate that
plasma conditions are in fact fulfilled, namely measurements of such values as
the enhancement factor 'YHH over the ITER93HP scaling, the alpha particle
density, the H-mode indicator MHL and profiles of various values.
The ultimate goal of this study is to give requirements for each
measurement for this kind of control purposes, namely the temporal and spatial
resolutions and its accuracy. As the necessary temporal resolutions can be
obtained by the response time of the plasma and feedback systems, the numerical
model employed here may need more improvements. The necessary accuracy
may also be given by the sensitivity analysis in the foregoing calculations. 1
This ignition burn control should be incorporated into a more general
control algorithm for ITER, such as plasma initiation, position and profile
controls, and a disruption avoidance.

maxi PEX"J(HL). PEX"J(Ptl}

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of diagnostic and control systems for D-T ignited operations in ITER

CONCLUSION

We have found a unified feedback control law, expressed by a set of

max{PE)(T(HL), PEXT(Pf)} and SoT(Pf), applicable to all bum phases in ignited or
subignited ITER operations, which is based on the H-mode power threshold and
the fusion power. Following this law, the diagnostic system supplies feedback
values for the external heating power and fueling rate. Diagnostic systems in
ITER should be designed based on such algorithm as proposed here.

REFERENCES

1. O. Mitarai and K. Muraoka, Ignition Analyses for Bum Control and

Diagnostics Developments in ITER, in press in Nucl. Fusion (1997).
2. T. Takizuka et al., Threshold Power and Energy Confinement for ITER, 16th
IAEA Fusion Energy Conference (Montreal Canada 7-11 October 1996) IAEA-
CN-64/FP-20

96
OVERVIEW OF THE ITER REFLECTOMETRY DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS

G. Vayakis/ T. Ando/ N. Bretz,3 L. deKock,2 A.1.H. Donne,4 E.1. Doyle,5

6 . 2 7 g 9 10
J.Irby, E. Martm, M. Manso, A. Mase, J. Sanchez, V.A. Vershkov,
D. Wagner,ll C.I. Walker,2 and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home
Teams

lITER Joint Central Team, San Diego JWS, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road,
La Jolla CA 92037, USA
2ITER Joint Central Team, Garching JWS, Germany
3Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton NJ, USA
4FOM, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
5UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
6MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Cambridge MA, USA
7Associa~ao EURATOM/IST, Lisboa, Portugal
8Plasma Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Japan
9Association EURATOM/CIEMAT, Madrid, Spain
lOKurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow, Russia.
11Institut fur Plasmaforschung, Stuttgart, Germany

INTRODUCTION

Reflectometry exploits the phase shift of electromagnetic waves as they propagate

through the plasma. The waves reflect at the cutoff layer defined by the region where the
refractive index becomes zero. Reflectometry profile measurements are based on
measuring the phase shift or group delay to this layer as a function of frequency. In a
simple I-D picture, the density profile is then recovered by an inversion from the (group
delay, frequency) space to the (cutoff frequency, radius) space. In O-mode this involves a
simple Abel inversion procedure.
Measurements of density fluctuations can be made by holding the frequency
constant, and observing the time evolution of the reflected signal. However, the inversion
to obtain the density fluctuation level is not straightforward except for long wavelength,
low amplitude modes for which simple I-D theory can be adequate.
The basic physics of the technique with respect to profile measurement is well
established and has been confirmed by many experiments. l A wide range of appropriate
hardware exists commercially and measurement systems can be readily designed and built.
However it is only recently that reflectometry has been deployed extensively, and it is
developing into the instrument of choice for the measurement of edge profiles with

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 97
Table 1: Measurements for which reflectometry is to play the primary role in the control
hierarchy.

Measurement Category

Plasma Shape and Position (Long pulse) Ib

Divertor Density Ib
Density Profile (Edge) Ib
ELMs (&1.) Ib
Density fluctuations 2

simultaneous high spatial resolution «-1 cm) and time resolution «-1 ms). This is due to
the recent development and application of strategies to avoid or minimise the effect of
density fluctuations on the measurement.
For its implementation on ITER, there are significant problems to overcome: access
to the plasma through the plasma facing components, access to the front end for installation
and maintenance, calibration to provide immunity to machine movements during the long
pulses, long and unwieldy transmission lines and relatively ambitious frequency ranges. It
turns out that the most critical problem is that the access to the plasma is restricted to an
extreme degree, due to the stringent thermal and mechanical requirements on the first wall
and neutron shield structures.
The reflectometry systems required for the ITER device have been identified,2 and
their principal characteristics have been established} There is a reflectometer to measure
plasma profiles and transient events in the main chamber, a reflectometer to supplement the
magnetics for position control, and a reflectometer system to measure profiles in the
divertor legs. Engineering integration of all the systems is in progress. Details on these
studies are reported in other papers at this conference. 4-8
The first part of this paper is a summary of the role that reflectometry is expected to
play on ITER, and the generic constraints imposed by a reactor grade device on the
implementation of the system designs. A brief report of process of optimisation of the front
end is given for each system. Despite the implementation difficulties, it appears that the
ITER measurement requirements can be largely met, and that reflectometry will make a
substantial contribution to machine operation, plasma control and to the physics
understanding of ITER plasmas.

THE ROLE OF REFLECTOMETRY ON ITER

One way of prioritising measurements on ITER is by their likely contribution to the

control of the machine. This divides measurements, and by association diagnostics,9 into
three types: basic machine control (la), that is, measurements essential to control any
plasma pulse; advanced control (lb), that is, measurements that are integrated in the control
loop for specific programs, or to access particular regions of operating space; finally,
measurements for performance evaluation and physics studies (2). Reflectometry is
expected to be the main diagnostic for a substantial number of measurements in the (1 b)
category (Table 1). In addition, it is expected to provide supplementary information for a
great number of other measurements, such as plasma-wall gaps (la), MHD modes
(moving and locked, Ib), TABs (lb), the core density profile (lb), and, possibly divertor
plate erosion and flame front location.
The desired measurement capability for each plasma region has been based on the
target measurement requirements,2 and is summarised in reference 3. In general, it appears

98
Table 2: List of the measurement functions of the main reflectometer system

Measurement Region of Unique aspects of Minimum Category

interest refiectometry required
measurement launch set

Density profile All continuous suborns & sub- LFSO Ib

em edge/ gradient region
density profiles
continuous suborns core
profiles HFSX-l
Locked modes Core Island size, ne amplitude LFSO, Ib
/Gradient HFSX-I
ELMs Gradient/ Unambiguous &le LFSO,X-u Ib
Edge
lnboard~uflJoard HFSO 2
comparisons
MHDmodes Core Radial structure LFSO Ib
/Gradient HFSX-I
Sawteeth Core LFSO Ib
/Gradient HFSX-I
Disruption Precursors All LFSO,X-u Ib
HFSX-I
Fishbones, TAEs Core radial structure LFSO, 2
HFSX-I
Density fluctuations All LFSO,X-u 2
HFSX-I

possible to meet the measurement requirements for all plasma regions, with the possible
exception of the 3 mm density resolution target in the divertor region. This prediction will
have to be revisited when more experimental and modeling results from the divertor area
become available.

IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS

The constraints imposed on the reflectometry systems by the machine are generic in
nature, although the solutions vary for each system. Starting from the front end they are:
Access through the first wall: Two factors restrict the aperture size that can be
provided for antenna access to the plasma: the neutron leakage through the ftrst wall and
shield, which must be minimised to ensure hands-on access as close to the machine as
possible, and the additional heat loads imposed on the ftrst wall by the presence of the
aperture. The latter requirement is particularly important in the divertor area.
Installation and maintenance: Components that require maintenance have to be
installed in a way compatible with the standard remote handling requirements and
equipment of the area of installation.
Ability to withstand neutron and EM radiation heat loads: The radiative load on
parts of the ftrst wall can reach (locally) 0.5 MWI m2 . For the divertor this ftgure can be an
order of magnitude higher. The neutron ftrst wall loading is -15 W/cc for stainless steel.
Thus, careful analysis of the cooling requirements must be performed for all the front end
components. It appears however that reflectometry front ends can be made sufftciently
robust, by using suitable materials such as refractory metals and CFCs.lO
Transmission through the ftrst vacuum boundary: The requirements on the pressure
handling capability, temperature range and remote handling of the ftrst window are not
very different from the present generation of D-T capable machines. However, the window

99
 is usually in a restricted and relatively inaccessible region. Thus, the consequences of
window failure on operating time will be severe, so the reliability requirements are
commensurate.
Movement compensation: The transitions between operating states, and thermal
effects during the plasma pulse, result in relatively large movements (- cm) between
machine components (blanket, vacuum vessel, bioshield). Thermal movements are
primarily in the radial and vertical directions. The vacuum vessel, on the other hand moves
toroidally during the pulse because of the interaction between the TF and PF coils. These
movements have to be taken up in the transmission line, without disturbing the
measurement. In general this is accomplished in two ways: by allowing the waveguides to
bend in a suitably small deflection, an approach adopted by necessity for the high field side
waveguides for ITER, or by providing some sort of swivel arrangement,3 an approach used
in the low field side and divertor systems.
Calibration: One consequence of the machine movements during the pulse is that
reference time delays for the reflectometers have to be provided in real time. This is in
contrast to the requirements on existing reflectometers, although such schemes are not
unknown. For the main reflectometer, a grating/mirror near the front end similar to that
presented in ref. 11 may be suitable. For the divertor and high field side systems, a
controlled leak or fixed reflector are more suitable. If the calibration is not an integral part
of the measurement (for example in the case of a reflective grating), additional
instrumentation is necessary to monitor these movements during the pulse.
Location and maintenance of the electronics: Outside the bioshield, the mm-wave
electronics are only accessible during maintenance periods, unless extremely long (>100
m) transmission lines are used to bring the signals to the diagnostic hall. This has been
found to be impractical, or even impossible in some cases, so that the equipment has to be
designed to operate completely unattended for long periods of time, and placed closer to

Exit waveguides
at rear of diagnostic

_(\mmd;'~ D
o

-++~;H--- Z=1.44 m
o X2
04 \
+---+=~-- Z=1.00 m

o03 1o[S?d\
\0000)
-'--ff ..."....,'--- Z=O.50 m~:-'--'-~-+

Figure 1: View of the reflectometer low field side port from the plasma. The
functions of each antenna cluster are discussed in detail in reference 7. The
antennas shown are truncated ends of nominally 90 mm ID waveguide. In practice
the antenna pattern will have to be optimised to ensure sufficient overlap for the
full frequency range (20-150 GHz in O-mode and 84-225 GHz in X-mode).

100
the machine. Even so, the transmission line lengths are of order 40 m, near the limits of
present operational experience. A program of technology assessment for the waveguides
likely to be used on several systems is underway)2

DESIGN FEATURES

The main reflectometer

The accessibility of the main plasma cutoff layers for the standard ITER scenarios
has been reported elsewhere. 13-15 In brief, determining the position of the plasma edge and
measuring the low density edge plasma profile requires the use of the X-mode upper cutoff
(X-u). This can also measure beyond the steep edge density gradient region in H-mode
plasmas, but will not reach the plasma centre under standard conditions. O-mode
reflectometry partially fills this gap for any temperature profile in the gradient region above
a minimum density. Access to the core for flat or slightly hollow density profiles requires
the use of the X-mode lower cutoff (X-I), launched from the high field side. For these
regions (edge/gradient/core) there are a number of measurements required (Table 2).
For the low field side, in order to meet the requirements implied by Table 2 for the
majority of ITER operating conditions and plasma shapes, a number of distinct front ends
are required. To keep the total number of transmission lines low, the approach is to use
relatively few, but broad band, front ends. Based on current operational experience, we are

PORT 8 Inner
r-------------l

l~_ej
PORT 12 Inner

!GG!
r-------------l

L. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..J

PORT 18 Inner

I X1T II X1R I
D~~~ __ D~~~j
PORT 20 Inner PORT 20 Outer
r-------------l

oR ____ELJ
Figure 2: Schematic of the occupation scheme for four nominal diagnostic
conduits ofID 70 x 35 mm. PI-P8 refer to waveguide pairs for the plasma position
system. 01 refers to a nominal upper band (60-150 GHz) high field side O-mode
component of the main reflectometer. Xl and X2 are low (to 40 GHz) and high (to
110 GHz) band waveguide pairs dedicated to the high field side X-I mode system.
Note that P4-P5 and P7-P8 are not shown, because they are not expected to use the
conduits. Inset: The toroidal distribution shown on a backplate map. The backplate
is shown split into assembly sectors. Each conduit is close to the middle of an even
(diagnostic) vertical port.

101
considering bistatic antennas to reduce the possibility of spurious reflections affecting the
signal. The arrangement (shown in Figure 1) is optimised for profile performance and
MHD measurements for plasmas with Z in the range 0.1-1.75 m. Small scale fluctuation
measurements share the same antennas and have affected the design mainly in the grouping
of 0 and X-mode antennas. Details of the design will be presented in accompanying
papers.?,8
The high field side measurements have to share space with the plasma position
system, described below, and also all the other high field side diagnostics using the
conduits. Although many measurements are desirable from the physics point of view, it is
difficult to accommodate them all within the four conduits presently allocated to
reflectometry on the high field side'? Nevertheless we expect to be able to perform the key
measurements (Table 2), of profiles, MHD and sawteeth in the core region, using the X-
mode lower cutoff.
The reflectometer for plasma position

This diagnostic is designed to act as a stand-by position/shape measurement system,

in order to correct or supplement the magnetics for plasma position control. It is likely to
be essential during pulse operation exceeding 3 x 103 s, where the position deduced from

B I OSH I ELD (
,III

~o<?
I I

I SECONDARY BARRIER

CRYOSTAT

PORT ENVIRONMENT
WA VEGU I DE ARRA Y
PRIMARY VACU M
BARRIER PORT ENVIRONMENT
EXTENSION

~
PRIMARY
VACUUM EX TENS I ~N
""
~
L--

'F=9
f-----l
~

Figure 3: Schematic of the access of microwave guides through a preliminary version of the vertical port for
high field side launch (position control and main reflectometer systems). Note the sliding joints beneath the
first and second vacuum boundary. The waveguides in the interspace vacuum are allowed individually to flex
to take up movements between the vacuum vessel and bioshield.

102
Table 3: Measurements possible using the divertor waveguide set, and the corresponding
waveguide under the assumption that 10% loss per bend is tolerable.

Measurement Band and Suggested Bend type in Bend type in

Polarisation Waveguide size poloidal plane toroidal plane
(mm), toroidal x
poloidal

Profile reflectometry mm X lOx60 Mitre None

low mm 0 lOxlO Optimised non-linear bends
(e.g. hyperbolic secant)
mmO lOx20 Mitre None
ECA mm/ lOx20 Mitre None
sub mm X
Interferometry, Plasma sub-mm 0 lOx20· Mitre Mitre
Dispersion Measurement
(including peak density)
* For these measurements, ohmic losses, (rather than mode conversion at the bends), influence the
waveguide choice

the magnetic diagnostics could be subject to substantial error due to drifts. This is an
advanced control measurement (category Ib), but can supplement the gap measurement
(la) provided for machine protection by the magnetics in normal pulses.
Clearly, no measurement of a simple plasma quantity can be an exact substitute for
the magnetic measurements for the location of the outer flux surfaces. Nevertheless,
measurement of the location of contours of a plasma parameter can supply sufficient
information to control the plasma shape. For first wall protection, such a measurement has
the advantage of providing a more direct estimate of the gap between the plasma and the
wall than a magnetic reconstruction.
To keep the system as simple as possible, we have chosen an O-mode system
located at several (-8) points around the main plasma chamber. The relevant frequency
range 3 is 15-60 GHz. For an O-mode reflectometer, the accuracy of the estimate of the
edge gap improves by measuring the group delay for cutoff densities below the chosen
control density, because of the initialisation requirement in the inversion process. 15 GHz
corresponds to 2.7 x 10 181m3 and should ensure more than sufficient accuracy for full
performance (and hence dangerous for the first wall) plasmas. At low densities the
accuracy degrades, although it is likely to remain reasonable for monotonic edge proflles.5
The position control reflectometer shares the implementation problems and features
of the high field side main reflectometer, and its engineering implementation is being
investigated in parallel with that system. In the present arrangement of diagnostics, four
conduits are available for use by the high field side reflectometry systems. Figure 2
illustrates their use. It is seen that in principle there is enough space available if certain
features of the high field side main reflectometer and of the plasma position system are
consolidated. The antenna distribution, however, is a distinct optimisation problem. 4,5 To
illustrate the access path for both systems, Figure 3 shows a schematic of the features of a
transmission line taken through a nominal vertical port.
The divertor reftectometer

The divertor reflectometer is mainly a density proflle measurement system. For

proflles, the resolution target is 3 mm across the divertor leg, and 10 cm along the leg, and
the time resolution requirement is 1 ms. However the waveguide set will also have to be

103
used for electron cyclotron absorption and interferometric measurements. Finally, an
additional function for this system may be determining the ionisation front location in the
semi-detached divertor operating regime. In addition to the difficult access within the
cassette, the challenges in designing the divertor system lie in two areas:
1) The divertor operating space (Figure 4). This is so wide, that it forces the use of
two distinct types of density measurement. In the mm-wave domain, it is reasonable, based
on present technology to plan for continuous swept measurements. In the sub-mm domain,
spot measurements at a number of frequencies are planned. By combining transmission and
reflection measurements it is expected that the first few moments of the density profile
(peak density, width) can be estimated. The frequency operating space requirements also
have consequences in the choice of waveguide. For example, near the front end, the
toroidal size is fixed at around 10 mm by the exigencies of the first wall, and there are
several bends required in the poloidal plane. Table 3 shows suitable types of waveguide
given the frequency ranges shown in Figure 4, and a requirement for mode conversion less
than 10% per bend.
2) The wide range of possible measurement geometries. For example within
reflectometry, one can measure from the private flux or target side, using mono static or
bistatic antennas, in O-mode or X-mode, with a choice of sightlines. In addition ECA,
interferometry and plasma dispersion techniques requiring transmission through the plasma
share the access space.
The present design choice is for multiple sightline, low transmission line diversity
system. In order to estimate the number of possible sightlines in such a system, we have to
consider the possibilities for waveguide sharing between measurements. It turns out that.
once the limitation on the total number of sightlines is taken into account, it is possible to
accommodate 5 sightlines on the outer leg, and 3 sightlines on the inner leg by making full
use of two ports (40 waveguides).
More work is necessary to determine the viability of the more difficult schemes of

100 900
No
sub·mm O'mode N
I
10 300 CD
>.
u
C')-
c

--
(l)
E :::J
0-
0
1 90
N
0
....
(l)

T"""
U.
(l)
-0
~ 0
'in E
c 0.1 30
0
(l)
0

0.001 0.01 0.1

scale-length (m)

Figure 4: Divertor operating space. The required density measurement range is l 1019_1022/m 3. The x-axis
represents the local density scale length, deduced from early (no impurities) simulations of the divertor. To
cover the density range in O-mode with good accuracy requires frequency coverage from -9 to 900 OHz.
This is to allow for initialisation of the profile reconstruction for the lowest density in this range.16 In the
region where the WKB approximation is violated, early indications 17 are that the resultant errors in the
reconstruction are small (- 1 mm). X-mode can be used to improve accuracy in this area.

104
Table 3 before determining a final configuration. A crucial decision will be the extent to
which X-mode reflectometry need be deployed, because it requires a size of waveguide that
is difficult to accommodate, and requires the use of frequencies, particularly in the inner
leg, where technological solutions for continuous profiles are not well developed.
In the meantime, since the ITER divertor cassette design is considerably advanced
we were able to determine the regions within the divertor cassette where waveguides could
be placed with some confidence. A concept of using a semi-independent insert to house
and cool the front end waveguides and antennas was developed (Figure 5). The antennas
have to view the plasma through the gaps between target plate (10-25 mm). Any other
solution produces unacceptable local heat loads on the divertor target.
Providing a reference point for calibration, and resolving plasma reflections (the
plasma - antenna distance ranges from a few cm to -0.5 m, depending on the sightline) is
complicated by parasitic reflections in the gap between the cassettes. More details will be
presented in a companion paper.6

CONCLUSIONS

Reflectometry is expected to be routinely useful in ITER for a wide range of

measurements, many of which are required to form part of real-time control loops used to
operate the machine. As a result we have planned for thorough coverage of all plasma
regions. Nevertheless the redundancy is low, in the sense that for every waveguide there is
a clearly identified set of functions. There are great differences in the details of the
implementation of each system, but also some common themes (not all of which have been
explored in this paper), which will dictate the path of future work on these systems:
One common theme is the requirement for optimisation of a limited number of
antennas for a wide range of junctions. This optimisation depends both on the antenna
distribution, which must be sufficient for the coverage of expected plasmas, and the
optimisation of individual front ends for the full frequency and radial range expected with
the minimum disturbance to the first wall or target and neutron shield structures. In
principle, solutions have been found for this key problem of access through the first wall
for all the systems, but much work remains, including a comprehensive assessment of the
likely effect of fluctuations on front end pe1jormance, which will influence the choice and

Waveguide Insert
Figure 5: The principle of attaching a pre-assembled waveguide insert onto a divertor cassette. This design
allows for considerable freedom within the insert envelope. Outside the cassette the waveguides are coupled
to circular corrugated waveguide, then transmitted to the machine pit via a removable set of waveguides that
allows maintenance of the cassette and the rest of the divertor. 6

105
dimension of the antennas.
Another common element in the designs is the need for rugged calibration schemes
that will allow the real time reference of the density profile to a hardware feature of the
machine (backplate, vacuum vessel or divertor cassette). Again, this feature is linked to the
detailed optimisation of the front end. Finally, for all systems there is a need to mitigate the
effects of parasitic reflections that arise from the close fitting apertures through which the
antenna views the plasma. This is difficult to arrange, especially in the divertor, where
reducinf, the plasma to antenna distance exposes the antenna to very large (peak of several
MW/m ) radiative heat load.
It is a common observation in complex mm-wave systems that the performance of
the whole system depends on interactions between the components, which can produce
undesirable and unpredicted results. Given the effort required to place diagnostics within a
machine such as ITER, it is expected that prototype transmission lines will have to be
thoroughly tested for all the systems before installation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement
among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

REFERENCES
1. C. Laviron, A.J.H. Donne, M.E. Manso and J. Sanchez, Reflectometry techniques for density profile
measurements on fusion plasmas, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 38:905 (1996).
2. A. E. Costley et al., Requirements for ITER Diagnostics, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et aI., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
3. G. Vayakis et aI., Reflectometry on ITER, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68:435 (1997).
4. N. Bretz et al., ITER position control reflectometry - conceptual design, in: These Proceedings
5. E.J. Doyle et al., Design basis for the ITER plasma shape and position control reflectometer system, ibid.
6. M. Manso et al., Reflectometry in the ITER divertor, ibid.
7. V.A. Vershkov, The ITER reflectometry diagnostic for the main plasma, ibid.
8. P. Edmonds et al., Integration of vacuum coupled diagnostics, ibid.
9. V. Mukhovatov et al., Role and requirements for plasma measurements on ITER, ibid.
10. V.S. Voitsenya et at., On the possibility of using carbon-graphite materials for the inner elements of
millimetre and sub-millimetre diagnostics of a fusion plasma, Fusion Engineering and Design
34/35:491 (1997)
II. L. Empacher et al., Calculations and experiments on multi-beam transmission for the 140 GHzllO MW
CW ECRH system on the stellarator W7-X, to appear in: Proceedings 10th Joint Workshop on
Electron Cyclotron Emission and Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating, Ameland, the Netherlands
(1997).
12. D. Wagner et al., Transmission line design for broadband microwave diagnostic systems, in: These
Proceedings.
13. E.J. Doyle et al., Reflectometry Applications to ITER, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et al., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
14. M.E. Manso et al., Reflectometry for ITER Density Profiles, ibid.
15. V.A. Vershkov, Proposal of Reflectometry System for ITER, ibid.
16. P. Varela et al., Initialization of plasma density profiles for reflectometry, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:4937
(1995).
17. L. Broskin, A. Mase, T. Tamano and K. Yatso, Application of 10 WKB approximation in Microwave
Reflectometry of Plasma Density Profiles, submitted to: Rev. Sci. Instrum. (1997).

106
ITER REFLECTOMETRY DIAGNOSTICS FOR THE MAIN PLASMA

1 2 . 3 4 5
V. Vershkov, M. Manso l G. Vayakls, A. J Sanchez, D.Wagner,
C. Walker,6 S. Soldatov, L. Kuznetsova,l V. Zhuravlev,l B. Sestroretskii,7
and the ITER Joint Central Team and Rusian and EU Home Teams

1Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Ploshchad'Akademika Kurchatova

1, Moscow 123182, Russia.
2Associacao EURATOM/lST, Centro de Fusao Nuclear! Instituto Superior
Tecnico, 1096 Lisboa Codex, Portugal
3ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego JWS, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road,
La Jolla CA 92037, USA
4Association EURATOMICIEMAT, 28040 Madrid, Spain
5Institut fur Plasmaforschung, Pfaffenwaldring 31, 70569 Stuttgart,
Germany
6ITER Joint Central Team, Garching JWS, Max-Planck-Institut fur
Plasmaphysik, 85748 Garching, Germany
7N. P. O. im. S. A. Lavochkina, 141400, Himki, Moscow Region, Russia

INTRODUCTION

Reflectometry is now widely used in tokamak experiments. Reflectometry relies on

the fact that, as an electromagnetic wave propagates through the plasma, its phase is shifted
due to the departure of the local refractive index from the vacuum value. At a certain critical
density, the refractive index goes to zero, and the wave is reflected. This density is the
density of the cutoff layer. Its application on ITER is especially important because it can
provide the density profile (by inverting the phase as a function of frequency) and essential
information on density perturbations due to plasma modes, with minimum requirements for
the access ports. These measurements are to be used for machine protection, plasma control
and for establishing performance characteristics. In addition, reflectometry supplies valuable
information on plasma turbulence in all regions of the plasma. It uses well developed mm-
wave band equipment and the launched and received waves may be easily transported to and
from the tokamak by means of long transmission lines. All in-vessel transmission lines are
made from metal and are insensitive to neutron irradiation, while the vacuum windows may
be placed away from the high neutron flux zone. Specific problems arise in the reflectometry
application to ITER, due to high electron temperature, possible flat density profile, and
difficulties with access to high field side of tokamak.

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 107
 As shown in reference 1, ITER reflectometry consists of three systems. This paper
presents the project of ITER reflectometry diagnostics for the main plasma, which is the result
of common work of JeT team and the Russian and EU home teams. It is based on
previous 2,3,4,5 work. It will be shown that reflectometry can meet the ITER requirements for
the measurements of the main plasma parameters.

FUNCTIONS AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The target measurements requirements and classifications used in this paper, were
formulated in reference 6 and summarised in reference 7. The functions and requirements are
also discussed in the reflectometry overview paper.! The main plasma reflectometer provides
measurements in all three categories: Measurements for machine protection and plasma
control (category I), for performance evaluation and optimisation (category 2), and additional
measurements for physics understanding (category 3).
Electron density profile measurements 8 ,9,l0 are the primary function of the
diagnostic (category 2). Measurements are required in the core plasma, gradient and SOL
regions. For the core plasma the measurements must cover the density range from 0.3 to
3xl02o m3, with accuracy 5%, and provide time resolution 10 ms and spatial resolution 30
cm. For the edge plasma the corresponding requirements are 0.05 to 3xl020/m 3, 5%, 10 ms
and 0.5 cm.
Locked modes, MHD modes, sawteeth and disruption precursor
measurements are category 1. They must be detected in the range of relative poloidal magnetic
field fluctuation of 10-4-10.2 with 30% accuracy and 1 ms time resolution. The frequency of
the MHD modes may be in the range 0 - 3 kHz. Reflectometryll,!2 can provide the radial
position, size of the islands and identify n and m numbers for the case of several antenna
locations.
Fishbones and TAE mode observations are category 2 and must be carried out in
the frequency range of 3 - 30 and 30 - 500 kHz respectively. Reflectometry can resolve the
structure and radial positions of the modes.13
ELM observation is category 1 and must be performed with an accuracy of 30% and
time resolution 0.1 ms. Reflectometry can measure the radial features of the ELMs with high
!4
accuracy.
The q profile is a category 2 measurement. Positions of rational q can sometimes be
evaluated by means of radial localisation of resonant MHO modes.!!
Plasma rotation measurements (category 2). Reflectometry has been used to
measure the rotation of density fluctuations.1 5,!6 These measurements do not, in general,
give a reliable estimate of a plasma rotation, because the fluctuations move with respect to
plasma. In addition reflectometry in principle can't separate toroidal and poloidal rotation.
Density fluctuation measurements!7,16 are of category 3. It is well known that
reflectometry is very sensitive to the density fluctuations. However for high fluctuation
levels, which may be present in ITER, reflectometry gives only qualitative information with
respect to the level and frequency spectrum of small scale turbulence.
Line average density measurements are of category 1 and must cover the
density range from 0.01 to 2x 10 20 m 3 , with accuracy 1% and time resolution 1 ms.
Reflectometry is not the main diagnostic for such measurements, but can be used to check
other measurements, for example the calibration of the LIDAR system.

108
OPERATING FREQUENCY RANGE AND ACCESSIBILITY

The relativistic calculations of cutoff frequencies and absorption coefficients were

already published in reference 2. For this paper such calculations were repeated based on
reference 18 with essentially the same results. Figure 1 presents the cutoff frequencies, while
Fig. 2 shows the plasma absorption for an ITER reference scenario in H-mode. It was found
that the relativistic cutoff frequency shift is well described just by the mass correction. When
relativistic effects are included, the O-mode cutoff frequency (plasma frequency) profile
becomes hollow. Thus O-mode is useful only for density profiles in the gradient region. The
O-mode lowest frequency will be in the range of 10-15 GHz, limited by the antenna
dimensions. Evaluation ofWKB violation effects at low density shows negligible errors.'9

,~[,,,,,,,,,,3:,,,,1
solid - relativistic
300 dashed - cold
"'
250

g 80 85 90 95 100 105

j ~t"",=S..l
200

'"-;,
~ 150
ProfH

! 100
t;,l
80 85 90 95 100 105
0
Prof.II iii' ~ x-mode-
-10
50 - ~ Rcutotr=9.5m
"
-20

.li!" -30 /CutOff=9.2m

-40
0~~~~~7~~8~~9~~I~O~~II~
178 180 182 184 186 188
Radius, R(m) Frequency, f(GHz)

Figure 1. Cutoff frequencies for an ITER reference Figure 2. Two pass power absorption.
profile. Profile II - Ne(r)=(l_(r/a)2)O.15.

X-mode launched from the low field side (LFS) and reflected at the upper cutoff
layer, (Xu mode), needs a relativistic frequency correction, which creates an inaccessible
hollow region near R=lO m. In addition, relativistically down-shifted 2nd harmonic ECA
results in prohibitive absorption of the launched signal inside R-9 m. Nevertheless it can
measure beyond the steep edge density gradient region in H-mode plasmas in the case of
slightly peaked density profile as it is shown in Fig. 1. More importantly, X-u mode can
provide the measurements of the plasma edge position and the low density edge plasma
profile.
In contrast X radiation launched from the high field side (HFS) and reflected at the
lower cutoff (Xl mode) is always able to access the plasma core, with negligible absorption
and very small deviations from the non-relativistic case. This makes its use necessary to
guarantee core access for flat or even slightly hollow profIles.
Interferometry can be performed in frequency range 105 - 125 GHz for 0 mode and
65 - 125 GHz for X mode. It uses LFS antennas as the launcher and receiver, with reflection
from the HFS wall. The use of 0 mode is not possible due to the high absorption as it is
shown in Fig. 2. But it may be useful for the density build up phase with the frequencies
lower 90 GHz. Refraction effects are also likely to be important.
Assuming sufficient overlap in profIle coverage to decrease the uncertainties in the
initialisation of Xu profIles of the edge (due to errors in the magnetic field estimate), as

109
proposed in reference 20, we conclude that core profile can be measured with Xl mode in
frequency range 10 - 110 GHz and with 0 mode in frequency range 20 - 155 GHz. For the
edge profile it is possible to use 0 mode with frequencies 20 - 155 GHz and Xu mode with
70 - 255 GHz. The lowest frequency for X-u mode includes the interferometric regime.

DESIGN OF THE LOW FIELD SIDE SYSTEM

The LFS system consists of an Xu-mode system for the edge, gradient and
interferometry measurements and an 0 mode system for the gradient region. The LFS
antenna configuration is presented in a figure of reference I, and can also be seen in Fig. 3
together with the rest of the system. Because the Xu mode cutoff is determined by the density
and the magnetic field, the return signal at the edge is not very sensitive to changes in the
vertical position of the plasma. Thus two antenna systems at one vertical position, separated
in the toroidal direction are sufficient. Each antenna consists of a two circular corrugated
waveguides, of -100 mm diameter, terminated at the front edge of the diagnostic block
(about 0.7 m from the separatrix). The function of the first antenna pair is to measure SOL /
gradient profiles. In addition it performs I-point MHD measurements and I-point density
fluctuation measurements. The second pair is a back-up of pair 1 and provides, with the first
pair, 2-point MHD-scale perturbation measurements.

Inst

Neutral Beam

Figure 3. Overview of Low Field Side reflectometry system.

110
 Because the O-mode cutoff is solely determined by the density, the return signal is
very sensitive to changes in the vertical position of the plasma, Z. Implicit in the placement of
antennas is the assumption that deviations of Z of ±20 cm from the antenna height cause
tolerable « 10 dB) power loss in the signal. In that case four antenna systems are necessary
to cover the assumed Z-range of the ITER plasmas. By distributing these toroidally as well as
poloidally, multi-point measurements of MHD activity are enabled. Each antenna system is
made of the ends of two circular corrugated waveguides, of 100 mm nominal diameter,
terminated at the front edge of the diagnostic block. The first antenna pair at nominal height
of Z=IA4 m. is used to measure gradient region profiles (full aperture plasmas). In addition
it provides gradient region I-point MHD measurements and I-point density fluctuation
measurements. Antenna Pair 2 is a back-up of pair 1. In addition it provides 2-point MHD
measurements (in the toroidal direction, with pair 1). A pair at a nominal height of Z-OA m
provides gradient region profiles (for start-up plasmas). In addition, it is used for 2-point
MHD measurements (in the poloidal direction, with pair 1). A pair at a nominal height of
Z-I.O m provides gradient region profiles (for" advanced scenario" or other plasmas in the
Z range 0.8-1.2 m). In addition it is used for 2-point MHD measurements (with any other
pair).
All antennas may be used in both polarisations, so they can be integrated to enable 2
and 3-point measurements of density fluctuations, with some degradation in performance due
to power attenuation in vacuum windows for the non-specified polarisation. Fig. 4 shows an
outline of the transmission line concept. Transmission inside the vacuum vessel is
accomplished by means of broad-band circular corrugated waveguide and mitre bends. The
diameter of the waveguide is -90 mm ill, determined by considerations of mode conversion
at the mitre bends at low frequencies « 50 GHz) and due to flexing of the waveguides.

Plasma

Removable
,"""MOUUum end

z
IPLAS:A
SIDE

VIEW ON "A"

Figure 4. Idealised scheme of the LFS transmission Figure 5. High Field Side antenna concept.
line.

There are 4 mitre bends in the in-vessel transmission line. The first two compose a
dog-leg structure through the diagnostic block, designed to reduce neutron streaming. Both
bends are specialised designs: The first bend has to cope with direct radiation from the
plasma. The second bend incorporates the calibration mechanism. The second two mitre
bends form a swivel joint designed to convert the toroidal motion of the vessel into a small

111
vertical bend of the long transmission line to the bioshield. Expansion in the radial direction
is accommodated by a waveguide expansion joint. The same joint provides electrical isolation
to prevent large currents (eddy currents, currents due to off-normal events) from flowing.
Such currents can endanger the integrity of the waveguide structure.
The primary and secondary (cryostat tunnel) vacuum barriers are extended into the
neutral beam cell. Millimetre wave radiation is transmitted through double fused quartz
windows inclined at the Brewster angle. This pair of windows forms the first confinement
barrier. The second confinement barrier is a quartz window inclined at the Brewster angle at
the penetration through the NBI cell boundary. In between the confinement barriers there is a
remotely operated metal shutter. The primary purpose of this shutter is to isolate maintenance
operations from EM radiation from within the torus (ECE emission, ECRR, etc.) In addition
it serves as a secondary calibration I line testing point. Finally, in the unlikely event of
window failure it can be used to inhibit air flow between the NB cell and atmosphere.
For the purpose of calibration the reflection from the blanket I shield structure on the
HFS may be used as the reference. However, it is not a simple mirror and not available
during the pulse. Therefore a second reference is provided in the form of a grating structure
on the second mitre bend, designed in such a way as to form a well defined out-of-band
(> 230 GHz) or in band reflector, without significant effects on the in-band transmission.
In the present design the antenna diagram is narrow (less then 10 at high frequencies
for Xu mode ), which causes loss of signal due to plasma shift and poor coupling efficiency
in the near field zone. Moreover as the spot in plasma illuminated by the antenna becomes
close to the turbulence wavelength it is expected to result in strong amplitude modulation of
the reflected signal. Therefore it seems reasonable to increase the beam width of the Xu and
o mode antennas. It is also desirable to decrease the loss for the second polarisation (now
-3 dB per window) to enable integration for 2- and 3-point correlation measurements and to
increase the redundancy.

DESIGN OF THE HIGH FIELD SIDE SYSTEM

The HFS system design is much more difficult task due to the access limitation
imposed by the blanket. The key assumptions of the present HFS design were: minimal
changes in blanket design, which means that antennas must use only the -2 cm gaps
between the blanket modules, and routing of the waveguides down a standard diagnostic
conduit, as described in reference 1. There are 4 sectors which are natural for reflectometry
and so the measurements are distributed toroidally.
It may not be possible to design waveguides able to operate adequately over the full
frequency range in both polarisations. Thus two antenna pairs, Low Frequency (LF) and
High Frequency (HF) are used, both for Xl and 0 modes, to cover the full frequency range.
For Xl mode LF launchers must work in the range 10 - 40 GHz, and HF in the range 40 -
110 GHz. The corresponding frequency bands for 0 mode are 20 - 60 and 60 - 155 GHz.
Thus, the LF 0 mode launch of the main reflectometer is combined with equatorial launch of
the position reflectometry.
All pairs are located near the full aperture plasma current centre height (Z = 1.44 m).
An example of HFS LF antenna concept is shown in Fig. 5. The waveguide line may be
divided into permanent structures (waveguides in conduit with supports, taper and the
rectangular bend) and removable antenna horn. A preliminary design has the antennas for all
HFS lines placed with their front end 100 mm behind the surface of the blanket. The internal
dimensions of the mouth is 13 x 30 mm. The removable antenna may be made from Carbon
Fiber Composite (CFC) and cooled only by radiation, in which case it is heated up to
-700° C.

112
 b)
15
10
CIl ";>
.:: §
~IO ;:;
~ 0
"c:I
5
"
Q)
S 5 Z
~

0
20 30 40 300 280 260 240 220
Frequency, GHz Radius, cm
10
C)
• d)
~
0 0 10
0 ";>
•••
"

Z" 1\
•• °0+.' • •• ' S
•
<I • •••• t, Q
11.+++ t,t,t,66M ;:;
-10 +6t, 0
4>0
",°o
!O t, 5
-20 + ++
t,!o t,
t,t,6
Z "
-30 0
300 280 260 240 220 300 280 260 240 220
Radius, cm Radius, cm

Figure 6. Results of 2D WKB code calculation for Xl mode reflection from the turbulent plasma. a) Group
time delay of the launched wave obtained by means of three methods: open circles - broad frequency sweep
(FFT filtering). fluctuations do not move; solid circles - broad frequency sweep (FFT filtering). fluctuations
move poloidally 130 cm per single sweep; opcn triangles - pulse radar; crosses - amplitude modulation; solid
line -for non-perturbed density profile. b) Reconstructed density profiles and c) Relative distortions of
reconstructed profiles caused by turbulence. The notations are the same. d) Influence of noise on density profile
reconstruction in case of broad sweep with FFT filtering: solid line - no noise; solid squares - noise level =
100%; open circles - noise level =50%; open triangles - noise level = 25%; crosses - noise level = 12.5%

The toroidal map of the HFS launchers is presented in overview paper reference 1. A
LF launch for 0 mode is situated in port 20 and uses ordinary rectangular waveguides with
ID 10 x 20 IDIll. They are tapered to ID 10 x 12 IDIll before the final bend with curvature
radius 70 mm. A LF launch for Xl mode is situated in port 18 and uses also ordinary
rectangular waveguides with ID 10 x 30 mm. They are tapered to ID 3 x 30 before the
gradual bend. The HF lines for both polarisations use circular corrugated waveguides with
24.5 mm diam. with mitre bends before antenna. HF antenna for 0 mode is placed in port 8,
while for Xl mode in port 12. The waveguides in the conduits are curved, with radii in the
range 2-8 m within the conduit, but it was shown 21 that the conversion losses are low for
the whole band. Tighter, and thus more problematical, bends, are present within the vertical
port.
The first vacuum barrier for each waveguide is mounted on the vacuum vessel seal
flange (see reference 1). It is a fused quartz window mounted at a 15° angle. The window is
mounted on a gimbaled bellows, designed to accommodate flexing of the waveguide line
whilst supporting its weight. Electrical breaks for the waveguide are incorporated on both
sides of the window structure. Movement between the blanket backplate and the vacuum
vessel is taken up by the elastic bending of the waveguide and lor an expansion joint. The

113
second vacuum barrier is a fused quartz window mounted at the Brewster angle on the top of
the cryostat lid. Electrical breaks for the waveguide are incorporated on both sides of the
window structure.
Between the fIrst and second vacuum barrier, the waveguides continue with the same
cross-section as that used inside the fIrst barrier. An expansion joint is used to take up the
large vertical movement range between the cryostat and the vacuum vessel. Toroidal and
radial movements are taken up by elastic bending of the waveguide. The waveguides are
brought through the bioshield in a removable section incorporating dog-leg like structures to
reduce radiation streaming. Another expansion joint in the waveguide is necessary to
accommodate cryostat movement with respect to the bioshield. The HFS electronics systems
are designed to feed two sets of antennas, one for the low and one for the high frequency
band. They are located in special diagnostics room on the bioshield.
For both HFS HF waveguide lines it is possible to employ the same concept of
calibration with a grating structure on the last mitre bend. The same concept may be used for
LF lines if special reflecting structures will be placed inside waveguides before the last bend.
The four specifIc antenna systems design for each polarisation and frequency range is
not optimal from the point of view of redundancy and MHD mode structure measurements.
Full wave simulations show that mitre bends in rectangular waveguide with ill 25 x 30 mm
may provide losses less then 2 dB in all frequency range for both polarisations. Thus all four
lines may be made identical. The question about optimisation of the windows for two
polarisation was already discussed for the LFS systems. The antenna design also needs
optimisation. In particular the use of the walls of the blanket as the antenna element will be
explored.

REFLECTOMETRY ELECTRONICS SYSTEMS

Reflectometry profile measurements are based on measuring the group delay to this
critical layer as a function of frequency. In a simple I-D picture, the density profIle is then
recovered by an inversion from the (group delay, frequency) space to the (cutoff frequency,
radius) space. In O-mode this involves a simple Abel inversion procedure. Measurements of
density fluctuations can be made at constant frequency, and observing the time evolution of
the phase or group delay.
The technology available for the construction of mm-wave systems is in a state of
continuous and rapid improvement and the systems, used on present-day devices, may well
be superseded by the time of first operation. It is desirable to employ heterodyne system to
have maximum sensitivity and to be compatible with the turbulence measurements. For the
LFS there will be 4 O-mode and 2 X-mode systems as it is shown in Fig. 3. Both 0 and X-
mode systems will further divide the signal into appropriate sub-bands. Each sub-band will
operate independently, and the full profile reconstructed by merging the information from
each sub-band. Quasi-Optical (QO) techniques will be used to perform the split and
summation.
In the reference design, each band employs a fast « 10 ms sweep time) linearly
swept source, and a tracking local oscillator to produce a local oscillator (LO) signal. Both
fast homodyne and heterodyne detection will be employed in the intermediate frequency (IF).
Density profIle and fluctuations measurements are supposed to be made simultaneously. The
HFS have two similar electronics systems to feed the LF and HF antennas for each
polarisation.

114
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The perfonnance of the profile measurements is determined by :

1. Fundamental dependencies of the refractive index on the global plasma parameters, which
determine the cutoff frequencies, which where already discussed above.
2. System quality in the absence of turbulence: profile initialisation, calibration, spurious
reflections in waveguides and in plasma. Quality also depends on antenna performance in the
near field zone and the possibility of standing wave resonances in the case of reflection at
small distances from the metal wall.
3. Turbulence, which causes the fluctuations of the reflected wave phase and amplitude and
"run away" problems (through plasma rotation effects). Turbulence effects depend on its
amplitude and on the slope of refractive index. and do not depend on generator power.
4. Signal to noise ratio, where the signal is determined by generator power, system losses,
Electron Cyclotron Absorption (ECA), 3D refraction, the average effect of turbulence
(interference and scattering), and the noise is the sum of detector noise, Electron Cyclotron
Emission (ECE) and Bremsstrahlung radiation.
5. Correct selection of the optimum bandwidth. In profile time-delay reflectometry
measurements that should be used to maximise the reconstruction precision is determined by
balancing plasma signal to noise (which should now include the effect of turbulence) with
dispersion. A simple calculation for an exponential profile 3, ignoring the change in the speed
of propagation in the plasma gives typical values of 1-4 GHz.
Some aspects of these effects are discussed in more detail below.
Initialisation. For O-mode measurements, it is impractical to measure the low
density part of the profile because the antenna size becomes difficult to accommodate. In
practice this means that a fraction of the profile has to be assumed or extrapolated from the
available data, and this introduces an error. Simulations show that, for non-pathological
profiles, this error can be neglected for densities - 10 times higher then the lowest probed
density. For X-mode measurements, the initialisation relies on knowledge of the total
magnetic field in the edge. On ITER-scale devices, a 1% error in this measurement results in
a 10 cm error in the location of the edge. A combination of 0 and X-mode data may be used,
to correct the X-mode initialisation error as was proposed in reference 20.
Plasma rotation. Depending on the measurement technique, there can be
systematic errors in the position due to rapid plasma movement or rotation. The influence of
"run away" due to the poloidal rotation of turbulence was investigated with 2D WKB code22
in reference 23. It was found that misalignment of the antenna of 5° results, for the case of
FMCW technique 24 in 15% errors in the density or in 5 cm in distance for a 60 GHz
frequency scan in 50 /..l in the presence of 1.5% turbulence with poloidal wavelength 6 cm
and poloidal velocity 15 ktnls. (FFT averaging over 1 GHz was used.) It was also shown
that pulse radar and AM techniques is not sensitive to this effect. Results of a similar
calculations for Xl mode with HFS launch are presented in Fig. 6. A hom antenna with 1.3
cm poloidal width was used. The frequency sweep was performed in the 10-30 GHz range
with 20 MHz step and from 30 to 45 GHz with 5 MHz step. The beat frequency for FMCW
technique was found with FFT filtering averaging over 1 GHz. It is seen that, for the same
turbulence parameters as in ref. 23, the "run away" effect is not visible within the errors of
measurements. This may be the advantage of the broad antenna pattern. In addition,
reduction of the sweep time to 10 /..ls will make this error negligible.
Signal to noise ratio. The principle question is to define the frequency band for
which the noise is important. The broad band sweep system was taken as reference. The time
for 20 GHz sweep was taken 50 /..l for Xl central reflection with time delay of 50 ns. Thus the
beat frequency is 20 MHz. So the frequency band for the noise was taken 50 MHz for
reflectometry and 5 MHz for interferometry regimes. Figure 6 d presents the results of

115
density profile reconstruction with N/S as a parameter. It is clearly seen that a N/S ratio of
1/4 starts to give measurable errors. Thus N/S 118 was taken as a target.
The presence of density fluctuations results in the increase of a losses and a scatter in
the phase and amplitude of reflected wave. For example, 2D simulations for a turbulence
level of 1.5 % gives additional power losses with respect to calm plasma of 14 dB for Xl
central HFS reflection with the horns 10 cm wide, but only 6 dB for 1.3 cm hom.
Estimates of the minimum powers for the expected working conditions are presented
in Table 1. The EC and Bremsstrahlung powers were reduced to the detector position by
taking into account waveguide losses. The antenna transmission losses were found from their
apertures using a ray tracing code, and the interference I scattering loss due to the fluctuations
by a 2D code. In order to increase the antenna beam width at the LFS, and thus provide
sufficient overlap in the plasma, the diameter was reduced to 3 cm. The first column shows
the data for the double pass interferometry regime from the LFS. For the LFS Xu and 0
mode lines the transmission in both polarisations is shown. For the HFS the results for four
launchers types are presented. No account is taken of plasma movement. The required mm
wave powers are less then are commercially available, except in the LFS Xu case.

Table 1. Estimates of minimum required mm wave power for the different launch systems.

Location: LES liPS

Waveguide designation: X mode 0 mode LP band HP band
Wave~ide used for: Interf. Xu 0 0 Xu XI 0 0 XI
Noise power at det. (pW) 0.48 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8
ECE power at det. (pW) 7600
Bremsstrahlung at det. (pW) 0.45 9 1. 4.6 2.3 3.6 3.6 4.6 4.6
Total noise at det.(pW) 0.94 7614 5.9 9.5 7.1 8.4 8.4 9.4 9.4
Loss at summat.\spliter (dB) 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Window losses (dB) 6 6 18 6 18 4 4 4 4
Waveguide losses (dB) 10 4 10 10 4 6 6 4 4
Bend losses (dB) 8 8 8 8
Antenna transmission loss (dB) 57.6 25 32 32 25 47.5 29 23 47.5
Interference losses (dB) 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 6 6 6 6
Absorption in plasma (dB) 5 5
Total losses (dB) 79.6 55.5 75.5 63.5 67.5 77.5 59 51 75.5
Reguired I!0wer ~m~ 5.4 170. 13.2 1.35 2.5 30. 0.4 0.07 21

Spurious reflections. The possibility of simultaneous reflection at two cutoffs, in

the case of Xl mode at HFS, due to the inclination of the total magnetic field must also be
mentioned. Although this angle is about 10°, the power of reflected 0 mode may be equal to
the Xl mode for the case of central reflection due to high transmission losses of Xl mode.
This effect will not important for the FMCW technique as it can separate two different beat
frequencies. For the turbulence measurements at constant frequency it can be eliminated by
means of synchronous modulation of the launch power and the receiver efficiency.
Turbulence. The scatter in phase and amplitude is the most important result of
turbulence. A 1% level of density fluctuations may give significant errors in profile
measurements at rIa <-0.3 for the Xl mode. This effect is worse for the case of flat density
profile. Thus 1% density fluctuations will result in reflection 20 cm before the cutoff due to
the slow variation of the refractive index with radius. (For the Xu mode, this deviation is 4
cm.) It was found,23 that a turbulence level of 1.5 % results, for the Xu mode, in radial

116
random errors of 1.5 cm (3% in reconstructed density). Somewhat higher errors of 5 cm and
15% may be seen in Fig. 6 for Xl mode reflection. This error is typical for all simulated
techniques. Taking this value for the single measurement in 50 Jls, we can conclude that the
errors will be reduced to 1.5 cm and 5% with the averaging of 10 sweeps in 1 ms. Thus, the
ITER requirements are exceeded in the core region. For a steep gradient zone at the edge the
errors of single measurements must be of the order of density decay length or less and
averaging over time decreases the errors further to meet the ITER requirements also in this
zone. Such estimates are supported by present experiments on tokamaks.
The phase fluctuations, measured with wide aperture antenna, will have a simple
relation to the local density fluctuation near cutoff layer only if the distance to cutoff less then
the diffraction length,25 which depends on the turbulence amplitude and wavelength. For
ITER the diffraction length is always much smaller then cutoff distance for small scale
=
turbulence with k X Pi. 1. In that case imaging systems, which by definition employ a large
aperture antenna (real or synthesised) may be necessary to extract quantitative information on
small scale turbulence. Apart from the difficulties to accommodate such systems within the
blanket/shield structure, this requirement reduces the reliability of profile measurements
under shifts of the plasma. In fact special precautions must be made at the LFS to widen the
antenna diagram. Thus only qualitative measurements of small scale turbulence may be
possible without a special antenna system. Imaging systems are not necessary for the long
wave MHDffAE mode studies, and even qualitative measurements of small scale turbulence
can provide vital information.

CONCLUSIONS

The ITER reflectometry diagnostics for the main plasma are able to meet the main
requirements of the target task except for quantitative measurements of small scale
turbulence. The system performance is likely to be enhanced by the time of ITER operation
due to technical progress, further optimisation the system elements, and better understanding
of reflectometry physics in the presence of turbulence. In this context, the necessity of
experimental work with the HFS Xl mode in existing tokarnaks with flat density profile must
be pointed out. It is also desirable to develop further the full wave codes to simulate reflection
from turbulent plasma in real ITER geometry. Further optimisation of LFS antennas,
transmission lines, vacuum windows for two polarisation and waveguides rectangular bends
are needed. Although part of work may be done with computer simulation, experimental tests
of prototypes in the laboratory are also planned.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement among
the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation in
the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA).

117
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measurements on fusion plasmas, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 38:905 (1996).
25. E. Mazzucato, R. Nazikian, Rev. Sci. Instr. 66, 1237, ( 1995 )

118
DESIGN BASIS FOR THE ITER PLASMA SHAPE AND POSITION
CONTROL REFLECTOMETER SYSTEM

1 2 . 1 1 1
EJ. Doyle, N.L. Bretz, K.W. Kim, W.A. Peebles, and T.L. Rhodes

lElectrical Engineering Department and Institute of Plasma and Fusion

Research, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
2Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton,
NJ 08543, USA

INTRODUCTION

A fundamentally new approach to plasma position control is required on ITER as a

consequence of the anticipated long pulse lengths. The error in conventional magnetic plasma
position control systems accumulates with time (due to drifts, etc.), such that magnetic
systems are not expected to provide accurate control for discharge lengths in excess of
-1000 s.1 ITER will have pulse lengths exceeding 1000 s, and potentially up to 10,000 s
long, such that an alternative plasma position and shape control system will be essential. The
concept that edge density profile measurements via reflectometry at multiple poloidal
positions could provide a position control capability emerged through the ITER design
process, and was briefly discussed at the time of the 1995 Varenna conference on ITER
diagnostics. 2 In this concept a poloidally distributed set of edge gap measurements
(specifically the distance from the first wall (blanket face) to the location of a density layer
lying at or inside the separatrix) will be used as an estimator of the plasma boundary shape,
and utilized for feedback control. In the two years since 1995 the US Home Team has
worked to investigate how this concept would work in practice, as well as to provide detailed
design calculations. The conclusion of these studies is that a plasma position control system
for ITER based on a poloidal set of edge density profIle measurements appears to be viable,
with performance levels at or close to requirements. As described in the body of this paper,
this conclusion is based on: (1) a proven methodology for the design of profIle reflectometer
systems, (2) demonstrated performance levels of current reflectometer systems, and (3)
specific design and modeling for ITER. Recent descriptions of the use of reflectometer
systems for density profile measurements are available,2,3 while a detailed design
methodology for optimal system performance has also been developed. 2
The measurement requirements for the plasma position and shape on ITER are that the
inner, outer and top gaps should be measured with 1 cm accuracy and 10 ms time
resolution. 4 The US team has studied a poloidal array of eight reflectometers operating in the
ordinary mode with frequency coverage from 15 to 60 GHz. This fre.quency range

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., P1enwn Press, New Y OTic, 1998 119
corresponds to cutoff densities between 0.028 and 0.45xl02o m- 3 [fo = 9.0n;l2(m- 3 ) Hz],
which are estimated to encompass the scrape off layer densities for projected ITER plasma
scenarios. Potential poloidal locations for the eight reflectometer systems are shown in
Fig. 1. As shown in this paper and an accompanying paper by N.L. Bretz,S this system
should meet the basic measurement requirements. It is envisioned that the reflectometer
position control system will only be used during the steady state (flat top) portion of the
discharges, i.e. it is assumed that the magnetic control system will always be used for plasma
startup and termination (see Ref. 5 for details of how the reflectometer system could be used
to reinitialize the magnetics for control of the termination phase). As already mentioned, the
reflectometer system will be essential for plasma control in extended duration discharges (>
1000 s), and can act as a backup/supplement to the magnetics in discharges of shorter
duration.
Waveguide
in conduit in
front of backplate

Vacuum Vessel

Waveguide
in gap
between
backplate
and vacuum
vessel

Figure 1. ITER cross section showing a potential poloidal arrangement for eight
position control reflectometer antennas (Pl-P8,e), and examples of the waveguide
routing. The approximate locations of the six magnetic feedback control points
(0), and the location of the high field side main reflectometer (OI,XI,X2) are
shown for reference.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the general design basis for the position control
reflectometer system. Specific questions and issues addressed in the remainder of this paper
are as follows: (1) Can edge density profile measurements provide a plasma position/shape
control capability? (2) Can reflectometry provide measurements with the required accuracy
and reliability needed for ITER? This question is relevant as historically considerable
difficulty has been experienced in achieving acceptable reflectometer performance. However,
both theory and experiment have evolved to the point that a design for ITER can be
undertaken in confidence. With regard to theory, a systematic basis for the optimal design of
profile reflectometer systems has been developed at UCLA,2 which is briefly reviewed.
Experimentally, measurements by the current DIII-D edge profile reflectometer system6 - 8

120
exceed ITER accuracy requirements, with demonstrated simultaneous sub-cm spatial and 100
J.Ls time resolution. 2,7,8 (3) Using O-mode propagation the portion of the profile lying below
the lowest probing frequency (-15 GHz) will be undetermined and must be modeled,
introducing a position error. The magnitude of this position error for a simulated ITER
system is examined using measured DIII-D density profiles, and is predicted to lie within
acceptable limits.
The objectives of the companion paperS are to present details of the actual engineering
design for ITER, as well as an investigation of how the choice of the number and location of
the reflectometer systems affects the accuracy of the plasma shape control, and an initial
consideration of how the reflectometer data could be used to provide a corrected baseline to
the magnetics for control of the plasma termination.

PLASMA SHAPE AND POSITION CONTROL USING DENSITY PROFILE

MEASUREMENTS

Although closely related, there is a conceptual difference between the functions of

plasma shape and position control. Control of the plasma edge gaps (position control) is a
vital machine protection function - it is essential that minimum plasma-wall gaps are
maintained in order to protect the first wall from plasma damage. Shape control, by contrast,
relates to the maintenance of a particular magnetic geometry desired during an experiment.
For control purposes, measurements of an edge plasma parameter, such as electron density,
are clearly not an identical replacement for magnetic measurements, but can, subject to some
limitations, provide similar capabilities. With regard to first wall protection (position
control), measurements of the electron density are superior to magnetic measurements, as the
edge density profile is a more direct measure of whether the plasma is impinging on the wall.
For this application all that is required is a set of measurements of the scrape-off-Iayer (SOL)
density at a number of poloidallocations. For the shape control application, however, the
picture is somewhat different. The location of a given density layer in the SOL is not in
general representative of the plasma shape, i.e. SOL profiles vary from location to location
independent of the magnetic geometry of the closed flux surfaces. Instead, what is required
is a set of measurements of the location of a density layer lying on a closedflux surface, i.e.
lying at or inside the separatrix. Subject to the assumption that the density is a constant on a
closed flux surface, such a set of measurements would be representative of the plasma shape,
and could be used for feedback control. This is the basic premise behind the position and
shape control system proposed here. There are of course circumstances, such as the
occurrence of MARFEs, when the assumption of constant density on a flux surface is
violated. However, the presence of a localized MARFE at a particular reflectometer position
should be clear from the measured profiles, allowing for appropriate compensation in the
control system.
Having decided to provide feedback control on the position of a density layer lying at or
inside the separatrix, how do we determine which densities are in fact inside the separatrix?
Fortunately, for any given machine there is in general a scaling relationship between the line
average plasma density and the density at the separatrix. An example of such scaling data,
which can vary with operating regime, is shown in Fig. 2 for L- and H-mode operation on
DIll-D. On DIII-D the density just inside the separatrix, at p - 0.95, is approximately half
the line average density. On ITER, line average density measurements will be available in
real time from the interferometer system, and an appropriate scaling relationship can be built
up as operations progress. Thus, at any given time during extended discharge duration
operation on ITER a reasonable estimate of the separatrix density should be available.
Finally, assuming that measurements of an edge plasma parameter such as electron
density, temperature or pressure can be utilized to control plasma shape, why opt specifically

121
for reflectometer measurements of edge density profiles? The primary reasons for the choice
of reflectometry are: (1) Ease of implementation. The restricted access on ITER, especially
to the inboard, high field side of the machine, puts a premium on diagnostic techniques with
minimal access demands and the ability to negotiate complex physical paths. Reflectometry
meets these requirements: reflectometry can obtain profile measurements from only a single
sightline (view) per location, using compact microwave antennas. The transmission system
uses small, flexible microwave waveguides, which can incorporate many bends. The use of
reflectometry for local measurements in areas such as at RF antenna structures9 and on the
inboard, high field side oftokamaks has already been demonstrated. IO,!! (2) Compatibility
with a reactor environment. Reflectometry is one of the few diagnostic systems for which the
harsh, reactor-like ITER conditions pose no significant challenge. All the in-vessel
components are robust, while other issues such as plasma deposition, etc. are not a problem
at microwave wavelengths .
.,.......
E 4.0
'"
~Q o 0
,.. 3.5

--
0 AI.
00
x 0
3.0 A
It)
en 2.5
d
I 2.0

--
0
...
.c 1.5

CIS
1.0 0 L-Mode
A H-mode
>- 0.5 ~ 0
'iii
c::
CI) 0.0
c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Line Average Density (x1019m- 3 )

Figure 2. Example of DIII-D data showing the scaling relationship between line
average density and the density just inside the separatrix (p - 0.95) for L- (circles)
and H-mode (triangles) operation.

DESIGN BASIS FOR PROFILE REFLECTOMETER SYSTEMS AND DIII-D

RESULTS

A central problem in the development of profile reflectometry for many years was the
lack of an accepted basis for the optimal design of profile reflectometer systems. Such
design criteria were developed by UCLA and are described in detail in Ref. 2. In the same
paper the optimal design criteria were used to evaluate the relative advantages and
disadvantages of current reflectometer techniques. Experimentally, these criteria were
systematically applied in the design of the profile reflectometer systems on Dill-D,6-8 leading
to reliable, accurate profile measurements with simultaneous sub-cm spatial and 100 /..I.s
temporal resolution. 2,7,8 Many of the most important of the UCLA design criteria stem from
the fact that profile reflectometer systems are in fact specialized close range radar systems,
such that suitably modified radar design concepts can be employed. For details of the design
criteria and the Dill-D results readers are referred to the original references; only a brief
outline is presented here:
Range resolution: range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish
multiple targets at varying range; the minimum range at which two targets can be
differentiated is Lir = c12B, where B is the microwave bandwidth employed. Reflectometer

122
systems have reflections from many "targets;" in addition to the reflection from the desired
cutoff layer there are spurious reflections from undesired cutoff layers, single and multiple
reflections from system components, waveguide modes, etc. Thus it is vital that the range
resolution inherent in reflectometer systems be utilized to measure the range to the desired
cutoff layer, as opposed to measuring the range to a weighted average of all the reflections.
This implies the use of a minimum bandwidth B sufficient to resolve the desired cutoff layer
from the closest source of interference. In many previous systems this inherent capability
was not utilized, or else the bandwidth employed was too small to enable the closest sources
of interference to be removed.
Precision bandwidth: the spatial precision (Jr of a single radar range measurement
depends on the system signal to noise ratio S, and an effective rf bandwidth employed for
data smoothing /3, viz.C In' Again, the rf bandwidth (signal averaging) in many
Cfr =
2fJvS
previous systems was insufficient to obtain accurate results.
Spatial sampling: resolving rapidly varying spatial features in a density profile, such as
steep edge H-mode density gradients, implies high spatial sampling. This argues for the use
of broadband reflectometer systems with continuous spatial (frequency) coverage, and
against multichannel systems with only 4-10 measurement frequencies.
Adaptive data processing system: modem radar systems invariably employ adaptive
digital signal processing so as to maximize system performance and flexibility. In
reflectometry, adaptive signal processing is important as the optimum range resolution and
precision bandwidths are not constant, but vary with the characteristics of the profile being
measured, i.e. too large a bandwidth can lead to profile smearing, while too little leads to
poor accuracy. Consequently, the filtering and smoothing bandwidths in the UCLA data
analysis software are adaptive. Optimal bandwidths can be determined analytically for both
0- and X-mode propagation. For O-mode the optimal bandwidth is given simply by /3 =
forl2L n , where f is the microwave frequency, Or the desired radial step size for spatial
sampling, and Ln the density scale length. This equation can be used in different ways; for
example, /3 can be fixed, in which case spatial sampling varies with Ln, and/, or Or could be
fixed, such that precision varies with /3. However, perhaps the most attractive option is to
fix a relative sampling rate, i.e. specify Or = Lnl a , where a is a constant, in which case /3
=f/2a (note, this latter expression is not valid for large Ln).

a
..
..
2.28 ,-

E ~ Density
~.
2.30 ~~

......... contours
(/) 2.32
.~
"0 2.34 Ane=
0
0::
2.36 1x1018 m-3

f] ~~
Da
Photo-
diode

2715 2719 2723 2727 2731 2735

Time (ms)
Figure 3. Example of measured DIII-D edge profiles with simultaneous sub-cm spatial and 100 I1s
temporal resolution. Density contour data are shown for densities in the range of 0-7xl0 18 m- 3 as a function
of time and radius across two ELMs. Note the radial scale: the density contours move outward by -4-5 cm at
the onset of each ELM.

123
 Turbulence immunity: The unexpectedly large effects of plasma turbulence on
reflectometer profile measurements compromised many early systems. A better qualitative
understanding of the effects of turbulence has lead to the development of several practical
approaches which minimize the effect of plasma fluctuations on reflectometer profile
measurements. 2.3 While some progress has been made towards a quantitative understanding
of turbulence effects,12-14 an improved theoretical understanding of this issue would be
welcome.
Using this set of design criteria a high performance edge profile reflectometer system
was implemented on DIII-D.7.s The system utilizes X-mode propagation and has a
frequency coverage of 33-50 GHz, corresponding to a density range of 0-7x10 1S m- 3 at full
field. The system has performed well over a number of years, and has coped with a wide
range of plasma conditions, including L-mode, H-mode, L-H transitions, ELMs, rf heated
plasmas, etc. An example of measured profiles showing simultaneous sub-cm spatial and
100 Jls temporal resolution is shown in Fig. 3, where it can be seen that the edge profile is
successfully tracked through ELMs. Thus, current DIII-D results exceed ITER
requirements, and would be sufficient for real time plasma control, giving confidence in
profile reflectometer designs for ITER.

OUTLINE DESIGN OF THE ITER POSITION CONTROL

REFLECTOMETER

Using the design basis described above and other practical considerations it is possible
to outline the design choices for a position and shape control reflectometer system for ITER:
Choice ofpolarization (0- or X-mode propagation): O-mode is the only practical choice
for ITER. X-mode cannot be used to measure the edge profile at the high field side of a
tokamak, while use of O-mode polarization means that identical systems covering the same
frequency range, and hence density, can be used at all poloidallocations.
Frequency/density range: For this initial design the frequency range chosen was 15 -
60 GHz, corresponding to cutoff densities of 0.028 - 0.45x1020 m- 3 . The minimum
frequency should be as low as possible, set by the need to minimize the undetermined portion
of the edge profile (described in detail in the next section). This minimum frequency is
limited by maximum waveguide and antenna sizes to -15 GHz, though it may be possible to
go as low as 10 - 12 GHz. The upper frequency is set by the need to access to/beyond the
separatrix, as described earlier. Using the Dill-D scaling relationship, 0.45x1020 m- 3 at the
separatrix would correspond to line densities of -0.9x1020 m- 3. This is less than the planned
ITER line densities of -2.0x1020 m- 3, such that it may be necessary to raise the maximum
frequency to -90 GHz. However, the highest ITER line densities will probably be attained
in a high confinement regime, such as H-mode, in which case it may not be essential that the
controlling density layer be exactly at or inside the separatrix. This should be investigated
experimentally in any future demonstration of the concept.
Antenna geometry: bistatic arrangement (separate launch and receive horns). Bistatic
operation has substantial advantages in reducing waveguide mode problems, and monostatic
operation (single hom used for both launch and receive) is still possible if one waveguide
system should fail.
Choice of reJlectometry technique: while a choice of reflectometer measurement
technique does not have to be made at this point, use of broadband, continuous sweep,
frequency modulated (FMCW) reflectometer systems was adopted as a baseline.
Predicted performance: Ignoring the effect of the need to model the portion of the
density profile lying below the minimum probed density layer, which is considered in the
next section, predicted performance exceeds ITER requirements. Taking a fixed spatial
sampling rate of Lnl4 to determine the optimum precision bandwidth, and using the formulae

124
given above, 1 cm accuracy should be obtained at 60 GHz with a system signal to noise ratio
as low as 4. As for time resolution, current FMCW reflectometer systems, as on DIII-D,
exceed the ITER requirement of 10 ms by two orders of magnitude or more, so the time
resolution is not an issue. It should be noted that the radar formulae predict that the best
system performance is obtained at the highest frequencies, which are of most relevance to the
control system.

EFFECT OF THE UNDETERMINED PORTION OF THE EDGE PROFILE

ON MEASUREMENT ACCURACY

Using O-mode propagation, as will be the case on ITER, reflectometer measurements

are only available above a minimum frequency fmin, and the position of the plasma edge ro
(position of the zero density layer) is not well determined, leading to position errors in the
reconstructed density profiles. 15 It can be demonstrated that in general the size of this error
should increase with the magnitude of the density gradient scale length Ln (i.e. larger errors
for shallower gradients). That this should be so can be seen conceptually in Fig. 4, which
shows an,example of three measured DIII-D edge density profiles showing the varying radial
extent of the portion of the profile that would be unmeasured by an O-mode system
employing a 15 GHz minimum frequency. It should be noted that when using X-mode
reflectometry, as on DIII-D, ro can be determined directly from the reflectometer data, and
measurements can be made from essentially zero density, such that the O-mode problems do
not arise. Thus, the additional uncertainty posed by these two edge effects forms the main
difference between the proposed edge O-mode profile reflectometer systems for ITER and the
current high performance X-mode reflectometer system on DIll-D.

"
7
\r
'E 6 ?,
::!o
U

I
5
\'
~,
I
Minimum density probed
b 15 GH t

.H.mOde~···~·::~'~~'~'::~.:.~
... I
4 \~: y Z sys em
.~

~ 3 ~
.~ f---~~----~~~----------------4
~ 2 ". ". Undetermined

c 0 .• r. . . ttO~~~f~le
2.28 2.3 2.32 2.34 2.36 2.38 2.4
Major Radius (m)

Figure 4. Example of three measured DIII-D edge density profiles showing the
varying radial extent of the portion of the profile that would be unmeasured by an
O-mode system employing a 15 GHz minimum frequency.

Profile reflectometer systems measure the line integrated phase shift rfJ, or equivalently
the time delay, r=~ dtfi , of an electromagnetic wave reflected from a cutoff layer in a
21r df
plasma. The phase shift is determined by the same basic equation as for interferometry, viz.

4n
rfJ (J)=-c-
f
J
rcU)
fJ(r,f) dr-"2
n
(1 ),
ro

125
where I/J is the total phase shift in propagating from the plasma edge at ro to the cutoff layer at
r eif), and back, f is the microwave frequency, and J1 is the plasma refractive index. By
varying the probe beam frequency the cutoff layer position can be moved across the plasma
radius, or multiple frequencies can be used to reflect from different positions simultaneously.
From a data set of phase (or time delay) as a function of frequency, obtained in either of these
ways, Eq. (1) can be inverted to recover the density profile. For O-mode propagation an
analytic Abel inversion exists:

r(fe)=ro-2 -2
C f
Ie
dif>
dlf ~ 2
df
2 (2),
n a fe - f

where fe is the cutoff frequency for reflection at radius r. To apply Eq. 2 it is necessary to
know the position of the plasma edge ro and have phase measurements for f> 0. As already
stated, however, using O-mode propagation measurements are only available above a
minimum frequency fmin' and the position of the plasma edge ro is not well determined. In
this situation it is necessary to assume or model if> if) for f <fmin' and either assume ro or
determine the starting position from some other diagnostic.
The O-mode edge modeling problem in addressed in some detail in Ref. 15, but no
general treatment of the problem posed by an unknown profile starting position would seem
to exist (previous treatments, such as Ref. 15, generally assumed that the start position is
known a priori, which will not be the position on ITER). Novel aspects of the work reported
here are that measured DIII-D density profiles extending from near zero density are utilized in
assessing the modeling induced error, instead of using model data below fmin to assess the
reliability of the edge modeling, as previously, and the problem of determining ro is
considered explicitly .
Turning first to the problem of determining ro, consider a situation in which phase (time
delay) data are available for all f > 0, and the only uncertainty is in the value of roo As
reflectometers are in effect radar systems,2 it might be thought that ro could be determined
simply from the time delay of the lowest probing frequency. However, this is not so due to
the range/gradient ambiguity in reflectometer data (equivalent to the rangelDoppler ambiguity
in classical radar systems). The time delay to a cutoff layer depends not only on its position,
but also on the value of the local density gradient; using Eq. 1, it can be shown that dif>/df(or
the time delay) consists to two terms, one corresponding to the optical path length to the
cutoff layer, and a second corresponding to the frequency variation of the path length, which
depends on the density gradient. The raw phase or time delay data do, however, impose
minimum and maximum distances within which the plasma must lie. In addition, it is easy to
demonstrate that for the case under consideration here Eq. 2 automatically solves the
range/gradient ambiguity, such that the correct density profile is recovered independent of the
choice of roo Assume that instead of the correct value the actual value used in Eq. 2 is r' = ro
+ .1r. For this incorrect choice of starting position the phase data inside the integral term are
modified to I/J' = I/J - .11/J, where .1if> = 4n.1rf!c . The integral in Eq. 2 can be performed
analytically for the .11/J term, and results in -.1r, exactly canceling the original error in the
choice of r', and the correct density profile is recovered identically.
In practice the position is different than that just considered, in that phase data have to
be modeled/assumed for frequencies lying below fmin, in which case Eq. 2 mayor may not
be self correcting, depending on the form of the model used. Examples of two models which
preserve the self correcting feature of Eq. 2 with respect to assumed starting position are
simple linear interpolations extending the gradient atfmin to zero frequency in either phase or
time delay. Using these models the error in the inverted profile is entirely due to the
difference between the assumed phase data and the phase corresponding to the actual plasma

126
profile, and does not depend on the assumed plasma starting location. In the modeling
presented in this paper a simple self correcting linear phase interpolation model was used.
This corresponds to assuming that the undetermined portion of the plasma profile is at the
maximum possible distance from the reflectometer system consistent with the data. In
addition, a linear phase as a function of frequency corresponds to a mirror reflection, so the
assumed model portion of the density profile has a vertical gradient. Obviously this is a
conservative choice, more realistic edge profile models may well give better results. The
results presented here for the size of the edge modeling error for specific profiles should thus
be regarded as upper bounds, reflecting the conservative nature of the actual model used.

8 rrTT~~~~~~~~~~~~~

.,\ =0.9 cm
\
;;-- 7 ;;--7 piff~rence II) .r~.!lills...

~E 6 +.... ~E 6 ...

b 5 b 5 i
:E.
~
..
~ 2
4
3 ~~________- L_ _- ,
- - Original
profile
:E.4
..
.~ 3
c 2
"
.......I
.,
\.
\
--Original H·mode
profile
••_••••• Reconstructed
profile
C •__._ Reconstructed ~ :\......
profile
oE.."==""=====!...J..........i...Jh.........J o I
2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35 2.4 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35 2.4
Major Radius (m) Major Radius (m)

Figure 5. Examples of the position error introduced in reconstructed L· and H·mode density profiles (left
and right graphs, respectively) by the edge modeling process for a simulated ITER reflectometer system. The
solid curves are the original measured DIll·D edge density profiles, while the dashed curves are the inverted
profiles obtained from the simulated ITER system. At the highest density, the position error is 0.5 cm for
the L·mode case, and 0·.9 cm for the H·mode.

Using the above edge model the size of the model induced position error for a simulated
ITER reflectometer system was investigated using a range of measured DIII-D density
profiles. As the measured DIII-D density range was not the same as that projected for ITER,
the 15 GHz minimum and 60 GHz maximum ITER frequencies were scaled to DIII-D so as
to give the same ratio of measured to unmeasured densities. Examples of the original and
reconstructed density profiles are shown for L- and H-mode profiles in Fig. 5. Overall, the
scaling of the results is in agreement with expectation, i.e. the error is largest for shallow
gradients, which increases the radial extent of the unmeasured portion of the profile. The
magnitude of the error, for typical DIII-D L- and H-mode profiles, was less than 1 cm,
though up to 1.5 cm was observed for a low density rf heated discharge with shallow edge
gradients. Thus, the performance of the simulated ITER O-mode system was within or close
to requirements. However, the actual size of the error on ITER will depend critically on the
value of Ln in the ITER SOL plasma, which is currently not well defined. If density gradient
scale lengths on ITER are comparable to or shorter than on DIII-D (typically 1-2 cm), as in
the current "best guess," then edge modeling induced errors will be comparable to those
reported here. If the ITER edge profile is shallower, however, larger errors can be expected.
Finally, the results shown here are in general agreement with one of the primary results
reported in Ref. 15; the position error induced by the edge modeling process decreases as
Imax is increased relative to Imin, i.e. the most accurate results are obtained at the highest
densities, which are the most relevant for the proposed control system.

SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS

Design studies indicate that a reflectometer based plasma position/shape control system

127
for ITER is viable, with performance levels at or close to requirements. The application of
profile reflectometer systems to ITER can be contemplated with confidence, based on
improvements in both the theoretical understanding of optimal reflectometer system design
and experimental results from present devices. However, the proposed new plasma position
control technique is completely untested and for such a vital machine requirement it is
essential to provide a comprehensive experimental demonstration before application to ITER.
In order to perform such a demonstration new capabilities must first be developed, such as
real time, automatic analysis of reflectometer data. A first step would be to demonstrate real
time analysis using a current reflectometer system, after which a full experimental
demonstration of plasma shape and position control using only reflectometer measurements
could be performed. The LCT-2 tokamak under construction at UCLA would be ideal for
such a demonstration since it combines a shaped plasma geometry with unrivaled access to
the plasma around the entire poloidal circumference. Other research tasks include the better
definition of the expected ITER edge density gradient scale lengths, and a more systematic
investigation of the options for modeling the portion of the density profile undetermined by
O-mode reflectometry. Finally, an improved quantitative understanding of the impact of
plasma turbulence on profile measurements would be useful.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to express their thanks to Dr. G. Vayakis (ITER JCT) for many
useful discussions and for providing Fig. 1, and to Dr. T.N. Carlstrom (General Atomics)
for providing the data shown in Fig. 2. This work was supported by US DOE Grant and
Contract Nos. DE-FG03-86ER53225 (UCLA) and DE-AC02-76-CHO-3073 (Princeton).
This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement among
the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation in
the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IABA).

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3. C. Laviron et aI., Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 38, 905 (1996).
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Proceedings.
5. N.L. Bretz et aI., ITER position control reflectometry - conceptual design, in: These Proceedings.
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7. K.W. Kim, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles (1996).
8. K.W. Kim et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 466 (1997).
9. D.W. Swain et al., Nuc. Fusion 37, 211 (1997).
10. E.J. Doyle, et aI., in: Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research 1992, IAEA, Vienna
(1993).
11. A. Silva, et aI., in: Fusion Technology, C. Ferro, et al., eds., North-Holland, Amsterdam (1992).
12. E. Mazzucato and R. Nazikian, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 1237 (1995).
13. O. Conway, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 39, 407 (1997).
14. O. Vayakis, Fusion Engineering and Design 34·35, 519 (1997).
15. P. Varela et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 4937 (1995).

128
ITER POSITION CONTROL REFLECTOMETRY - CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

N.L. Bretz, C. Kessel,l E.J. Doyle,2 and G. Vayakis 3

I Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08543,

USA
2Electrical Engineering Department and Institute of Plasma and Fusion Research,
University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
3ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, LaJolla, CA 92037, USA

INTRODUCTION

The plasma position reflectometer array will supplement magnetics measurements for
plasma position control in ITER by estimating the position and shape of the flux surface near
the plasma boundary. Reflectometry can measure the location of a specified density layer
near the separatrix and is expected to be especially useful in controlling the location of the
plasma boundary during the long equilibrium phase of the discharge when magnetics signals
may accumulate offset errors. A poloidal array of eight swept frequency, ordinary mode
reflectometers operating between 15 and 60 GHz has been evaluated. This frequency range
corresponds to cutoff densities between 0.028 and 0.45x10 20 m· 3 [fa = 9.0n!/2(m-3 ) Hz]
which are estimated to encompass the scrape off density for projected ITER plasma
scenarios. The position measurement relies on a time delay technique and, thus, measures
the distance from from the plasma surface to a physical reference point near the wall during
each frequency sweep. Reflectometry systems for profile measurements using both the
ordinary and extraordinary mode cutoffs are used widely in fusion plasmas and are reviewed
by Laviron. 1
For position and shape control ITER requires an accuracy dRin, out. dZtop "" 0,01 m
with an edge radial velocity less than 0.01 mls and time response less than 1 ms. 2 A swept
ordinary mode reflectometer using the frequency range indicated above and frequency sweep
rate in the range of 10 to 100 kHz can satisfy these requirements.3 Reflectometers can be
swept at a rate which is high enough to resolve Edge Localized Modes (ELMs) and other fast
events. Thus, measurements can be generated much faster than required for position
feedback control and not be disturbed by transients. A midplane extraordinary mode
reflectometer has been operated on Dill-D over a slightly smaller frequency range which meet
ITER requirements. 4 The ordinary mode reflectometer considered here is better suited for an
array of poloidal measurements but has slightly different sources of error. In particular, an
additional systematic error will result from the unknown density below the lowest cutoff.
Doyle5 shows in an accompanying paper that the error resulting from the ordinary mode
inversion procedure is small for typical Dill-D edge profiles. The resulting accuracy is about
0.01 m for profiles with Ln ~ 0.01 m and is roughly proportional to Ln == -n / (an / aT). In

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 129
addition the response of ordinary mode refiectometer systems to turbulence is expected to be
different and a full evaluation will require more experience on present devices and
extrapolation to turbulence expected in ITER. Current experience with ordinary mode
systems has been evaluated by Mans06 and is an area of active investigation. The effect of
fluctuations appears to be manageable, and there are a number of techniques to reduce its
influence on profile measurements. In all, the accuracy of the technique should satisfy ITER
requirements. However, more operational experience with ordinary mode reflectometers on
diverted plasmas will be needed to demonstrate reliable profile predictions which are immune
from transients.
One significant limitation on the use of a poloidal reflectometer array for position
control is that plasmas which are not relatively close to the transmitting and receiving antenna
pair do not give consistent return signals. Thus, for plasmas further away from the edge than
about 1 m, that is, the start up and shutdown scenarios, magnetics are the appropriate
controls. Reflectometry can be used only during the long pulse, equilibrium phase of ITER.
Technical constraints on these measurements imposed by the ITER design are
substantial. This paper will concentrate on the position control reflectometer design that
impacts the fIrst wall and vacuum boundary. Of particular concern are constraints from the
inner wall blanket modules which allow very little room for waveguide and antennas. In this
design we assume that antennas can be installed in the 0.02 m gap between modules and that
waveguide can run between the inner blanket modules and the backing plate. Away from the
inner wall the module gaps are the same but waveguide runs are easier. Thermal,
mechanical, electrical, vacuum, and neutronic factors all require a simple, rugged, and
reliable design for the antennas, waveguide, and mechanical supports. Minor modifIcations
of the inner blanket modules will be required to accommodate this design. However, the
waveguide losses, bends, vacuum feedthroughs, and mechanical stresses can be
accommodated with the basic design presented here.
The purpose of this paper is to describe a reflectometer array which meets the control
requirements of a plasma position control system, to show how such a system may be
implemented on ITER especially those aspects which affect the first wall and vacuum
boundary, and to show how reflectometer information can be used for control of the plasma
position and shape. A conceptual design will be given of the waveguide route behind the fIrst
wall blanket and the antenna location in the gaps between blanket modules. In order to
demonstrate what issues are important for position control, a sensitivity study has been done
relating the number of reflectometers to the accuracy of the equilibrium reconstruction with
and without additional constraints.

REFLECTOMETER INSTRUMENTATION

There are several types of refiectometer which could be employed for this measurement.
The technique patterned after Frequency Modulated - Continuous Wave (FM-CW) radar7
meets the control requirements and is the basis for the discussion given here. However,
several other types have been used in the fusion community or are being developed. These
include comb reflectometers,8 short or ultra-short pulse refiectometers,9 and dual frequency
AM or FM reflectometers.l o A generic CW-FM reflectometer is shown in Fig. 1. The
source sweeps linearly and repetitively between the upper and lower frequency limits, 15 to
60 GHz in this case. The output is split into a plasma and a reference leg. The plasma leg
reflects from the plasma while the length of the reference leg is adjusted so that, when the
reflected and reference leg arms are mixed, there is a low frequency difference or beat
frequency, f B' This beat frequency represents the time delay between the two arms and is a
function of the plasma wall distance and the density shape. For sweep rates between 10 and
100 ~s and antenna/plasma separations of up to 1 m, one has fB < 5 and 50 MHz,

130
 Freq.~~ 60 GHz
Time 15 GHz

Reference
and
Delay
+
Plasma

fa hLJ. Time
Output Signal

Figure 1. A block diagram of an FM-CW reflectometer is shown. The source sweeps

repetitively between the upper and lower frequency limits, 15 and 60 GHz. The detector
samples the beat frequency,fB' between the delayed source and reflected signal from the
plasma cutoff.

respectively. A typical receiver noise power in this frequency range is better than 2xlO- 20
WlHz (TN'" 1,400 K).
The choice of frequency for the system considered here is determined by the flat-top
peak density expected in ITER of 0.1 to 3.0xl020 m- 3. The separatrix density is assumed to
be about one quarter of the peak density based on DID-D experience. The frequency range
needed to cover this density (typically 15 - 60 GHz) can nominally be accommodated by
sources, receivers, and waveguides consistent with ITER constraints. High power (20 - 100
mW), solid state microwave sources exist which can sweep full waveguide bands in this
range in 10 fJ.s. However, the system complexity increases if one needs to multiplex a large
number of bands. The range 18 to 60 GHz covers three bands: WR-42 (18 - 26.5 GHz),
WR-28 (26.5 - 40 GHz), and WR-19 (40 - 60 GHz). Extensions down to 12.5 GHz or up
to 90 GHz would involve two more bands, WR-62 and WR-12, respectively. Fast swept
systems in the frequency bands between 18 and 75 GHz have been used on reflectometers on
ASDEX-U and DIll-D. The lowest frequency considered here also has the highest
waveguide losses in the ITER design. The upper limit is less constrained by waveguide
losses and could probably be raised to 90 GHz if there were no constraints on source and
receiver complexity.

IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS

Fig. 2 shows a set of poloidallocations for the reflectometers which has been chosen to
fall in blanket gaps and which has been used to analyze position control requirements. These
positions have been roughly chosen to control the main sectors of the plasma shape. The six
control points used for magnetics feedback control are shown for comparison. Magnetic
reconstruction simulation discussed later will be required to determine if this choice is optimal
and what, if any, additional constraints might substantially improve the reconstruction. Fig.
2 also shows how the waveguide will be distributed from the top and outer port to the various
elements of the reflectometer array.

131
 M+- Waveguide
in conduit in
front of backplate

Waveguide
in gap
between
backplate
and
vacuum
vessel

Figure 2. The poloidal distribution of eight position control reflectometer antennas in

ITER ( • ) and the waveguide routing are shown. The six magnetic feedback control points
are shown for reference (0).

In order to implement the position refiectometer on ITER several antennas must be

installed both on the small and large major radius side of the plasma. We have considered
how to install transmission lines and bistatic, that is a pair of transmitting and receiving,
antennas in the 15 - 60 GHz range near the blanket modules. Space constraints limit the size
of the transmission line to rectangular waveguide of no more than a few centimeters in
outside dimensions. The loss for an estimated maximum of 60 m round trip loss between
source and receiver for TElO mode in 0.02 m x 0.02 m and 0.02 m x 0.01 cm copper
waveguide with E parallel the to short dimension is shown in Table 1. The total tolerable
transmission line loss between the source or receiver and antennas should be kept below
about 20 dB including bends, vacuum windows, voltage breaks, and transitions.
The waveguide on the inner wall runs in a conduit in the back of the blanket modules
between the blanket modules and the backing plate as shown in Fig. 3. The dimensions of
the conduit are 0.07 m x 0.035 m and must accommodate the position control refiectometer
waveguide as well as that of other systems as described by Vayakis. 1l The smaller
waveguide (0.02 x 0.01 m) will be used in the conduit near the inner wall but the larger
waveguide will be used everywhere else. Waveguides must be routed around backing plate

Table 1. Attenuation of 60 m of rectangular copper waveguide in the TE 10 mode with

the electric field parallel to the short dimension for the frequency range 15 to 60 GHz.

15 GHz 60GHz
0.02 m x 0.02 m ID 6.0dB/60m 7.0dB/60m
0.02 m x 0.01 mID 1O.OdB/6Om 14.0 dB/60m

132
 DIAGNOSTIC DETECTOR,
SOCKET CAMERA.
-_eJc._ - -t
I
CONNECTOR I
PLUG

(7.0 X 3.5 em)

Figure 3. Waveguide route for high field reflectometer antennas (and other mm wave
diagnostics) behind the blanket modules. The space between the modules is - 0.02 m.

curvatures avoiding water cooling lines and electrical cables. The waveguides from each
poloidal section are bundled together and taken out of the vacuum and cryostat boundary
through many identical vacuum windows incorporated into the waveguide.
Bends in rectangular guide can be made in a number of different ways depending on
the routing, but in general sharp bends cause significant losses and must be minimized ..
Waveguides can be bent gently with radius of curvature greater than 2 m with little mode
conversion loss. Sharper bends can be made using a hyperbolic secant shape. Right angle
hyperbolic secant bends can be made in 0.02 m x 0.02 m copper waveguide in both planes in
0.3 m with losses below 1 dB.12 Sharp 90 degree bends near the antenna transitions will be
more lossy especially at low frequencies. The waveguide to the inner wall is expected to run
\
vertically behind the blanket modules and tum sharply to the antennas located in the space
between the blanket modules. Typically, an H-plane bend will be needed and will have about
2 dB loss at 15 GHz and 1 dB loss at 60 GHz. This represents the worst case. The loss can
be made less by making a gentler bend than a miter. However, the design is strongly
dependent on the extent to which the back of the blanket can be modified and has not been
examined in detail. Bend losses can be further reduced near the antenna transition near outer
blanket modules where space behind the blanket is less restricted.
The transition between the waveguides and bistatic antennas near the blanket module is
shown schematically in Fig. 4. As noted, the poloidal and toroidal spaces between the
blanket modules is about 0.02 m, and the antennas must be supported in this space consistent
with movement of the blankets. The antennas will be directly exposed to plasma radiation
and neutron flux and must withstand flash heating from disruptions as well as the continuous
thermal load from plasma emission and neutrons. Preliminary thermal estimates show that
thin uncooled antennas made of tungsten or carbon fiber composites can be used between the
blanket modules. However, support and installation issues have not been addressed in detail.
A fiducial reflection between the antennas and the plasma boundary is needed to provide a
reference position for calibration.
Overall, the round trip losses in the waveguide, vacuum windows (3 dB/window),
bends, and voltage breaks are not expected to exceed 40 dB over the full frequency range. In

133
addition one expects an antenna coupling loss of 20 to 30 dB depending on the frequency and
distance to the reflecting surface. Noise from the plasma will be dominated by electron
cylotron emission which is expected to have an equivalent temperature, TECE, which is
similar to that of the plasma at cutoff. This means that the detector noise will be determined
primarily by TECE reduced by lOl.",I2O where Lpd in dB is the antenna and transmission line
loss to the detector. Using the most conservative estimate, (1) 10 mW source power, (2) 50
MHz bandwidth (10 J.Ls sweep time), (3) 70 dB total loss and Lpd - 20 dB, (4) TECE - 2
keY, gives a signal-to-noise ratio of unity. The signal-to-noise will be increased by
averaging and using a smaller effective bandwidth consistent with the spatial accuracy
required in the proflle calculation. Plasma turbulence may contribute to the effective noise but
has not been included in this estimate.
There are a number of design issues related to special circumstances when the plasma
edge is very close to the antennas and when it is very far away. When the plasma edge is
very close to the antenna aperture, the coupling between the launching and receiving antennas
can be reduced since the reflected antenna pattern of the launched wave may not overlap well
with that of the receiver. This effect is worst at the highest frequency where the antenna
pattern is narrowest. However, for the frequencies and antennas discussed here the width of
the pattern is never narrower than about sin-I(A. / D) z 15 deg (A. = c / t,
and D is the
waveguide width), which means roughly that if the antennas are separated by the width of the
blanket gap, w Z 0.02 m, and if the antennas patterns are normal to the wall, then plasmas
closer than about wD / A. Z 0.08 m will cause the returned signal to be severely attenuated at
the highest frequency. The closest wall-separatrix gaps are expected to be at least 0.10 m in
normal ITER scenarios. Antennas can be angled to reduce this effect at the expense of being
optimized for a particular wall-plasma spacing. Monostatic antennas do not have this
problem but are judged to have other drawbacks. Bistatic antennas could be closer together
and incorporated into the blanket module itself, or the antennas could be recessed behind edge
of the blanket. Another near plasma effect not accounted for in the usual inversion algorithm
is the possibility of a partial reflection from a sharp step in the density whose scale length is
less than approximately [L.(A. / 27r)2r'3 ~ 0.02 m. but which occurs at a density smaller than
the cutoff. In this somewhat pathological case there will be a partial reflection from the step
in addition to the reflection from the cutoff layer. In practice this situation has not caused
difficulties in interpretation. Finally, MARFEs or physical obstructions from limiter debris

Blanket~<I>
Module
Blanket
Module
Z

Waveguide Transmitting
and
Receiving
Antennas

Figure 4. Cutaway view of bistatic position control reflectometer antennas and mounting
near blanket modules.

134
might block the reflection at a particular location. Experience on existing (midplane) systems
has shown that such blockages are rare. However, this emphasizes the need for some
redundancy in the poloidal array, some judgement in handling transients, and some
operational experience in the use of multi-element reflectometers for position control.
Issues associated with plasma surfaces which are far away from the antennas are
associated with signal reduction due to the widening antenna pattern for a given frequency
which is proportional to f'D 4 / L2 where L is the distance between the antenna and the
reflection. In addition, if the plasma cutoff surface is not normal to the antenna within an
angular range of sin-lOt / D) deg., then the returned signal will be severely attenuated. All
equilibrium scenarios in ITER plasmas are well within the acceptance angle of the antennas
shown and will not reduce the signal level significantly. However, outer wall startup and
shutdown scenarios can be out of view of all or several of the eight antennas a various stages
in the growth and can allow the reflectometer signals to interfere with each other. Magnetics
control is clearly better suited for the rapidly changing startup and shutdown. Thus, the role
of the position control reflectometer is that of providing redundancy and/or a normalization
for the magnetics during the long period of constant conditions so that the eqUilibrium
position of the plasma is well known during the flattop and can be used in conjunction with
other information to normalize magnetics before the magnetically controlled shutdown.

PLASMA CONTROL

The question of the placement number of the reflectometer array elements for magnetic
reconstruction is addressed in this section. The initial placement of the antenna array was
done so that the critical inboard, outboard, top, and bottom gaps were well determined. In
addition it was thought prudent to put more elements in the main plasma chamber to be
sensitive to shape especially where the boundary is sharpest. However, compared to
magnetics, there is a significant lack of information from the reflectometer array (as shown in
Fig. 2) in the divertor region. Thus, one may expect that additional constraints on the
eqUilibrium may be needed to accurately determine the strike points from shape information
alone.
A Grad-Shafranov equilibrium has used for a standard ITER flattop scenario (lp =21.0
MA, R = 8.15 m, a = 2.8 m, Z = 1.45 m, 1(, = 1.75, D = 0.35 where I( and D are the
elongation and triangUlarity, respectively). From this equilibrium, magnetics loop signals
and flux surface shapes can be specified. The magnetic signals are then reproduced with a set
of current filaments on a contour in the region af< 2 m where afis the minor radius of the
contour of the filament array. Currents in external coils are assumed to be known. It is noted
that a set of filament arrays can be found on contours with different values of afwhich satisfy
the known magnetic probe signals to an accuracy of less than 0.1 %. So far, this is the type
of calculation which is done to assess the magnetics feedback control system. In order to
make an initial estimate of the sensitivity of the reflectometer reconstruction, a similar type of
calculation is carried out. It is assumed that the reflectometers give the position of the
boundary flux contour. As before, a set filaments is found for different values of afwhich
satisfy the known shape; however, now the values of the boundary flux, qJb, and Ip are
treated as unknown. For this set of filaments one can estimate lPb, Ip, and the locations of the
X and strike points as a function of af Some of these results for 8, 11, 14, and 21 channel
reflectometer arrays are shown in Fig. 5. From this figure one can conclude that, if no other
information is available, one needs at least 14 elements to obtain both Ip and qJb to an
accuracy of 1%. Variations in the predicted inner and outer strike point of less than 0.02 m
are found only for 14 channels and above.
The number of reflectometer channels may be reduced if one imposes additional
constraints on the reconstruction. Two such constraints have been considered, (1) the actual
plasma current and (2) the actual location of the divertor strike points. When Ip is

135
 26
21
~
6 22
_Q.

18
Actual Value

18
:0
~
""21
14
..c
9-

10
0.8 1.5 2.2
af(m)
Figure S. The variation of Ip and IPb with the filament minor radius is shown for
magnetic reconstructions of the flux surface from 8, 11, 14, and 21 reflectometers and no
other constraints. The actual values oflp and IPb are 21.0 MA and 15.95 Wh, respectively.

constrained, the variation in all reflectometer estimates of q>b is less than 0.1 % for all
reflectQmeter sets. However, the strike points vary by 0.15 m even for the 14 elements set.
When the strike point location alone is constrained, the estimate of Ip and q>b is not good for
any of antenna sets. The total current is apparently necessary to constrain solutions to those
with X points. When both the strike point and the total current are constrained to their actual
values, the problem still appears to be over constrained, and is substantially improved by
eliminating the first singular value. More work needs to be done on this aspect of the control
problem. Other constraints may be more apporpriate.
Estimates have also been carried out to determine the significance of errors in each of
the reflectometer array elements. A filament reconstruction has been done for random error
distributed uniformly on the interval t.n = +/- 0.0 m to + 0.05 m normal to the flux surface
for each of the nmax = 8 and 14 reflectometer elements for af = 1.6 m. The variation of Ip
and q>b, with t.n is dIp / dt.n ~ 22 MA / m and dq>b / dt.n ~ 25 Wb / m. Furthermore, the
errors in predicting the strike point location are about 0.30 m even for t.n = +/- 0.01 m.
Thus, measurement errors of 0.01 to 0.02 m will dominate reconstruction inaccuracies in Ip,
q>b, and the strike point when the number of reflectometers is greater than about 8.
The conclusion from these calculations is that the gross position and shape of the
boundary flux is controlled well from the 8 channel reflectometry array, but the position of
the strike points is not well determined failing to meet the ITER specification of 0.10 m even
for 14 channels. In addition the possibility of using shape information alone to determine Ip
and q>b requires 14 or more channels. The larger array would be needed to predict magnetic
loop signals in order to correct their drift which, in tum, is needed for using magnetics to
ramp down the discharge at the end. More work needs to be done to incorporate shape
information from the reflectometer array into the overall time dependent feedback control
problem to determine what additional constraints may be required to control the strike point
and to provide drift corrections for the magnetics

CONCLUSION

An ordinary mode reflectometer operating in the frequency range 15 to 60 GHz can be

designed which can measure the location of a plasma density surface near the separatrix with

136
sufficient accuracy to be used to supplement the magnetics for position control. A swept
frequency (FM-CW) reflectometer has been analyzed as the most probable candidate for the
diagnostic technique. Such a system can be implemented using the same frequency range at
each poloidal control location, and it is possible to have many common components. A
bistatic antenna arrangement has been proposed in which the antennas are incorporated into
edge or core of the blanket modules. Simple overmoded waveguide with several types of
low loss bends can bring signals from remote sources and detectors to the antennas, so that
complexity near the plasma facing components is minimized. The strength of the position
control reflectometer is in the accurate estimate of a specific edge density layer with respect to
a physical location near the vessel wall. This estimate relies on a time delay measurement and
is independent of the past history of the profile.
Because of a considerable body of experimental work on measuring density profiles
with reflectometry, this system can be design with a reasonably high level of confidence.
However, there are a number of areas which require addition development. Beside the ITER
specific needs to develop windows, evaluate neutron and thermal effects, and evaluate
waveguide routing, there are a number of issues that can be addressed on contemporary
devices. This includes the development of inversion algorithms for the ordinary mode which
demonstrate the required positional accuracy on a tokamak. A poloidal array similar to the
ITER design should be used on a contemporary tokamak to obtain operational experience and
to directly compare with magnetics.
Finally, the sensitivity of the prediction of Ip and q>b, to the number of reflectometers in
the array has been examined using a filament reconstruction technique. Eight reflectometer
elements is sufficient to control the shape of the boundary flux surface provided that the
density is a flux quantity and provide a correspondence can be made between a position on
the density profile and the density close to the flux boundary. However, the strike point is
not well controlled with this system nor is there sufficient information from the shape alone to
correct individual magnetic loop drifts. The plasma shape will have to be incorporated into
the overall control system to determine if there is sufficient information to accomplish the
ramp down in the face of magnetic drifts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been performed under the Agreement among the European Atomic
Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation,
and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation in the Engineering
Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor under the
auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency. This work was supported by US DoE
Contract DE-AC02-76-CHO-3073 (Princeton) and DE-Fg03-86ER53225 (UCLA).

REFERENCES

C. Laviron, A.J.H. Donne, M.E. Manso, and J. Sanchez, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion
38, 905 (1996).
2 A.E. Costley, et aI, Proc. Workshop on Diagnostics for ITER, Varenna, Italy, Eds. P.E.
Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, NY (1996).
3 E.J. Doyle, et aI, Proc. Workshop on Diagnostics for ITER, Varenna, Italy, Eds. P.E.
Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, NY (1996).
4 K.W. Kim, E.J. Doyle, T.L. Rhodes, W.A. Peebles, c.L. Rettig, and N.C. Luhmann,
Jr., Rev. Sci. Instr. 66, 466 (1997).
5 E.J. Doyle, et aI, Design Basis for the ITER Plasma Shape and Position Control
Reflectometer System, These Proceedings

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6 Manso, M.E. et ai, Proc. Workshop on Diagnostics for ITER, Varenna, Italy, Eds. P.E.
Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, NY (1996) and These Proceedings.
7 J. Doane, E. Mazzucato, and G. Schmidt, Rev. Sci. Intrum. 52, 13 (1981).
8 A.c. Sips and GJ. Kramer, Plas. Phys. Control. Fusion 35, 743 (1993).
9 S.H. Heijnen, M. de Baar, AJ.H. Donne, MJ. van de Pol, C.AJ. Hugenholtz, and
RTP Team, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66,419 (1995).
10 G.R. Hanson, J.B. Wilgen, T.S. Bigelow, I. Collazo, A.c. England, M. Murakami,
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12 J.L. Doane, IEEE Trans Mic. Theory Tech. MTT-32, 1362 (1984)

138
REFLECTOMETRY IN THE ITER DIVERT OR

M. Manso l , L. Cupido!, G. Leclert 2, D. Wagner3, G. Vayakis 4 A.

Donne5, L. de Kock6, C. Laviron 7 , J. Sanchez8 , F. Serral, A. Silva1 ,
C. Walker6, and the ITER Joint Central Team and EU Home Teams.

lAssocia<;ao EURATOM/1ST, CFN, Lisboa, Portugal

2LPMI, Univ. Henri Poincare Nancy I, France
3Institut fur Plasmaforschung, Stuttgart, Germany
41TER JCT, San Diego JWS, USA
5FOM, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
6ITER JCT, Garching JWS, Germany
7 Association EURATOM-CEA, Cadarache, France

8Association EURATOM/CIEMAT, 28040 Madrid, Spain

INTRODUCTION
Reflectometry at the ITER divertor will be vital to characterise plasma transport
and fluctuations and to optimize machine operation. The main objective is to measure
density profiles with high spatial and temporal resolution. Other important measure-
ments are the detection of ELMs and multifaceted axisymmetric radiation from the
edge (MARFES), and flame front location. Divertor plate erosion can also, in principle,
be measured based on distance measurements.
In the last years reflectometry has experienced great advances l ,2,3 and it is now
possible to obtain density profiles with simultaneous high spatial ('" 1 cm) and tem-
poral resolution (",100 liS). However, although measurements at the main plasma
are routine, at the divertor the experience is still limited. High demands are put on
reflectometry for the ITER divertor due to the strong refractive effects, wide range of
densities to be probed (0.1-100x 1020 m- 3 ) and severe restrictions in access. In spite of
the difficulties and through the work by members of the ITER Joint Central Team and
EU Home Team, a realistic engineering design was developed 4,5,6 with solutions for the
waveguide paths on divertor cassette and transmission line to the outside, compatible
with remote handling requirements.
Here, we analyse some aspects of the engineering design in view of their impact on
the quality of profile measurement. The propagation conditions in the divertor region
are studied with full wave calculations (lD and 2D) and the factors that determine the
radial resolution of profile measurements are analysed, in particular initialisation. The
extremely high densities in the divertor poses the problem of availability of microwave

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 139
sources. Several solutions are considered: broadband swept up to 220 GHz, narrow
band swept and/or pulse radar reflectometry up to 350 GHz.
The existing engineering design, the present feasibility study and results from ex-
periments on JET6 and DIII-D7, show that reflectometry at the ITER divertor is
possible and will make an important contribution for the machine operation and to
the understanding of the underlying physics.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
The measurements to be performed on the ITER divertor fall into categories: (lb)
ne profiles, Marfes, flame front location; and (2) ELMs, density fluctuations. The
resolution target is 0.3 em across the leg and 10 em along the leg. The target time
resolution is 1 ms and accuracy 10%. The small radial resolution across the leg is
imposed by the narrowness of the scrape-off layer. Here reflectometry has the advan-
tage that the radial resolution improves with the steepness of the density gradient and
therefore the 3 mm resolution is not a high demand for the system. As we will see
later, even the absolute location of the gradient zone within 3 mm can be achieved
with reflectometry.
Measurements over the full range of density (ne: 0.1-100x 1020 m- 3 ) require a very
large frequency range, 18-900 GHz for 0 mode propagation, and X-u mode (90-180
GHz) is foreseen to probe the plasma edge. Continuous broadband measurements will
be performed up to 220 GHz and for higher frequencies a multichannel system with
narrowband channels can be used. All the frequencies can be combined and launched
simultaneously into the highest frequency transmission lines and the signal will be
detected at different intermediate frequencies IF (heterodyne detection). Due to the
strong refractive effects expected at the divertor region, transmission must also be used
in order to avoid ambiguities between diffraction of the reflected signal away from the
antenna and transmission. Different types of measurements can be performed: density
profile, peak density, profile width, delayometry.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SYSTEM

A realistic engineering design was developed4 ,5,6,7 with solutions for the waveguide
paths on divertor cassette and transmission line to the outside, compatible with remote
handling requirements. The full profile will be probed from the private flux and target
side with 0 and X mode, with five sight lines on the outer leg and three sight lines in
the inner leg, each of them including two bistatic antenna systems for the lower and
higher frequency ranges (see Figure 1). Monostatic or bistatic arrangement can be used
but bistatic is more convenient for most reflectometry techniques. The distribution of
sightlines is a compromise between a detailed description of the divertor profile and
the feasibility of the transmission system. With the present number of sightlines the
resolution along the leg is only ",,20 em, but as this resolution is most important to
resolve the location of the strike zone an additional toroidal location could be used to
implement more sightlines.
The waveguides and antennas will be placed in an insert onto the diagnostic cassette
and can be shared with Interferometry and Electron Cyclotron Absorption diagnostic.
Details about the implementation of the system and optimization of the front end are
presented in companion papers5.6. Due to restrictions of the available space for the
waveguide routing in the divertor, moderately oversized rectangular waveguides are
foreseen (see Table 1). These waveguides must be coupled to the oversized corrugated
waveguide (D-63.5 mm) outside the divertor used for long distance transmission. To

140
 Figure 1 - Central diagnostic cassette port - 8 & 18

Table 1: Waveguide for different frequency bands (0 and X modes).

Wave propagation Freguency range Waveguides Bends
O-mode 20-60 GHz lOmmxlOmm gradual bends
O-mode 60-280 GHz 20mmxlOmm quasi-optical mitre bends
X-mode 90-180 GHz 5mmx60mm quasi-optical mitre bends

make these transitions as compact as possible and broadband at the same time, a
quasi-optical transition based on confocal imaging can be used. In order to cover the
whole frequency range from 15 GHz to 280 GHz, three different types of rectangular
waveguides will be applied. Different types of waveguide bends are necessary to limit
mode conversion losses (Table 1).
Gradual waveguide bends offer a better performance in the low frequency range
(O-mode, 20-60 GHz). However more detailed design using optimized curvatures is
still necessary due to the limited availability of space for the waveguide paths on the di-
vertor cassette. For higher frequencies compact quasi-optical bends are feasible. First
experiments7 for long distance broadband transmission using oversized corrugated cir-
cular waveguides with a length of 28 m including three mitre bends demonstrated
average losses of only 0.24 dB in the frequency range 45-170 GHz. The measured
losses of a quasi-optical transition between the oversized corrugated waveguide and a
standard rectangular waveguide were about 1 dB. However in this measurement the
available circular horn antenna (length=120 mm, output diameter=16.25 mm) con-
nected of the rectangular waveguide was not optimized for the used mirror setup. For
optimized horns, with length and output diameter of 200 mm and 13.2 mm respec-
tively, the expected total loss of the quasi-optical coupler is only 0.5 dB.
In order to avoid the. exposure of the antennas to very large heat loads, they must
be set back from the plasma facing surface by about 60-70 mm and therefore view the
plasma through gaps between the target plates. This will affect the radiation patterns
of the rectangular horns. The field radiated from the open waveguide is still guided by
the side walls of the divertor cassette which act as a parallel plate waveguide, i.e. there

141
is only beam divergence in one plane. Therefore this could be even an improvement
concerning the radiation pattern in the toroidal plane. For the higher frequencies
(> 60 GHz) and therefore higher directivity of the milimeter wave beam, radiation
from the open waveguide directly into the gap might be possible (Fig. 2a). For lower
frequencies and smaller waveguides cross sections (e.g. 10 mmxl0 mm rectangular
waveguide) such an arrangement would lead to increased side lobes in the pattern
radiated out of the gap due to diffraction at the waveguide aperture. This situation can
be improved when the waveguide is stuck in the gap; in that way the side wall act like
the continuation of the waveguide wall in one plane (Figure 2b). Other improvements
are possible if the side walls are inclined and therefore act as a horn antenna in one
plane (Figure 2c). The cross talk between neighbouring waveguides, which might be
a problem especially for moderately oversized waveguides, must be controlled (Figure
2d). Parasitic reflections should be minimized as much as possible because they will
decrease the accuracy of profile measurement. Polarization will be guaranteed by the
sections of rectangular waveguides, but it will be necessary to evaluate the power that
goes into the wrong polarization due to the plasma. Concerning vacuum windows, a
solution could be the use of Brewster angle windows, with high transmission for the
wanted polarization.
For calibration purposes it would be convenient to have a hardware reference close
to the antenna mouth. For bistatic systems this could be made by a coupling be-
tween the transmitting and receiving waveguides but it would originate additional
parasitic reflections from the gap between cassettes. The phase and amplitude of the
signal recorded in the absence of plasma could also provide a reference for calibration.
However, in ITER this is not sufficient because during the plasma pulse relative move-
ments occur and a real time calibration is needed. Another possibility is to use two
frequencies (narrow band swept) and to perform a differential calibration.

(a) (b)

--.---.---<-x* ----~----=-':=-':::=.'-'=---:::i- :------,

(c) (d)

-·· ···-_··· ·· ·· ·-·-·-·-····_--------1·-------_· _-----..

;::::===~- .r :l
- -- - - - - - -- ··-·-·-··_·_---·· ·=-1'-··------------_·

Figure 2 - Different waveguide implementations in the gap between target plates

PROFILE RECONSTRUCTION FROM REFLECTOMETRY

Wave propagation studies with ID and 2D full wave codes8
The possibility of reconstructing the density profile in the nonmonotonic case (de-
tached case), has been tested with the ID code. A ID density profile along the line of
sight of an antenna (i_e. perpendicular to the separatrix) has been obtained from the
2D density data of the ITER data base. The ID full wave code has been used with
this density profile to give the phase shift versus the frequency; the density profile is
then reconstructed by Abel inversion. The profile can be recovered almost everywhere
even in the nonmonotonic case as in the example Figure 3. Since the phase velocity

142
increases in the density well, at first the main peak is seen further away than it is in
reality. However, as the frequency is increased, the true profile is quickly recovered.
Due to the large amount of time needed for 2D calculations, only specific frequency
cases could so far be studied, and a density profile cannot be obtained. In order to
speed up the calculations, the waveguide has been located at the plasma edge, even
when there is a vacuum layer between the plasma and the wall. It is also assumed
that the waveguide excites only the fundamental mode.
Two different cases are shown on Figure 4. The field distribution for the attached
case is given in 4a, for the waveguide at the location 5 (in Fig. 1). The incident
frequency is rather low (50 GHz). (Note that the grid spacing of the density data
introduces some coherent fluctuations that still do not perturb the reflected signal
very much). Figure 4b has been obtained in the same case as the 1D calculation of
Figure 3, for a frequency of 80 GHz (cutoff layer before the density well). The 2D
evaluation of the field along the waveguide shows that the electric field remains fairly
regular despite the assumed density irregularities.

PROFILE RECONSTRUCTION
2.0

c?
'E 1.5
o
~
'0
~

'.
~ 1.0
c:
~
e
'0
di 0.5

20 30 40 50 60
Distance (cm)

Figure 3 - Profile reconstruction from the lD full wave code (- - -) for the detached case,
nonmonotonic profile (_). Antenna 2.

Reflected power
The evolution of the main reflected power with frequency has been analysed, in
the range 80-120 GHz. For the incident frequency 80 GHz, the reflected field is about
20 dB below the incident field. As expected the power decreases when the frequency
grows, but only very slowly. The influence of the density clip (around 100 GHz, in
Figure 3) is seen as an increase of the slope. Above the 110 GHz the decrease is even
less important, since the density profile is very steep. The average slope is about 3
dB I 50 GHz. Hence one should be able to make most of the profile measurements
(up to 300 GHz) with losses less than 30 to 40 dB. This will easily be achieved with
heterodyne detection.

143
 ELECTRON DENSITY IN THE DlVERTOR

Figure 4(a) - Field distribution for the attached case, antenna 5, f = 50GHz (2D full wave
code); (b) Detached case (nonmonotonic profile of Fig., 3), f=80 GHz, distances normalized
to the vacuum wavelength. Solid lines: contour plot of the positive real part of the electric
field; dashed lines: electron density.

Initialisation
In order to optimize the absolute location of the profile, detailed studies have been
performed about the initialisation process9,1O,1l.
With O-mode the distance do from the antenna to any plasma layer is obtained
from:

The first integral (It} represents the contribution of the non measured profile (below
F1 ) and the second integral (12) is the contribution from refiectometry.
The contribution from the non measured profile at F = Fo: can be written as:

FI FI
~(J r 2dJ)I/2 [J( 1 )2 dJ]I/2
7r
o 9
0
JF2_F20:

The second term in the above expression gives the decaying of 11 with frequency.
The first term represents the contribution of the non measured profile to the lo-
calisation of plasma layer neo:(Fo). This term depends only on the quantity A~

144
;I
( FI TidJ
)1/2 .
, that is related to the area AI. Therefore the detaIled shape of the
profile (including the localisation of the first plasma layer) may not be relevant for
the initialization, as long as the estimation of Al does not differ significantly from the
correct value. The errors due to initialisation can be estimated as follows lO:
FI
.9..(J OT2dJ)1/2 [_1_.lnFOt+ Fl]1/2
11' o 9 2F.Ot F.Ot - Fl

where OTg( F) is the diference between the correct value of Tg below Fl and the esti-
mated value, ~ at each frequency. The above expression can also be used to quantify
the errors due to any uncorrect group delay measurements over some frequency region
[Fp - F")'l just by replacing the frequencies zero, Fl by Fp, F")'.

Reconstruction of ITER divertor density profiles

We analysed two caseslO:
Case (a): attached case (BLfEIRENE, 100 MW, no impurities)
The density profile along sightline 1 and the corresponding O-mode group delay char-
acteristic are depicted in Figure 6a and Figure 6b respectively. The profile was re-
constructed from the Tg curve above Fl =18 GHz. The initialisation was based on a
model 9 that uses the measured Tg curve close and above Fl to obtain an estimate
of the non measured curve below Fl. It is assumed that this curve can be modelled
as Tg = A(f,)2/8 where the parameter A is determined from Tg(Fn = Tg(Fl) and
the parameter s is obtained by matching the slope of the experimental and estimated
curves Tg at F = Fl' The errors (Figure 6c) of the reconstructed profile (dashed line
in Figure 6a), shows that it should be possible to measure the high density with an
accuracy of 3-5 mm.
Case (b): detached case (B2fEIRENE, 40 MW, no impurities).
In this case the profile (Figure 6a) has a non monotonic shape at low density including
a hollow part. The group delay due to this profile (Figure 6b) shows a clear jump due
to the hollow region. This is "seen" by O-mode reflectometry as a density plateau
(dashed line in Figure 6a). In spite of the inability of reflectometry to recover the
hollow part of the profile, the high density part of the profile beyond the hollow region
is reconstructed with only small radial errors (a few millimeters), as seen in Figure 6c.

Sources of errors
The above results show that the errors in the absolute localisation of density pro-
files are within the target parameters (3 mm). However, those studies did not account
for effects that may decrease the accuracy of the experimental Tg curve, such as plasma
fluctuations and modes and parasitic reflections (due to transmission line, antennas,
target structure). As a result a decrease of the reflected power and some phase mix-
ing is normally observed. This problem can be circumvented to a great extent with
the improvement of signal to noise ratio with heterodyne detection and the effect of
fluctuations can be further minimized by averaging in time ll .
But the parasitic reflections can be an important source of errors due to the fact
that the antennas view the plasma through the gaps between target plates. Both the

145
 I
12 25
(8) (8)
10
20

'? 8
e '?e 15
!if0 6
!if
~
~ 10
~ 4 CD
c
2 5
"e(F1)
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
x[m) x(m)
5 9
4.5 (b)
8
4 7
3.5 6
"iii
oS "iii 5

,r:,
oS
'"
I:-> 2.5 ';4
2 3
1.5 2

~~~~ A~~~~ ~~~~~

. __ __
100 150 200 250 300 o "i 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
F[GHz) F(GHz)
60 1r---""'---~----~--""'----'

(e) (e)
50 _ 0.8
E'
S.
g 40 I15 0.6
CD
iii

I
30
S!

I 20
0.4

0.2
SIM1 -.. ..........-....•....
10

o L-======:::;:::=:=:;::==.J
~

o 5 10 15 20 25
"e [10 20 m-3 ]

Figure 5 - Attached case Figure 6- Detached case

modification of the design of the antennas and the target structure around the antennas
is being studied in order to minimise this problem, as discussed above.
In order to measure the plasma with 3 mm radial resolution it is important to use
X mode to probe the plasma edge which will contribute to the better estimate of the
group delay below Fl. Combined information from 0 IX refiectometryll will improve
significantly the radial resolution of the profile measurement at the outer edge.

TECHNOLOGICAL ISSUES
Due to the extremely high densities to be probed the problem of availability of
microwave sources was considered 12 . In the range of 30-300 GHz solid state oscillators
as VTOs and HTOs followed by broadband active and passive multipliers offer the best
choice for fast swept sources able to operate in full fundamental waveguide bandwidths.

146
Fundamental mode oscillators for the lower frequencies will be available very likely in
the coming years. On the other hand, the most probable scenario for the higher
frequencies will be that multipliers will still be required for broadband operation. In
addition, the use of heterodyne detection techniques in swept operation also requires
the master oscillator (before mUltiplication) to operate in at frequencies where PLLs
or frequency synthetiser can be used, that is up to 26 GHz.
The power which could be generated with these sources is summarised on Table II.
In this table, which shows the state of the art of source performance, we have considered
broad band active multipliers up to 60 GHz (which are since 1996 comercially available)
followed by high efficiency diode multipliers for the range above 60 GHz.
The near future prediction is based on active multipliers up to 90 GHz and passive
ones above that. (According to some manufacturers non-offical information these
products are already under development and will be commercially available in less
than 10 years time).
Receiver sensitivity figures assume a heterodyne receiver configuration, being in
most of the cases the plasma noise the main limiting factor.
The bands above 220 GHz are difficult to implement in broadband with the present
solid state technology although it is possible to use modest bandwidths of 10% to 20%.
Another problem is related to the sensitivity of the receivers, which is limited not
only by the plasma noise (if detectable) but essentially by the IF bandwidths employed.
These must be larger than the coherence bandwidth of the plasma and local oscillator
signals. This fact suggests again that rather than using fundamental gunn oscilators it
might be advantageous to use cleaner sources at low frequency followed by multipliers
which might give the same power output with a much better phase noise performance.
These sources with low phase noise could be phase locked gunn or inpatt oscillators
or even lower frequency multiplied sources.
Optical sources down converted to the sub-millimeter region would be a solution for
large to extremely large bandwidth sources, but the phase noise of the resulted signal
would be extremely poor for broadband swept operation. Therefore, the bandwidth
of the receiver must be extremely large and the noise from the plasma (or just termal
noise) would represent the main limitation. Although some recent developments in
tuned laser seem promissing we are still a little far from the desirable figures that
would be required for a good sub-millimetre swept heterodyne receiver.

Table 2: Performance of signal generators for the range 30-300 GHz.

Wave guide band: State of Art Near future Receiver NF Receiver NF
(1996
Power d m k Power dBm Harm. mixer
dB
Fund. mixer
dB
Ka - 26.5/40 GHz 23 27 7
Q - 33/50 GHz 13 (1) 20 8
U - 40/60 GHz 13 17 8
V - 50/75 GHz 5 7 (1) 12 8
E - 60/90 GHz 3 10 16 9
W - 7~110 GHz
F - 90 140 GHz
1
0 III 5
3
(1)
(1)
22
24
9
10
D - 110/170 GHz
G - 140/220 GHz
Q.O. - >220 GHz
-7
-10
-20?
~~~4)
0
-5
-1O?
m
(4)
30
34
> 35
10
12
>14

1) - Double diode doubler; 2) - Varactor tripler; 3) - Double diode quadrupler; 4) -

Corner cube structure.

147
 On the sub-millimetre bands it is possible to predict the availability of series of
fixed frequency oscillators (modulated or not) multiplied (by diodes in corner cube
or quasy optical structures) in comb arrangements, or BWO tubes, now going up to
1000 GHz. These type of schemes shall be used if it is possible to construct reception
devices operating up to 1000 GHz achieving good sensitivity at room temperature.

Alternative methods
Due to the specific requirements and scenarios in the ITER divertor, some new
measurement proposals have been raised: the first is the use of correlation measure-
ments between neighbouring radial positions to obtain the time delay curve13 • The
method requires a longer measuring time and a more complex hardware than the stan-
dard ones but offers the possibility to measure in scenarios with complex waveguides
and strong turbulence. The second proposal is the use of the whole set of crossed
sight lines between the five front ends to establish a mesh of transmission reflection
measurement. This would lead to a 2-dimensional comb-like system which could be
used to determine the position of the ionization front 14 • The implementation of this
solution would require a detailed study of the beam cross propagation with antennas
which in principle should be optimised for direct propagation.

EXISTING EXPERIENCE
DIII-D divertor refiectometer system
The reflectometer for the DIII-D divertor was designed to be a modular, low loss,
broadband system, supporting frequencies in the range 50 - 110 GHz15. The use
of circular waveguide allows a variety of polarization (0-, X-mode and combination
of each). The system currently views directly upward towards the X-point of the
tokamak; an offset double mitre bend mirror system has been designed to view either
the inner or outer divertor leg.
Density profiles were obtained in the private flux region using a swept source (BWO,
50 - 75 GHz) with a broadband FM technique (Figure 7). These profiles, with spatial
resolution of '" 1 cm, complement the Thomson scattering. They will add to the needed
data base and provide feedback to divertor modeling efforts.

3
Thomson·
~
...
o
CI
=
u

o O~-"'1--2'---~3--4'-----':'S-""'6:---'~7---~8
distance from divertor tiles (em)

Figure 1 - Private flux region density profiles at DIII-D obtained with FM CW reflectometry
[from ref. 15].

148
Reflectometer for the JET divertor
The "comb" reflectometer for the JET divertor uses up to eight fixed frequency
sources (free running Gunn oscillators), launching simultaneously into the plasma 0-
mode probing signals in the frequency range 50 - 98.5 GHZ16. Amplitude modulation
of the radiation source and the use of a narrowband heterodyne receivers centred on
the modulation frequency, provide a reliable way of determining if a given frequency
is in reflection or transmission. The maximum frequency of the signals reflected and
the minimum frequency of the signals transmitted will give lower and upper limits to
the peak density on the sightline through the plasma.
Figure 8 shows an example of the influence of ELMs on the divertor plasma. The
large ELM at "-'13.7 s produces a large signal on all reflection channels and cuts
off all of the transmission signals for times between 50 ms and 100 ms; during the
main spike of the ELM the peak density on the sightline is at least 1.2x1020 m- 3 •
Subsequent ELMs produce only very small reflection signals most probably due the
non-optimized reception. In fact, the antenna originally foreseen could not be used
due to the large parasitic reflection from the transmission waveguide and an antenna
located away from the main reflected beam was employed. Nevertheless, transmission
signals provides reliable measurements in many divert or plasma scenarios.

200

;
O'~---+~------~--~----~'-----~l

~
13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 14.0 14.1 14.2
Time (s)

Figure 8 - The effects oflarge ELMs on both the transmission (T) and reflection (R) signals,
for emitting frequencies: 83.9 GHz-98.5 GHz, obtained with the JET divert or comb system
[from ref. 16].

DISCUSSION AND FURTHER WORK

Overall we have shown that the extremely challenging problem of reflectometry in
the divertor can be overcome: the expected profiles for the divertor can be handled
with reflectometry and the required resolution achieved. Also we are able to design
a feasible waveguide and antenna system to have access to the divert or and have

149
technological solutions for the difficult geometry and wide density range.
The main problem is the design and test of the suitable waveguide system. The
access is very complex and issues like alignement are still a problem for the higher
frequencies. Also the analysis of overall losses is important: line plus bends plus plasma
and comparison with what can be obtained from technology of emission/detection.
Existing refiectometers (or new ones) can be used to address the critical issues of
divertor refiectometry on ITER time scale.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement among
the European Atomic Energy Community, the Gove=ent of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation in
the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA).

REFERENCES
1. E.J. Doyle et al., Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Pusion Reactors, edited
by P.E. Stott et al, Plenum Press, New York, 1996, p.1l7
2. C. Laviron et al., Plasma Phys. Control. Pusion 38, 905, (1996).
3. M. Manso, to appear in Proc. "8th Intern. Symp. on Laser-Aided Diagnostic (1997).
4. G. Vayakis et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (1) (1997).
5. G. Vayakis et al., These Proceedings.
6. C. Walker et al., These Proceedings.
7. D. Wagner et al., These Proceedings.
8. G. Leclert et al., Proc. III Work. on Micro. Reflect. for Pusion Diagn. Madrid, 1997.
9. P. Varela et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (10) (1995).
10. M. Manso, presentation at III Work. on Micro. Reflect. for Pus. Diagn. Madrid, 1997.
11. M. Manso et al., These Proceedings.
12. L. Cupido et al., Proc. III Work. on Micro. Reflect. for Pus. Diagn. Madrid,1997.
13. T. Estrada et al., Proc. III Work. on Micro. Reflect. for Pusion Diagn. Madrid, 1997.
14. A. Donne, presentation at III Work. on Micro. Reflect. for Pus. Diagn. Madrid, 1997.
15. T.L. Rhodes et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (1) (1997).
16. L. Cupido et al., Plasma Phys. Control. Pusion 39 (1997).

150
REFLECTOMETRY DENSITY PROFILE MEASUREMENTS IN
TURBULENT PLASMAS

J. Sanchez, T. Estrada, E. de la Luna, V. Zhuravlev l , M. Frances, B. Braiias

Asociacion EURATOM-CIEMAT, 28040 Madrid Spain

I Institute Kurchatov, Moscow Russia

INTRODUCTION

One of the limiting factors in reflectometers when trying to measure the density
profile in fusion plasmas is the existence of a fraction of experiments where the measurement
becomes impossible: very noisy signals leading to nonsense density profiles. Those so called
"bad shots" are usually linked with strongly turbulent plasmas and the remaining problem is
to be able to assess "a priori" if the data coming from a given experiment will correspond to a
normal profile or if they will be meaningless.
The application of reflectometry for ITER requires maximum reliability and therefore
the analysis of the limitations caused by reflectometry becomes highly important.
The effect of turbulence in the reflectometer signal is twofold: temporal and spatial.
The temporal effect is seen in swept frequency systems which use consecutive
measurements to determine the time delay (d<j>ldf) function: the profile changes locally during
the measurement (false fringes in frequency swept homodyne systems). These effects are
usually overcome in the experiments by sweeping fast ( frequency sweep rates in the order of
I GHzlIls have been achieved, leading to clean results).
The spatial effects come from the fact that the reflecting layer is a corrugated surface:
both phase and amplitude of the reflected beam become affected by interference effects and
the perturbation cannot be avoided by sweeping fast.
Under strong turbulence the reflectometer will aim to determine the average density
profile but, due to the several nonlinear magnitudes involved (phase, time delay), the
achievement of this goal is not guaranteed. The main question here is whether or not this
average profile can be determined and how the different techniques are affected.

SIMULA TION PROCESS

In order to compare the ability of the different techniques (AM, FM, Pulse) to provide
an acceptable average profile we have developed a simulation procedure:
A steady state profile is assumed and a 2-dimensional distribution of turbulence is
added. With a propagation code we obtain the transfer function for each relevant cutoff
frequency: amplitude A(f) and phase <j>(f). Once we have this functions, we can synthesize
the different reflectometers, obtain the averaged time delay function <'t>(f) , perform the
profile inversion (by a simple 1 d reconstruction algorithm) and compare with the original
unperturbed profile.
The wave propagation is simulated with a 2-dimensional WKB code [1] (multi-ray
tracing): many rays are launched for each relevant frequency and those collected at the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 151
receiving antenna interfere to give a resulting phase and amplitude. The use of the WKB
approximation is based on the fact that we have a short wavelength beam with a diameter
similar to the size of the dominant turbulent structures.
As it has been shown in a previous work [1], most techniques are able to produce
reasonable profiles if the proper average is taken. The clue to understand how we can get
good profile reconstructions even from noisy phase data is the concept of "vector average"
which we explain below. Either during the frequency sweep or during a fixed frequency
observation of a evolving plasma the signal has some instants with destructive interference
(as a result the amplitude of the received signal is low and the phase random) and some
others with large amplitude and meaningful phase, due to constructive or absent interference.
If we first obtain the phase of the reflected field and then take its time average, the result
includes errors because we are averaging "good" with "bad" phase values. On the other
hand, if we take the average of the electric field at the receiver (phase & amplitude) then the
random values corresponding to strong interference are less weighted (because of their
smaller amplitude) and the final average becomes free of error. The vector average is done by
hardware at detection in the AM and Pulse radar technique (the pulse radar naturally averages
over many frequencies whereas the AM system performs the average at the last filter). FM
systems perform the average by post detection processing (with the FFT technique, FM
systems do the average in the same way as pulse radar does).
In the present work we have analyzed three aspects of the influence .of turbulence:
effects of plasma rotation, turbulence level and antenna beam size.

EFFECTS OF PLASMA ROTATION

Plasma rotation in addition to slight antenna tilting leads to phase-runaway phenomena.
This is both observed in the experiments (unidirectional phase drift which depends on tilting
angle and rotation speed) and also predicted by the theoretical models [2].

--initial ·········v=12.S
v=12.S
- . - .. no rotation - - - -- v=2S
- - ·v=2.S - -v=12.S opposite - - . AM ....... FM(FFT)
10 ~~~~~~~~~~~

.:;-- 8 (a) ,<./;;;:/,:::: . . .,

FM(FFf) ,- <~""':y
I (b)

'
" 'f,./1'. / I I
/ ..{ / I
I
=2 I: I
I:
...........-"-"-'-'
0"'-'-'-'--'-'~..lJ....c-'-'-'-~.w.....'--'-<-'-'-"-'
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70
d (em) d (em)

Fig.I. Reconstructed density profiles for different rotation speeds (ITER geometry).
a) Profiles reconstructed from a FM reflectometer for different values of the rotation parameter v.
( So antenna misalignment)
b) Comparison of the reconstructions from AM and FM profiles.

Using the 2D WKB model, the performance of the different reflectometers (AM, FM,
Pulse) is analyzed for a rotating ITER like plasma. We have chosen as relative speed
parameter "v": the number of turbulence wavelengths passing in front of the antenna during
the (linear) sweep time. For example, v=2.5 corresponds to a sweep rate of 4 GHzlf.ls with
200 kHz turbulence. In the simulations, the antennae were tilted 5°. The results of the
simulations for the FM technique with FFT analysis are shown on fig. la. For small values
of the parameter v the effect of the rotation is small in the reconstructed density profile. With

152
increasing v the systematic error increases, reaching unacceptable levels. Opposite direction
of rotation leads to the inversion of the error. The same calculations for the AM reflectometer
with v=12.S have shown no such errors due to the plasma rotation (fig. Ib). This result
could be expected being the AM measurement an instantaneous measurement of the time
delay (with the three spectral co~ponents reflecting simultaneously in the plasma). The same
results would be obtained for the Pulse technique, which is based on the same principle of
simultaneous reflection of several frequencies.
The error introduced in the FM system is minimized by fast sweep. Today's available
technology on swept oscillators gives a high confidence that phase runaway phenomena
could be overcome by fast sweeping. Also a possibility would be the use of hybrid
techniques: dual frequency FM ... etc. If a fast sweep is required to avoid rotation effects,
turbulence average could be achieved by averaging consecutive sweeps.

0.01
0.005 .-j" ---lOOMHz

.- 0 1----,---..:.,.,...--+0.:.... -',!.'f'----N---I~r_-_f
) ..,.,:I-!--'......... - - 200 MHz
-

e -0.005
'-"
-----400MHz
.. ·······600MHz
~
c.o -0.01
-0.015
iilno=3%
-0.02 Lcr =2cm, Ae=3cm
-0.025
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
r (m)
Fig.2. Radial error in the reconstructed density profiles for different level of average. AM technique. The
average extension is perfonned along the frequency intervals of I ()() to 600 MHz during the frequency sweep.

EFFECT OF TURBULENCE LEVEL AND ANTENNA BEAM SIZE

One of the key questions related to the effects of turbulence in profile reflectometry is
to which point can the average method improve the profile reconstruction in strong turbulent
plasmas. Fig.2 shows the radial error in the density profile measured with the AM technique
for a turbulence level of 3% of the central density value. The error improves by more
extensive average (in this example by extending the interval of mm-wave frequency over
which the reflected E-field is averaged), but the improvement shows some trend to saturation
which requires further investigation: different average techniques and more extensive
statistics. For the presented case, with relative high turbulence level (which means up to 30%
for r/a=0.8) and short poloidal wavelength (Ae= 3cm) we still have errors below lcm, which
is close to ITER specifications.
In order to assess the effect of antenna beam size, the analysis was also performed for
a turbulence level iilno=2% using antennas of different divergence (given by the 3dB angle).
Fig.3 shows the radial error of the reconstruction (AM technique with average along 400
MHz) for the different radial positions at the plasma edge: the error becomes smaller for the
narrower beams: the narrower the beam the smaller the effect of corrugations. This is in
contradiction with some other work [3] and suggest the strong dependence of the turbulence
effects on the poloidal wavelength of the density perturbation for a given antenna pattern.
The subject will also require a deeper analysis with a larger statistics, comparing the beam
size with the dominant poloidal wavelength of the plasma turbulence and for different
turbulence levels. The amplitude of the reflected signal (not shown in the figure for clarity
reasons) varies strongly for the different frequencies but in average it does not show a clear

153
dependence with the antenna beam size (as it does in the absence of turbulence: the signal is
stronger for the narrower beam size).
The calculations for the effects of average level and beam size were performed for the
AM system as a reference case. Very similar results are expected for the FM and pulse
systems because plasma rotation was not included in the study.

0.015
93dB
0.01 - - 80
-.. - -5.4 0
e
.
" / ... \ I
, I
,-,0.005 I - - -40
I -
- - - - - 3.20
(,Q I
ll/
0 --------.2.7 0
iilno=2%
-0.005 Lc r =2cm, Ae=3cm

6 8 10 12 14 16 18
d (em)
Fig.3. Radial error in the reconstructed of the edge density profile for different antenna beam sizes. AM
technique

CONCLUSIONS
The 2-dim WKB code, able to compute interference effects, was used for qualitative
investigation of the perturbations in reflectometry measurements induced by turbulence.
Different reflectometry techniques: AM, Pulse Radar, FM (FFT method), are able to measure
the density profile in a turbulent ITER size plasma with acceptable accuracy_ Plasma rotation
together with non-perpendicular reflection that cause no additional errors in the results of the
AM reflectometry measurements, lead to systematic errors for the FM reflectometer. Those
errors could be eliminated by fast frequency sweep (frequency sweep times shorter than the
characteristic rotation times).
A preliminary study of the effects of increased turbulence level and antenna beam size
on the final performance of the reflectometer has been performed for the reference case of an
AM reflectometer. Profile reconstruction improves by more extensive average as well as for
narrower beam size_ Effects are more clear at the edge, where the level is higher and the
beam size is more governed by the original geometry. Further studies are required

REFERENCES
[1] V. Zhuravlev, 1. Sanchez, E. de la Luna. Plasma Phys and Contrl. Fusion 38 , 2331 (1966).
[2] B. Brafias , M. Hirsch, V. Zhuravlev, J. Baldzuhn et al. " Phase Runaway Effects on W7AS"
Proceedings.of the III Reflectometry Workshop for Fusion Plasmas. Madrid 5-7 May 1997.
[3] G. Conway, submitted for publication to Plasma Phys and Contrl. Fusion

154
PROFILE INITIALIZATION FROM O-MODE REFLECTOMETRY

M. Manso, F. Silva, 1. Nunes, J. Santos

Associa~ao EURATOMIIST, CFN

Instituto Superior Tecnico
1096 Lisboa Codex

INTRODUCTION

Reflectometry will be used on ITER to study plasma fluctuations and to measure the density
profile in the main and divertor plasmas. The basic information for profile evaluation is the group
delay 'rK due to the propagation and reflection in the plasma of ordinary (0) or extraordinary (X)
waves, with variable frequencies F. With O-mode the profile inversion is simpler because the cutoff
depends only on the plasma density. However, as frequencies below FI (-15 GHz) cannot be used,
plasma densities ne ::; 0.28.10 19 m'] are not probed in reflection and the distance information about
the lowest density profile cannot be obtained. X mode waves can be reflected from zero density but
the cutoff depends both on ne and on the total magnetic field B tot . Accurate information about BlOt,
necessary to invert the profile, may be difficult to obtain namely in long plasma ITER pulses
(exceeding 3000s). It is therefore important to study the reconstruction of profiles from O-mode
only and to assess the errors due to the initialization model used to complement the data below the
first probing frequency.

RECONSTRUCTION OF DENSITY PROFILES

Initialization process from O-mode

The density nea at the cutoff is determined by the incident wave frequency (nea oc F;). The
distances (dA ) from the antenna to the different cutoff layers [nea (Fall are obtained from the group
delay history between 0 and Fa. As 'rg is not measured below FI ::; 15 GHz, each distance d a is
obtained part from reflectometry, lz(Fu), and part from the initialization model, II(Fa), according to:

In Figure 1 the different steps of the profile reconstruction are shown. The assumed density profile
nJr) and the corresponding (O-mode) group delay are depicted in Figure la and Figure lb,
respectively. As illustrated in Figure 1c the contribution from reflectometry 12(F) increases with
frequency whereas II(F) decreases, showing that the importance (and the errors) of the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 155
initialisation decreases to the plasma interior. In a second step we assume that the TK curve below FI
was incorrectly estimated « in Figure lb), resulting the contribution 1;(F) represented in Figure
Ie. The profile n;(r) reconstructed from I;(F)+I 2 (F) is represented in Figure la. The errors in
the radial position, Or, can be evaluated either from the exact value or from the approximate
quantity I , Or, as follows:

[_lln
1/2
0 FI F) 1/2

Or(F)=~J
C1 a 2
TK(f) dlf; or(F)~~JOT~dlf
a C1 ,
[ ] FC1 FI ]
2F F -
+
F,
n 0 ~ Fa2 - f 2 n 0 a I

where OT x = T x - T~ . The second term of 0 r is the decaying factor with frequency. The first term

,how, th" ,h"nom of ;n;';ru;rndon d,pend, ",en'WI, on ,qwntHy

to the deviation between the value of the area AI (under the Tx curve below F), as seen in Figure 1d)
8~, = [J M; 4f r reI,.",

and the estimated value A;. Therefore, in order to initialize the profile the shape of the plasma
below ncl(FI ), does not need to be known but it is crucial to have a good estimation of AI.

7 13
8 '") 12
11
..,- 5
'E 10
_ 9

..
'"
-0
4
::'3 ! 8
•
c: .. 7
2
6
5
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 Ii 40 liz 60
rim) F(GHzI

I.B 0.5
1.6 Q.45
1.4 0.4
11
0.35
g:1~
I O~ I
I'1 0.3
~ 0.25
0.6 • 0.2
0.4 0.15
0.2 0.1
0 0.05
10 Fl 30 50 70 0
F(GHzI

Figure 1. Profile reconstruction from O-mode reflectometry: (a) assumed profile n,(r) and reconstructed profile It; (r);
(b) group delay curve r, and incorrect '1'; curve simulating the errors due to initialisation; (c) contributions to the
distances da from the initialisation I) and from reflectometry [,; (d) exact value /ir of radial errors and approximate value
{j'r.

Initialization model A model has been developed 2 to estimate A I based on the measurements
performed at the lowest frequencies. The Tx curve obtained from reflectometry is extrapolated down
to zero frequency by assuming a shape of the curve below the first probing frequency FI and the

156
continuity at F::: FI of the complete curve resulting from the estimated one (below F 1) and the curve
measured by reflectometry (above F 1). A basic requirement for the successful application of the
model is the reliable reflectometry measurement of the initial group delay curve.

Reconstruction of ITER density profdes A study was performed to simulate the

reconstruction of ITER profiles from O-mode reflectometry. Reference cases of main and divertor
ITER plasmas were analysed. The study for the divertor plasma is shown in a companion paper).
The assumed ITER main profile n.(r), and the corresponding group delay curve are depicted in
Figure 2a and Figure 2b, respectively. The profile reconstructed using the initialisation model is
represented in Figure 2a but cannot be seen because the errors are negligible (in the sub-millimetre
range). This results from two facts: the area Al is small and it is well estimated with the model (as
seen in Figure 2c). For the divertor plasma it was also found) that the errors are also very small
(typically 1-3 mm). The numerical studies, however, did not include errors due to perturbations of
'rK that are present in the experiments caused by parasitic reflections and plasma turbulence. This is
illustrated in the following sections with FMCW reflectometry data from ASDEX Upgrade.

1.4 r-~--~~-------' 11~~----~--~----~ __--~

10.5
1.2
_ 1 10
9.5
~E 0.8
i 9
2
S! 0.8 ;r8~r-
-;r 0.4 7.5
0.2 7
o~~--------'---------~
1 1.1". 1.2 " 1.3 " 1.4 1.5 8.5~--------~----------~
o 5 W ~ ~ a 00 • ~
rIm) F[GHz)

Figure 2. Simulation study for ITER main plasma: (a) assumed n,(r) and reconstructed profile (this cannot be seen
because it coincides with n,(I'»; (b) 1"g curves corresponding to the assumed and reconstructed profiles.

Profile reconstruction from O-mode FMCW reflectometry in ASDEX Upgrade

The results presented here were obtained in shot #9352 with swept measurements performed
in 100 J.lS with an interval of 20 118. The group delay curves in Figure 3a were measured before an

16
#9352 (a) 14 #9352 (b) (11)/ #9352 (e)
....,.".,/
•.s
~3

(II)

.- -..
V; (I)
.5.2 ~2
during between
c" 1
an ELM ELMs

10 20 ao 40 50 1 2 900 210
Rlcm]
220 230
Rlcm] ", x 10" 1m"]

Figure 3. Reflectometry measurements performed in ASDEX Upgrade shot #9352: (i) before an ELM and (ii) during the
ELM: (a) group delay curves; (b) contributions I, from the initialisation model and 12 from reflectometry; (c) reconstructed
density profiles showing that the peaked profile observed before an ELM flattens during the ELM.

157
ELM (i) and during the ELM (ii). The group delays were evaluated from the time-frequency
distribution of the power of the reflected signals using a sliding Fast Fourier Transform4 • The
contributions to the distance from the initialization model, II. and from reflectometry, /2, are
depicted in Figure 3b. The h(F) curves indicate that the profiles should differ only for
ne 2': 0.28 .10 19 m·' which is confirmed by the reconstructed profiles (Figure 3c). It also seen that
the peaked profile observed before an ELM flattens close and inside the separatrix (Ra -216 cm)
during the ELM.

Effect of plasma perturbations It is very important not only for initialization but also for
profile evaluation to average the perturbations of the 'OK curve caused by plasma fluctuations. One
possibility is to use several consecutive measurements and average them in time. This is equivalent
to increase the signal to noise ratio and therefore it improves the precision of the inverted profiles.
We present two examples: the first one refers to the L phase of #9352 where the level of
fluctuations at the edge (Low field side) is very high (On/n: 50 - 100 %). Eight group delay curves
were obtained from consecutive single sweeps (Figure 4a). Although some of the curves are
strongly disturbed a simple average of the eight curves gives a smooth characteristic and an average
profile (over 960 Ils) is obtained (Figure 4b). The second example refers to the ELMy phase of the
H mode regime in the same shot. In this case the level of perturbations is much lower, as seen in the
two 'OK curves (Figure 4b) obtained from consecutive sweeps between ELMs. (Note that the vertical
scales in (a) and (b) are different).

c·

20 30 40
F [GHz] R[cmJ

Figure 4. Reflectomctry measurements performed in ASDEX Upgrade shot #9352: (i) at the L phase and (ii) at the H-
mode phase. (a) group delay curves from eight consecutive sweeps and time average curve; (b) group delay curves from
two consecutive sweeps between ELMs and r, curve resulting from the cross power spectra at each window of analysis;
(c) reconstructed profiles showing the peaking from L to H-mode phase.

Here we evaluate the cross power spectra in each window of analysis (we use a sliding Fast
Fourier Transform to extract '0/) which permit to enhance the common features of both spectra and
reduce the group delay perturbations. In Figure 4c it can be seen the corresponding density profile
and the peaking of the profile from L to H- mode phase.

Combined 0 and X-mode probing

X-mode is very useful to complement the O-mode data at the lowest densities. Profile
inversion from X mode requires accurate information about the magnetic field as mentioned before.
Another problem is some uncertainty about the first reflected signal (at ne = 0) and the
corresponding probing frequency Fo. This can be overcome by combining the 0 and X-mode data,
as shown in the example of Figure 5 obtained at shot # 9291. In this case two values of Fo (44.3 and
44.7 GHz) were considered and two profiles were reconstructed from X-mode between 0 and

158
0.4 .10 19 m·3 • We calculate then the l'g curves that would result if a-waves were propagated in those
profiles. The curve for Fo =44.3 GHz (dashed-dot line in Figure 5a) was selected because it
matched better to the l'g curve obtained from a-mode measurements (solid line in Figure 5a). The
profiles evaluated from a plus X-mode and from a-mode only, using the initialization model, are
depicted in Figure 5b. They present only very small deviations for nel ~ 0.4 .10 19 m- 3 because the
area A I under the group delay curve below FI '" 17 GHz was estimated with a good approximation
(Figure 5a), although the exact curve could not be obtained from the model and siguificant profile
deviations are observed for ne ~ nel.

2r-----------------------,
#9291 (b)

o 10 20 30 40 50 230
F [GHz]

Figure 5. Reflectometry measurements performed in ASDEX Upgrade shot # 9291 with 0 and X-mode probing. (a)
group delay curves from O-mode and from calculating the group delay of O-mode waves (dashed-dot line) reflected in the
X-mode edge profile; (b) reconstructed profiles from O-mode and combined 0 and X-modes.

DISCUSSION
Density profiles can be reconstructed from a-mode only using an initialization model based
on the group delay curve measured at the lowest frequencies. The errors of the evaluated profiles
are due to deviations of the area AI (under the group delay curve below the first probing frequency)
obtained from the initialization model from its correct value. For ITER reference profiles it is shown
that the errors should be very low (sub-millimeter to millimeters). However, the numerical study did
not take into account errors due to perturbations of the group delay curve (mainly caused by plasma
fluctuations). Examples from FMCW reflectometry on ASDEX Upgrade are presented to illustrate
some of the techniques that can be used to improve the accuracy of profile reconstruction. The
errors due to initialization should be further investigated in present reflectometry diagnostics using
combined a and X mode information and data from other edge density diagnostics.

I M. Manso, et aI. to be submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion

2 P. Varela, et al. Review of Scientific Instruments, 66 (10) October 1995
3 M. Manso et al. in Proceedings of this conference
41. Santos et al. III Work. Microwave Reflect. For Fusion Plasma Diagnostics Madrid (1997)

159
TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN FOR
BROADBAND MICROWAVE DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS

D.Wagner/ W.Kasparek,1 M.Thumm,2 G.Gantenbein,1 and H.Zohrnl

IUniversitat Stuttgart, Institut fur Plasmaforschung, Pfaffenwaldring 31,

D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
2Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Association EURATDM-FZK, ITP and
Universitat Karlsruhe, Institut fur HOchstfrequenztechnik und Elektronik,
P.D.Box 3640, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany

INTRODUCTION

Up to now mostly smooth-wall waveguides are used for low power applications in
fusion plasma diagnostic systems. However ohmic losses and mode conversion in mitre
bends are a serious problem for precise amplitude and phase measurements e.g. for ECE
and reflectometry. For microwave diagnostic systems on future fusion experiments like
ITER with very long waveguide runs (typically several tens of meters), oversized corrugated
waveguides propagating the HEll mode which exhibits extremely low losses are a good
candidate. Such type of transmission line is widely used for high-power applications,
especially for electron cyclotron heating of plasmas, however only at single frequencies. I
The theory is presented in several publications, e.g. Ref. 2.3 and measurements at single
frequencies have confirmed the low attenuation of the HEll mode. 4 •5 This paper assesses the
possibilities and problems which arise if these transmission lines are used in broadband
(low-power) diagnostic systems. Besides the low ohmic attenuation such waveguides offer
several additional advantages in comparison to smooth-wall oversized waveguides like the
possibility to build compact quasi-optical mitre bends. Radiated from the open-ended
waveguide, the HEll mode couples almost perfectly to the Gaussian free-space mode and
therefore simplifies the antenna design. In such waveguides high order spurious modes can
be suppressed by including gaps into the transmission line which cause only very low losses
for the main HEll mode. At the same time these gaps act as DC breaks and movement
compensators. Due to the almost linear polarization of the HEll mode, broadband Brewster
angle windows can be applied. Two combined Brewster angle windows can be used as an
effective beam splitter.
The theoretical bandwidth of the corrugated HEll waveguide, depending on the
waveguide diameter, corrugation depth and period, is evaluated numerically. The frequency
dependence of the losses in quasi-optical mitre bends is calculated and compared with

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press. New York, 1998 161
measurements.
To validate the theoretical results a test transmission line with a diameter of 87mm
and a length of 13.9m, including 3 mitre bends was used. An effective overall length of
27.8m was obtained by inserting a plane mirror at the end of the line and the measurement
of the reflected signal.

BROADBAND EXCITATION OF THE HEn MODE IN A

CORRUGATED WAVEGUIDE

In diagnostic systems, low-power sources and receivers usually operate in funda-

mental rectangular waveguides carrying the TEIO mode, which has to be matched to the
HEll mode in the oversized circular corrugated waveguide. Several solutions exist for this
task. Waveguide mode converters,7 based on a variation of the wall impedance or on the
generation of mode mixtures,s reach very high efficiencies, but are rather narrow-band.
Other adiabatic transitions use dielectric rod guides, but no broad data base on the
performance is available. A versatile solution is a confocal two-mirror system which is
inherently broadband. 6 The source or receiver to be matched is fed into a circular hom with
a small flare angle or a waveguide taper to achieve a sufficiently plane phase front at the
aperture. If a scalar hom is used, the bandwidth of the arrangement is usually determined
by the hom. In case of simple conical horns or tapers, the lower frequency limit is
determined by the beam truncation due to the finite size of the mirrors, the upper limit is
determined by the onset of mode conversion in the hom (i.e. deviation of the plane phase
front at the hom aperture ;::: AllO, A. being the wavelength of the radiation). However, some
additional loss due to the non-perfect matching between the TEl1 mode of the transmitter
and receiver antennas and the HEl1 mode of the corrugated waveguide (about 0.5 dB,
varying due to the fact, that the power distribution in the waveguide is a function of the
frequency for a given corrugation3•9) must be taken into account.
By combining two or more such arrangements, the summation of several sources or
detectors to one broadband line, polarization diplexers or directional couplers can be built.6
For the experiments described here, a bidirectional coupler with an alumina beam splitter
(see Figure 1 for a principle sketch) was used to measure reflections from the waveguide
under test and to measure the transmission properties in case of no reflections by
terminating the line with a mirror. For pure transmission measurements, only the input
channel was used for the coupling to the waveguide. The device allowed the broadband
excitation over the frequency range 45 GHz :s; f:S; 175 GHz with losses in fair agreement
with theory.

Figure 1. Sketch of the setup for transmission and reflection measurements.

162
TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CORRUGATED WAVEGUIDE

First experiments were performed with a highly oversized corrugated waveguide

system. The inner diameter (D) of the corrugated waveguide is 87mm. The corrugation
profile is almost rectangular (with rounded comers) with a depth of d=l.Omm and a period
of p=0.89mm. The eigenmode of the corrugated waveguide can be expressed as a sum of
eigenmodes of the smooth wall waveguide. 9 The low loss HEll mode corresponds to a
mixture of mainly 84.6% TEll and 14.5% TMll with a phase difference of 1800 (balanced
hybrid mode). Figure 2 shows the calculated eigenmode mixture for the above described
waveguide as a function of frequency. The calculated frequency dependence of the ohmic
losses is plotted in Figure 3. A comparison between Figures 2 and 3 shows that the ohmic
losses increase where this balanced hybrid mode condition between TEll and TMll is not
fulfilled.

100 360

90 TEll TEll
.-
80
....
.. ·· TE modes .
. ·
TMmodes
TEll-TMIl phase sbift

. "0
o.
o'

...
0

L•

....
20

10

o
--.... TMIl
TM12
-
.
~
TMU

0
20 38 56 74 92 110 128 146 164 182 200
Frequency [GHz]

Figure 2. Eigerunode mixture for a corrugated waveguide with 0=87mm, d=l.Omm, p={).89mm.

0.01

0.009
.
0.008

e 0.007
~ 0.006

·1
!
O.OOS A

..
0.004
0.003 .
0.002 . 2.2E-5 dB/m
..
....
0.001
6..lt.A A
I / '"
I. . ..
o ,6AA.6

20 50 80 110 140 170

Frequency [GHz]

Figure 3. Ohmic attenuation for a corrugated waveguide with 0=87mm, d=l.Omm, p=O.89mm.

163
 The calculated mode conversion losses in a quasi optical mitre bend propagating the
HEll mode with a diameter of 87mm are plotted in Figure 4.
0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07

~ 0.06

I
A
0.05
A

oS 0.04
A
A
0.03 A

0.02

0.01
0
20 50 80 110 140 170
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 4. Mode conversion losses in a quasi-optical HEll mitre bend with D=87mrn.

The results of transmission measurements are shown in Fig. 5. In the frequency range 45
to 160 GHz , a negligible loss was measured in average by comparing the reflections from
the end of the line with signals from a reflector inserted near the input. Standing wave
effects (the reflected power from the receiver horn was about 1 - 3 %) were eliminated by
evaluating Fourier transforms of frequency sweeps. The variation of the transmitted power
is probably not due to absorption, but is determined by the phasing of additional spurious
modes excited at the waveguide input as was also seen in other experiments.s The main part
of the losses is due to mode conversion in the 3 mitre bends.

.. .. ........... '.. ..
..... : : : : : -rzr+-
· _. ..... . .. ..... " . ..
~ '." ... . ~ . -" . . '"

i····I····~·I···l···I·:··i······~············~·II·····:······· . . :..... . .17dB

~
0= -1 ······:·I··II~···I<~I····:·······II~J..··· ··I··1·!······
. . ~ ............ ( .........( ..... ~< ........... -:- . . ·1··)··.LIJ: .: ... .
'1il
fIl
.~
-2
·····'············;···········:········~·j"···········t··········1··········:·····
· .................
·· .. ..................................................................... .
.... . . ... ...
-3
.·
~
~

· ... ... . .
................... ·: .......................................
. . . . .
-4
··· . . ..: ..............:- ........... ..: .... .
·· ... ... .. .. .
-5 · .... ...... , ..... : ........... ':'. ........... . .............:............ . ..... .
............
·. .. .. ". .
~ ~ ~ ~

.
· .· . . . . . . ..
·6 · .... ............ :............ -: ............ ............ :.............:............ : ..... .
~
·· .. .. .. ~
.. .. ...
··· .. .. .. .. .
·7
. . . . .. ..
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Frequency [GHz)

Figure S. Measured transmitted power through 27m of corrugated waveguide including 3 mitre bends as a
function of frequency.

164
When the wavelength A. becomes identical to twice the period of the corrugated waveguide,
Bragg reflections from the waveguide are expected according to the Bragg condition

(1)

where kHEII and kIn are the propagation constants of the forward travelling HEll
mode and reflected TEl. or TM ln modes, respectively. The onset for these reflections is
=
expected at a frequency off~ cl2p 168 GHz. To investigate the behaviour near the Bragg
limit, transmission and reflection measurements with high frequency resolution were
performed. In the transmission characteristic, which is shown in Figure 6, a series of sharp
drops caused by Bragg reflections from the incoming HEll mode to higher-order TE ln and
TM I• can be seen as expected, which sets an upper limit for the use of the waveguide.
Additionally, strong attenuation is seen at frequencies slightly below 168 GHz which result
from the excitation of slow surface waves when the effective groove width is about Al2.10
This effect is also seen in the calculated eigenmode mixtures in Figure 2 where the main
surface wave EHII is characterized by a high TMII mode content and 0° phase difference
between TEll and TM II . Besides the stronger ohmic losses of such waves they are mainly
filtered in the quasi-optical coupling section. This is due to the fact that most part of the
power radiated from the open ended waveguide is concentrated in sidelobes.
I

". .,. , MilUM .

4
I '~
0
-4 rtI' ~
"'rn ""WI
,...., -8 I, II' II
~ -12
=
.~
·s
-16

-20
~ -24 IIIr
-28
-32

-36
160 163 166 169 172 175
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 6, Measured transmission behaviour of the corrugated waveguide near the Bragg limit.

Calculations to study this behaviour in detail have been performed. The result from
a scattering matrix calculation taking into account a straight corrugated waveguide section
of 28 m length is shown in Figure 7, In this case the HEll is again represented by a mixture
of TEll (84,6%) and TMII (14.5%), Although the frequency resolution is lower than in the
experiment, a qualitative agreement is already achieved.

165
 4.0

0.0

-4.0
r-I

~ -8.0

.9=
-12.0

.§
rIl -16.0

-20.0

~ -24.0

-28.0

-32.0

-36.0
160.0 163.0 166.0 169.0 172.0 175.0
Frequency [GHz]

Figure 7. Calculated transmission through 28m corrugated waveguide in the Bragg region.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

In long and complex transmission lines, which include several mitre bends, the
excitation of spurious modes at the bends as well as misalignments cause a rippled
frequency dependence. This holds especially for moderately oversized waveguides as the
expression for mode conversion losses in mitre bends shows: ll

PL = 2.4-(~ J [dB]
(2)

(A. is the wavelength and D is the inner waveguide diameter), where 75% of the power is
transmitted and 25% is reflected. The reflected power consists of a spectrum of high-order
modes 12 which are characterized by high ohmic losses and can lead to standing waves and
therefore resonances in the transmission line. To estimate the effects calculations have been
performed using a scattering matrix code where the mitre bends are represented by large
diameter steps, using the fact that the diffraction losses of mitre elbows are very similar to
the losses of waveguide gaps. The broadband performance can be improved by including
waveguide gaps at each bend. Here one takes advantage of the strong dependence of the gap
losses on the Bessel zero of each mode.13 This means that fundamental modes are almost
not affected by the gaps, whereas higher-order modes suffer strong damping. Figure 8
compares the calculated transmission characteristics of a corrugated line with D=63.5mm
(100m, 10 miter bends) without and with mode filtering gaps with length L=D.
To demonstrate the mode filtering by gaps, corresponding measurements with
moderately oversized smooth waveguides (e.g. D=27.79 mm) propagating the TEll mode
were carried out. In this experiment the TEll mode was excited in a monomode waveguide
followed by a nonlinear uptaper. The same arrangement was used at the end of the section
to measure the transmitted signal. The length of the transmission line was 2 m including
two miter bends with plane mirrors. Gaps with a length of 28 mm were introduced in front
of each mitre bend. Figure 9 shows a comparison between the power of the transmitted

166
signals without and with gaps relative to a straight waveguide section with the same length.
The introduction of mode ftltering gaps leads to a smoothening of the frequency
characteristics as predicted by the calculations, however at the expense of a higher total
loss. Due to space restrictions on future experiments like ITER such moderately oversized
waveguides and antennas will have to be used. In this case additional waveguide transitions
like the one described in Figure 1 and gradual bends must be applied. 19 However, for a
highly oversized corrugated waveguide the gap losses are almost negligible. Further
theoretical and experimental work to get rules to optimize the behaviour of such complex
transmission lines is planned.
100 100
90 90
(a) (b)
10 10

!:
"10

CIO
Ilr
II ....
- 1--1-
!:
"10

CIO
I
-I-- i--

Iff /

,
30
I·' 30
20 11 20 1
10
ltl 10
o
Ii o f
18.0 llG.l 157.2 203.6 ~.o 18.0 64A 110.8 157.2 203.6 ~.o

I'Iequeocy 10Hz) I'requency 10Hz]

Figure 8. Estimated transmitted power through a corrugated transmission line of 100m length (D=63.5mrn)
including 10 mitre bends without (a) and with (b) gaps.

59.5 59.75 60.0

Frequency (OHz)

Figure 9. Comparison of transmission characteristics of a TEll line without and with gaps in the waveguide.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VACUUM BARRIER WINDOWS IN THE WAVEGUIDE

In oversized transmission lines, mostly vacuum barrier windows which consist of one
or two discs oriented perpendicular to the waveguide axis are used. This leads to perio-
dically varying transmission and reflection, due to multiple interference of the waves
reflected from the window surfaces. Especially for the case of two windows in the line
(which might be necessary for fusion reactors like ITER), the resulting transmission
characteristics are strongly modulated. 14 Several techniques to reduce the reflection and thus

167
to provide broadband transmission are in use,l5,l6,l7 but these are mostly limited to less than
one octave. Alternatively or additionally it is recommendable to incline the discs against the
waveguide axis by an angle of at least ex;;:: AlD. In this case, the discs are decoupled and
the transmission characteristics is determined by the sum of the characteristics of the indi-
vidual discs; reflections that occur in higher-order modes easily can be filtered out by gaps
and thus do not influence the transmission characteristics any more, Additional losses due
to the walk-off effect in the discs remain negligible for sufficiently oversized waveguides. 18
For the HEll mode with a single linear polarization, the window inclined at the
Brewster angle given by tanexa = n, where n is the refractive index, is often the best
solution. For a non-dispersive window material, there is in principle no bandwidth
limitation. The mode conversion loss should be similar to the loss of a gap in the waveguide
corresponding to the window thickness and therefore tolerable, if the window is designed
properly, i.e. including an offset of the connecting waveguides according to the propagation
path in the material:

!lx = d(sinex -cosex·tan~) (3)

where d is the thickness of the plate, ex the angle of incidence and the angle ~ =
arcsin(sinaln) is given by the law of refraction (see also Figure 10).
To check the behaviour of Brewster angle windows in corrugated waveguides, two
samples with 10 mm thick PVC-plates were built and installed in the waveguide with
D=87mm. (Note: PVC is an inexpensive plastic material with a refractive index similar to
quartz and was readily available for these tests, however, it has an absorption of about 1
dB/cm at 60 GHz, i.e. absolute values can be extrapolated to quartz windows only by a
correction for this absorption). Reflection measurements were performed with the bi-
directional coupler as described above; and referenced to a mirror at the end of the line. For
the transmission measurements, a receiver horn at the waveguide output was used, and the
results were related to the situation without window. Note, that the measurements
comprehend mainly the contribution of the HEll mode and reflect the situation that the
coupling to the oversized waveguide is performed via a quasi-optical section or that the
waveguide includes absorbing gaps to filter higher-order modes.
The measured frequency characteristics of two Brewster windows are shown in
Figure 11. In the correct polarisation, the transmission is flat over a broad frequency range.
Because the length of the waveguide behind the windows was equal to several beat
wavelengths (about 3 As at 60 GHz) between HEll and TMoolHE21 which mainly could be
excited by the window, frequency scans would react sensitively to the presence of these
modes. Neither the frequency spectrum and its Fourier transformation nor measurements of
the cross-polarization (peak-value -19 dB) show a significant level of wrong modes. The
reflections in the HEll mode are down by at least -45 dB.
The same windows also were tested with a cross-polarized HEll mode. The
transmission of the single window shows the typical shape given by the Airy function for
an effective thickness of d "COS~.14 In case of two windows, the transmission is appro-
ximately given by the product of two single window transmissions, as the inclined discs are
fairly decoupled, as shown in Figure 12. The remaining coupling of the discs which occurs
via high-order modes can be strongly reduced by a gap between the windows. The average
reflections are of course high, but occur in very high-order modes, which are filtered out
in the quasi-optical coupler. In the experiments, which are sensitive mainly for the HEll
mode, only a level below -30 dB is measured for one or two windows.
Such Brewster windows can be used to design polarization splitting arrangements,
where the parallel component is transmitted, the cross-polarized component is reflected from
the window surface forming a mitre bend. This offers the possibility of polarization

168
diplexing with compact and rugged devices and a saving of waveguides, and is therefore
in discussion for ITER diagnostic lines. To get high polarization discrimination over a broad
band, a wire grid on the window surface is necessary.

Figure 10. Schematic view of an in-waveguide Brewster angle window.

o r-~--~--~---.---.---.---.---.---r--,150

-2 110

~
.~
-4
···········"!"···········r········r·········r········"!'"··········l············r········y··········r········
............ j.............~ ............ j............;............ +............ j.............;............~............ j............ 70 f
.§ · · · · · I· · · · · ·t· · · · · I· · · · · · ~· · · · · ·f· · · · · · J· · · · · · L
• • : .
.........L:..........
:
J............ ~
t)

! ············1············1············t············r···········!············1·············: Phase·t············r........... ~
-6 30

-8
~=L:~~:~:=t~;=~==t=:~~~==
..••••.•.... i----••••.•.. +.--......... j...•.......•{.• --.•.•.•..+....----___ .!............+............;.......--... ...........
~-
-10

-10 '-----'__----'-1__--'-1__--"'------'-1__--'-1___;,-'__. . :.1__----'-1__---' -50

54 Frequency (GHz) 71

Figure 11. Transmission characteristics of two Brewster angle windows built into the corrugated waveguide
with D=87mm (Note, that the average damping comes from the absorption of the material used for the tests).

-3

,i
~thout gaps
~
@: dJ Vi
I
-6
f-J
.;~
-9 --_ .. w
--..
Lgaps
I~i -A.~
E-< 'M'
.... - .

-12 f............ ..
.~ j.IIV

-15
54 Frequency (GHz) 71

Figure 12. Transmission of two Brewster angle windows with polarisation perpendicular to the plane of
incidence.

169
CONCLUSIONS

The calculations and experiments presented here illuminate the characteristics of corrugated
waveguide transmission lines. Broadband excitation from fundamental waveguide and low-
loss transmission over two octaves has been shown and the behaviour at the Bragg-limit has
been investigated. The possibility to optimize transmission characteristics by mode-filtering
gaps is demonstrated. For vacuum barriers, Brewster windows are a good choice giving a
smooth broadband transmission with low loss. However, where the available space is not
sufficient for highly oversized HEll waveguides (e.g. divertor and high-field-side antennas
on ITER), transitions to moderately oversized waveguides might be necessary. Such
complex transmission lines with several changes in cross section and direction still need to
be investigated in more detail. Since a pure theoretical description is very difficult in this
case, experiments on a future prototype transmission line would be very helpful.

REFERENCES

1. M. Thumm and W. Kasparek, Fusion Eng. and Design 26:291(1995).

2. J.L. Doane, 1985, in: Infrared and Millimeter Waves 13, ed. K. Button, Academic Press,
New York (1985).
3. J.P. Crenn and C. Charollais, Int. J. of Infrared and Millimeter Waves 17:1475 (1996).
4. A. Cavallo et al., Conf. Digest 18th Int. Conf. on Infrared and Millimeter Waves,
Honolulu, Hawaii, in: SPIE Proc. 1039:113 (1988).
5. K. Ohkubo et al., Proc. 18th Symp. on Fusion Technology 1994 (SOFT94), Elsevier
Science Publishers B.V., Karlsruhe, 513 (1995).
6. J.c.G. Lesurf, Millimetre Wave Optics, Devices and Systems, Adam Hilger, ed., Bristol
(1990).
7. M. Thumm, A. Jacobs and M. Sorolla Ayza, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech.
39:301 (1991).
8. G.G. Denisov et al., to appear in: Proceedings of the EC-lO Workshop, Netherlands
(1997).
9. D. Wagner, J. Pretterebner, M. Thumm, Proceedings of the EC-8 Workshop, IPP-Report
IW186, Garching, 575 (1992).
10. J.L. Doane, Proc. 19th Int. Con! of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Sendai, 232 (1994).
11. J.L. Doane and c.P. Moeller, Int. J. Electronics 77:489 (1994).
12. D. Wagner et al., Proc. 15th Int. Con! on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Orlando,
SPIE Proc. 1514:437 (1990).
13. D. Wagner et al., Int. J. of Infrared and Millimeter Waves 17:1071 (1996).
14. M. Born and E. Wolf, Fundamentals of Optics, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1980).
15. J.Y.L. Ma and L.C. Robinson, Optica Acta 30:1685 (1983).
16. H.U. Nickel, H. MassIer, and M. Thumm, Digest of the 18th Int. Con! on Infrared and
Millimeter Waves, Essex, SPIE Proc., 2104:172 (1993).
17. T.P. Hughes, S.D. Richards, and D.V. Bartlett, Int. J. of Infrared and Millimeter Waves
15:61 (1994).
18. H.G. Danielmeyer, IEEE J. Quant. Electronics 6:101 (1970).
19. G.Vayakis et al., Overview of the ITER Refiectometry diagnostic systems, this
conference.

170
PHYSICS ASPECTS OF ECE Te MEASUREMENTS IN ITER

D V Bartlett & H Bindslev

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon Oxon, OX14 3EA, UK

and members of the European Home Team for Microwave Diagnostics *

ABSTRACT

This paper summarises the study which has been made of the physics of ECE for ITER.
Two ECE simulation codes have been used to obtain quantitative information about the
spatial localisation and accessibility limits of Te measurements. The calculations include
the effects of spatial averaging due to the antenna pattern. Results are presented for three
different scenarios: the core of full performance plasmas, the edge region and the startup
plasma. It is shown that for thermal plasmas it will generally be possible to make core Te
measurements with spatial resolution at or close to the ITER target (-0.1 m) using the
second harmonic extraordinary mode, although access to the plasma centre will be limited
at high Te. Access is better for the first harmonic ordinary mode, but the resolution is poor.
Edge Te measurements using ECE will have a spatial resolution >50 mm, much worse than
the ITER target (5 mm), and it will generally not be possible to measure low values of Te
«1 keV) close to the separatrix. It is shown that it will be possible to make core Te
measurements during much of the discharge startup if there is a suitable sightline.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is concerned with the physics aspects of obtaining Te from ECE
measurements on Maxwellian plasmas in ITER. Companion papers at this workshop and
the previous Varenna workshop on ITER diagnostics discuss the instrumentation [1], and
the design of the antennas [2]. There is close interaction between the physics issues and the
antenna design, since the spatial resolution is determined by the combined contributions of
the antenna pattern and spectral broadening. The antenna pattern should not significantly
degrade the resolution limits set by spectral broadening, but trying to achieve too narrow an
antenna pattern would give rise to unnecessary practical problems, since large apertures in
the port plug would be needed [2]. The physics issues also determine the optimum choice
of harmonic and polarisation in any measurement scenario, and this also influences the

* see list in Acknowledgements

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aJ., Plemun Press, New York, 1998 171
antenna design. There is less interaction between the physics issues and the instrument
design, since the spectral resolution requirements will not be difficult to meet for the
instrumentation which is foreseen.
There were papers on ECE physics at the previous Varenna workshop on ITER
diagnostics [3,4]. In [3], a typical simulated ITER ECE spectrum was shown and the
physical origin of the various characteristic features of that spectrum were explained. An
analysis of the spatial localisation of the emission over the whole optically thick region of
the spectrum was shown. The parts of the spectrum suitable for Te measurements were
identified and attention was drawn to the effects of the relativistically enhanced harmonic
overlap. The conclusions of that paper were that the ITER target spatial resolution for core
Te measurements could be met using the second harmonic extraordinary mode, but that
access to the core would not be possible at high Te' A preliminary analysis of the resolution
of edge Te measurements suggested that ECE would fall short of the ITER target (5 mm) by
an order of magnitude.
This paper extends these earlier results by presenting a detailed analysis for three
measurement scenarios: the core of high performance plasmas, the plasma edge, and the
startup plasma. In each case, the importance of all the various physical effects has been
examined and taken into account where necessary. Parameter scans have been made to
determine the sensitivity of the results to changes in Te and ne'

THE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

We describe the limitations on the localisation of ECE Te measurements under three

separate but related headings. The first two of these are fundamental limits, while the third
can be treated as a systematic effect when measurements are analysed:
1) Access. A region of plasma which does not give rise to a unique contribution to some
part of the ECE spectrum is inaccessible for Te measurements. Lack of access is usually
due to harmonic overlap, "shine through" of core plasma emission preventing Te
measurements close to the separatrix, or low optical depth in the startup plasma.
2) Spatial Resolution. The measured ECE at any frequency is an average over a volume of
plasma whose size and shape is determined by spectral broadening (a function of plasma
parameters, frequency and direction of view) and the antenna pattern characteristics.
3) Location. The "centre-of-gravity" of the averaging volume of the emission at a given
radiation frequency is shifted from its nominal location on the antenna axis and at the
resonance radius by asymmetric spectral broadening and refraction. Provided this shift is
reasonably small, it can be estimated and included in the analysis of data.

The results shown in the following sections are presented in terms of the above
quantities for several different measurement scenarios and a wide range of plasma
conditions. The relative importance of various factors in determining the limitations is first
investigated, then detailed calculations taking into account only the significant factors are
made. This avoids substantial computational overhead as well as allowing the underlying
causes of the behaviour to be more easily seen. The various analysis tools which have been
used for this purpose are described below.
The primary tool needed to quantify the above effects is an ECE simulation code
which solves the radiation transport equation. Such codes usually integrate backwards
along a ray path from the antenna, using an equilibrium which specifies profiles of Te, ne
and the magnetic field to calculate the emission and absorption and the accumulated
radiation intensity. The ray path may be straight or may include bending due to refraction.
The model used to calculate emission and absorption may include or exclude various

172
physical factors, and may assume certain approximations (such as kTefmc 2 « 1). Two
different codes have been used for the simulations reported here.
For simulations which will be accurate under all the circumstances considered here, a
comprehensive code with a variety of options from cold plasma to fully relativistic ray
tracing has been used [5]. The weakly relativistic approximation for the refractive index
and emission and absorption is adequate for the simulations reported here [5]. Because of
the computational overhead of this code, it has been mainly used to determine the
importance of beam bending by refraction, and to benchmark a simpler and faster code
which has been run for the parameter scans.
The simpler code ("ECELS") was described at the previous Varenna workshop on
ITER diagnostics [3]. It solves the radiation transport equation for a Maxwellian plasma,
using a formulation of the absorption coefficient due to Bornatici [6] which is valid for
perpendicular propagation, Te up to about 25 keY, and includes the "finite density" effects.
Deviation of the rays due to refraction is not included.

As explained in [3], the codes solve the radiation transport equation at each frequency
by integration of the function G(R) = Te(R).a(R).e-~(R) backwards along R (the ray path
from the antenna). The absorption coefficient is a(R), and 't(R) is the integral of a from the
antenna to R. The final value of /G(R) (which occurs where e-~(R) falls to zero for the
optically thick cases of interest here) is the radiation temperature, TRAD, which is the
measured quantity. TRAD is a weighted average of Te over the region where G(R) is non-
zero. It is re-absorption within the resonance layer (the e-~(R) term) which is responsible for
good localisation at high Te, even though a(R) is non-zero over a wide radius range.
We characterise the localisation of the emission due to spectral broadening at each
frequency by the radii at which the cumulative integral of G(R) reaches 2.5%, 50% and
97.5% of its final value. These are denoted R 2.5, R50 and R 97 .5, and are used to define:
1) The major radius resolution, dR.res == R 2.5 - R97.5 .
This is the radius range from which 95% of the observed intensity originates.
2) The mean emission radius, Rmean == R50.
Since the function G(R) is generally very close to being symmetric, this is a good
approximation to the radial centre-of-gravity of the emission volume.
3) The major radius shift, dR.sbift == RNR - Rmean.
RNR is the non-relativistic resonance radius, ie. the solution to (0 = m.e.B(R)/IIlo when
the rest mass, IIlo, is used in the resonance condition which gives the frequency, (0, as a
function of the harmonic number, m, and the magnetic field, B(R).

In addition to spectral broadening, the effect of the antenna pattern on localisation

needs to be included in the calculations. The antennas described in [2] are Gaussian
telescopes. In the absence of refraction, the antenna pattern is fully defined by the major
radius variation of the lIe radius, w(R), of the transverse intensity distribution, which is a
function only of the wavelength, A" and the location, RbO, and size, wo, of the beam waist in
the plasma:
w(R) = Wo x (1 + (A,(R - RbO)/(1t wo2)l)1I2.
We use a "composite" Gaussian beam in which A, varies with R according to the magnetic
field profile and the harmonic being considered. For this composite beam, we define Deff =
2.448xw(R) as the effective beam diameter (since this contains 95% of the total beam
power, by analogy with dR.res above).
The spatial resolution is defmed by the intersection of the antenna pattern and G(R).
To obtain a single number to represent the resolution we combine the transverse resolution
(ie the beam diameter) and the longitudinal resolution (ie the radial resolution) in the
following way, which is applicable to horizontal and near-horizontal beams. The averaging
volume is represented by a vertical cross in the poloidal cross-section, centred on Rmean and
Zbeam of the beam axis. The height of the cross is Deff and its width is dR.res. From the values

173
of the normalised flux at the four points of the cross, the corresponding minor radii in the
plasma midplane can be determined by translating along flux surfaces. Thus the transverse
and longitudinal resolutions can each be expressed as equivalent minor radius resolutions,
and the extrema of the four points used to give an effective minor radius resolution. This
is illustrated in the sketches of Figure I which show two cases, one near the plasma centre
and one near the edge. Even though Lill.res is shown as decreasing towards the edge, the
relationship to the flux surfaces causes Deff to dominate near the centre and Lill.res near the
edge. This analysis is suited only to poloidally symmetric cases. To study the resolution of,
for example, high order MHD modes a 2-dimensional integration would be required.

1.41---+-+------i...a---I6<IIHI-----l 1.4
!"b
I I
II
I I
II
I I
II
I I
II
I I
II
I I
I IT
l.. ~.

I
8.4 8.6 8.8 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8
R(m) R(m)

Figure 1: Sketches illustrating the technique used to characterise spatial resolution. The radiation
beam is shown as dashed lines, and the height of the cross is equal to its diameter, Deff • The width of
the cross, which is centred on (Rmean, Zbeam), is equal to .1.Rres . Translating the four points of the cross to
the plasma midplane allows the effecti ve minor radius resolution (horizontal bars) to be determined.

SIMULATION SCENARIOS

Equilibria and profiles derived from transport code simulations of a sawtooth free
discharge have been used for the core plasma calculations [7]. The Te profile is peaked,
with Teo'" 28 keY, while ne is flat at 1.3x102o m-3• The plasma centre is at R '" 8.4 m and
z'" 1.4 m, with a mid-plane minor radius'" 3 m and elongation'" 1.5. The on-axis magnetic
field strength is about 5.9 T. The equilibrium and profiles are shown in Figure 2.

6 30

20
Ql
I-
4 10
T = 28 keV
§: 16
eo
N

2 10
Ql
C
5
n
eo
= 1.31020 m-3
0 0
4 6 8 10 12 4 6 8 10 12
Major Radius (m) Major Radius (m)

Figure 2: Equilibrium of a high performance plasma. Flux surfaces and the upper two antenna
sightlines are shown on the left, and the Te and ne profiles on the right.

Simulations of edge Te and fie profiles made for ITER [8] show gradients which are
modest compared to those sometimes observed in present experiments such as JET [9].
Because of this, a simple model which allows a wide range of edge gradients to be
investigated has been created for use here. It represents the Te and ne profiles as three linear
segments: a flat central plateau, an intermediate region of moderate slope, and a high

174
gradient edge region. The Te and fie gradients in this outermost region have been scanned
over a wide range of values. Examples of these profiles are shown in Figure 8. As the right
side of Figure I shows, the antenna pattern does not influence spatial resolution in the edge
for a sightline near the midplane, and need not be included in the simulations. Similarly,
refraction is not significant in the edge and can be ignored.
Measurements of the startup plasma are not explicit in the ITER requirements, but
have been investigated in this study. because they pose different measurement problems to
the high performance plasmas. The plasma size and location, as well as Te and ne will be
quite different to the high performance phase. Simple equilibria (concentric elliptical flux
surfaces, vacuum magnetic field) have been constructed from sketches provided by ITER
[8] and are illustrated in Figure 10. The poloidal cross-section shows the beam of the
antenna at z=O.562 m and the separatrix for Ip = 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 MA. A set of Te and fie
values for the different plasma currents have been assumed: increasing from 1 keV and
lx10 19 m-3 at 0.5 MA to 4 keY and 4x10 19 m-3 at 8 MA, with moderately peaked profiles.
The design of the collection optics is described in [2]. The current design consists of
three antennas which view the plasma horizontally along major radii, two at heights near
the expected centre of high performance plasmas, and one at a lower height to observe the
startup plasma. The antenna parameters are listed in Table 1. The antennas are described by
their height (ZbeanJ, major radius of the beam waist (RbO) and waist radius (wo).
Table 1: Parameters of the ECE antennas in the current design.
Ant # Zbeam Rbo Wo
A 1.440 m 11.71 m 36.0 mm
B 1.040 m 11.71 m 36.0 mm
C 0.562 m 11.94 m 33.8 mm

COMPARISON OF THE TWO CODES AND CORE PLASMA RESULTS

The two simulation codes have been compared for high performance plasma scenarios
for which any shortcomings of the ECELS code will be greatest, either because of high T e
effects or due to neglecting refraction at high ne. The plasma profile shapes and the
eqUilibrium illustrated in Figure 2 have been used. To make scans of Te and fie, the profile
shapes are maintained and the profiles scaled from 10% to 100% of the "reference" value.

Antenna Pattern and Refraction

To investigate the effects of refraction, the ray tracing code has been run for both
2nd/E-mode and Ist/O-mode at the frequencies resonant at the plasma centre, using
antennas A and B. Five rays are used to represent the antenna pattern: one on axis and four
distributed symmetrically up/down and left/right of the axis. In vacuum. the four outer rays
cross the beam axis at the waist radius (RbO) and pass through the 95% intensity points of
the beam at the resonance radius. This give the correct spot size at the resonance (in
vacuum) but is a conservative representation of the beam, since the rays chosen have a
larger divergence than does the Gaussian beam at the resonance radius (0.95° as opposed to
0.4° for the E-mode). It therefore overestimates both the beam deflection and increased
spectral broadening due to the Doppler effect.
It is found that the deflection is only weakly dependent on T e. so the scaling with fie
has been investigated at fixed Te values. For the 2nd/E-mode the Te scaling used is 50%
(Teo = 14 keY) since this is the highest Te which allows access to the plasma centre. A
100% scaling (Teo = 28 keY) has been used for the Ist/O-mode. The results for antenna A
(sightline near the midplane) are summarised in Figure 3 which shows. as a function of neo,
the displacement of the beam centre from the antenna axis, and the increase in vertical and

175
horizontal width. For antenna B (-0.4 m below the plasma midplane) the deflection and
widening are about 1.S times larger in the E-mode and twice as large in the O-mode.
E
.s 15
0> E-mode O-mode
/
c: /
'c
~
.§' 10 ;x
""c:o
~
'iii 5
"0

~
CI)
m
5 10 15 5 10 15
Density (10 19 m- 3) Density (10 19 m-3)

Figure 3: The effect of refraction in both E- and O-modes as a function of lie for antenna A. The solid
lines show the deflection of the beam axis (crosses for vertical deflection, circles for toroidal) and the
dashed lines the increase in beam width (crosses for vertical widening, circles for toroidal).

We conclude from these results that for an antenna sightline near the plasma midplane,
the deflection has a very small effect on location (which we can neglect here) and the
increase in beam width is a secondary effect in the determination of resolution. For an
accurate calculation of resolution in antenna B refraction may need to be taken into
account, but it can be ignored for antenna A. These conclusions might need to be revised
for ne profiles which are less flat.

Code Comparisons

To check for inaccuracy at high Te in the expressions for the absorption coefficient
used in the EeELS code, and for errors due to ignoring Doppler broadening, the
localisation information produced by the two codes has been compared. Figure 4 compares
the function G(R) calculated by the two codes for the central ray of antenna A, at
frequencies resonant at the plasma centre. The Te profile has been scaled to 50% (Teo = 14
keY) for the E-mode because of the access problem, and the O-mode has been calculated
for Teo of both 14 and 28 keV. In both cases the density has its full value. The difference in
the O-mode at 28 keY is probably due to deteriorating accuracy of the EeELS code at high
Te, while the difference at 14 keV appears to be due to the effects of refraction.
Nevertheless, we find that the widths of the curves from the two codes are nearly identical,
and we conclude that the EeELS code is sufficiently accurate to use in the resolution study
for the antenna sightline near the plasma midplane. The results will suffer some inaccuracy
above 20 keV (only relevant for the O-mode), and for the off-midplane antennas at high ne.
The results of a combined analysis of spectral resolution (ECELS code) and Gaussian
beam antenna pattern are shown in Figure 5. For part (a), the full performance plasma
conditions and 2ndlE-mode have been assumed. The beam diameter is generally larger than
the major radius resolution, but as part (b) shows, when these are converted into effective
minor radius resolution using the technique of Figure 1, the spectral broadening is entirely
dominant. This behaviour is typical for a midplane antenna under high performance
conditions (ie high Te). However, when an off-midplane antenna (B) is considered and both
Te and ne are reduced by a factor 2, as shown in (c) and (d), the results are somewhat
different. In this case there is access in as far as R = 8 m (since Te is lower) and the antenna
pattern dominates the resolution at around R = 8.3 m. For part (d) the magnetic field has
also been reduced by a factor 2 and the effect of the larger antenna pattern at the lower
frequency can be clearly seen. This reduction in field has the same effect on antenna pattern
as operating in the 1st harmonic.

176
 In all these cases, the effective minor radius resolution is within the 0.1 m target,
except near R =8.3 m at low toroidal field where it may be up to 0.12 m.
300 300
E-mode O-mode
28 keV
200 200
f? f?
(3 (3
100 100

0 0
8.3 8.35 8.4 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4
Radius (m) Radius (m)
Figure 4: Comparison of G(R) calculated by the ECELS code (solid lines) and the weakly relativistic
code (dashed lines). There is some difference at the highest Te, but the widths of the curves (ie. ~res)
are very similar in all cases.

E 0.1 (a)
.......
' ....... . I
(/)
01
. (c)
c: :::J
o
~
~ 0.05 c: 0.05 .'
(/)
Ql oc:
c: ~
OL-----~------~----~ OL-----~------~----~
8 9 10 11 8 9 10 11

E
(/)
0.1 (b) I
(/)
0.1
:::J :::J
'0 '0
£ 0.05 £ 0.05
OL-----~~~~~~~~

8 9 10 11 9 10 11
Major Radius (m) Major Radius (m)

Figure 5: Combined effects of spectral resolution (E-mode) and antenna pattern. Parts (a) and (b) are
for antenna A and a full performance plasma. Part (a) shows that the major radius resolution (solid
line) is generally smaller than the beam diameter (dashed line), while in part (b) it can be seen that the
spectral resolution dominates the effective minor radius resolution. Parts (c) and (d) show the minor
radius resolution for antenna B and reduced performance: Te and ne reduced to 50% in part (c). and the
magnetic field is also reduced to 50% in part (d).

Parameter Scans
In figure 6, Te profiles (scanned from 20% to 100% of the full value) are plotted, with
the accessible region shown by the bold lines. The lack of access on the inboard side is due
to relativistically enhanced harmonic overlap which becomes more important as Te
increases. The curves are all plotted for the highest density. The results are not strongly ne
dependent for the E-mode. The inboard O-mode results may be slightly inaccurate at high
Te because of a slight overestimate of the second harmonic optical depth in the 0- mode.
Since the resolution is generally determined by the spectral broadening, we have made
scans of Te and fie (at full field), and calculated the major radius resolution for antenna A.
Figure 7 shows contour plots of the major radius resolution at frequencies resonant at the
plasma centre in both 2ndJE-mode and Ist.O-mode. Up to the 15 keY limit set by access,
the 2ndJE-mode resolution is generally better than the 0.1 m target, whereas the Ist/O-mode
is generally worse: at high Te (>12 keY) the target is never reached, and at 28 keY the
resolution is between 0.17 and 0.27 m depending on ne'

177
 30 30
E-mode 1 \
25 1 \ 25
1 / ~ \
~20 1/ \ ~20
>
~ 15 '/ ,-
>
Q) "
" /
! 15
Q)

I- 10 /
I- 10
';1 /
I 1 ",
5 /. 'l / 5
i~/
0 0
4 6 8 10 12 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (m) Radius (m)
Figure 6: Core access. Each curve is a Te profile (scaled to 20, 40, 60, 80 & 100% of the full value).
The part of the profile in bold is accessible for T e measurements, while the inboard regions are
obscured by relativistically enhanced harmonic overlap. The density used is the full value.

30 30
E-mode
25 25 ~O-mOO'

~~.~
20 20
> >
~ 15 !15

~
CD CD

~
l- I-
10 10

5
~~o-- 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
n (1019 m-3) n (1019 m-3)
e e
Figure 7: Contours of major radius resolution for both E- and O-modes, as a function of Te and ne. A
frequency resonant at the plasma centre has been used, and the profiles scaled from 10% to 100% of
the high performance values. The contour interval is 20 mrn. Above 15 keY there is no access to the
plasma centre in the E-mode.

EDGE PLASMA RESULTS

The families of Te and Ile profiles which have been used (left side of Figure 8) have
five values of edge VTe from 25 to 85 keY m· l and five values of edge VIle from 2.5xl02o to
8.5x102o m·4 . The TRAD spectra on the right side of Figure 8 (calculated with the ECELS
code) correspond to all five VTe values for the lowest VIle (upper part) and the highest Vne
(lower part). The low frequency emission (f < 232 GHz) is due to relativistically
downshifted radiation from further into the plasma (where Te is larger) which can pass
through the low optical depth edge region ("shine through"). This shine through is an effect
which does not occur in the core, and it sets a limit on how close to the edge Te
measurements can be made. The value of the low Te limit increases with VT e and decreases
with VIle. Examination of these spectra also shows that above this lower limit of Te the
slope of the Te profile is well recovered, but there is some smoothing due to the resolution.
Figure 9 is a quantitative presentation of the lower limit of measurable Te and the
resolution. Resolution contours are plotted over a range of edge gradients. The left side
shows contours for the emission frequencies for which TRAD = 1.5 keY, and on the right for
TRAD = 2 keY. The bold lines on the upper left comers of these plots mark the boundary of
the inaccessible region (ie above these lines the emitted intensity never falls to the target

178
value). Where the edge Te can be measured, the resolution is generally between 40 and 70
mm. The O-mode has not been investigated in the edge since it has lower optical depth.
6,--.------,-------,--,
Lowest n
gradient e

Or---~----~--~~~--~
Highest n
>4 gradient e
!
~
I-~~
CD
C

O~~------~----~~--~ O~--~----~----~--~
11 11.05 11.1 231 232 233 234 235
Radius (m) Frequency (GHz)
Figure 8: On the left side, the families of edge Te and n. profiles used in the edge simulations. On the
right are spectra calculated for all five values of VTe, at the lowest Vn. (top) and highest Vn. (bottom).
The features of the high gradient region are rounded in the spectra by broadening, and the intensity
does not fall to zero, because of the "shine through" effect.

80
(a)
70
~ ~

I
E 60 IE 60
>Q) >Q)
c50 c50
a: a:
:eaAO :eaAO
I- I-
-c -c
30 30

20 20~----~------~------J
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80
dn IdR (10 19 m-4)
e
Figure 9: Contour plots of major radius resolution in Vne, VTe space for the profiles of Figure 8. Part
(a) is for TRAD = 1.5 keY, and part (b) for TRAO = 2.0 keY. The bold diagonal lines mark the maximum
gradients for which the given TRAD is accessible. The contour interval is 5 mm.

STARTUP PLASMA RESULTS

The ECELS code has been used for the startup plasma because it should be accurate at
the low Te and ne values which have been assumed. Calculations have been made for
antenna C, and the 2ndlE-mode has been used since it has the larger optical depth. The
limit on access in these cases is due to low optical depth: we have taken a strict criterion ('t
> 4) for the validity of Te measurements. The plots on the right of Figure 10 are (from top
to bottom): the Te profiles (solid for't > 4 (e-t < 2%), dashed for't < 4), the transmission,
and the minor radius resolution in the optically thick region. For the conditions assumed, 't
is too low for a reliable Te measurement at 0.5 MA, and only the central part of the profile
is accessible at 1 MA and 2 MA, for which the transverse resolution dominates. The 4 MA
and 8 MA cases show how the transverse resolution has a significant effect in a narrow
region around the plasma centre. Nevertheless, in all cases it is again found that a limit of
about 0.12 m in minor radius resolution is not exceeded.

179
 4
6
s;-
Ql
~2
4 1-'"

(D

E If
c:: 0.5
N x
Ql
0

0
E 0.1

~
-2
c:
0

~ 0.05
-4 (J)
Ql
a: 4
0
4 6 8 10 12 6 7 8 9 10 11
Major Radius (m) Major Radius (m)

Figure 10: Resolution analysis for the startup plasma. On the left, the separatrix is labelled for Ip = 8,
4, 2 & 1 MA (0.5 MA not labelled) and the beam of antenna C is shown. On the right, from top to
bottom, are the Te profiles (in bold where good Te measurements are possible), the transmission (e-')
and the minor radius resolution.

CONCLUSIONS

The ITER requirements for spatial resolution of Te measurements (-0.1 m) can be met
in and near the centre of high performance plasmas using the second harmonic
extraordinary mode at Te up to about 15 keY. At higher Te the first harmonic ordinary
mode can be used, but the resolution is poorer (up to 0.27 m at 28 keY). At all
temperatures, harmonic overlap restricts the access of the 2ndJE-mode to radii outboard of
the plasma centre. The first harmonic ordinary mode has access to radii inboard of the
plasma centre at all temperatures, and almost all of the profile for Te < 15 ke V.
In the edge region the spatial resolution is typically 40 mm to 70 mm, much larger than
the ITER target. It will not be possible to make measurements close to the separatrix, at Te
below about 1 keY. The exact values of all these figures depend on the steepness of the
edge Te and ne gradients.
The limitation in the startup plasma is likely to be low optical depth. However, if an
antenna viewing through the plasma centre is installed, good T e measurements should be
possible during much of the startup phase.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Members of the European Home Team for Microwave Diagnostics who have participated in this work are: A
Airoldi, P Buratti, L Cupido, T Donne, G Giruzzi, H Hartfuss, E Joffrin, M E Manso, S Nowak, R-L Meyer,
G Ramponi, J Sanchez, B Schokker, A Silva, P Stott, V Tribaldos, G Waidmann. The authors wish to thank
Drs G Vayakis and D Boucher for providing valuable information required for the calculations presented here.

REFERENCES
[1] H Hartfuss et aI, Proc. of the IntI. Workshop on Diagn. for ITER (Varenna, 1995)
[2] G Vayakis et aI, this workshop.
[3] D V Bartlett et aI, Proc. of the Inti Workshop on Diagn. for ITER (Varenna, 1995)
[4] M Bornatici, Proc. of the IntI. Workshop on Diagn. for ITER (Varenna, 1995)
[5] H Bindslev, Proc 9th Joint Workshop on ECE & ECRH (Borrego Springs, 1995)
[6] M Bornatici, F Engelmann & U Ruffina, Sov J Quantum Elec, 13,68 (1983)
[7] D Boucher, private communication.
[8] G Vayakis, private communication.
[9] L Porte et aI, Proc 10th Joint Workshop on ECE & ECRH (Ameland, 1997)

180
ECE DIAGNOSTIC ON ITER IN THE PRESENCE OF
SUPERTHERMALS

Marino Bornatici,1,2 and Umberto Ruffina2

I Physics Department, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
2INFM, Physics Department" A. Volta.". University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

ABSTRACT
The E'ffects of superthermals on ECE T.-l1leasurf'ments ill t.he mre plasma of ITER are investi-
gat.ed on the basis of a model distribution function fo\' which a generalized Kirchhoff's law is valid.
On varying both t.he spatial profiles and the position of t.he superthermals. the feasibility of T.-
measurements using the first harmonic ordinary-mode as well as the sE'cond harmonic extraordinary-
modE' is assessed in respect to the accuracy requirement. set by ITER.

INTRODUCTION
The potential of electron cyclotron emission (ECE) for electron temperature (Te)
measurements in ITER requires a careful assessment. since the p·J.'Ojected ITER j>lasma
parameters, in particular, the very high T, and dimensions, differ significantly from
those of existing tokamaks. PrelIminary studies of ECE diagnostic on ITER have
indicated that. for a Maxwellian electron distribution. and T.~20kdr, the accuracy of
90% and the spatial resolution of lOem set by ITER for core T,- measurements can be met
by the 1st harmonic ordinary (0) mode over a significant portion of the plasma cross-
section. l •a The 2nd harmonic extraordinary (X) mode, instead, which is more strongly
affected by harmonic overlap, does not appear to be suitable f01' T,-measurements in the
core plasma for T.~20keV, its T.-diagnostic potential being restricted to the outboard
plasma region.3.4
Here the analysis of ECE T.-measurements in the core plasma of ITER is extended
to include the presence of superthermals. A convenient model distribution to study
the effects of a low-density population of high energy electrons (hereafter referred to
as superthermals (8»), including a motion along the magnetic field with respect tp
the bulk (b) electrons, consists of a (relativistic) bi-Maxwellian distribution for which
Kirchhoff's law is valid for each electronj>opulation separatelv. For the specific case of
a plane plasma slab of thickness 2a and observation on the outboard side of the plasma,
the radiation temperature of the ith mode (i = .Y.o) obtained on solving the equation
ofra.diative transfer, is 5

(la)

(16)

and
(Ie)

Diagnostics for Experimental 'fhsrmonucleor Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aL, Plenwn Press, New Yode, 1998 181
'I'll<' iir,.:t factor on tlw right-hand-side of (1a), for which r(i)(w , Nil, .to) == Jxa. dX(frli ) +
)(w VII"!') is 111(' effedive optical t.hickness, accounts for the reflections from both
,, '; I

thl' outboard \\'all at J' = (I, with reflection coefficient R4 ., and a reflecting layer at
.r,,1 -(f :s .rll < II). II·it.1i reflection coefficient Ro· In part.icular, Ro = 1 and Ro = R.. for
thl' CCIS(' in which the reflecting layer at Xo is cOllnected with , respectively, a cut-off
alJ{1 the inboard (.1' = -a) wall. The Gin- function. defined in (lb ,c ), yields the spatial
distribut.ion of t.he emission from the kth electron population (,:,; naki),
with the n
t.elll perature) on account of the re-absorption by bot.h the elect.ron populations, as
desCTibed by the exponential factor in (lc) .

NON-THERMALECESPECTRAAND~-MEASUREMENTSON
ITER
Let us refer specifically to the ITER projected parameters of the Interim Design
namely, minor radius a = 2.8m. and inverse aspect ratio ( = 0.34; central toroidal field
B(O) = 5.68T; for the bulk, central density ne(O)) = 1.2 x 10 20 m- 3 and central temperature
T. (O) = 20keV. With reference to the superthermals, the peak values of density and
=
temperature are. respectively, n.(ao) 1.8 x 1017m-3 (= 1.5 x 1O- 3 n,(0)) and T,(ao) 80keV =
(= 4T.(0)), ao denoting the central position of the superthermals , such that 0::; ao ::; aj
"l, (aO) = 1.01 is taken as central value of t.he streaming parameter of the superthermals
",.' == [1 - (v,/ cfJ-l /~ . As for the spatial profiles used as input to the calculation of the
ECE spectra, along with the vacuum toroidal field profi!e. the .generic profile shape is
of the form [1- (j.r-a ol /a,.)Ojl3. aO-(lk::; 1'::; all +ak, WIth, III partlcula.r, aD = 0 and ak = a
for the bulk, an( three ty pes of profiles are considered, namely, flat profiles with J = 5
and ,J = 0.2.5. to be referred to as trapezoidal - like profiles. parabolic profiles for which
<5 = 2 illId /3 = 1. and (3/2)- profiles wit.h J = 2 and ;3 = :)/2. \Nith respect. to the bulk, the
spati<ll distribution of the superthermals is taken t.o be st.eeper (Case I), equa.lly flat
(Case II). equally steep (Case III) . Also. we consider observation along a major radius
( A ll = 0). and assume a wall reflection coefficient K = 0.0 .
III Fig.la the radiation temperature of t.he O- mode is shown for the frequency
range ext.ending up to t.he 5t.h harmonic , for trapezoidaJ- like profiles for the bulk and
parabolic and (:1 /2 )-profiles, respectively, for the density and temperature of the su-

20
,...a.""
N,"~-.l'ft1M.""'I;~.K-a .. a)
as
OJ
.Jtt-«'G1 0J 15
o ~:;.::;. r; ........
U 10 r;~Y

.......
,.'*£11
1.-"1
5
........
. . . . .11 ",.....,.1

~ -5
~ - 10
-15
-20

... -25
-30
-35
5 0.75 1.50

Fig. Ie a) Non-t.hermal ECE spectra. of t.he perpelldicular Q-mode. The location of the peak of the
spat.ial dist.ribut.ion of the superthermals is varied frolll t.he cent.er of the hulk , ao = 0, to near the
out. bo~rd edge. ao = 0.7a ; the width of the profile is a .• = 0. :3a. The superthermals carry a 720kA
('lll'J'ellt. The 1) = O-('ur"e refers to t.he speet.rulIl without slIperthermals.
b) The ullcNt.ainty of the 1; -nH'asuremE'nt.s, J.T = (T.' ,1(/ - 1~ liT,. for the 1st harmonic Q-mode
on a.('count of t.he downshifted 2nd harmonic ernissioll fronl slIpert.herma.ls.

182
perthermais (Case I), for different central locations of the superthermals. With respect
to the thermal spectrum, the 1J = O-curve, it appears that the overall effect of the su-
perthermals consists in an enhancement of the radiaton temperature. the effect being
the more significant the nearer to the outboard plasma-edge are the superthermals.
Note. however. that the downshifted 1st harmonic feature is largelv unaffected by the
supertherma.ls, In particular, the effect of the downshifted 2nd harmonic emission from
the superthermals on the low-frequency part of the 1st harmonic frequency range of
the thermal spectrum could spoil the potential of the 1st harmonic O-mode for T.-
measurements. For a quantitative assessment of this effect, the uncertainty of the
To-measurements, ~T == (Trad - Te)/To is evaluated for the 1st harmonic O-mode, for
the same parameters of Fig.Ia, and shown in Fig.Ib. It appears that the uncertainty
I~TI.90%, i.e., an accuracy {I -1~TI)~90%, set oy ITER can be attained over most
of the 1st harmonic frequency range, namely, O. 76:S (w /w c (O)):S 1.20, provided that the
supertherma.ls are located not too nea.r the outboard plasma-edge.
Let us consider now Case II for which trapezoidal-like profiles are assumed for the
bulk as well as for the superthermals. A sample of non- thermal ECE spectra of the 0-
mode is §hown in Fig. lIa, and the corresponding uncertainty of the Te - measurements
is shown in Fig. lIo for the 1st harmoJ1Ic frequency ra.nge. The salient points to be
noticed are: i) the downshifted 1st harmonic feature can be significantly
35
30
,--.,
T.,(It-...... 25

--"
T.""""
,.-UI 20 '.w--'
,-..
~·UI

15 ,-..
.".....1J

10

e. 5
~

0
-q
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
4 5 0.75 1.50

Fig. II: a) Samt> as Fig.Ia: b) Same as Fig.lb.Trapezoidal-like profil es for the bulk and t.he superther-
mals a.re assum ed.

60 35
",-.f:I""'~ttft""'~I~"'K..IIG:'''l''''' ''''''_' a) " ... f<\ttJI..fOIl-v ........,_.. _r''''7 ..-.. b)
.'-' 30
s::- 50 TJIf-'-'''
'..v-'
I,...........
25 , '.w--'
-! 7~"L'J
I
,-,
,
...... u T.-LOJ

, "rOJ
........11
20
~40
I,
i! .......
,
15
~
_ (~..,.WI-'....,.,...

l!! 30
§
.'"
~
.q- 10
,
J 20
5

0 .......
I
I
t:l'<I 1J(1I-O
7 . . . . -...-."....,." /
10 -5
•• -10 ,....MII (~,,~_~~

_15 I:........,--,"--,--,-....l....-'--'--'--.l...-L...I---,--,--,-...::I
0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

Fig. III : a) Sa me as Fig.Ia: b) Same as Fig.lb. The density profil e is parabolic and the temperat.ure
profile is of (3/2) type. for both the bulk and the supertherrnals

183
enhanced by the emission from superthennals located neal' the outboard plasma edge,
to be compared with the cOl'l'esponding downshifted feature of Fig.la; ii) the down-
shifted 2nd harmonic emission from the superthermals can significantly enhance the
1st harmonic radiation temperature with respect to its value in the absence of su-
perthermals, with the result that the accuracy of T, -measurements tends to be worse
than that for the case for which the profiles or the superthermals are steeper than the
bulk profiles (compare Fig.lIb with Fig.lb).
The downshifted 1st harmonic emission from the superthermals can be dominant
with respect to that from the bulk for the case for which the profiles of density and
temperature are, respectively, parabolic and of (3/2)-type for both the superthermals
and the bulk (Case III), as it appears from the non-thermal EeE spectra shown in
Fig.lIIa. Because of the downshifted 2nd harmonic emission from the superthermals,
the uncertaintv of the 1st harmonic T.-measurements, shown
. in Fig.IIJh, can be significantly higher than
60 its value with no superthermals, the require-
50 ment set by ITER (I~TI:SIO%) being not sat-
isfied for t.he case of superthermals near the
40 r,fIt-., ...
TJ...,..... .. outboard plasma-edge, e.g., ~T~12% for ao =
30 ,,-'.J 0./(1 .
20
~ ......
.......lJ
A comprehensive analysis of the non-thermal
EeE spectra. has been made also for the x-
~ 10 mode. In view of the accuracy of 2nd harmon-
::R
~ 0 ic T, " measurements in a thermal plasma,s,4
..r -10 the most favourable case correspopds to the
(3/2)-profile for the bulk temperature (the
-20 shape ofthe density profile does not appear to
-30 be so important), which is shown in Fig.IlIc
-40 along with the effect of the emission from su-
perthermals with the same peaked profiles as
-SO for the bulk. On comparing with Fig.lIIb\ the
-60 ~,--,--,----'-.....L......I....1ll--~-"-.l-J'--'--'----'-~ 1st harlllonic O-mode appears to be the best
1.5 2 .0 2.5 3.0 choice for T, -Jlleasurements in the core plas-
aVlV.(O) ma of ITEH. notwithstanding the issue of the
spatia.l resolution.
Fig. Ilk The ulH'prt.ainty of th" T,-measurenlen\.s for tlH' 211d harmonic X-mode, for the same pa-
ramN.ers as Fig.Ilfb.

REFERENCES
1. M. Bornatici. and U. Ruffina, in Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors, P.E. St.ott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni (Eds.), Plenum Press. New York, 1996, pp.
19;~-196.
2 M . Bornatici. and U. Ruffina, in Proc . lOt.h Joint. Workshop on EeE and ECRH (Ameland,
1997).
3 D.V. Bartlett.. in Diagnostics for Experimental Thel'monuclear F\lsioll Reactors, P.E.
St.ot.!. G. Gorini and E. Sindoni (Eds.), PlenulIl I'r(',;s. N('", York. 1990. pp. U:~:3-H)2.
4 D.\' . BartIN." and H. Bindsley. I.his workshop.
!) '\1. Borna.t.iC'i . and U. Ruffina. Plasma Phys. ('olltr. FJ"ioll 38. J1)61(1996).

184
THE ITER ECE DIAGNOSTIC FRONT END DESIGN

G. Vayakis,l D. Bartlett,2 P. Edmonds,3 H. HartfuB,4 D. Wagner,S

C.1. Walker,3 and the ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams

lITER Joint Central Team, San Diego JWS, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road,
La Jolla CA 92037, USA
2JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, United Kingdom
3ITER Joint Central Team, Garching JWS, Germany
4Max-Planck-Institut fUr Plasmaphysik, Garching, Germany
SInstitut fUr Plasmaforschung, Stuttgart, Germany

INTRODUCTION

The ECE diagnostic is one of the two primary systems for the measurement of
electron temperature in ITER. It is capable of viewing the plasma for the whole pulse,
including the startup and termination phases. In addition to the measurement of electron
temperature profiles and related quantities, I it will also be used to provide measurements
from which the total ECE power loss can be deduced. In this paper we present the outline
design of the front end of the ECE diagnostic, which has been shaped by the following
considerations: (i) The choice of an appropriate front end, (ii) the selection of an adequate
sightline distribution, (iii) the optimisation of the front end to minimise the perturbation to
the fIrst wall and shield, and (iv) the incorporation of a suitable calibration mechanism.

CHOICE AND LOCATION OF FRONT END

In order to reach the spatial resolution limits imposed by the physics of the emission
process,2 and thus aehieve the target resolution in the core (0.1 m), the front end optics has
been designed as a focusing system. Well defined antenna patterns over a very broad band
(100 GHz-l THz) are a requirement to avoid potential degradation of the resolution due to
the antenna side lobes.
The present design employs a Quasi-Optical (QO) Gaussian beam telescope
arrangement (figure 1). An alternative design using Flux Concentrators (FC) is also being
considered.3 Both types of system can be made to provide good neutron shielding through
the diagnostic block: The QO system exploits the narrowing of the beam near the confocal
point, and the FC system has natural tapers and a "neck point".

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 185
 ,,
R (/-xJDR- -

__2M-;
,
dJ

,
- - __ --I _ _ L

: M2 "
I '
,--d2_'
Rm

Figure 1: Schematic of a Gaussian telescope. The

minimum waist wo and the waveguide waist Ww are
frequency independent. The intermediate waist Wj is Figure 2: View of the ECE system from the plasma.
maximum for the lowest frequency, and is about 112 The beams shown trace out the spot size of all three
the size of the waist at the mirror for the ITER lines at 110 GHz; the vertical straight line is at the
antennas. major radius of the plasma centre.

The first mirror of the QO system has been placed some distance behind the first
wall (-1 m). This reduces the EM radiation heat flux on these components by about a factor
of 10 compared to the first wall values, or - 50 kW/m2. This load is low enough that,
combined with the need to operate only at long wavelength (>300 Ilm), means that simple
stainless steel mirrors can be used, and cooled without much difficulty.

NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF SIGHTLINES

In order to measure the required parameters for a wide range of plasma shapes, and
in order to accommodate the necessary instrumentation, more than one sightline is
necessary. Figure 2 shows the sightline distribution. The nominal system instrumentation6
consists of a pair of heterodyne radiometers to perform the profile measurement (one each
in X and O-mode) and a pair of Michelson interferometers for spectrum overview, again
one for each polarisation. Thus at least two lines are necessary to be able to couple the
signal to all instruments with reasonable loss. At the same time, if properly located, these
two sightlines provide access to the core with some flexibility, and a measure of
redundancy.With the present plasma scenario, a third sightline is required to cover the
startup and termination phases. This sightline is intended for lower temperature plasmas at
large major radius, so that its mirror can be placed further out, thus easing congestion in the
port. A way to switch instruments between sightlines in real time is envisaged.

OPTIMISATION OF THE REQUIRED APERTURE

For the QO front end, the size for the first mirror has been iteratively decreased,
subject to the resolution requirement. 4 ,5 Two considerations are pertinent here: Minimising
the first wall side wall cooling requirements, and minimising the total neutron throughput

186
 Bioshield
Vacuum Vessel Beam-splitter
Calibration Seal Plate
Valve
Source Window

~Swivel Joint

Sliding Joint Cryostat

Seal Plate------~

Actuator
Shield Block ~ Shutter

Figure 3: Schematic of one of the BCE sightlines to the second vacuum boundary. showing key components.
Note the swivel/sliding joint assembly to compensate for vessel movement.

which is linked to the tunnel diameter. If the overriding constraint (or iterative parameter) is
made the first wall aperture, rather than the mirror size, then slightly smaller first wall
apertures result, but with much larger mirrors, which would greatly increase the neutron
throughput given the extended neutron source shape. Thus, the mirror size was used.
For each iteration, an optimisation procedure is followed, which consists of
calculating the mirror focal length that results in the minimum spot size at the innermost
radius of interest for an appropriate wavelength, subject to the beam truncation
requirement: This demands that the QO condition (beam diameter =5 x waist size) be met
at the lowest frequency of intrest. The resolution of the arrangement is then calculated. 2 It
is found that a mirror size of 200 rom gives acceptable performance for all sightlines.
The optimisation is done for O-mode, so that for the main sightline the two
frequencies used were 150 GHz (near the core) and 110 GHz (for no beam truncation). The
same calculation in X-mode at full field would result in much smaller mirrors, but extreme
performance degradation at lower than full fields and in O-mode, which would translate to
a serious lack of flexibility. With the present setup, good performance in X-mode is
available down to 112 field (2.85 T).

CALffiRATION

In order to guarantee the accuracy of the measurements, an end-to-end calibration

mechanism has been incorporated in the two main sightlines. 6 Unlike the situation on
present devices, on ITER it will be difficult, and expensive in operation time, to introduce
an in-vessel calibration source at frequent intervals. At the same time, there is no other
comprehensive way of checking the full system performance.
Two types of calibration scheme have been considered. In the first type, the first
mirror is made to rotate and view a calibration source in the diagnostic block. 6 In the
second type, a mirror is introduced at a 45° angle to the sightline. Although both could be
implemented, in the first method the mirror has to satisfy both the mechanical and
alignment requirements of the shutter during calibration, and the thermal and mechanical
stability requirements of the first mirror during plasma operation. Thus we have explored in
more detail the second case (figure 4). Here the shutter is rotated using an axle driven by a
connecting rod, attached to a guided bellows on the first vacuum boundary.
The shutter is made out of a thin sheet of refractory material attached to a frame,
and is polished on the side facing the antenna. The shutter and frame are designed to
withstand indefinite exposure to the plasma during operation so they can be used to protect
the antenna, if required. However in normal machine operation they are shielded from the
plasma in a recess within the diagnostic block. In both extreme positions, the frame of the
mirror is wedged in well defined slots, so that the axle bearing tolerance is not critical.

187
 View on "A":

. . First Mirror

Sightline

Figure 4: Cutaway view of the calibration setup. All moving parts inside the primary vacuum are cooled by
radiation. Thus, the mirror, and the thin hollow cylinder rotating the shutter, are designed to form effective
radiation heat sinks to the surrounding shielding (cooled to -140°C) for the frame assembly and the bearing,
respectively. It appears to be possible to meet the required lifetime, without maintenance, of a few x 105
operations for the components inside the primary vacuum.

CONCLUSIONS

The ECE front end, from the first mirror to the second vacuum boundary has been
designed in outline, and is now in a form likely to be compatible with the assembly,
maintenance and lifetime requirements for installation in ITER. Two good alternatives for
the antenna are being explored. A number of calculations (neutronics, electromagnetic) and
much detailed design remains. In particular a long-lived hot source designed to operate in
the hostile environment of the ITER diagnostic block remains to be designed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the
Agreement among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IABA).

REFERENCES
I. A. E. Costley et al., Requirements for ITER diagnostics, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et al., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
2. D.V. Bartlett et al, Physics Aspects of the ITER ECE System Design, in: These Proceedings
3. H. Hartfuss et ai, The non-imaging flux collector as a compact ECE antenna for ITER, in: These
Proceedings
4. D. Bartlett et al, Physics aspects of the ITER ECE system design, to appear in: Proceedings of the EC-1O
Workshop, Netherlands (1997)
5. G. Vayakis et ai, Technical aspects of the ITER ECE front end design, to appear in: Proceedings of the EC-
10 Workshop, Netherlands (1997)
6. H.J. Hartfuss, Instrumentation of ECE for ITER, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors, P. E. Stott et aI., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).

188
THE NON-IMAGING FLUX COLLECTOR AS A COMPACT ECE ANTENNA
FOR ITER

H. Hartfuss 1, M. Zerbini2, P. Buratti2, P. de Bemardis 3 and M. De Petris3

IMax-Plank-Institut fur Plasmaphysik, EURATOM-IPP Ass., Boltzmannstr. 2,

85748 Garching, Germany
2Associaz. EURATOM-ENEA sulla Fusione, CR Frascati, CP 65, 00044 Italy
3Dip. di Fisica, Universita' di Roma, Piazza A. Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy

ABSTRACT
The characteristics of flux collectors based on nonimaging optical elements (Winston cones
with circular aperture) have been tested in the laboratory in order to check the possibility of
employing these elements for Electron Cyclotron Emission (ECE) diagnostics on ITER. In
particular the effects of diffraction on the achievable spatial resolution and on the concentrator-
lightpipe coupling have been verified by antenna pattern measurements at microwave
frequencies.
While the directivity properties turned out compatible with the spatial resoulution required
for the ECE spectral survey, cross-polarisation measurements pointed out the need to develop
Winston cones with square or rectangular aperture.

INTRODUCTION
Light collection and transport systems based on combinations of light pipes and optical
elements have been successfully used for ECE diagnostics 1. The application of this scheme in a
hostile environment could be difficult because absorbing foam is needed to realise the stop and to
baffle stray light. For this reason the possibility to replace the lens-stop combination by a
nonimaging flux concentrator has been considered. The use of flux collectors based on
nonimaging optical elements 2,3 allows to design robust self-baffling systems which define the
field of view at the input aperture and do not require any in-situ alignment; this is particularly
advantageous when the diagnostic front-end has to be placed in a hostile environment such as
the one expected in ITER. In this paper the effect of diffraction on spatial resolution, light grasp
and concentrator-light pipe coupling at the ITER relevant wavelength range will be discussed on
the basis of laboratory tests.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The non-imaging concentrator (fig. 1) is a hybrid component which allows to collect the
radiation entering one of the apertures. In the compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), all rays

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al.. Plenum Press, New York, 1998 189
entering with inclination < e eeemerge through the exit aperture, while rays with larger
inclination are reflected back. The ratio of the exit and entry apertures is:

a'i =sin8
la •
and the overall length Lis:

L= (rz). (1 + sin 8, ) / tan 8.

The 3D concentrator is obtained by revolution about the optical axis. The CPC exit aperture
is quite small if a small cutoff angle is required, furthermore the emerging rays are spreaded over
a solid angle of 27t. For these reasons a multiple CPC "throat -to-throat" configuration is
investigated, where a second concentrator is mounted in reversed direction.

-448mm

--
8.- 3.58 d;g-- - _
--------~---
_ .' -3.3 mm

Figure l :Meridian section of the CPC profile; The component used in this work is a truncated section of a CPC
having 3.58 deg cutoff angle. Both the basic design parameters and the ones of the truncated section are indicated.

ITER REQUIREMENTS

The spatial localization required for ECE temperature measurements on ITER gives rise to
two main constraints for the light collection system: the antenna pattern width has to be smaller
than tll. = 15 cm, and in order to avoid excessive Doppler broadening, very little power has to be
accepted outside the angular range ge with ge < 5 deg. in toroidal direction. The required antenna
pattern can be obtained using Gaussian beam collection optics with limited etendue. For the
Fourier transform instruments covering an extreme wide spectral band, multimode collection and
transportation is preferable because of the higher etendue. For ITER ge < 5 deg, tlz < 15 cm,
A < 3 mm is assumed. With a typical value of the detector etendue of an InSb detector,
0.4 sr cm2, and a distance between the low field side antenna and the plasma center of 3 m, it is
found that the optimum acceptance angle including diffraction effects for ITER is ge =2.30 deg
with an antenna diameter in the range 10 < a < 30 cm.

MULTIMODE AND MONOMODE DETECTION MEASUREMENTS

CPC's were tested in different configurations. In the multimode configuration 4 , a small

source has been scanned along a circular path centered at the CPC input aperture. A pyroelectric
detector has been placed at the CPC output. The sources were a high pressure mercury lamp to
check the features of the concentrator in the visible range and alSO GHz IMPATT microwave
source, to evaluate the effects of diffraction at ECE relevant frequencies. The measurements have
been repeated for the combined CPC where the input CPC is matched with a light pipe by a
second concentrator and the radiation exciting the lightpipe is concentrated onto the detector by a

190
 BWO

c:=:=h- - - -- -
\""'- "_.,300 nm - - ~
••

TE10 w:; .....

Figure 2: Schematic view of the experimental set-up used for 2D measurements. The epe is fed with a TEll
mod from a BWO oscillator at 156 GHz. Intensity measurements are made with a scanning detector in a plane at
various distances.

third CPC. The measured acceptance angle (HWHM) in the optical case is 3.2 deg. and the
profile reasonably approaches the ideal shape which is rectangular with a half width of 3.58 deg.
At 150 GHz the HWHM of the intensity Airy pattern for diffraction by a circular aperture is
1.47 deg. The expected final width of the transmission curve can be roughly estimated with 3.9
deg. in reasonable agreement with the measured 4.4 deg.

100 1.0

80 0.8

60 0.6
E J
~
>-
40 0.4

20 0.2

0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
x Imm]
<--(a)

250 1.0

200 0.8

150 0.6
E J
~
>- 100
0.4

50
0.2

0 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
x [mm)
<--(b)
Figure 3: Intensity distribution in front of the epe antenna at two different normalized distances: 0.75 (near
field) in (a) and 1.3 (far field) in (b). The HWHM are 4 deg. smaller than expected due to monomode measurement.

191
 The measurements have been repeated in monomode configuration, using CPC's with the
same apertures as before but without the straight untapered section at the input side. Pattern
measurements were performed with the 2D setup shown in fig. 2, exciting the CPC with a TEll
single mode at 156 GHz from a BWO source. The expected acceptance angle is about 4.5 deg.
The detection is made monomode as well with a slightly tapered D-band piece of waveguide and
a detector diode operated in the power proportional regime. The detector scans the plane at
constant distance to the CPC aperture. As shown in fig. 3, measurements are conducted at
various distances in the near and far field range between 0.4 < a2 { A. < 1.3.
High order modes are generated by the CPC and strong polarization scrambling occurs due
to the multiple reflections in the concentrator. The figures give contour plots from which the
HWHM angles can be determined. It is 4 deg. and due to the single mode measurement smaller
than expected. The cross polarization component shows a power distribution with four maxima
instead of two in the direction of the exciting wave. The total power in the two polarization
directions is identical demonstrating the polarization scrambling of the CPC. Averaged over the
power pattern, the degree of polarization is zero. The HWHM angle measured in the cross
polarization direction is 4.8 deg. With a polarization insensitive detector the superposition then
would lead to a measured pattern in good agreement with expectations.
Measurements in the far field under the same excitation and detection conditions with the
multiple CPC system were carried out. The patterns differ only very little from those obtained
with a single CPC. The power in both polarization directions is about the same.

CONCLUSIONS

The measurements demonstrate that the non-imaging flux collectors can be used in
cyclotron radiation collection systems with narrow antenna pattern and large etendue, as required
for Fourier transform spectrometers. Total radiation scrambling occurs, then for polarization
sensitive measurements polarizers at the entrance are necessary. An alternative way is to use
squared section CPC's, a technique which is still under investigation.
For overview measurements of the total emission in 0- and X-mode with polarization
insensitive detection, the circular CPC's seem to be well suited.

REFERENCES
1. P. Buratti, O. Tudisco, and M. Zerbini, A broadband light collection system for ECE diagnostics on the FfU
tokamak, Infrared Phys., 34, 533 (1993).

2. W.T. Welford and R. Winston, The Optics of Nonimaging Concentrators, Academic Press, New York (1978).

3. P. Buratti and M. Zerbini, Multimode Light Collection Systems For ECE Diagnostics, in Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, Plenum Press, New York, London (1996), p. 211.

4. P. Buratti, M. Zerbini, P. de Bernardis, M. de Petris, Flux Collectors For ECE Diagnostics On ITER.
Proceedings of Tenth Joint Workshop on ECE and ECRH Ameland (The Netherlands), April 1997 .

192
BASELINE DESIGN OF A MULTI-CHANNEL INTERFEROMETER AND
POLARIMETER SYSTEM FOR DENSITY MEASUREMENTS ON ITER

T.N. Carlstrom, R.T. Snider, c.B. Baxi, c.L. Rettig, * and W.A. Peebles*

General Atomics
P.O. Box 85608
San Diego, CA 92186-5608

*University of California, Los Angeles

Los Angeles, CA

ABSTRACT
A design of a multi-channel system to measure line average plasma density for ITER
has been developed using vibration compensated interferometry and Faraday rotation
measurements. The purpose of this study is to establish a consistent design based on
current technology, that can be used to examine performance and reliability issues and to
evaluate the effect of future design improvements. The system uses a vibration
compensated interferometer, with a C02 laser at 10.6 flm for the probe beam and a CO
laser at 5.2 flm for the vibration compensation. The C02 laser probe beam also allows
Faraday rotation measurements to be made along the tangential beam path. This improves
the reliability of the system because density measurements made from the Faraday rotation,
although less accurate than interferometry, do not require cumulative knowledge of the
phase shift over the long time scales expected in ITER. Plasma effects on both types of
measurements and ITER specific operational considerations, such as plasma start-up, pulse
length, and vibration effects will be discussed. Survivability and placement of the plasma
facing optics in the ITER structure are critical issues and a discussion of the material
selection, and integration into the ITER design are given.

1. INTRODUCTION
The electron density measurement is expected to play a critical role in the operation of
ITER and in the basic understanding of the ITER plasmas. The avoidance of density limit
disruptions, bum control and fueling all require accurate active density feedback control. l
While active density feedback control is routinely used in present day tokamaks, the size,
environment and pulse length of ITER places new constraints and requirements on a
density control diagnostic. The severity and possible consequences of disruptions are of
particular concern when considering the reliability of a density control diagnostic. The
critical nature of the density measurement has lead us to a design using laser interferometry
techniques with adequate density accuracy and that have proven to be robust and reliable
for density control in other tokamaks. In the ITER baseline design presented here, a short
wavelength probing laser beam is used both as an interferometer to measure line average

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 193
 j
electron density and as polarimeter to measure the plasma induced Faraday rotation
which is proportional to ne(z)B(z)dz. 2 The addition of the Faraday rotation measurement
improves the reliability of the overall system, particularly during long pulse operation,
since the phase rotation is less then 2 1t and hence does not have to rely on keeping track of
a cumulative fringe count during the entire pulse. The line averaged density measured with
Faraday rotation can be used to check and correct any counting errors that may occur in the
higher resolution interferometer measurement.
Previous studies have shown that a vibration compensated interferometer system based
on a C02 laser is near optimum for ITER in terms of refraction, density resolution, plasma
facing optics survival and access to ITER.3,4 Here we describe the ITER baseline design of
the density measurement system based on a vibration compensated C02 interferometer and
polarimeter using existing technology that we believe meets the needs of ITER. This
baseline design which self consistently fits all of the major components together, can then
be used to benchmark and test future design improvements or new concepts.

2. ITER INTERFEROMETERIPOLARIMETRY BASELINE DESIGN

System Layout
A plan view of ITER showing five tangential probe beam paths through the ITER
plasma is shown in Fig. 1. This geometry was chosen over radial or vertical viewing
systems because of the severe access constraints on ITER.4 A radial system for example
requires optical surfaces on the center, inside wall of the torus where neutron streaming to
the inner TF coils prevent adequate penetrations through the inner shield modules for
mirrors. The five beams shown in Fig. 1 provide coverage for the various stages during the
plasma growth as shown in Fig. 2 and give some crude real-time density profile
information. Work by Bower has shown that these few interferometer channels combined
with an edge reflectometer can provide density profiles with good spatial resolution
throughout the plasma.5 The multiple beam paths also improve the reliability of the entire
diagnostic by giving some redundancy during the flattop portion of the plasma pulse.

o 0
Interferometer Laser

Room----~~~~~~:;iI2.~,~;;~~;;~~:;~~
--- 20m 1- --<:
.------------------~---

lSI

'\
II
I

j'"
Figure 1. Plan view of ITER and proposed beam paths and laser room.

194
 7 ......-r--r........-.-....I.. .,T..... am...:P"
ER"T@-r-R..... ...u..:.p................-.-..........

2 Limiter

E~ 0
N Tangency Radius
-1 of Laser Beam
(1 of 5)
-2

-3

-4

-5

-6 SG28.05.97
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
R,m
Figure 2. Cross section of ITER and the current plasma startup scheme along with the tangency radius of the
five laser beam paths.

All five of the laser beam paths enter and exit the plasma chamber from a single port
and are reflected back down the same beam path (with an offset) by retroreflectors embed-
ded behind the ITER shield modules. A plan view of the beam paths through the port
shield plug are shown in Fig. 3. By requiring only a single port with no large vibration
damping structure the total penetration area through the shield modules is minimized and
the neutron leakage both to the bioshield and to the TF coils is kept small thus reducing the
total external shielding required.

- 1m Inner~ ~
7\.&

Figure 3. Plan view of the input/exit port plug and laser beam paths.

195
 The optical path through the shield plug on the entrance/exit port fonns a labyrinth in
order to reduce the escaping neutrons to acceptable levels. The retroreflectors are recessed
in the shield wall to minimize their exposure to the plasma and neutrons as shown in
Fig. 4. All of the optical components within the bioshield of ITER are reflective except for
the vacuum windows which are well behind the port plug and in a relatively benign radi-
ation environment. Reflective optics were chosen to avoid neutron damage issues associ-
ated with transmission optics.
Each beam path has collinear 1O.6/lm (C02) and 5.3 /lm (CO) laser probe beams. This
choice of laser wavelengths has acceptable refraction and phase resolution 3,4 and com-
merciallaser detector combinations with good power/sensitivity are available. The toka-
mak community has experience with both C02 and CO laser interferometer systems. 8- 11
The interferometer portion of the diagnostic uses standard two color heterodyne inter-
ferometry using acousto-optic modulators (Bragg cells) to generate the intennediate
frequency (IF). The Bragg cells shown in Fig. 5, split the incoming laser beam into two
beams separated by a small angle with one beam at the initial frequency (00) and the other
at the initial frequency plus the modulator frequency (00 + 42 MHz for example). Figure 5
shows a schematic layout of both arms ofthe two colors (C02 and CO laser wavelengths).
To make the Faraday rotation measurement right and left circularly polarized beams at
different frequencies are generated from a single C02 laser beam and recombined to
produce an elliptically polarized beam which rotates at half the difference frequency. The
rotating elliptical beam is passed through the plasma and allowed to interfere with a
reference beam at a single detector as shown in Fig. 5(a). The output from the detector is
then split, filtered and the phase detected (relative to the IF frequencies) as shown in
Fig. 5(b). This method is currently used with FIR laser systems in TEXTOR12 and RTp13
and can be extended for use with a C02 laser system. The signals from the phase detectors
shown in Fig. 5(b) can be used to extract the line average electron density using both the
CO and C02 interferometer signals to measure and subtract the phase shift induced by
vibrations or motion of the mirrors (<I>vib=21tMJA, where & is the motion of the mirrors in
the direction of the beam) from the phase shift induced by the plasma density
(<I>nel=2.8xlO- 15A, f n(z)dz). A signal from the same C02 detector can be used to measure
the Faraday rotation angle, up=2.6xlo- 13 A,2 fne}(z)B(z)dz.
This method for making the interferometer and Faraday rotation measurements requires
a minimum of detectors (one C02 and one CO detector for each spatial channel), uses
separate C02 and CO lasers for each spatial channel, and has no mechanically moving
parts such as rotating grating or polarization rotator. In addition, all of the required
components are commercially available. This combination of attributes helps assure that
the system will be robust and reliable. The high modulation frequency (4 MHz in Fig. 5)
permits the system to follow rapid changes in the density without loss of accuracy.
Shield module
backing plate

Plasma
Region

Laser Beani -+ -
18mm

Shield Material

O.44m
l00mmdlam
Retrorellector
Clear aperture =35x70 mm

Figure 4. Elevation view of a retroreflector behind the shield modules in the space between modules.

196
10.6 I'm co, Ia .. r
W

-<-Elliptically polarized 10.6 11 m

beam rota ti ng It 2 MHz
modulator
38 MHz
modulalor
S.3 vm compensati on
5 I'm Detector • • .<-'I'o-_..J\f-_-:::-:--:--_---1~Mlrror
COIa .. r ........ Dlchrol<
W +40MHz b•• mspl~Ie"'--

Bragg
40 MHz
C.ltI3~========~W;::=====t--~C:o:mb:ln~ed~,~0~&~5~I'~m1'1 Mirror IUIf beams
modulltor

• polarized perpend icular 10 pape r

I polarized In plane of pape<

Figure 5(a). Schematic layout of the vibration-compensated interferometer (CO and C02 lasers) and the
additional Bragg cell and polarizers for making the elliptically polarized C02 laser beam for the Faraday
rotation measurement.

..- ....... __ ..-_.......__ ..........-.. --.-_... __ ...............

i Phase i
: :

C02 laser
system

'-------+-+ 2(XF
. :
L............................................. __........j
Faraday rotation

----_ ..... _.................. .

From IF i
detector from i
Bragg i
CO laser cell3 i
system L-_ _ ---=.=-:.............. (<I>ne L+vib + (XFlco

Figure 5(b). The signal from a single C02 detector is split and filtered to give three signals that can be used
to calculate Jnedz and Jne(z)B(z)dz The signal from the CO detector is used to subtract the phase shift due
to vibrations of the mirrors.

197
Beam Path Layout

We have done an approximate Gaussian beam optics calculation to estimate the laser
beam size along a typical beam path as shown in Fig. 6. We start with a near diffraction
limited C02 laser beam (DEOS 14 LC-40, 40 W, 1.54 mm output beam diameter, full angle
divergence 8=9.7 mrad; diffraction limit 8 = 4Ahtdo = 8.8 mrad), which is then 3x
expanded and focused to a beam waist 2 m away. This keeps the beam diameter small,
between 4.62 mm and 6.46 mm, while on the optics table where it passes through two
Bragg cells, several retardation reflectors, mirrors, and beam combiners. A typical Bragg
cell (lntraAction l5 AGM-406) has an aperture of 6 mm and power density capability of
320 W/cm2 . These specifications are easily met if the Bragg cells are placed near the first
beam expander. The resulting beam is further expanded by 3.6x before it is combined with
the CO laser beam and leaves the optics table to start its path to the plasma. At this point,
the beam diameter is 23.2 mm and the divergence is 0.9 mrad. The CO laser beam is
handled in a similar manner so that it has approximately the same beam diameter and
divergence. An 18.0 mm beam waist is formed about 20 m from the beam expander and
this beam waist is relayed to the position of the comer cube by a focusing mirror located
midway between these two positions. The return beam is offset horizontally 35 mm at the
comer cube (clear aperture 35x70 mm), and returns through the same optics as the incident
beam. This offset is required to prevent the return beam from re-entering the laser and
affecting its stability. Due to the relay optics, the return beam has the same diameter as the
incident beam. At the optics table the beam is combined with the reference C02 and CO
laser beams and focused on the detectors.
There are several possibilities for feedback alignment control. In Fig. 6 we show a C02
beam position sensor before the second alignment mirror, close to the vacuum window.
This sensor is used to control the first alignment mirror so the beam is properly located at
the vacuum window. The second C02 beam position sensor is located at the optics table,
just before the beam is combined with the reference beams. This sensor is used to control
the second alignment mirror, and keeps the beam focused on the detector. The CO beam is
made collinear with the C02 beam using a similar method (not shown in Fig. 6). To

OPTICS TABLE BEAM PATH

r------------------~
I I' 1m I 1m II 20m 20m 20m

d d CO Laser BelIn

Laser r~f;J.~z~~~~~!~~-~M~~;~;;~~.~;n~;-~~;o~~~J!~I==~:::f:::::j~::!:J:J:==::::=H~
3x

_ _ _ _ _ _1

CO:! Beam - - - - _Alignmenl

Window +
••
t +
Corner Cube
Position Sensor Mirror FoC~~~ ~rror Reflector

dot = 1.54 mm, ~ = 9.7 mrad d., = 1/.2 beam waist

doz = 6.46 mm, 6z = 3.2 mrad 6 =lull angle diverence
~ = 18.0 mm, e, = 0.9 mrad d = 1f.2 beam diameter
d04 =O.94mm d.,=16
resonator)
:n
dz =4.62mm d =..J2d., (confocal
d3 =23.2mm beam expander: d.,md =M, =II
In Old

Figure 6. An estimate of the beam diameter along the entire beam path using Gaussian beam optics. Note
that the vertical and horiwntal scales are different and not to scale.

198
maintain a good interference signal, the beam splitter that combines the plasma and
reference beams can be dithered in a feedback alignment scheme to give the maximum
interference signal (38-42 MHz).
The plasma facing mirrors (one steering mirror and three comer cube mirrors) are made
from tungsten, whose reflectivity is about 70% at these wavelengths. The five reflections
from these mirrors reduce the laser power to 17%. Assuming the transmission of 20% for
the rest of the optics (30 reflections at 95%), a 30 W C02 laser would produce about 1 W
at the detector. This is adequate for room temperature detectors. Cooled detectors have
about 100 times improved detectabilty, so signal levels should not be an issue.

Estimate Of Signals And Errors

An estimate of the phase shift and Faraday rotation angle from a central viewing
channel for a normal ITER plasma discharge 6 is shown in Fig. 7. Small variations of the
laser wavelength will result in a vibration compensation error that is proportional the
change in path length due to mirror motion. This error is anticipated to be larger than the
phase measurement error (assumed to be 10) because of the large (2 cm) motion of the
vacuum vessel of ITER during the discharge. Experience from DIII-D4 suggests that the
amount of vibration will be proportional to the OH coil flux, shown in Fig. 7(b). The phase
shift due to the expected mirror motion is shown in Fig. 7(e) and Fig. 7(f) shows the
resulting error in the density measurement for a 250 MHz variation in the laser frequency
(typical of commerciallaseis). The last two plots in Fig. 7 display the Faraday rotation
angle for the ITER discharge and the uncertainty based on a phase detection error of 0.10.
The expected errors throughout the discharge are well within the ITER requirements. 6 The
error in the Faraday rotation measurement during the flattop is less then 1%. This very low
error, if realized, suggests that the Faraday rotation measurement from this system has the
accuracy to make a measurement of the internal diamagnetism of the plasma as described
in Ref. 3.

251/ ~~I
o kftasma Current (MA)
:=tQ
~.
~~ ~~~l\!bl ________________________

1.: IneO(10~ \--.. I(c)

100 ICentral_gr~8se
Shift(r~
\
~
(d) I
jO~==~~~=.=================~
a
~~I!~~S!~h~ftJ1E~r~dl ~ ________________

: ~n;z:asurement Uncertainty (%)

3: IFarad~Agle (") "-- (g) I

1: Q:0tation Uncertainty (%) ~
o 500 1000 1500
Time(s)

Figure 7. Time traces of plasma parameters and density measurements signals.

199
3. PLASMA FACING MIRRORS

A major concern for any optical diagnostic on ITER is the survivability of the plasma
facing optical components. Surface roughness and distortion of the flat mirror should be
kept below 1.2 !lm (AJ4 for 5 !lm) to maintain the phase fronts of the probing beams. A
further requirement for the retroreflectors is that the perpendicularity of the three flat
surfaces that make up the retroreflector must be maintained to less then 10 arc sec
corresponding to a 1 mm shift in the return beam at the input/exit port.
A finite element thermal analysis code was used to calculate the distortion of water-
cooled tungsten mirrors for a full power steady-state ITER discharge. Thermal distortion of
the mirrors due to non-uniform heating from plasma radiation and neutrons is less then
0.9 !lm as shown in Table 1. A refined water cooling design and minor change in the
geometry of the mirrors reduced the thermal distortion of these mirrors from that reported in
Ref. [3]. The change in perpendicularity of the retroreflectors due to thermal distortion from
plasma and neutron heating is calculated to be less then 4 arc sec.
Sputtering from charge exchange neutrals does not appear to be an issue for the tung-
sten mirrors with the geometry shown in Fig. 1. An estimate of the CX sputtering rates for
the input/exit mirrors is shown in Table 2. The calculations and assumptions from which
this estimate were made follow the work done by Mayer and de Kock. 16 We assume
a CX-flux (rtot ) of 2xlQI9 atoms m- 2 s-I hitting the walls of ITER and that the flux inci-
dent on the mirrors is r mirror= DJrr r tot where Q is the solid angle of the plasma as viewed
by the mirror. The flux consists of 50% D and 50% T and the energy distribution of the
neutrals (both D and T) were taken from Fig. 2 in Ref. 16. The mirrors for the inter-
ferometer are not normal to the plasma surface and an increase in the sputtering erosion of
up to cos- f e can result, where 1 < f <2 and e is the angle of incidence. 17 Because of this
effect, the erosion rates have been increased by a factor of two over the values calculated
from the normal incident sputtering yields. As shown in Table 2, the estimated erosion
from sputtering during the lifetime of ITER7 is well below the 1.2!lm required for
operation of the diagnostic for tungsten, rhodium, and molybdenum mirrors.
The plasma facing optics in the present design have anticipated thermal distortion and
sputtering levels that are acceptable. The key to reducing both the sputtering and the
thermal distortion is the choice of materials (with tungsten as the clear favorite), the cooling
geometry, and the minimization of the solid angle view of the plasma by the optics.

Table 1. Finite element thermal/stress analysis results for the plasma facing mirrors.
Distortion is below the required 1.2 !lm. The water flow velocity in the cooling channels
was adjusted to give reasonable temperature and distortion.

Plasma Temperature
Maximum Radiation Heat Neutron WaterFlow Variation
Distortion Load Heating Velocity Across Surface
Flat input/exit 0.9 flm 4.95W/cm 2 4.2 W/cm 3 IOmls 8°C
mirror
Retroreflector 0.36 flm 0.09W/cm2 0.36 W/cm 3 I mls 5°C

Table 2. Calculated maximum sputtering removal rates for the flat input/exit mirror.
Tungsten, Rhodium and Molybdenum have removal rates that will allow the mirror to
survive (less than 1.2 !lm of materials removed) the life of ITER.
Mirror Material Sputtering Removal Rate Material Removal per Material Removal
(/lmls) ITER Shot During Expected ITER
Life
Tungsten 1.3 x 10-9 1.3xlO-6 flm 0.13 flm
Rhodium 2.2xlO-9 2.2xJQ--6 flm 0.22 flm
Molybdenum 5.3xJQ-9 5.3xJQ--6 flm 0.53 flm
Copper 4.4xJQ-8 4.4xJQ-5 flm 4.4 flm

200
While these results have reasonable safety margins, significant increases in the plasma
radiated power (factors of two or more) over the estimates used in the calculations could
result in thermal distortion problems. A remaining unaddressed issue is coating of the
optics from the plasma. Anecdotal information from existing tokamaks suggest that if the
optical component is recessed from the first wall by more then one or two diameters of the
penetration through the wall then coating of optics is minimal. While the present design
satisfies that criteria the very long pulse length of ITER may require other ways to reduce
the plasma coating. Systematic studies in present day tokamak should be able to better
address this issue.

4. DISCUSSION
Knowledge of the electron density is important for the control of the plasma and safety
of the tokamak. Therefore, the interferometer system must be robust and have suitable
redundancy and reliability. In this regard, we recommend that the five chords of the
proposed interferometer be independent systems, each with their own lasers, optics,
detectors and electronics. Only a few common elements of the beam path, such as the final
plasma facing turning mirror should be shared. (Even the plasma facing mirror could be
made separate for each spatial channel, however there is a significant penalty to be paid in
terms of port space and neutron streaming). This would offer significant redundancy,
insuring that at least one interferometer is always operational. All electronic and delicate
components should be located in an area where personnel access is permitted and an
inventory of spare parts maintained.
We have chosen to avoid the use of mechanical polarization rotators or frequency
shifters in favor of solid state acousto-optic modulators. We feel the solid state technology
offers much higher reliably. For this same reason, we have chosen not to pursue efficient
designs that use a rotating grating to produce multiple chords from a single laser
beam. 18 ,19
In summary, we have developed a baseline design for an interferometer and
polarimetry density measurement for ITER that meets the ITER requirements both in terms
of performance of the diagnostic and integration into the ITER device. The design uses
well established techniques and components and should be viewed as a measure for future
improvements or new concepts for density measurements. Future work includes a demon-
stration of a complete system on an existing tokamak, detailed neutronics calculations to
verify the rough calculations to date, systematic studies on window coatings by tokamak
plasmas and a detailed design of the optical system including the alignment system.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank C. Walker and N. Kobayashi of the ITER Joint Central Team for the
machine drawings of ITER. This work supported by U.S. Department of Energy under
Contract No. DE-AC03-94SF20282 under Raytheon Engineers & Constructors, Inc.,
Subcontract No. ITER-GA-4002.

REFERENCES
1. ITER Report TAC-95-15; TAC-JCT informal technical reviews.
2. F.C. Jobes and D.K. Mansfield, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63, 5154 (1992).
3. RT. Snider, et aI., Proceedings of the International Workshop on Diagnostics for ITER Plenum
Press, 225 (1996).
4. RT. Snider, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 728 (1997).
5. D. Brower, et aI., submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion.
6. A.E. Costley, et aI., Proceedings of the International Workshop on Diagnostics for ITER Plenum
Press, 23 (1996).
7. Dv. Orlinski, Ibid p 51.
8. T.N. Carlstrom, D.R. Ahlgren, and J. Crosbie, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59,1063 (1988).
9. Y. Kawano, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63, 4971 (1992).

201
10. J.H. hby, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59, 1568 (1988).
II. P. Innocente, S. Martini, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63,4996 (1992).
12. H. Soltwisch, ''Combined interferometric and polarimetric diagnostics for TEXTOR," Jiilich Report
Jul-1638 (1980).
13. J. Rommers, Ph.d. Thesis, FOM-Instituut voor Plasmafysica, Nieuwegiun.
14. DEOS, 1280 Blue Hills Avenue, Bloom Field, Connecticut
15. IntraAction Corporation, 3719 Warren Avenue, Bellwood, lllinois.
16. M. Mayer and L. deKock, CX Erosion of Mirrors, IPP Report in progress.
17. E.W. Thomas, Atomic Data for Controlled Fusion Research, Vol. ill, "Particle Interactions with
Surfaces," ORNL-6088N3 (1985).
18. J. Howard, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61,1086 (1990).
19. F.C. Jobes, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 386 (1995).

202
POLARIMETRY FOR POLOIDAL FIELD MEASUREMENTS

A.J.H. Donn~l, T. Edlington2, E. Joffrin3, H.R. Koslowski\

Ch. Nieswands, S. Segre6, P. Stote, C. Warrick2 and V. Zanza6

lPOM-Inst voor Plasmafysica Rijnhuizen, 3430 BE Nieuwegein, NL

2UKAEA Culham Laboratory, Abingdon OX14 3DB, UK
3CEA Cadarache, 13108 Saint-Paul-Iez-Durance, F
4Forschungszentrum Jiilich GmbH, 52425 Jiilich, D
sCRPP/EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, CH
6ENEA, CR Prascati, 00044 Frascati, I
7JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 3EA, UK

I. INTRODUCTION

To operate the International Experimental Thermonuclear Reactor (ITER) in a

safe and reliable way, it is of vital importance to have a proper knowledge of the current
density distribution in the plasma. Moreover, the fact that very promising results have been
achieved with the socalIed advanced tokamak scenarios indicates that active feedback on the
current density proftle would be very desirable.
A standard diagnostic to measure the current density distribution is multichord
polarimetry. 1 This diagnostic is based on measuring the Faraday rotation of the plane of
polarization of a far-infrared beam that is sent through the plasma. Although the application
of this technique to ITER is straightforward from the physical point of view, major technical
difficulties are encountered due to the (multi-chord) access that is required to measure the full
current density proftle. The set-up that is used nowadays on most tokamaks is the one with a
set of discrete vertical probing beams or, alternatively, with a slab-like beam covering a
substantial part of the poloidal plasma cross section. 2 On ITER this set-up cannot be
employed due to the difficult access via the top ports and the presence of the divertor at the
bottom. A polarimeter system with lateral probing chords, using 'standard' penetrations
through the diagnostic plugs was for a long time thought to be impossible due to necessity to
have retroreflectors embedded in the blanket modules at the high field side, thus decreasing
the shielding of the superconducting toroidal field coils.
Despite all these difficulties the Microwave Diagnostics Group of the
European Home Team has carried out a feasibility study for a poloidal polarimeter system for
ITER. The emphasis has been put on the following issues:
• what is the optimum probing wavelength and chord geometry for the polarimeter
system?

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactor.• 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 203
• how large are the effects of beam refraction and the absorption at very high harmonics
of the electron cyclotron frequency?
• is it possible to employ the Cotton-Mouton effect to measure the electron density
simultaneously by ellipsometry along the same probing chords?
This paper is organized as follows: The results of the feasibility calculations will be
presented in Section II. In the first part of this Section initial calculations for some ITER
equilibria will be briefly presented. More detailed calculations for a range of density profiles
and equilibria are worked out in Section ILB. Whether or not the Cotton-Mouton effect can
be used as a novel diagnostic for measuring the density is discussed in Section II.C. The
effects of calculations on refraction and electron cyclotron absorption are then briefly
presented, after which the wavelength choice is discussed in Section ILE. Since the technical
implementation of the poloidal polarimeter system has not yet been elaborated extensively,
Section III on the assessment of technical solutions will be rather brief.

II. CHOICE OF WAVELENGTH AND VIEWING GEOMETRY

II.A. Initial calculations and possible chord geometries

To fmd the optimum chord geometry for the polarimeter system initial calculations
have been done for five different geometries and two sets of ITER plasma parameters. 3 All
calculations have been done for three different wavelengths (10, 50 and 100 11m). The
Faraday rotation as well as the Cotton-Mouton effect have been calculated for polarimeter
beams injected in the O-mode. This implies that the orientation of the Stokes vector
S = (cos2xcos2"" cos2xsin2"" sin2x) = (1,0,0), with", the orientation of the polarization
ellipse and X related to the ellipticity e via tanX = e. The ITER parameters used in the
calculations have been derived from transport code simulations for ITER reference ELMy H-
mode conditions. One parameter set simulates a sawtoothing discharge with a flat region at
the centre of the T. profile, while the other set with a peaked temperature profile simulates a
sawtooth free discharge. The density profiles in both parameter sets are rather similar: very
flat with a central density of 1.3 x 10 20 m -3. Because of the similarity of the density profiles
no big differences were observed between the calculations for the two cases_ The full
magnetic equilibrium of two discharges have been used in the calculations.
The five viewing geometries included three options with a fan of polarimeter beams
launched from the low field side towards the high field side. These three options mainly
differed by the fact that beams were launched from points below, on and above the midplane.
In all three cases the beams covered almost the complete poloidal plasma cross section. In the
fourth geometry a fan of beams was launched from the top of the ITER plasma towards the
bottom part of the plasma at the low field side. The fifth geometry that has been incorporated
consisted of a set of parallel horizontal viewing chords penetrating through the diagnostic
plugs (see Fig. 1). This geometry is the one that is most straightforward to implement from
the technical point of view.
The calculations were done by cutting the plasma in I cm thick slabs, calculating the
transformation matrices for an electromagnetic wave travelling through this slab and applying
these matrices to the electric field vector of the probing beams. 4
The result of the initial calculations is that polarimetry is physically feasible at all three
wavelengths studied. The typical rotation angles (at single passage through the plasma) are
1°,20° and 80° for 10, 50 and 100 11m. The ellipticity is negligible at 10 11m. Care should be
taken to correct for the ellipticity at 50 11m. At 100 Ilffi the ellipticity can become very large
and should be explicitly taken into account in the analysis. Because of the special conditions
at ITER it becomes for the first time possible to derive the density profile from the ellipticity
measured by an ellipsometer.5 The sensitivity of the polarimeter system to plasma position

204
changes in a direction perpendicular to the viewing chord has been detennined in the initial
calculations. For the polarimeter system with a horizontal set of probing chords the
sensitivity for plasma position changes is 0.43, 0.12 and 0.005 degrees/cm at 100, 50 and 10
~ respectively.
In general no large differences were observed between the five viewing geometries in
terms of absolute rotation angles and ellipticity. Only the vertical geometry resulted in
somewhat larger values because of the longer integration path through the plasma. Because it
was thought that the technical implementation of a polarimeter system featuring a set of
horizontal probing chords is the simplests it was decided to concentrate further work on this
special geometry. Furthermore, to get an idea of the sensitivity of the polarimeter system it
was decided to do also calculations for plasmas exhibiting completely different ne profIles.
II.B. Sensitivity

A set of seven ITER equilibria generated by the CHEASE code6 was used to
investigate the dependence of the Faraday rotation angle and ellipticity on the central safety
factor qo' The same current profIle shape was used in all equilibria. The different values of qo
were achieved by scaling the total plasma current (see Table 1). The typical equilibrium used
for the calculations is shown in Fig.I.
Ip=21MA, 81-5.7, qo-O.85

~
0

-1

-2

-3

-4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Rim

Figure 1. Typical ITER equilibrium used for the calculations. The viewing chords used in the calculation of
the horizontal polarimerer sysrem are also indica1ed.

Table 1. Set of equilibria with equal current profIle shape.

qo ~[MA] Ptot(O) [MPa]

0.81 21.0 1.13

0.85 20.0 1.02
0.90 18.8 0.90
0.95 17.7 0.80
1.00 16.8 0.72
1.05 15.9 0.65
1.10 15.2 0.59

205
 Also a pair of equilibria was generated with the same plasma current (21 MA) but
with a different current density profile. Finally, also a calculation was done for a reversed
shear scenario. The plasma in this scenario has a smaller shape and carries only 12 MA of
plasma current.
A set of density proftles of the following shape was generated:

To separate the effect of changes in the magnetic field from changes in the density
profile the parameters were chosen such that they are consistent with a line-averaged density
exceeding the Greenwald limit by a factor of two (for the case with the highest current 21
MA), knowing that this leads to an inconsistency in the low current case. Nevertheless, any
scaling factor in the density appears linearly in both the Faraday rotation and Cotton-Mouton
effect and can be corrected for afterwards. In Table 2 the density proftle parameters and the
line averaged densities are listed. The set of density profiles includes relatively flat profiles (ex
= 10) as well as peaked proftles (ex = 2), see Fig. 2.

3.5

3.0

(I') 2.5
I
E
0
N
2.0
0
1.5

II
c: 1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

~norm

Figure 2. Density profiles used for the calculations.

Table 2. Density profile parameters and line averaged densities.

ex n/10 om-
e 2 3 n/10 om-
e 2 3 nell02om-3 n ell0 2om-3
qo= 0.81 qo= 1.10 qo= 0.94 qo= 5 (rev. sh.)
21MA 15.2MA 21MA 12MA

2 31.0 1.98 1.92 1.93 1.84

4 23.5 1.81 1.78 1.79 1.61
6 21.2 1.76 1.73 1.74 1.53
8 20.1 1.74 1.70 1.71 1.49
10 19.5 1.72 1.69 1.70 1.47

206
 Because of the length restrictions it is not possible here to present the details of all
calculations of the Faraday rotation and Cotton Mouton effect. These will be published
elsewhere.1
For a peaked density proftle a change of 0.05 in the central safety factor can be
observed (see Fig. 3), provided that a change of 4°/m can be detected in the slope of the
Faraday rotation angle versus l/qo. At 100 !Jlll this is easy to achieve. Around 10 !Jlll this
seems to be more difficult, but it is certainly not impossible. A flat density proftle results in a
somewhat smaller slope, but changes in the central safety factor of 0.05 can still be observed
at 100 !Jlll provided the accuracy is 2.5°/m. The slope of the Faraday rotation profIles is
shown in Fig. 4.

0.5r--r--r--r--~--'

0.4
CI
II
45
...>.
"tI
:§.... 0.3
o .9-
a
:;:;
il 0.2

..
!lo -45
0.1

-90 '--~"--_"--_.L-_.L-----' O.O'---"---"--~.L--~----'

0.0 o.~ 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 O.~ 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
z (m) z em)

Figure 3. Faralay rotation angle and ellipticity for a peaked density proflle. The values are for a single
passage of the beam through the plasma only.

E E

c 70 c 60
0 0
:;:; ....III
.
....III0
....0
.
....0
....0
60 50
II II
Q. Q.
0 ~
iii 1/1
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.9 1.0 1. 1 1.2
-1 -1
qo qo

Figure 4. Slope of the Faralay rotation proflles for a peaked (left) and a flat (right) density proflle at the
zero-crossing of the rotation profile. The cross denotes the case where the current is 21 MA but <10 is increased
from 0.81 to 0.94.

Calculations in which the total plasma current was kept constant (21 MA), but the
shape of the current profile was changed such that qo increased from 0.81 to 0.94 led to the
conclusion that the slope of the q-proftle depends stronger on the value of qo than on the
plasma current (see Fig. 4).
Changes in the central density value, keeping the lin~-averaged density constant, have
a similar effect as variations in qo' In particular a decrease in the central electron density from
3 to 2 x 1(f0 m· 3 has the same effect on the slope of the Faraday rotation proftle as an increase
of qo from 0.81 to 0.95 in the case of a peaked density proftle. The same statement can be

207
made for the absolute value of the Faraday rotation angle. The Cotton-Mouton effect,
however, is more strongly affected by changes in qo than by changes in the density proftle.
Calculations for the reversed shear case, with densities scaled down by a factor of
0.57 (being the ratio of the current in the reversed shear case to the maximum current)
resulted in very small Faraday rotation angles (_5° to +5°) at the highest wavelength of 100
~. It is questionable whether good measurements can be carried out at a wavelength of 10
~ in this particular case. Also the Cotton-Mouton effect is small in the reversed shear
scenario. A set of vertical chords could be applied here to increase the sensitivity, albeit that
this is at the cost of a much more complicated port interfacing with the blanket and vacuum
vessel.
Considering the quoted values for the sensitivity one should realize that all
calculations have been done for densities exceeding the Greenwald limit excessively. In
practice, however, the densities in ITER might tum out to be smaller, thus resulting in
smaller rotation angles. If one also takes the small rotation angles in the reversed shear
scenario in mind, then one should conclude that the optimum wavelength for a poloidal
polarimeter is in the range from 50 to 100 11m. Longer wavelengths do not make much
sense, since one then quicldy runs into adverse effects like refraction and electron cyclotron
absorption (see Section II. D)
II.C. Density determination from the Cotton-Mouton effect

An explicit study was made to find out whether the Cotton-Mouton effect can be
explored as an independent density measurement. In this study density proftles of the form
= =
n.(x) n.(0)(1-x2twere used with x p/PLCMS' and current proftles of the form j(x) jo(1- =
x 2)!! + Ml-x2)Y, with j/jo < 0 in cases of shear inversion. The value of n.(O) was fixed by
assigning a value for the line-averaged density on a vertical chord through the magnetic axis,
whereas the value of jo was chosen to obtain a certain value for the total plasma current.
=
Calculations were done for beams with input polarization S (1,0,0) as well as for
S = (0,1,0), corresponding to 'II = 1tI4 and X = 0 and amongst others for a polarimeter
featuring a set of parallel horizontal probing beams. The other values were taken to: ').. =
100~, <X = 2, ~= 21 MA, BrR = 46.2 Tm, jl = 0, ~ = 1.7, corresponding to qo = 0.81
and qLCMs = 5.49.
The calculations for O-mode injection are very similar to those presented in Section
II.B. The values of A'll and AX for the chord probing the plasma at z ;: 0.52 m are listed in
Table 3.

=
Table 3. Values of A'll and AX for S (1,0,0) and for three
different values of the line-averaged density

ne/10 2Om-3 A'll AX

0.16 5.96° 0.06 0

0.5 18.46° 1.81°
1.6 57.90 0 17.37 0

The value of A'll is approximately linearly proportional to ne, whereas AX scales roughly as
n~. This is not surprising since for O-mode polarization, ellipticity is only a second order
effect. Calculations with the polarization vector oriented under an angle of 45° with the
=
toroidal direction, e.g. S (0, 1, 0), are shown in Fig. 5. The values of A'll and AX for the
=
chord probing the plasma at z 1.4 m are listed in Table 4. The Faraday rotation angle is not

208
largely effected by the input polarization and still shows the same scaling with ne, but now
also IlX scales in the same way.

Table 4. Values of Il'l' and IlX for S =(0,1,0) and for three
different values of the line-averaged density

0.16 5.96 0 2.220

0.5 18.800 6.99 0
1.6 63.63 0 22.53 0

60
10
30

o o
I<
~-30 <I -10

-60
-20~~--~--~--~--~~

25r--'---.---r--'---~~

20
30
CI
II ~ 15
'C 'C

10
~-30
5
-60
O~~--~--~--~--~~

o 2 3 o 2 3
z (m) z (m)

Figure S. A'JI (left graphs) and AX (right graphs) for S = (1,0,0) (top graphs) and S = (0,1,0) (bottom
graphs). The values are for a single passage of the beam through the plasma only.

Calculations for a set a q-profiles and both a low and high value of the line-averaged
density led to the conclusion that at low density (1.6 x 1019 m·3) IlX depends only weakly on
the q-profile and mainly on the density profile, whereas Il'l' depends on both the q- and n.-
profile. At high density (1.6 x 1020 m· 3) A'I' and AX both depend on the q- and n.-profiles,
albeit that for the central chord at z =1.4 m, AX only depends on the n.-profile. This implies
that a measurement of AX at 1.4 m provides a direct monitor for the line-averaged density.
A drawback of a poloidal polarimeter system with only a set a horizontal probing
chords is the fact the areas around the maximum of the Il'l'-profile are not diagnosed. This is
a serious shortcoming since the positions of these regions and their value are important input
values in the determination of the plasma profiles or in the reconstruction of MHD equilibria.
Moreover, in advanced tokamak: scenarios one would like to have active feedback on the
value of qmin. This minimum value of q is found close to the position where Il'l' is maximum.

209
For this purpose it is required to have additional to a polarimeter with a horizontal set of
viewing chords a limited number of oblique viewing chords in the poloidal plane.
II.D. Effects of refraction and electron cyclotron absorption

Extensive calculations have been done with the BANDIT 3D and IDRAY ray-tracing
codes to investigate the effect of refraction and electron cyclotron absorption. These studies
have been done for the same geometries and density proftles as used for the calculations in
Section II.B. Only the longest wavelength of 100 J.lm was considered, since here the effects
are the largest.
The results of the ray-tracing simulations are very encouraging and can be
summarized in only a few words. Neither refraction nor electron cyclotron absorption will
hamper the operation of a poloidal polarimeter system at 100 J.lm. To illustrate the smallness
of refraction, the end point of two identical vertically launched rays, but for a peaked and a
flat density proftle, respectively, differ by only 16 mm in the vertical direction and about 2
mm in the radial direction.
Absorption of the rays by the 12th - 19th harmonics of the electron cyclotron
frequency is also negligible at 100 J.lm. Typically a fraction of 10-7 to 10-6 of the injected
power is absorbed.
No calculations have been performed for wavelengths of 10 and 50 J.lm since
refraction and electron cyclotron absorption will be even more negligible.
II.E. Choice of wavelength

Summarizing all calculations presented above there are strong arguments to choose a
wavelength of about 100 J.lm (e.g. there is a strong infrared line at 118 J.lm) for the following
reasons:
• the Faraday rotation angles are very large and can easily be determined. A polarimeter
with a modest accuracy of 2.5°/m can still determine changes in the central safety
factor of about 0.05.
• the Cotton-Mouton effect is relatively large and should certainly be incorporated in the
analysis of the Faraday rotation angle. However, this should not be regarded as a
disadvantage since it becomes for the flrst time possible to measure the line-integrated
density by means of ellipsometry. In this way a robust measurement is achieved,
which is insensitive to fringe jumps.
• although effects of refraction and absorption by high harmonics of the electron
cyclotron frequency increase with wavelength, they are still very small at 100 J.lm.
• the tolerances of optical components, like the flatness and positioning of mirrors, as
well as their degradation due to the vulnerable environment in which they are placed is
much less severe for the operation of a system at 100 J.lm then for a 10 J.lm system.
At wavelengths much longer than 100 J.lm one quickly runs into problems with refraction and
electron cyclotron absorption.

III. ASSESSMENT OF POSSIBLE TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

In Section II it has been demonstrated that a poloidal polarimeter system featuring a

set of horizontal probing chords along with a limited number of oblique probing chords, and
operating at a wavelength of approximately 100 J.lm, is an ideal instrument to diagnose the q-
and ne-proftles in ITER from the physical point of view. The only big issue that needs to be
resolved is how such a polarimeter system can be incorporated in the ITER design.
Because the probing beams are launched from the low field side (LFS) towards the
high field side (HFS) special care should be taken that sufficient power is reflected back

210
towards the LFS. Two possible solutions for the reflector at the HFS have been proposed:
Firstly, one could employ direct reflection from the blanket tiles. Although it seems that the
smoothness of the surface of these tiles on the design table is good enough to ensure that
enough power is reflected, it is difficult to assess what will happen with the quality of the
surface once ITER comes into full operation. Secondly, one can mount narrow retroreflectors
in the space between adjacent blanket tiles at the HFS and slightly indented with respect to the
front surface of the tiles. By focussing the far-infrared beam to a waist of approximately 10
cm diameter one can thus ensure that several tens of percent of the injected beam power are
reflected back to the LFS. Although reflection of the far-infrared beam at the HFS is certainly
a difficult issue, it is thought possible to fmd a proper solution.
At the LFS penetrations for the probing beams are needed. Most of the beams can be
brought into the machine via so-called dog-legs through penetrations of approximately 25 -
30 cm diameter. To determine the optimum number of probing chords extensive simulations
are needed, which also incorporate information from other diagnostics on the magnetic
equilibrium (e.g. Motional Stark effect, magnetics). The tentative idea is to have five to six
horizontal probing chords with four oblique probing chords (two with a positive and two
with a negative angle with respect to the equatorial). To enable the use of oblique viewing
lines it might be necessary to use some oversized waveguides in slots between the blanket
modules8 instead of the quasi-optical beam penetrations. Whether or not oversized
waveguides can be applied depends very much on the available laser power and the fraction
of the probing beams that is received back after reflection from the back wall. Any
polarization changes and depolarization of the probing beams in the waveguides or in the
quasi-optical penetrations can be corrected for by making measurements without any plasma
present. In this way the optical transmission matrix of the beam transfer system can be
determined. The same matrix is then used to correct the plasma discharges.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

It has been demonstrated that a poloidal polarimeter system can be employed in ITER
to measure the current density profIle as well as the electron density profIle (via the Cotton-
Mouton effect). The system does not rely on fringe counting but on measuring the
polarization vector of the probing beam after passage through the plasma. This makes the
system robust (e.g. not sensitive to fringe jumps). The Faraday rotation angles are large (tens
of degrees) and also the ellipticity is relatively straightforward to measure with good
accuracy, making it possible to achieve a high accuracy. Relative changes in the value of qo
of 0.05 can be easily measured. Also the position of zero-crossing of the Faraday rotation
angle profIle can be measured with an accuracy in the range of a few mm. Because of the
elongation and triangularity of the ITER plasma, it is not straightforward to calculate the
current density profile from the measured rotation profIles. To do this in a proper way, all
information that is available on the magnetic topology of the ITER plasma (e.g from Motional
Stark Effect, magnetics, etc.) should be plugged into an equilibrium solver.
Although the outcome of the feasibility calculations is very positive, a warning should
be made. Up till now no experimental demonstration of an electron density measurement by
the Cotton-Mouton effect has been reported. This is mainly due to the fact that in the present
generation of magnetic confmement devices the Cotton-Mouton effect is too small. ITER will
be the first device on which this type of measurement can be explored. Furthermore, it still
needs to be studied in detail how the current density and electron density profIles can be
extracted in a self-consistent way from combined ellipso-metric/polarimetric measurements.
Reversing the last argument: to get an idea of the total number of probing chords of a
poloidal polarimeter system for ITER one needs to have an idea what information can be
obtained from other diagnostics. One then can insert simulated measurements for a known

211
magnetic topology into an equilibrium solver and compare the equilibrium thus found with
the input equilibrium. Although frrst generic ideas exist how the penetrations of the probing
beams through the blanket should look like as well as how the beam can be reflected from the
HFS, one needs frrst to determine the optimum number of probing chords before the
penetrations can be worked out in detail.
It has been demonstrated that refraction and electron cyclotron absorption are
negligible at wavelengths of 100 11m or smaller. It should still be investigated what will
happen to the refraction in case MARFEs are present near the HFS.

Acknowledgements

The contents of this paper is based on discussions in the Microwave Diagnostics

Group of the European ITER Home Team and we would like to thank the members of this
group, especially R. Behn, S. Barry, C.A.J. Hugenholtz, F.A. Karelse, R.W.M. Polman
and J.H. Rommers for their active participation at the various meetings. The work of AJHD
was performed as part of the research programme of the association agreement of
EURATOM and the 'Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie' (FOM) with
fmancial support from the 'Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek'
(NWO) and EURATOM.
References
F. De Marco and S.E. Segre, The polarization of an e.m. wave propagating in a plasma with
magnetic shear: the measurement of poloidal magnetic field in tokamak,Plasma Phys. 14:245 (1972).
AJ.H. Donn~, High spatial resolution interferometry and polarimetry in hot plasmas, Rev. Sci.
Instrum. 66:3407 (1995).
D. Boucher, private communication.
H. Soltwisch, Application of Jones matrices to the analysis of far-infrared wave propagation in
tokamak plasmas, Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion 35:1777 (1993)
S.E. Segre, On the simultaneous measurement by polarimetry of both electron line density and
poloidal magnetic field in tokamaks, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 35:1261 (1993).
o. Sauter, private communication.
C. Nieswand, Faraday Rotation Calculations for a FIR Polarimeter on ITER, these Proceedings; C.
Nieswand, to be published.
W.R.Geck, C.W. Domier and N.C. Luhmann Jr., Multiple view fan beam polarimetry on tokamak
devices, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68:416 (1997).

212
FARADAY ROTATION CALCULATIONS FOR A FIR POLARIMETER ON ITER

Christoph Nieswand

Centre de Recherches en Physique des Plasmas

Ecole Poly technique Federale de Lausanne
Association EURATOM - Confederation Suisse
CR-1O 15 Lausanne, Switzerland

INTRODUCTION
The measurement of the safety factor profile has been considered as an essential diag-
nostics for ITER.l Without the presence of a neutral beam, the only reliable diagnostics
which can fulfill the requirements for the q-profile determination is at present the polarimetry.
This paper presents the results of calculations of the Faraday rotation and the Cotton-
Mouton effect for various plasma configurations (considered as typical) and various beam ge-
ometries which can eventually be realized in spite of the restricted access.
The calculations should help to find a decision for the wavelength and the number and
the position of the observation chords of a possible polarimeter system on ITER.
The paper does not deal with technical questions concerning the implementation of such
a system on ITER. The potential use of internal retro-reflectors or waveguides for the beams
is not discussed here but elsewhere in this volume. 2

CALCULATION METHOD

Plasma equilibria

All calculations are based on a set of 10 ITER plasma equilibria generated by O.Sauter
using the CREASE code 3 (see figure Ia). The toroidal magnetic field of all investigated equi-
libria has been 5.7 T on the magnetic axis.
In order to determine the dependence of the Faraday rotation on the central safety factor
qo the current profile shape was kept constant in 7 equilibria while the total current was scaled
such that qo varies from 0.81 to 1.1 corresponding to a total plasma current from 2I.OMA to
15.2MA, respectively (see figure Ib).
Another pair of equilibria was generated keeping the plasma current constant at 21.0MA
but changing the current profile. As a consequence the q-profile and qo are different.
Finally a reversed shear case was investigated which was significantly different from the
other equilibria in current (I2MA) and shape.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aJ., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 213
 6 8r---~---r--~----,---~

5 6

~
4r---~--~--~--~--'---,
0

-1
,:. ....C) ,
, , .... ..

-2

-3

-4
6 8 10 %~--~--~--~--~--~--~
RIm psLnorm
Figure 1. a) Typical ITER equilibrium used for the calculations together with 11 horizontal polarimeter
chords; b) q-profiles of a set of 7 equilibria used for the calculations; c) Density profiles used to the calculations

Density profiles

Density profiles have been assumed to be a function of the normalized poloidal flux.
19 -3 ex 2 19-3
ne('!'norm) = {ne(O) - 10 m }{ 1 - ('!'norm) } + 10 m

a has been varied from 2 (peaked) to 10 (flat profile) while the central density neCO) has
been adjusted such that the line avera:.f<ed density is about twice the Greenwald limit for the
21 MA case (3.1·1020m- 3 to 1.95·10 °m-3, figure lc). Consequently at lower currents the
Greenwald limit has been exceeded excessively. However in order to separate magnetic field
effects from density profile effects, it is justified to apply these profiles to all eqUilibria.

Beam parameters and geometries

The calculations have been performed for a wavelength of 1OO~m. The polarization of
the beams has been chosen to be O-mode for most of the calculations.
The main effort has been focused on a scenario with 11 chords distributed equidistantly
over a diagnostics port in the vessel and slightly inclined (figure 1). Additional vertical and
skew chords have been considered as well.
Beam refraction has been neglected which is discussed elsewhere in this volume. 2

Method

The plasma has been cut into slabs of lcm thickness along the observation chords. The
transformation matrices for an electromagnetic wave travelling through these slabs have been
calculated based on the Appleton-Hartree formula and have been applied successively to the
electric field vector of the probing beam. Finally the polarization state of each beam after
passing through the plasma once has been evaluated.

214
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A typical profile of Faraday rotation and Cotton-Mouton effect for a flat density profile
and 11 horizontal chords is shown in figure 2. The total plasma current was modified resulting
in a change of qo and in the slope of the Faraday rotation profile (figure 3).

150
0.4
100
Cl
50 0.3 Q()::=J,1
II)
~ ~
o
r::::
0
~
0 a
=0.2········
'5 w
a:
0.1 qO;:0.85
-100· .
qO = 0.85
-1~~0 -20 o 20 40 o 20 40
betaldeg betaldeg
Figure 2. Faraday rotation and ellipticity for a flat density profile, wavelength: l00!lJI1

The Faraday rotation angles for a wavelength of 100llm for a single path through the
plasma are in the order of some tens of degrees. Nowadays polarimeters are able to resolve
Faraday rotation angles of 0.1· or less. From the slope of the rotation profile (figure 3) at the
zero crossing of about 50·1m it can be assumed that a vertical movement of the plasma in the
order of 1 centimeter can easily be detected.
In this geometry the chords cover most of the plasma cross section. Specially in reversed
shear cases it might be important to have chords passing the region of the minimum of the q-
profile, which can be far from the plasma center.
The Cotton-Mouton effect adds significant rotation and ellipticity to the polarization of
the beams so that it cannot be neglected at lOOllm wavelength. Eventually it can be used to
determine the line integrated density simultaneously along the polarimeter chords and pro-
vide so informations about the density profile. 2
At longer wavelengths refraction of the beam becomes important. At shorter wave-
lengths the Cotton-Mouton effect can completely be neglected. But it has to be taken into ac-
count that the density of the calculated cases is at the high density limit and that in the low
current cases the density even excessively overestimated. A wavelength of about lOOllm (e.g.
5.-------.--------.-------.

Qi'
~4.5
II)
~
Ul

~ 4
Cl
II)
~
II)
g.a.5··
iii

a.9 1/qO
1.1 1.2

Figure 3. Slope of the Faraday rotation profile for a flat density profile at the zero crossing of the rotation pro-
file, the cross marks the case with 2IMA but qo=0.94.

215
 100 6.5

~ 6
50 !!!
Ol Ol
Q) Q)

~0 ~5.5
Q)
0 !!!
~
a: a) ~ 5
"0
Q)
-50·· a.
~4.5

-10~ 4
- 0 -20 0 40 2.5 3
betaldeg neO [1 e20m-3]
Figure 4. a) Faraday rotation for low qo. Numbers in the plot denote the central density in 1020m-3 ; b) Slope of
the Faraday rotation profile for a flat density profile at the zero crossing of the rotation profile

the 1181-1m CH30H laser line) is therefore the optimum choice for a polarimeter on ITER.
In case of equal qo but different total current and current profile the slope of the Faraday
rotation profile near the zero crossing was found to be equal (figure 3).
However modifying the density profile for a given equilibrium changes the slope of the
Faraday rotation profile significantly (figure 4).

CONCLUSIONS
A wavelength of l00l-lm is the best choice for a FIR polarimeter on ITER.
Slightly inclined chords launched from the diagnostics port allow for measurements
across the whole plasma.
It was shown that the slope of the Faraday rotation is linearly dependent on qo but also
on the density profile. An absolute value of qo can only be derived having more informations
about the magnetic configuration (symmetry)_
The capabilities of a polarimeter on ITER can therefore only be determined completely
by equilibrium reconstruction simulations including all relevant diagnostics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was partly supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. I would like
to acknowledge the helpful discussions of this work with the members of the Microwave Di-
agnostics Group of the European ITER Home Team, namely AJ.H.Donne, T.Edlington,
E.Ioffrin, H.Koslowski, S.Segre, P.Stott, R.Behn, S.Barry, C.A.J.Hugenholtz, F.A.Karelese,
R.W.M.Polman and I.H.Rommers.

REFERENCES

1. K.M_Young et aI., The ITER diagnostic programme, in : Diagnosticsfor Experimental

Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P.E.Stott, G.Gorini, E.Sindoni, ed.,Plenum Press,
New York, 1996
2. A.I.H Donne, Polarimetry for poloidal field measurements, this volume
3. H.Liitjens et al., The CHEASE code for toroidal MHD equilibria, Comput.Phys.Commun_
95 : (1996) 47-57.

216
LIDAR THOMSON SCATTERING FOR THE ITER CORE PLASMA

P. Nielsen/ L. de Kock,2 C. Gowers,l

F. Orsitto,3 H. Salzmann,4 and C. Walker2

! JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, OXl4 3EA, UK

2 ITER JCT Garching, 85748 Garching, Germany
3 ENEA C.E. Frascati, 00044 Frascati, Italy
4 MPI flir Plasmaphysik, EURATOM Association, 85748 Garcbing,
Germany

INTRODUCTION

For physics interpretations as well as for control of advanced operational scenarios the
knowledge of electron temperature and density profiles of the ITER plasma is absolutely
necessary. The specifications for the core measurements are 10% accuracy for the electron
temperature at a spatial resolution of 10 cm over the temperature range 0.5 - 30 keY, 5%
accuracy for the density at a spatial resolution of 30 cm over the range 0.1 - 3.0 * 1020 m-3 .
The repetition rate of the measurements should be 100 Hz.
Comparing Thomson scattering with competing techniques, it offers the advantages
that it measures both quantities indisputably at the same position and time and that the
interpretation of the signals is independent of the plasma scenario. Possible drawbacks of
Thomson scattering are that the front end in the ITER environment is vulnerable, that
permanent alignment between the laser beam and the collection optics is required and that
a large solid angle of collection is needed to achieve the required SNR. Thus the main
effort of the design study on Thomson scattering! was related to these points of view. Here
the system will be outlined only briefly and the emphasis is put on the critical material
issues.

LAYOUT OF OPTICS

The problem of maintaining the alignment is much simpler in a backscatter time-of-

flight or LIDAR QJght Qetection And Ranging) scheme as it is realised on the JET
tokamak2 than in a conventional 90° scattering set-up. This is due to the fact that both the
laser beam and the beam of collected light pass the same front optics.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 217
 For LIDAR, the spatial resolution M. is given by M. =(,2Laser + ,2Detectio.J 1/2, where c is
the speed of light, 'Laser is the laser pulse duration and 'Detection is the response time of the
detection system. Thus, in a LIDAR scheme, good spatial resolution requires a short laser
pulse and a high-speed detection system. As can be concluded from the experiences with
the JET LIDAR diagnostic, the specifications given above can be realised. In addition, the
scheme offers the advantages that i) the background radiation added to the signal is small
due to the high-speed detection, thus improving the SNR, ii) it only requires one access
route/window to the plasma, iii) all spatial channels are transmitted via one line of optics.
This means that simpler relay optics (and much less space close to the machine) are
required than for the wide field-of-view collection optics needed in a conventional system,
and iv) all spatial channels are measured with a single detection system. This has the
advantage that the absolute calibration of the system is not essential, but that comparison
to a density line integral is sufficient. These arguments, especially those pertaining to the
access problem, lead to the conclusion that a LIDAR system is to be preferred for the
Thomson scattering diagnostic for the ITER core plasma3•
The requirement for a vacuum window as small as possible and the requirement for a
solid angle of the collection optics as large as possible are opposing. It is overcome by
introducing an imaging optics into the vacuum vessel.
Considering that the ITER magnetic coils and all transparent optics such as windows
and lenses have to be shielded against neutrons there has to be a shielding labyrinth inside
the port and the front optics has to be reflective. The first mirror should be as far away as
possible from the blanket penetration to avoid damage by sputtering and to reduce nuclear
heating.

2m
Laser Beam
BP PVW
1m PM
FL
PMS

Om EM SB c
R
12 m 14m 16m •

Figure 1. The optical labyrinth in the diagnostic shielding block and the transmission optics in the cryostat.
Shown is only the incoming laser beam. This beam is enclosed by the beam of collected light. BP: Blanket
Penetration; PM: Plane Mirror; EM: Ellipsoidal Mirror; LFS: Laser Focal Spot; SB: End of Shielding Block;
PVW: Primary Vacuum Window; Fl.: Field Lens; PMS: Plane Mirror (Steerable); EMS: Ellipsoidal Mirror
(Steerable); C: Cryostat.

To optimize the shielding efficiency of the labyrinth the bend angles should be around
90°. On the other hand, imaging wide-field reflective optics require small off-angle
incidence because otherwise the imaging quality deteriorates too much. These two
requirements can be met by a design as shown in Fig. 1. The labyrinth has been designed
for a line of sight in a poloidal plane passing through the plasma centre. A LIDAR system
has to consider the problrm of vignetting l •3 • This has led us to image the blanket
penetration onto the primary vacuum window. To allow the window to be as small as
possible, the front mirror is plane and the second mirror is ellipsoidal.

218
 The laser beam is focused at the plasma centre. A focal spot of the laser also occurs
between the imaging mirror and the window, well away from the window, maintaining an
energy density on the window well below damage threshold.
Inaccessible optics within the vessel immediately raise the question of alignment of
the collection optics with respect to the laser beam. This problem is solved by using the
same optics for laser input and collection. Thus relative alignment with respect to each
other is guaranteed once the laser and the collected light beam are aligned colinearly
outside the vessel (in an accessible area), no matter how the mirrors inside the vessel move.
However, there exists the problem that the vessel, and with it the shielding block, moves
relative to the building. This movement is not only caused by thermal expansion but also
by magnetic forces and therefore it has even a time-varying toroidal component.
Due to these changing conditions the alignment of the scattering diagnostic outside
the primary vacuum has got to be feedback controlled: Inside the cryostat a pair of
adjustable mirrors (an off-axis ellipsoidal mirror and a plane mirror) is introduced.
Approximately 1: I imaging optics are required inside the cryostat anyway since the
cryostat window should also be kept small. The first mirror deflects the optical axis of the
front optics so that it intersects the fixed optical axis of the external optics on the second
mirror. The second mirror then adjusts the direction of the axis of the front end optics to be
collinear with the axis of the external optics.
The laser beam, which outside the cryostat has its own transmission line separated
from that for the collected light must be made collinear with the collected light beam.
Among the possible methods the easiest and most reliable is to use a hole in one of the
mirrors outside the vessel. Vignetting problems are avoided by choosing a mirror located in
an image plane of the elliptical mirrorl.
The biological shield outside the cryostat is passed via a labyrinth. Lasers and the
detection optics are located in areas permitting 'hands-on' operation. These areas are
reached via two optical transmission lines.

LASER, TRANSMISSION OPTICS AND DETECTION EQUIPMENT

The chosen laser wavelength is about 790 nm. With this laser wavelength the 'blue'
wing of the scattered spectrum is covered for the full envisaged temperature range by the
sensitivity range of photocathodes. A 10 ps / 0.6 J / 100 Hz Ti:sapphire laser system (A. =
800 nm) is outlined in 4. This system would produce 500 ps / 1 J pulses without the final
grating pulse compressor, parameters which would be sufficient for the planned LIDAR
system with 30 cm spatial resolution for both the density and the temperature for
measurements over the outer minor radius. We conclude from this that the required laser
technology is available already now.
An estimate of the optical transmission @ 800 nm of the laser transmission line
including the front optics yields a value of about 0.5, whereas the transmission of the
collection optics amounts to about 0.3 1•
The spectrometer must offer a high etendue. This requirement is met by interference
filters. Since the complete temperature profile is to be measured with a single instrument,
the spectrometer is to provide a dynamic range of 0.5 to 30 ke V. Approximately 10
spectral channels are required. Further, the spectrometer has to cope with the problem that
the scattering volume moves along the line of sight. Consequently the intensity distribution
in an arbitrarily chosen, fixed image plane could change from a small, well-defined image
to a larger, blurred spot. This in tum would lead to changes in the spectral transmission due
to filter inhomogeneities. This effect can be minimised by placing the filters at image
planes of the ellipsoidal (second) mirrorl. The described solution is the same as the one

219
adopted for the JET LIDAR system 2•5 and thus essentially the spectrometer used at JET will
be copied.
As detectors we envisage using proximity focused MCP photomultipliers as on JET.
These detectors show an excellent gating behaviour6•7• Gating the photomultipliers allows
efficient discrimination against stray light pulses occurring before the scattered signal.
Such pulses are created when the laser pulse passes optical components common to the
laser input path and the collected light path, e.g. the vacuum window and the mirrors in the
labyrinth. Without gating the detectors would be charge depleted before the measurement.
Digitising of the output signals is done with state-of-the-art transient digitisers which
are capable of the short integration time needed for 10 em spatial resolution. Processing of
the data with a neural network will allow real time density and temperature profiles with
about 10 ms delay.
In the radial set-up the laser pulse hits the inner wall at the end of the measurement
and produces a stray light (and microplasma light) pulse which depletes the charge stored
in the MCPs of the detectors. In the low repetition-rate JET device these signal pulses of
about 300 V amplitude are clipped electronically so that they do not destroy the input
amplifiers of the digitisers7. In the ITER set-up fast gating-off of the detectors before the
laser pulse hits the inner wall should be foreseen in order to facilitate the high repetition
rate and to increase the lifetime of the detectors.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

The expected error of the temperature fitl is shown in Fig. 2. The error curves plotted
in this figure are derived by calculating the expected signal in 20 equally sized spectral
channels over a fixed wavelength range. The numbers for the error bars in Fig. 2 are
absolute values. All the curves are calculated using fixed geometry (f/16), fixed laser
energy of 1 J, fixed transmission of 20%, 0.15 m scattering length, electron density of
1.0xlO l9 m"3 and including 1% bit noise. Including bit noise of this level brings the
identical estimate done for the JET LIDAR system in line with the experimentally observed
accuracy.

Error (%] -B-- 790 nm / 825

i
___ 790 nm / GaAs

50

o 1 10 100
Electron Temperature [keY]
Figure 2. Dynamic range of the electron temperature measurements. i) (790 nm,S25) - 790 nm laser,
detector TJ= 0.2 @ 400 nm dropping to 0.01@ 800 nm. ti) (790 nm,GaAs) - 790 nm laser, detector quannun
efficieny TJ =0.2 @ 400 nm dropping to 0.1 @ 900 nm.

220
MATERIAL PROBLEMS

Material problems are envisaged for the front mirror and the primary vacuum window.
In the case of the mirror sputtering by CX neutrals, blistering due to ion implantation, laser
damage and mirror deformation due to nuclear heating could all be a problem, whereas in
the case of the window radiation induced optical absorption, radiation induced
luminescence and laser damage have to be considered. With respect to radiation induced
damage the shielding properties of the proposed labyrinth have been investigated using
approximate methodss as well as 3D Monte Carlo calculations9•
The total shielding efficiency of the LIDAR penetration on its own is 3 times better
than the uniform shielding of the blanket and vacuum vessel. Outside the shielding block,
behind the first mirror, a higher total neutron flux is found than at the exit hole indicating
that locally the wall behind the first mirror is too thin. A 15 cm shift of the labyrinth
towards the plasma or some additional shielding material will be sufficient to reduce this
flux to an acceptable level.

Primary Vacuum Window

The primary vacuum window will be a double window of less than 15 cm diameter.
At its position a total neutron flux of 6.4 x 109 cm-2 S-I is estimated9.
The influence of the background luminescence radiation of the window on the SNR of
the scattering measurements can be estimated from a comparison of the numbers of
photoelectrons in a spectral channel due to Thomson scattering and due to luminescence,
respectively. For the Thomson scattering signal we expect about 150 signal photoelectrons
/ spectral channel/spatial point. The assumed parameters were: 1 J laser energy @ 800
run, 10 cm scattering length, l1e = 3 X 1019 m- 3, f/16 at the plasma centre, optical
transmission 0.1, quantum efficiency 0.1, blue wing of spectrum divided into 10 spectral
channels, each 40 run wide.
The luminescence signal is estimated as follows: The window is positioned at the
image plane of the blanket penetration which is to be imaged onto the detectors by the
relay optics. Given the optical throughput of the system (20 mm detector with f#l optics)
and the size of the vacuum window (120 mm dia.), the solid angle of collection for
luminescence from the window is inferred to be d.Q = 0.022 sr (f/6). With the
radioluminescence of the KU-l fused silica glass lO of 5x1Os photons cm-3 nm- I S{I Gy-I,
a window thickness of 4 cm (a double window) and the integration time of the scattering
experiment of 0.3 ns (corresponding to 10 cm scattering length), we get 0.6 background
photoelectrons / spectral channel/spatial point /(Gy/s). Independent measurements" at
neutron fluxes of 4.3 * 1016 cm-2 S-I confirm the used coefficient for radioluminescence.
Taking the total neutron flux at the window positionS of 6.4 x 109 cm-2 S-I and
assuming that this neutron flux corresponds to ionising radiation of about 0.07 Gy/s, we
arrive at l1eL = 0.05 photoelectrons/channel/spatial point which does not effect the SNR of
the measurements in the least.
To investigate radiation induced darkenin§ KU-l samples were irradiated at room
temperature up to a neutron fluence of lOIS cm- and a dose of 45 MGyI2. Measurements
up to fluence of 6x10 19 cm-2 were performed with the same material using a pulsed fission
reactor". Subtracting reflection losses, the radiation induced optical density amounts to D
... 0.08 cm- I @ 600 nm which for a total optical path length in the double primary vacuum
window of 4 cm would correspond to intolerable absorption losses of 52%. Allowing 0.1 %
absorption losses corresponding to an optical density of 1.085* 10-4 cm- I (caused by
absorption) a fluence of 8* 1016 cm- 2 could be tolerated. For the neutron flux at the window
location as calculated with Monte Carlo methods9 such a fluence would be reached after

221
47,800 discharges of 1000 s pulse length. Thus it is not necessary to keep the window at
elevated temperature in order to anneal the created colour centres.
To conclude, radiation induced absorption is not a problem with the outlined
shielding labyrinth.

Front Mirror

The design criteria for the front mirror are: i) High optical reflectivity over a large
spectral range (400 nm - 800 nm); ii) Since the laser beam has to pass the mirror, the laser
damage threshold of the reflective layer must be high enough; iii) Low sputtering yield;
iv) The thermal deformations of the mirror due to nuclear and laser heating must be
compatible with the required optical imaging quality.
Our approach is based on a solution with a reflective layer deposited upon a mirror
substrate. This should help to untangle problems of optical reflectivity from those of
mechanical stability, thermal conductivity and nuclear heating effects. Considering the
requirements for broadband optical reflectivity and low sputtering yield we favour metallic
reflective coatings.
Among the metals offering high reflectivity gold and copper are excluded since their
reflection coefficient shows a roll-off at 550 nm. In addition gold transmutes to mercury
and forms a dark amalgam. This leaves us with the choice among Ag (R .. 0.98 @ 40°
incidence, s-pol), Al (R .. 0.92), and Rh (R .. 0.84).
First laser damage measurements using the 300 ps ruby laser of the JET LIDAR
system yield laser damage thresholds for normal incidence of 620 mJ/cm2 for Ag, 350
mJ/cm2 for AI and 120 mJ/cm2 for Rh. The single pulse measurements indicate an increase
of the damage threshold with the reflection coefficient. Thus, slightly higher threshold
values are to be expected for 40° incidence and s-polarisation.
The dependence of the damage threshold on the reflection coefficient indicates
thermo-mechanical effects depending on the absorbed laser energy. These effects have
been studied in literature for a number of materials and wavelengths13,14,15,16,17,18,19. Two
main effects leading to mirror damage have been identified:
i) At high laser intensity the laser energy absorbed within a thin surface layer and
spread over the penetration depth of the heat wave during the laser pulse can be sufficient
to cause melting at the surface. The theoretical single shot threshold laser fluences for
damage by melting for a I ns laser pulse and an initial mirror temperature of 150 C are
3.58 J cm-2 for Ag, 0.29 J cm- 2 for AI and 0.73 J cm-2 for Rh. These threshold data would
allow to pass huge laser energies across metallic mirrors. There is, however, a second
effect:
ii) The absorbed laser energy heats up a thin layer of material at the surface. The
heated matter expands and can do so freely normal to the surface. However, at the radial
boundary of the laser spot the dilatation is clamped by the surrounding cold material. This
leads to stresses which, if strong enough, can lead to slips. The effect obviously depends
upon the radial distribution of the laser energy across the mirror. We do not believe this
effect to be limiting for a practical beam. However, we should make sure that the mirrors
are not exposed to "hot spots", as produced by diffraction or interference from refractive
surfaces.
For multiple-pulse laser irradiation this damage effect in addition shows a reduction
of the damage threshold fluence which is cumulative with the number of laser pulses
(independent from the laser interpulse time): At each laser pulse the material is stressed. If
the stresses exceed the elastic limit repeated plastic deformation occurs which can lead to
damage by material fatigue 16.
The models for laser damage on metallic reflectors indicate that all three materials in
question could be used. Experiments with large laser spot sizes are planned.

222
 A comparison of the sputtering efficiency of Ag 20, Al 20 and Rh21 for normal incidence
of Deuterium ex neutrals is shown in Fig. 3. The asterisks show experimentally
determined values at 100 eV and 2 keY deuterium energy. Note that the experimental error
of the measurement at 100 eV is large (the sputtering coefficient is determined from the
weight difference of the sample which was only 10 ~g in this case).

0.00 -+....a.~--.-----.-----.-----.-----r--.---+-

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Energy/keV

Figure 3. The sputtering yield of aluminum. silver and rhodium for incident deuterium. The asterisks show
experimental values for rhodium.

The foreseen lifetime of the mirrors as limited by ex sputtering from a metal surface
located at the bottom of a 20 cm dia., 2 m long duct by charge-exchange neutrals with a
composition of 50% D and 50% T is inferred21 using these data. The incident flux onto the
wall is estimated as 2x10 19 atoms m,2 S,l and is assumed to be isotropic. For the assumed
energy spectrum see 21 . With these assumptions one gets an average erosion of 0.031
monolayers of Ag for an ITER discharge of 1000 s duration, and of 0.006 for Rh,
respectively. Thus, taking 500 discharges per year, after 4 years of operation about 12
monolayers of Rh would be eroded, corresponding to about 5 nm.
However, the erosion is not homogeneous across the surface but will roughen up the
polished mirror, which will lead to an increase in scattering losses. In a review article on
metallic mirrors for optical telescopes22 roughness values attainable by polishing different
materials and the related values of the diffuse reflectance are given. Typically, a roughness
about 5 nm leads to a diffuse reflectance of less than 1% at 630 nm. Thus we can conclude
that after 4 years of operation the maximum surface roughness of the first mirror due to
sputtering will only be of the order of its original roughness.
These estimates were checked experimentally: Solid Rh samples were polished to
optical quality with a roughness of less than 1.5 nm rms. They were then irradiated with
Deuterium ions of 2 ke V energy with a fluence which is expected for the above given
numbers for 4 years of ITER operation (5x10 18 atoms cm,2). No measurable deterioration of
both the surface roughness and the specular reflection coefficient was found. A 10 fold
increase of the fluence was required to enable the measurements of the sputtering yield
shown in Fig. 3. Under these conditions the specular reflectivity decreased significantly to
a value of about 20%.
It should be noted that only sputtering by ex neutrals from the plasma is taken into
account. The problem of secondary particles sputtered from the wall of the duct and the
question whether baffling could be a suitable remedy has not been treated yet.

223
 Considering the choice of the substrate the main argument is the stability against
thermal deformations. For simplicity cooling channels inside the rather large substrate
should be avoided and the cooling should be accomplished by thermal contact to the (water
cooled) shielding block. Two possible solutions have been investigated: A sandwich type
of substrate with low thermal conductivity between the front and the rear plate and a solid
plate of high thermal conductivity. For the first case the worst situation was assumed,
namely that the only the front plate is heated. If the substrate can expand freely it will
approximately shape into a sphere of radius R =t a-I ATI where t is the thickness of the
sandwich, a is the linear thermal expansion coefficient and AT is the temperature rise of
the front plate. Assuming that R =100 m is tolerable for the nominally plane front mirror, a
permissible temperature rise of 135 0 is inferred for SiC, of 300 for copper and stainless
steel and of 20 0 for aluminum. Nuclear heating at the position of the first mirror however
only leads to an adiabatic temperature rise of 2.70 for SiC, 2.90 for AI, 4.90 for stainless
steel and 6.20 for Cu after the end of the discharge. These numbers are based on the Monte
Carlo calculations9 which indicate a nuclear heating of 20 mWcm-3 for solid stainless steel
at this position. However, if Rh is used as reflecting layer, heating by the laser beam leads
to much higher temperatures and only SiC (AT =74 0 ) would still fulfill the requirements.
For the solid substrate an estimate shows that the thermal equilibration time is much
shorter than the ITER discharge time for all the considered materials and it can be
concluded that thermal deformations do not pose a serious problem.

CALIBRATION

The. relative spectral sensitivity of the detection system which must be known to infer
the electron temperature from the scattering signals is measured by illuminating with a
calibrated, tunable, monochromatic light source. This light source is usually placed outside
the vessel and thus the transmission of the window and of optical in-vessel components
cannot be re-measured after the startup of the plasma experiments. However, the presence
of inaccessible optical components, whose spectral calibration may change over time (e.g.
vacuum windows, mirrors inside the vacuum system), poses a problem in a Thomson
scattering diagnostic23 •24•25 • As possible means for updating the spectral calibration, a
method is proposed26,1 which consists in doing Thomson scattering with two lasers at
different wavelengths on the same plasma within a short time interval.
The absolute calibration has two objectives. One is to provide a number to allow
absolute determination of the plasma density. A more important factor in a LIDAR system
is determining of the variation of the solid angle of collection as function of the scattering
position. This latter quantity allows us, even in the absence of an absolute measurement, to
determine the relative variation of the density profile. By fixing either one point or the line
integral, through comparison with other diagnostics, the density profile is inferred.
Density calibration of a Thomson scattering arrangement can be done by performing
either Rayleigh or Raman scattering from a rather high pressure (up to 1 bar) molecular gas
filling of the discharge vessel. However, Rayleigh scattering may in practice be ruled out
due to stray light problems. Raman scattering using nitrogen is a common calibration
technique on a number of tokamaks. If the spectral filter characteristics are known in detail
this can also provide a complete absolute calibration. However, in the case of a LIDAR
system using an interference filter polychromator, the application of the Raman scattering
method is difficult: The rotational anti-Stokes Raman spectrum of nitrogen is spectrally
very close to the laser line, that is to an intense source of stray light. Therefore interference
filters with a very steep slope towards the laser wavelength are needed. The difficulty arises
from the fact that the scattered light from different positions along the line of sight
intersects the interference filters at different angles of incidence and that the spectral

224
transmission slope of the filter shifts with the angle of incidence. On JET, where a ruby
laser is used, this difficulty is overcome by applying a strongly attenuating absorption filter
which is insensitive against changes of the angle of incidence. For the 3-level ruby laser
system such a specific filter exists in the form of highly Cr3+ doped, unpumped rubY;. In
the case of a laser at 790 nm such a filter would have to be developed.
Fortunately with the geometry chosen for this design the variation of the solid angle of
collection is easily calculated. We therefore only need an absolute measurement at one
location, e.g. the plasma centre. There scattering is from a point source and it is possible to
place a filter at a location such that a parallel beam is incident for this scattering position,
avoiding the above mentioned problem.
The unknown ratio to the absolute density, which is constant for all spatial points, can
be inferred either from comparison to i) a line integral of the electron density lie obtained
from an interferometer, ii) a line integral of lie * Bpar obtained from a polarimeter, where
Bpar is the component of the magnetic field strength parallel to the line of sight, or iii) a
comparison with the density at a single point measured by another diagnostic, such as
reflectometry. Method i) is well-established on JET and will work on ITER, too.

SUMMARY

A Thomson scattering scheme for measuring electron temperature and density profiles
on a central chord of the ITER core plasma has been designed. A backscattering time-of-
flight (LIDAR) scheme is used. A spatial resolution of 10 cm along the chord and
repetition rates of the measurement of up to 100 Hz are possible but we suggest reducing
the resolution to 30 cm to allow for safer operation. The required dynamic range with
respect to the high electron temperatures foreseen is achieved by using a short pulse laser at
800 nm together with fast detection covering the whole visible spectrum.
To accomplish a large solid angle of collection for the scattered light together with
sufficient shielding of the primary vacuum window (and the machine structure) against the
streaming neutrons, an imaging reflective optics is located in a labyrinth penetrating the
shielding block which fills the radial port. Neutron scattering calculations yield that the
attenuation is sufficient with regard to the machine components. In addition, considering
the radioluminescence and the radiation induced absorption measured for high-purity
quartz glass, the radiation level at the window location is low enough as to avoid problems.
Thus, the main concern is about the survivability of the front mirror which directly
views the plasma. Metallic coatings on different substrate materials have been considered
and the effects of nuclear heating, impinging ex neutrals, heating by the laser beam as
well as laser damage threshold problems have been considered. A solution is suggested
which should survive a reasonable experimental period of the order of 4 years.
Solutions are found to the problems of calibration, both relative (spectral) and
absolute. In the case of a slowly changing optical transmission (deposition on the front
mirror) a novel method is suggested, where by performing Thomson scattering on the same
plasma with a second laser at different wavelength the relative spectral transmission of the
complete optical system can be calibrated. Absolute calibration for density measurements
is based on cross-calibration against either reflectometer or interferometer/polarimeter
measurements.

225
REFERENCES
1. ITER DDD 5.5.C.Ol, Thomson scattering (core), (1997)
2. H. Salzmann, J. Bundgaard, A. Oadd, C. Oowers, H.B. Hansen, K. Hirsch, P.Nielsen, K. Reed, C.
SchrMter, K. Weisberg, The UDAR Thomson scattering diagnostic on JET, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
59:1451 (1988)
3. C. Oowers, P. Nielsen, F. Orsitto, FJ. Pijper, H. Salzmann, B. Schunke, A Thomson scattering scheme for
obtaining Te and ne profiles of the ITER core plasma, in: Proc. of the Workshop on Diagnosticsfor
ITER, Varenna, Italy, September 1995 and ReportJET-P(95)44
4. A.W. Molvik, RA.Lerche, D.O. Nilson, M.D. Perry, E.B. Hooper, UDAR Thomson scattering for
advanced tokamaks - final report, Report UCRL-/D-123434 (1996)
5. C. Oowers, K. Hirsch, P. Nielsen, H. Salzmann, A high rejection ruby filter for laser light scattering
experiments, Appl. Optics 27:3625 (1988)
6. K. Hirsch, M. KOChel, H. Salzmann, Shutter ratio of a gated ITT F4128 microchannel-plate
photomultiplier, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 58:2339 (1987)
7. J. Bundgaard, K.B. Hansen, K.-V. Weisberg, Electronics formicrochannel photomultipliers in the UDAR
Thomson scattering diagnostic on JET, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 60:3265 (1989)
8. H. lida, R.T. Santoro, S. Yamamoto, Preliminary estimates of radiation streaming through LIDAR
penetrations, ITER Report No. G 73 RI 596-09-09 W 1.1 (1996)
9. ITER Report of RF Diagnostic DOG for the third Quarter 1996, Partl, Neutronic Analysis for Diagnostics,
Sec. I, LIDAR system (1996)
10. E.R Hodgson, A. Morono: 'Sample EC W-T28-01' ,ITER R&D Task T28 'Irradiation effects on
diagnostic components', presented at the ITER Technical Meeting of Irradiation Tests on Diagnostic
Components based on the T246 Task Agreement, Garching, 20 June 1996
11. A. Oorshkov, D. Orlinsky, V. Sannikov, K. Vukolov, S. Goncharov, Yu. Sadovnikov, A. Kirillov,
Measurement of radioluminescence spectral intensity of the quartz glass under neutron and gamma
pulse irradiation at Pulse Fission Reactor "BARS", Paper given at ITER Diagnostics Progress
Meeting, Garching, 15.-17. Jan. 1997
12. A. B. Berlizov, O.V. Kachalov, A.R. Matesov, Sample RF W-T28-01,ITER R&D Task T28 'Irradiation
Effects on Diagnostic Components'
13. J.O. Porteus, D.L. Decker, S.C. Seitel, MJ. Soileau, Dependence of metal mirror damage thresholds on
wavelength, material, pulse length and preparation method, in Laser Induced Damage in Optical
Materials: 1980, NBS Special Publication 620, p. 201, Boulder (1980)
14. H.M. Musal, Thennomechanical stress degradation of metal mirror surfaces under pulsed laser
irradiation, in Laser Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1979, NBS Special Publication 568, p.
159, Boulder (1979)
15. H.M. Musal, Pulsed laser initiation of surface plasma on metal mirrors, in Laser Induced Damage in
Optical Materials: 1980, NBS Special Publication 620, p. 227, Boulder (1980)
16. N. Koumvakalis, C.S. Lee, M. Bass, Single and multiple pulse catastrophic damage in diamond-turned Cu
and Ag mirrors at 10.6, 1.06 and 0.532 J.Un, Optical Engineering 22:419 (1983)
17. C.S.Lee, N. Koumvakalis, M. Bass, A theoretical model for multiple-pulse laser-induced damage to
metal mirrors, 1. Appl. Phys. 54:5727 (1983)
18. Y. Jee, M.F. Becker, RM. Walser, Laser-induced damage on single-crystal metal surfaces, 1. Opt. Soc.
Am. B 5:648 (1988)
19. M.F. Becker, Chunchi Ma, R.M. Walser, Predicting multi-pulse laser-induced failure for molybdenum
metal mirrors, Appl. Phys. 30:5239 (1991)
20. W. Eckstein, C. Garcia-Rosales, J. Roth, W. Ottenberger, Sputtering data, Report IPP 9/82 (1993)
21. M. Mayer, L. de Kock, CX erosion of mirrors, presented at the 4th Meeting of ITER Expert Group on
Diagnostics, Moscow, 1 March 1996
22. M.M. Miroshnikov, S.V. Lyubarskii, Yu.P. Khimich, Optical telescope mirrors, Sov. 1. Opt. Technol.
57:523 (1990)
23. B. W. Brown, C. Gowers, P. Nielsen, B. Schunke, Window transmission monitoring and cleaning
schemes used with the light detection and ranging Thomson scattering diagnostic on the JET tokamak',
Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:3077 (1995)
24. D. H. McNeill, Effect of changes in viewing window transmission on high-temperature Thomson
scattering data, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61:1263 (1990)
25. H. Yoshida, O. Naito, T. Hatae, A. Nagashima, Approach to a window coating problem by in situ
transmission monitoring and laser blow-off cleaning developed in the IT-60D Thomson scattering
system, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68:256 (1997)
26. O.R.P. Smith, C. Gowers, P. Nielsen, H. Salzmann, A self-calibration technique for a Thomson scattering
system, Rev. Sci.lnstrum 68:725 (1997).

226
ITER EDGE THOMSON SCATIERING

D. W. Johnson and B. Grek

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

p.o. Box 451
Princeton, NJ 08540 USA

INTRODUCTION

Many of ITER's performance limiting mechanisms are expected to exist

and interact at the plasma edge. The H-mode edge pedestal parameters are high
leverage variables of models used for predicting ITER's success, in measures
ranging from core reactivity to divertor erosion. For example, the pedestal
temperature is critical in determining the L-H transition. According to many
transport models, once H-mode is reached, the H-factor and Q are strongly
related to the pedestal pressure. Several classes of ELM instabilities are
sensitive to the edge pressure profile shape and also affect performance. The
ITER divertor scenario counts on impurity radiation from the plasma edge to
reduce power flow to the divertor plates, a mechanism that also affects the edge
pedestal region. It is therefore reasonable to expect that, during ITER operation,
the edge Te and fie profiles are likely to become key operational indicators, and
ideally, they would be available for use in feedback control for discharge
optimiza tion.
One of the tools identified to probe this important area is edge Thomson
scattering, providing local measurements of electron temperature and density.
Distinct from other Thomson scattering systems planned to probe the ITER core
and divertor regions, the edge Thomson system was conceived to provide
profiles of the edge pedestal region with high spatial resolution. In this report,
we will first review the current expectations for the ITER edge parameters, and
compare these with the measurement goals currently defined for edge Te and
ne. We will then summarize the evolution of thinking in this area, which is
currently at a Phase 2 (of 4) level of design. The design consists of a
conventional imaging system making use of a top port on ITER for both the
laser and the collection optics. There are several advantages of, the top (versus
midplane) geometry which will be highlighted. We will then describe a
preliminary design which will serve as a reference for further discussion
concerning access/performance tradeoffs. While we are aware of no fatal
problems at present, there are challenging issues which will strongly affect the
design. It appears that target measurement goals can be achieved with adequate
Diagnostics for Experimental Thennonuclear Fusion Reactors 2
Edited by Stott et al., P1enwn Press, New York, 1998 227
access, using available laser/detector technology. However, the important
assessment of radiation streaming, and its effect on the survivability of the
collection optics and relay fibers await further study. Another key issue is
contention for space with other systems in the top port, such as the glow
discharge system and the vessel inspection system.

EDGE PROFILE EXPECTATIONS AND TARGET MEASUREMENT GOALS

An excellent summary of the expectations for the ITER edge pedestal

characteristics was given by Janeschitz.1 Based on measurements of edge
parameters on CMOD, ASDEX-U, DIII-D and JET (many of which are edge
Thomson measurements), and on accepted models describing operational
limits and edge transport barrier mechanisms, projections are made to predict
the ITER edge operational space in terms of I1e and Te. Of particular importance
for the ITER edge Thomson design is the expected pedestal width. This will
dictate the required spatial resolution, with strong impacts on all aspects of the
design. For an H-mode scenario with Type I ELMS, the case with the steepest
gradients, reference 1 projects that the ITER pedestal width at the midplane will
be in the range of 9-19 cm. This compares to an experimental value of 6 cm on
JET. For an H-mode pedestal density limit of 6x10 l9 m- 3 , assuming pedestal
pressure is limited by ideal ballooning, this range in widths corresponds to
pedestal temperature projections in the range of 4 - 8 keV, increasing at lower
densities. 1
Gradient scale lengths for the electron temperature and density in the ITER
scrape off layer are expected to be in the range of 2-4 cm at the midplane,
projecting linearly with machine size from existing devices. The gradient scale
lengths in both the edge pedestal and the SOL are found to shorten as the
H-factor improves on existing devices.

Table 1. Measurement specifications as recommended by ITER Expert

Group for edge electron temperature and density.

parameter paramo range spatial res. time res. precision

(referred to midplane)

Te 0.05-10 keY 05 em 10ms 10%

fie (0.05-3)102O m- 3 05 em 10ms 5%

Target measurement goals for edge Te and ne are given in Table 1. It

appears that the target spatial resolution of 0.5 cm is more than adequate to
resolve the expected edge pedestal gradient and also adequate for the SOL
gradients. This is, however, a technically challenging goal when coupled with
achievment of the desired precision at the lowest densities. We have chosen to
interpret the spatial resolution goal as appropriate for the image quality of the
optical design. However, we also recognize that access constraints on the
optical throughput may result in the need to average spatially or temporally to
achieve the desired precision at low density. Given the expectations discussed

228
above, spatial averaging for 1 em resolution would likely be acceptable. With
an ELM period expected to be >0.5 s, temporal averaging may also prove useful.

SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS DESIGN EFFORT

At the 1995 Varenna ITER Diagnostics Workshop, several design concepts

for edge Thomson systems were presented. 2 It was concluded that considerable
laser development was needed to demonstrate the feasibility of a 10-20 ps laser
needed for edge LIDAR measurements with the resolution and sensitivity
called for in Table 1. Such a laser would need to be capable of high repetition
rate, continuous operation in the blue or green with -10 joule/pulse output
energy. Propagation of such a high power density laser beam without
component damage or beam filamentation in the vacuum window would also
be very challenging.
Several conventional imaging options were also considered in the
previous study. In anticipation of blanket penetration restrictions we
considered what could be achieved with f/10 viewing optics. As an additional
baseline constraint, we also considered readily available laser technology, with
Elaser 1 joule at 100 Hz. We looked at systems with the laser beam both near-
normal and also near-tangent to the outer flux surfaces. Systems with beams
nearly tangential to the outer flux surface benefit from long scattering lengths
and hence improved sensitivity for the same effective radial resolution. With
these constraints, only the geometry with the laser tangent to the flux surfaces
had the sensitivity called for in Table 1. However, a single laser pulse would
probe only a single spatial position in this arrangement, and scanning the beam
between shots or using multiple lasers at different positions would be required
to obtain an full edge profile. With the beam at a slight angle to the flux
surfaces, it would also be possible to obtain a full profile per shot, and to achieve
the require precision at low densities, many shots could be averaged together.
However, geometries with the beam tangent or at a slight angle to the flux
surface are problematic, since they rely on redirecting the laser beam with a
mirror located within a blanket module. We now doubt the alignment stability
and survivablility of the optical quality of such a mirror. It would be subject to
possible damage from the laser and the many hazards of close proximity to the
plasma. These include eddy current forces on the mounting structure and
possibly the mirror itself, nuclear heating and radiation induced damage of the
optical coating, as well as surface degradation due to charge exchange
bombardment and contamination from plasma impurities and debris. The
focusing optics and final aiming mirror for the laser should be located in a well
shielded area, preferably outside the primary vacuum. This means that we
must concentrate on geometries with the beam near-normal to the flux
surfaces.
In the near normal geometry with a small laser beam, the scattering
length is - 0.5 cm, the specified spatial resolution. With such a small scattering
length, it impossible to achieve the required precision under the baseline
constraints mentioned above (1 joule laser and f/10 viewing optics). For
example, at the midplane with f/10 optics, this geometry would require Elaser'"
17 joule, or with Elaser'" 1 joule, a viewing system with f/1.9 optics would be
required. Thus to achieve the required precision in this geometry, we will thus
need to design for both higher throughput viewing optics and higher laser
energy.

229
TOP PORT VS. MIDPLANE PORT ACCESS FOR EDGE THOMSON SYSTEM

In principle, access for a near-normal system exists both at the midplane

and at the top of ITER. A drawing of .a top viewing geometry is shown in Fig. 1.
There are a number of advantages in using the top port. When top access was
first considered for this diagnostic, there was encouragement from ITER
planners since midplane port access was fully allocated. This is likely to be a
temporary advantage, since all ITER port space will ultimately be in demand.

Figure 1. Viewing geometry using dedicated top port.

With its high elongation, there is an expansion in the spacing of the edge
flux surfaces by roughly a factor of 3 at the top relative to the midplane on ITER.
The most important technical advantage of the top vs. midplane access for edge
Thomson is to take advantage of this factor. Other features being the same, the
scattering length, and therefore the scattered signal, can be 3 times larger for the
same effective spatial resolution. The flux expansion has advantages and
disadvantages from the viewpoint of the optical design. The image quality of
the viewing optics can be less stringent in absolute terms in the top port
geometry. However, the optical field size is increased by this same factor to
cover the desired range of positions. This also results in a longer slot in the
blanket module.
Another important advantage for the top geometry as shown in Fig. 1 is
that the viewing sightlines have a relatively short path length in the plasma.
Thus the bremsstrahlung contribution to the plasma light background is
reduced. Similar sightlines in a midplane system would have much longer
path lengths in the plasma. This benefit could be offset at the extreme edge
positions where edge line emission could be significant, although a reduced
spectral bandwidth in this low temperature region will aid in rejecting this
background light.
Compared to a geometry with a similar viewing angle to a horizontal
beam at the midplane, in the top port geometry, the sightlines are inclined
farther from the hot core, and there is more shielding between the first mirror
and the plasma. This will reduce the radiation exposure of the first mirror and
230
minimize the streaming of neutrons and gammas through the port plug, where
they might endanger the window and relay fibers, as well as other components.
Notice that all three of the factors noted above: 1) the flux expansion, 2) the
reduction in viewing path length through the plasma, and 3) the shielding
from the plasma core; are of maximum benefit if the laser beam can be located
as far to the inside of the top port as possible. As we will see later, this
configuration also has advantages from the viewpoint of the optical design.
For an imaging system, it is always an advantage to have a narrow laser
beam through the viewing volume. If the focusing optics for the beam are far
from the plasma, as they should be for ITER, the beam will be small for some
distance. The beam used in a midplane geometry would be radial and would
need to be dumped on the inner wall. It would be difficult to devise a dump in
this environment that would avoid laser ablation of the dump material. The
vertical beam from a top system would have more distance to expand and could
be dumped in a convenient location in the divertor region.
An important disadvantage of the top port is that the port space available
in the toroidal dimension is significantly smaller than for the midplane port,
due to shielding requirements for the toroidal field coils. As we will see below,
this necessitates the use of elongated optical elements, with adverse effects on
the imaging. In the balance, however, we feel that the top geometry is the most
favorable for ITER edge Thomson scattering. The existing Thomson system
which most closely meets the ITER edge measurement goals probes the top of
the Dill-D device. 3

REFERENCE OPTICAL DESIGN

The ray trace shown in Fig. 1 is the result of an initial optical design effort.
The problem posed was to image a 60 em long section of the vertical laser beam
to an array of fiber bundles located outside a primary vacuum window at the
port closure plate. We assumed a 20 em slot width (toroidal) in a dedicated
vertical port plug available for the elongated imaging mirrors. The design was
done to optimize the optical throughput. The effective collection f/# of this
design is f/7.6, although the half angle of rays in the poloidal plane corresponds
to f/5.5. With conic section mirrors, spot sizes in the range of 3-5 mm are
obtained in the plasma, the low values for cases in which there is a refractive
corrector plate at the window location. While far from a final design, we feel
this illustrates the optical feasibility of this approach.

PERFORMANCE EXPECTAnONS

Using techniques described in reference 4 and the parameters listed in

Table 2, we have predicted the performance of this reference design. We are
basing these calculations on the use of a fundamental Nd:YAG laser with 3
joule output energy. Such lasers are becoming commercially available with 10
Hz repetition rate. Diode pumped, higher repetition rate versions will be
available in the near future. Multiple lasers have also been used effectively to
increase the time resolution of Thomson systems. 3 We assume conventional
avalanche photodiode detector technology with filter polychromator analyzers.
Noise due to background plasma light can be a significant factor degrading the
precision, particularly in the measurement of the low density region of a steep

231
edge pedestal. In this calculation we assume a uniform background plasma
with the parameters shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Parameters used in performance analysis of preliminary design

of ITER top port Thomson system

Laser
Laser energy (1064 run) 3.0 joules

Optics
Collection f/# 7.6
Scattering length 1.5cm
Scattering angle 1240
Transmission 10%

Detector
APD excess noise factor 1.5
Preamplifier noise 15 electrons
Spectrally dependent quantum efficiency

Spectrometer
Long wavelength edge lOOml
Channel widths 5,10,20,40,80,160,250 run

Background light (assume uniform background plasma)

Integration fime 50 osee
Tbrem 4.0 keY
rlbrem 6.0x1019m- 3
Zeff 1.5
Bremsstrahlung multiplier 3.0

0.20 0.10

oL---~--~----~~--~~w
o 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
10 100

Temperature (ev) Temperature (ev)

Figure 2. Calculated fractional uncertainty in electron temperature and
density measurements for parameters listed in Table 2. The shaded
region indicates the specified target measurement precision.
232
 Fig. 2 shows the predicted measurement preclSlon as a function of
temperature and density. The oscillations in the plot of dT IT result from the
discreteness of the choice of spectrometer channels. These calculations
demonstrate that the parameters of Table 2 represent a reasonable design basis
for meeting the specified measurement goals.

TOP PORT EDGE THOMSON DESIGN CONSTRAINTS AND ISSUES

The basic features of the conceptual design for a top edge Thomson system
are shown schematically in Fig. 3. Below we examine in detail the design
constraints used in the optical design and in the layout of components, and
highlight issues that need to be addressed to bring this design further.

Field length. The system is to probe along a vertical line 60 cm long

extending approximately 50 cm below the separatrix for a fully developed ITER
plasma. Note that with a flux expansion of -3 and an anticipated pedestal
width ranging up to 19 cm, this field length may be too small. Also, changes in
the vertical location of the separatrix for different scenarios will affect the utility
of this diagnostic. Increasing the field length challenges the optical design and
also increases the length of the slot required in the blanket and the port plug to
accommodate the view, compromising the shielding. ISSUE: Is the 60 cm field
length an appropriate balance between physics requirements and technical
difficulty?

Use of fiber optics. We have assumed that it is possible to use fiber optics
located behind a window at the top of the port plug, outside the primary
vacuum boundary. These fibers would be used primarily in the red part of the
visible spectrum and in the near IR, since we would be viewing the short
wavelength side of the scattered spectrum from a Nd:YAG laser. In this design
the fiber optic bundles would be continuous through secondary vacuum seals
until they emerge from the biological shield. Although it is possible to couple
light between separate fibers through a vacuum seal, there is typically a
significant loss of light involved. It is likely that the fibers would have to be
heated, to anneal radiation damage which would otherwise cause a loss of
transmission.S ISSUES: What is the usable lifetime of heated quartz fiber optics
at this location? What seal designs can be used to permit continuous quartz
fiber to penetrate secondary vacuum seals?

Slot width available for mirrors. We have assumed that there is room
within the slot in the port plug for two mirrors 20 cm wide in the toroidal
direction. In order to maximize the collection efficiency and image the full 60
cm field, these mirrors are long. The lower mirror is 50 em long and the upper
is 90 cm long. In our preliminary design shown in the figure, both mirrors are
curved. It would be possible to make the first mirror a flat mirror. However,
under the constraint of a fixed slot width, the collected light for fixed slot length
scales roughly as the inverse of the distance to the first curved surface. ISSUES
Is a vertical port plug slot width of 20 cm compatible with shielding
requirements? Can the optical stability and lifetime of the mirrors at these
locations be made adequate?

Window Design. Although the loss in optical throughput would be

severe, one benefit of a planar first mirror would be more demagnification,
233
resulting in a smaller window and smaller fiber bundles. In the our
preliminary design with curved mirrors, the window is ~ 40 cm long and ~ 8
em wide. We have also assumed that the window can be angled with respect to

To Polychromators 'P----- Laser In

Cryostat ndow

Alignment
Secondary Window

Secondary Fiber
Optic Vacuum Seal

Primary Laser Window

Alignment Reference Fiber Optic Bundle

Apertures

Primary Viewing
Window

First Viewing Mirror

Expected
Motion

2Smm SOmm

Figure 3. Conceptual layout of components for top edge Thomson system.

234
the horizontal plane to accommodate the optical design. ISSUE: What are the
requirements for window design as a primary vacuum seal at the top of the
vertical port plug?

Alignment. In the course of thermal cycling, the ITER vessel moves

roughly as shown in Fig. 3. Remote steering capability is required to establish
alignment between the laser and the collection optics. There may be smaller
motions during a plasma discharge requiring real time compensation.
Alignment apertures have been used for real time alignment contro1. 6
Dedicated alignment bundles straddling the main collection fibers can also be
used to monitor misalignment using Thomson scattered light. ISSUE: What
are the expected relative motions of the optical components during an ITER
discharge? Is real time alignment compensation practical?

Blanket Penetration. In the reference design, a viewing slot would be

necessary in a top blanket module. This slot would be - 70 cm long with a
toroidal width on the plasma facing surface tapering from - 7 cm to - 3 cm.
This slot would broaden toroidally moving away from the plasma, reaching
widths of - 10 em and - 6 em, respectively, at the back plate. A hole or slot of
- 2 cm would be needed for the laser beam. ISSUE: Is the required viewing slot
compatible with blanket cooling and mounting requirements?

Use of dedicated top port access. The most questionable assumption in

the reference design is the dedicated use of a top ITER port. Recently, we have
become aware of the needs for vessel inspection and glow discharge probe
hardware requiring roughly the inner half of the top port. We have considered
the impact of restricting the access for the edge Thomson diagnostic to the outer
half of the port plug. There are several obvious effects. First, the flux
expansion factor decreases from 3 to 2, reducing the scattering length and the
field length Second, the sightline path lengths increase by - x2, increasing
uncertainties due to noise from the plasma light. Also, the sightlines are more
inclined toward the core, reducing the shielding efficiency of the viewing
labyrinth, possibly precluding the use of relay fibers. Finally, our initial
attempts to obtain good imaging at comparable f/# failed, due to the large
angles of incidence. It appears likely that a workable solution will involve a
significant reduction in the viewing aperture. This can be explored further in
the future. Even at the same viewing aperture, the laser energy required to
meet the required precision at the lowest density increases from 2.2 joules in
the reference case to 3.8 joules in the radially compressed case. Increasing the
f/# to f/10 results in a requirement of 5.5 joules. High repetition rate lasers
with such high output energies are not commercially available. ISSUE: How
much of the top port space should be considered available in future edge
Thomson design efforts? If access is restricted to the outer half of the top port,
can a relaxation of measurement requirements be considered to allow spatial or
temporal averaging to recover the desired precision with commercially
available lasers?

CONCLUSION

In light of current expectations of ITER parameters for the edge pedestal

and SOL, the measurement goals defined for ITER edge measurements appear
to be appropriate. Given the interface constraints, it is a difficult technical
235
challenge for an edge Thomson scattering system to meet these goals. There are
significant advantages in locating such a system in a top port, particularly if the
entire radial extent of the port is available. Assuming a dedicated top port, a
reference design concept has been presented which meets the goals with modest
extensions in available technology. However, a number of interface issues
have been identified which will strongly impact this design. The Phase 3
design effort should address these issues. A key question is the availability of
space in the top plug. Radial compression of the reference geometry to
accommodate other systems in the vertical port plug will seriously degrade the
measurement capability. Significant spatial and/or temporal averaging will
probably be needed, in this case, to recover the desired measurement precision.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge useful discussions with S. Wolfe, A.

Hubbard, and C S. Pitcher regarding expectations for ITER edge pedestal and
SOL characteristics, and kind encouragement from K. M. Young. This work is
supported under U. S. Department of Energy Contract No. DE-AC02-76-
CH03073.

REFERENCES

1. G. Janeschitz, A. Hubbard, Y. Igitkhanov, J. Lingertat, T. Osborne, H. D.

Fischer, O.P.Pogutse, D. E. Post, M. Shimada, M. Sigihara, W. Suttrop,
ITER operational space in terms of Te and Ne at the plasma edge.
Proceedings of the 24th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and
Plasma Physics, Berchtesgaden, Germany, June 9 - 13, 1997.
2. D. W. Johnson, T. Carlstrom, B. Grek, and R. Snider, Thomson scattering at
the edge of ITER, Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors. P. Stott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni, ed.,Plenum Press, New York.
(1996).
3. T.N. Carlstrom, G. L. Campbell, J.C De Boo, R. Evanko, J. Evans, CM.
Greenfield, J. Haskovec, CL. Hsieh, E. McKee, R.T. Snider, R. Stockdale,
P.K. Trost, and M.P. Thomas, Design and operation of the multipulse
Thomson scattering diagnostic on DIII-D, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63:4901.
4. J. R. Wolberg, Prediction Analysis, D. Van Noistrand, New York, (1967)
5. A. T. Ramsey, Radiation effects on TFTR diagnostics, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
66:871.
6. D. Dimock, B. Grek, D. Johnson, B. Labombard, B. Lipshultz, and G.
McCracken, A compact Thomson scattering system, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
68:700.

236
STATUS OF THOMSON SCATTERING DIAGNOSTIC DESIGN
FOR ITER X-POINT AND DIVERTOR PLASMAS.

G.T.Razdobarin and E.E.Mukhin

IOFFE Physical-Technical Institute,

Russian Academy of Sciences,
St.Petersburg 194021, RUSSIA

ABSTRACT

For a few years now the Thomson scattering diagnostic design for ITER X-point
vicinity is constantly developing and improving. The beneficial use of LIDAR technique is
the basis for the design guidelines. The penetration and safety severe constraints force to
compromise a number of features like the lower density limit and viewing chord length.
Nevertheless, the compromised electron density 10 19m-3 and viewing chord length of no less
than 1m basically accommodate the target measurement specifications. The conventional
Thomson scattering coupled to LIDAR diagnostic arrangement is considered as well to
penetrate a divertor leg. It makes the provisions to T.,n., profile recording along the vertical
chord with pretty good spatial resolution of lcm within the anticipated range of plasma
parameters. The background and details of the design are reviewed in the paper.

1. INTRODUCTION

The ITER Thomson scattering diagnostic design confined to the X-point and the
divert or outer leg regions is conceptually outlined in the paper regarding the reference
"vertical target" divertor concept. The strong constraint must be placed on the design to
avoid any significant cut-out through the target plate. This one meets the objections for the
parallel heat flux is enormous and directly hits the cut-out hole edges. The convoluted beam
path inside the plasma supported by high power laser mirrors is also contradicted by safety
requirements. These constraints refuse to favor of scattered emission continuous recording
from the X-point to the divertor bottom. With a given access restrictions the two kinds of
straight line penetrations shown schematically in Fig. 1 are considered.
The main beam coming radially nearby the X-point is compatible with LIDAR
Thomson scattering. The LIDAR technique enables the scrape-off parameters (T.,n.,)
measurement in a region of significant flux expansion. The plasma in X-point vicinity and

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 237
~
00

IOOOmm

ROBE BEAM
~1@~ 45mm
B-B Section A-A Section CUT-OUT THROUGH
(TOP VIEW) (FRONT VIEW) OUTBOARD CENTRAL
CASSETTE

Figure 1. Conceptual drawing of remote maintenance port and optical penetration system
mostly ahead of X-point turns out accessible with spatial resolution of ~ Scm. Rather high
temperatures of hundreds eV and electron density in the range 1O!9_1020 m-3 are recognized
for this region implying the edge steep gradient zones. The main probe beam is splitted at a
cassette margin to produce the auxiliary route pointed to the divertor outer leg. The
conventional Thomson scattering with use of crossed probing and viewing beams is
suggested to overview poloidally the divertor scrape-off parameters with cutting the
ionization front. This particular plasma is of the most sophisticated formation. The existing
model calculations predict the divertor recycling will tend to rise the density in the scrape-off
well above the average bulk plasma density. The electron temperature drastic rolling-off is
predicted as well. The target measurement specifications! have indicated the plasma
parameter range I1e=10 19 _1022m-3 , Te=I-200eV. Of course it is an extremely demanding
design mission that guarantees the achievement of the needed divertor parameters. Thus, the
greater creditable is the diagnostics part in study of the divertor plasma properties. These are
required for the model validation but, more importantly, to execute the tokamak and
divertor operations in accord with the expected regimes and margins. The divertor
operational framework is evidenced by a number of features. Among them the plasma-of-
target detachment and Te, I1e profiles along the field lines are mostly indicative. Thus, the
suggested probe beam routing downward from the outer to inner side of the separatrix looks
favorable physically as well.
The single composed laser system optimized for the both X-point LIDAR and divertor
conventional Thomson scattering is to be designed. This one is illustrated in the paper
instrumentation part. As for the divertor leg Thomson scattering, the provisions are made of
selecting the probe wavelength matched to the plasma radiation line-free spectrum windows.
The probe pulse duration continuos controlling from 0.1 to a few ns is considered as well for
matching to the detector response time. The laser pulse nanosecond range is to fit the
avalanche photodetectors. The gained encouraging experience on a large format chip and
photodiode array designing is referred herein. The avalanche diode matrix is given the first
priority in project to ensure the essential sensitivity gain within a wavelength region adjacent
to 900nm. The laser pulse subnanosecond range is alternatively reserved for photocathode
multichannel devices at an emergency of strongly enhanced plasma background radiation.
The trends of LIDAR diagnostics detection system development are outlined as well in the
paper instrumentation part. The starting point of the design is obviously the admitted access
to plasma that is the dominant to define the entire system configuration.

2. ACCESS CONSIDERATION AND SENSITIVITY ESTIMATES.

2.1 X-Point Access with LIDAR Thomson Scattering.

Two basic principles of access routing may be considered in LIDAR experiment. The
first one, which is beneficial for a core plasma2 provides the plasma-viewing mirror
simultaneous use for scattered light collection and probe beam pointing. The routing of
probe beam through the same optical components as for the scattered light collection is
advantageous to solve the complicated alignment problem.
The alternative approach is based on the separate paths for the probe and backscattered
beams provided the independent alignment of laser and the collection optics. The use of a
narrow straight penetration along the entire beam path from entrance window to X-point is
strongly advantageous to avoid the mutual action of the hostile plasma environment and the
laser beam radiological loads on the front mirror surface. This our solution is recognized the
basic one for the design guidelines.

239
 The access to the divertor central cassette adapted to special diagnostic requirements is
provided through remote maintenance port inside the cryostat. Each of the plugs in outer
port extension is supplied with a pair of input (020cm) and output (025cm) vacuum optical
windows made of fused quartz. To secure against tritium leaks all windows are double
assemblies with separate pumping of the interspace. The optical system copes with looking
through the 3cm vertical gap between the diagnostic and instrumented divertor cassettes. All
optical units except of viewing and periscope mirrors are carried away the cassette at a
distance more than 7m. The collected light cone waist is band shaped in accordance with
laser beam transverse dimensions I. 5xl Ocm2. It is positioned at outboard target plate margin
to reduce the vignetting losses. The plasma viewing slab-like spherical mirror MI of 5.3m
curvature radius is of 10cm in horizontal and 45cm in vertical planes. The mirror is installed
at 4.5m opposite the gap between the diagnostic and the instrumented cassettes to direct the
line of sight to the X-point. The supplementary narrow slot cut-out through outboard central
cassette like in Fig. I (see top and front view sections) is provided. The spherical mirror MI
is supplied with a central slot opening (2.5xI3cm2) for the laser beam emerging. The
periscope plane slab mirror M2 of IOx40cm2 cross section is installed at 1.3m away the
curved mirror with a rear side facing the plasma. The clearance between the mirror center
points is 18cm in horizontal plane. Both mirrors are immersed in the main vacuum inside the
diagnostic shielding block. They are required to maintain own focusing and optical
properties for the full life of the tokamak. As is known, the pure polished metallic mirrors
are appropriate for this purpose2. The front mirror is imaging the waist of the collected light
cone under 1.45 magnification onto a field lens F2.3m located outside the vacuum vessel
plug. The field lens useful area is limited by image stop of 2.2xI4.Scm2 cross section. The
image stop aperture defines the viewing chord length to be -1m on allowance of -30% edge
vignetting losses. The next step imaging is produced behind the bio-shield.
The overall conjugate ratio is kept 5: 1 to obtain the final image band ofO.3x2cm2 cross
section. This one is converted to 0.6xlcm2 at a spectrometer entrance slit using a dual-prism
assembly. The auxiliary twofold image reduction is achieved by the spectrometer itself using
a fast FIl camera lens. The resulting 0.3xO.5cm2 resolved element makes a good fit to the
anticipated streak camera detector. The detection system is located at a cell in the Pit area
behind the bio-shield. The magnetic flux local shielding starting from nearly IkG to below
500 at a detector location is provided with use of lOcm soft iron shell.
For the reason of manual handling the laser set is preferred to be installed outside a cell
in the upper elevation diagnostics area. The probe beam is transported in the cell area
towards the machine using a sealed beam guides filled with nitrogen of O.Olatm
overpressure.

2.2 The Capabilities of X-point LIDAR Thomson Scattering.

The LIDAR diagnostics detection capabilities are actually limited for a demanding time-
of-flight spatial resolution of 3-5cm and essentially narrow opening for beam penetration. A
fast respond streak camera is stipulated to comply with high resolution time-of-flight
detection principle. The indicated in the paper part3 photocathode dimensions provide an
overall throughput restriction to certain extent that enables no more than F/10 collection
optics under 10cm probe beam height. Secondly, the probe beam narrowed to 1.5cm by
penetration opening implies F/66 collection optics to ensure the unvignetting region of
approximately 1m length. Thus, on going with sensitivity estimate we are limited to an F/IO
height and F/66 width collection system which provides the light collection solid angle
1.5x1O-3sr. The following assumptions could be made in addition overall transmission and
photocathode quantum efficiency are of 10% each, resolved spectrum band is 0.2 of the
scattered spectrum profile halfwidth. If so, a 3J laser output is needed to yield nearly one

240
hundred photoelectrons per spectrum channel at the lower limit of the electron density
1019m-3 . This provides nearly 10% accuracy of temperature measurement respectively.
The given above assessment is correct on the neglection of plasma background
continuous radiation. To our estimate3, the bremsstrahlung and recombination contributions
are tolerable in a condition of very short subnanosecond laser pulse duration. More
dangerous are the multiplets of low-Z impurities overlapping the spectral diagnostic
channels. To make any predictions it is normal to multiply the bremsstrahlung contribution at
worst by 100. On allowances of this pessimistic prediction a 3J laser output behaves like a
lower limit estimate.

2.3 Divertor Leg Penetration.

The sharing of the common beam line and the laser itself for penetration to either X-
point or divert or leg plasmas is highly recommended for methodological and economical
reasons. The two angular deviated probe beams (the 'green' for X-point and 'red' one for
the divertor) are cut by one another at the mirror Ml center slot opening and transmitted to
a cassette margin with some verticai displacement. Here the "red" beam is intercepted by
tum mirror and directed to the divertor outer leg for multiposition scattering from the
vertical chord of 0.8m height. The assembly of M3,M4,M5 mirrors inside the diagnostic
block is used for probe beam imaging. The slab lOx15cm2 aspheric mirror collector M3 of
16° viewing angle is located 3m away the probe beam to collect the scattered radiation
through a vertical slot between the cassettes. It provides the probe beam imaging under
twofold demagnification in front of spherical field mirror M4 of 10x44cm2 cross section. The
precision curvature profile making is required for aspheric mirror to secure a good imaging
quality. The spherical mirror M4 of2.5m curvature radius together with plane mirror M5 are
to convey the beam outside the machine about 7m away the outboard cassette boundary. An
M3 collector pupil is conjugated to the composed aperture of a dual-lens assembly behind
UHV windows at vacuum vessel plug. The admitted windowllens diameter of 25cm
accommodates the total collection solid angle 0.7xlO-3sr. Each of two F/3.4 focusing lens is
properly matched to the coherently packed quartz fiber guide of 0.17x7 .3cm2 input window.
The bundle is secured at the plug board to absorb the movement and vibrations of viewing
optical axis. The two separate fiber guides are composed coherently to a single one of twice
as large aperture width thus matching to the polychromator slit opening. The array of 4
grating polychromator (like in tablel) of 2cm slit height is taken for light dispersing. The
fiber arrangement along each of the slits is matched to the 20cm vertical chord section in the
plasma. The instrument dispersions are optimized to fit a respective temperature range
spread over the vertical chord. The array of polychromators is placed in diagnostic room for
the maintenance and safety reasons. An optical fiber of more than 10m length is required for
scattered light convey. But only a short guide piece of 2m length is tracing inside the bio-
shield which facilitates the fiber survival during a full lifetime ofITER4.

2.4 Alignment Problem.

The optical units painstaking adjustment has always been a problem for the
conventional Thomson scattering. The hard structural frame comprising tightly fixed probing
and viewing apertures supplied with adjustable matching optics usually accommodates the
operations at small and moderate size tokamaks. The ITER divertor cassette itself with a
fixed vertical slot for probe and viewing beams emerging suggests the structural frame
functions. The engineering provisions should be additionally made to remote handle the
mirror assembly inside the diagnostic block. The major constraint follows from the remote
handling of the front mirror located at a cassette margin which is scarcely possible. The

241
reasonable alternative is the use of metallic grating as a beam deflector instead of the
adjustable front mirror. The metal blank (of gold or copper) is furnished for the heat sink
and keeping the acceptable erosion. The laser beam angular adjustment is carried out by
wavelength tuning. The conceptual drawing in Fig.2 illustrates the admitted operation
principle.

VERTICAL
TARGET SLOT

Figure 2. Conceptual drawing of beam penetration arrangement for divertor leg

Thomsin scattering.

In a condition of wavelength-to-groove spacing ratio kept over unity the grating first
order efficiency for S-polarized emission is known5 to approach 100% (apart from metallic
layer absorption) for a broadband diffraction angular range like in Fig.3.

EFFICIENCY, %
100
90 ~~::.::-<.C---'-~._\~
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
70 80 90

DIFFRACTION ANGlE, Deg

Figure 3. Experimental curve for grating S-plane first order efficiency as a

function of diffraction angle. lS00grooves/mm aluminum coated grating of
36.5° blaze angle under HeNe laser illumination is sampled herein. Hollow
points show the zero order specular reflection. Dotted line corresponds to AI
film reflectance.

For the limiting diffraction angle as large as 80° the beam deflection sensitivity would be
nearly 1cmlnm at a divertor bottom. It means that wavelength tuning within 5nm range fits
the laser beam scanning across a slot opening between the cassettes.

242
 The engineering provisions should be made to isolate the high frequency mount
vibrations, below which there is no concern. The protective covers must be supplied as well
to hold the grooves etched-off layer in a tolerable limit of approximately 10 monolayers
(3nm or so) for an extended operation period6 . This could be done provided ex neutrals
channeling via vertical slot from underneath the divertor within the reduced solid angle.
The critical design issue for a divertor leg Thomson scattering is the anticipated number
of laser probe pulses that warrants the grating/mirror safely operation. This number n is
given sometimes by the empirical relation n={Pthre3holrIPf where r is much above unity7.
The magnitude n is strongly dependent on safety factor Pthr••holti'P where P is a probe flux
density impinging on the surface and Pthreshold is a respective damage threshold value. The
laser beam is to fill up the grating ruled area as much as possible being collimated in a space
of plasma location. It is the grating anamorphic magnification that meets these contradictory
requirements. Nearly 5 times beam narrowing from 10 to 2cm is apparent at the diffiaction
angle approaching 800 . The grating acceptance clear aperture of IOx6cm2 is likely
compatible with 11 laser driving under 10Hz repetition rate to accommodate approximately a
thousand of 103S ITER discharges. This rather a lower limit estimate is related to the
extreme fast degradation rates r for some metallic blanks7 provided the incident flux density
is 1% the damage threshold. The dedicated experiments are required, however, to proceed
with more accurate estimations.

2.5 The Capabilities of Divertor Leg Thomson Scattering.

The limit spatial resolution over the probe beam is obviously attributed to the both
aberration image blur at polychromator sagittal plane and the matrix detector finesse. So far,
there is no seen hard objections to predict O.lcm resolution over slit height and Icm resolved
length in plasma respectively. The more realistic prediction follows from the sensitivity
considerations. The two basic magnitudes are defined more or less accurately on this
occasion. These are the probe energy of nearly 11 and the collection solid angle limited to
0.7xI0-3sr. This would deliver over 2000 photons per Icm resolved length at the density
n.=I020m-3 on assumption of 10% overall transmission. Even after the spreading over the
several spectral channels the signal still remains well above the detection limit of avalanche
photodetector. Thus, the resolved scattering length which is reciprocal of electron density
scales as lcm at n.=1 020m-3 . The resolved depth in viewing axis direction determined by
probe beam transverse extent is illustrated in Fig.2 to be 6cm. In so far as it was necessaryl,
the depth resolution below lcm could be satisfied sacritying the probe energy. The laser
output matching is actually required to protect the tum mirror/grating against damage. Thus
the depth and scattering length resolutions are compromised each other. The lower recorded
temperature limit according to the reference data in table 1 turns out nearly 1eV under a
resolved spectrum band down to 0.6nm provided a reasonable measurement accuracy
perhaps of no worse than 10%.

3. INSTRUMENTATION (DESIGNS AND FEASmlLITY ASSESSMENTS)

3.1 Probe Laser.

The considered laser system (see Fig.4) is based on the Nd:YLF master oscillator-
amplifier chain. The pulse length is controlled by means of a pulse slicer using the transverse
Pokkels effect in LNb(h or alike crystal. The pulse slicer output is amplified to 51. The
beginning of a chain enclosed by frame has been manufactured to proceed with testing

243
experiments. Pulse duration continuos controlling in the range from 4 to 0.15ns has been
demonstrated experimentally.
After amplification the beam is converted into the second-523.5nm and third-349nm
harmonics of nearly 3J and 2J output respectively. Under 5J driving and -lOOps pulse
duration the required clear aperture of the amplifier is defined by selffocusing and damage
thresholds. Thus, the intensity of the beam is to be below 10'OW/cm2 corresponding to
energy density less than 0.5-lJ/cm2 This requires the Nd:YLF crystal aperture of 5-10cm2 .
The high quality crystals of such dimension are not available today but a respective slab
amplifier could be manufactured in a short future. A strongly desirable 100Hz driving is
looked for on the way of diode pumping owing to at least 10-20 times higher efficiency
compared to conventional flash lamp operation. YLF material is more preferable to diode
pumping because of nearly twice as large inversion lifetime and higher level of stored energy
compared to Y AG. The 3J output at second harmonic is taken somewhat arbitrary to fit the
given detection limit. The optimistic forecast could be made regarding the experiments on
Nd: Y AG diode pumping. The 5J output at second harmonic has been demonstrated under
33Hz repetition rate and a few ns pulse durationS. As far as the accurate wavelength tuning
is considered for a divertor leg Thomson scattering, the second Nd: YLF beamline is used for
Ti:Sapphire (Ti:Sa.) laser pumping. The 4J pumping energy at the second harmonic 532.5nm
is provided under the "long"-15ns pulse duration. The YLF rod of 20mm in diameter or disk
amplifier will operate at 2J/cm2 which is below the damage threshold. The Ti:Sa. master
oscillator-amplifier chain is basically the same as for a main Nd laser. It consists of Ti:Sa.
master oscillator followed by synchronized pulse slicer and power amplifier. The energy
conversion efficiency from Nd second harmonic to Ti:Sa. is about 35% at SlOnm. The
estimated output energies for Ti: Sa. laser via tuned wavelength are shown in Fig.4.

1047 nm 600nm

T= 15 ns
E=6.0 J E=4 .0 J
AMPrJFIER.1 SEC.HARM
YLF tOR

Figure 4. Laser system schematic diagram and performance specifications.

The auxiliary extension of probe wavelength range into 540-700nm band could be
obtained if necessary using the differential frequency mixing. Thus the extremely wide range
of probe beam wavelengths became available:

244
 • 700-IOOOnm -Ti:Sa. fundamental frequency,
• 360-49Onm -Ti: Sa. second harmonic (not shown in Fig.4),
• 540-660nm -Nd third harmonic with Ti:Sa. fundamental frequency differential
mixing.
The frequency mixing provides the extremely high energy contrast ratio of probe beam
(about 1010). The pulse length continuous control starting from O.Ins is available owing to
the electrooptical pulse slicing.

3.2 Grating Polycbromator.

The polychromator of high spectral resolution and flux luminosity adapted to visible
and near-IR range has been designed in a frame of the project.
The special mount based on a double dim-action principle is suggested using the large
diffiaction angles to above 80°. Besides of enhanced flux luminosity, a wide range adjustable
dispersion is available. The dispersion controlling without change of grating/collimator
makes the instrument a valuable tool for measurements in a wide temperature range from
1eV up to hundreds eV. The quick reference data on two polychromators models are
illustrated in the table!.

Table 1. Grating polychromator quick reference data.

Wavelength Focal Aperture size Grating Groove Reciprocal Limit

scanning, length, ratio (at 75° ruled number linear resolution,
nm mm diffraction width, lines/mm dispersion, (down to)
angle) mm (adjustable) nm
nmlmm
above 400 140 F/3 130 1800 1.0"().25 5xl0·j
(LIDAR)
above 600 300 F/4 290 1200 0.7-0.17 3.5xIO·3
(conventional)

The array of instruments of different focal lengths has been elaborated and verified in a
test facility concentrating on grating efficiency behavior at large diffiaction angles. The
absolute grating S-plane efficiency expressed as a percentage of the incident intensity for
single diffiaction is presented in Fig.3 as a function of diffiaction angle. The experimental
curve demonstrates the admitted diffiaction angular range capable of good efficiency
performance. The enhanced angular dispersion owing to large diffiaction angles provides a
rather small influence of aberration image blur. This offers a simplicity of design utilizing a
customary imaging optics of a reduced focal length. The outlined design compares favorably
with commonly used instruments developed with Czerny-Turner scheme.

3.3 Streak Camera.

Special purpose streak cameras of increased photocathode dimensions are needed for
LIDAR diagnostics to improve an overall throughput performance. Unfortunately, this is
contradicted by the requirement to secure a large number of independent measurements
along the streak trace and viewing chord respectively. The streak camera comprising the
new type streak-tube has recently been developed. The device is distinguished by the large
format photocathode of 4Ox4mm2 area and a strong twofold electron-optical
demagnification factor. These properties are of major importance to overcome the outlined
shortcomings of serial devices. The dedicated technology is developed to proceed with the

245
large format photocathode coating inside a vacuum boundary. This guarantees a uniform
photocathode sensitivity and accelerating mesh protection from atomic alkali pollution, thus
reducing a background noise. The designing of fourfold demagnifying streak tube is now
underway to preserve the number of independent measurements as great as 40 along the
40mm streak length. The matter of special concern is a camera locking capability to
discriminate against the spurious backreflected light pulses on a streak trace. The
recommended instantaneous pulse shuttering faces the obvious difficulties owing to a shutter
recovery time. A point highlight saturation of the supplied micro channel plate intensifier is
relied upon to discriminate between the useful and extremely large spurious pulses on avoid
of significant blurring. To demonstrate a high blurring resistance capability the test
experiments were carried out using a LIDAR Rayleigh scattering in atmosphere3 . The
experiments make the evidence to the detection of an extremely weak scattered signal
composed of the discrete photoelectron counts at the streak trace in a presence of very
strong spurious pulse. The time interval between the both signals was a fraction of ns.

4. SUMMARY.

The reliable Te, n., profile measurements in ITER divertor address the highly promising
Thomson scattering diagnostics. The limitations imposed by ITER environment and poor
access have lead to the design involving the particular penetrations to X-point and divertor
leg plasmas under two different diagnostic concepts. The LIDAR concept for the X-point
and the conventional Thomson scattering for the divertor leg are fitted well to a vertical
target divertor configuration with minimal impact on ITER design. The given analysis gains
a credit to diagnostics ability to accommodate the target objectives and specifications. The
provisions are made to use the unified composed diagnostic facility for both approaches
whenever it is possible. The diagnostic design is basically oriented to the performance
optimization functions. However, the measured quantities may provisionally be included in a
feed back control system on the occasion the divertor kinetics becomes a crucial issue.

REFERENCES
1. A.E.Costley, R.Bartiromo, L.de Kock et al., Requirements for ITER diagnostics, in:
Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, Plenum Press, NY,
p.23 (1996).
2. C.Oowers, P.Nielsen, F.Orsitto et al., A Thomson scattering scheme for obtaining Te and
N. profiles of the ITER core plasma, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, Plenum Press, NY, p.249 (1996).
3. G.T.Razdobarin, A.Daavittila, V.K.Gusev et al., The concept of ITER divertor plasma
diagnostics by means of LIDAR technique, in: Diagnostics for Experimental
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, Plenum Press, NY, p.259 (1996).
4. Divertor impurity monitoring system, Design Description Document, WBS S.5.E.04.
5. E.G.Loewen, M.Neviere, D.Maystre, Grating efficiency theory as it applies to blazed and
holographic gratings, Applied Optics 16:2711 (1977).
6. Thomson scattering (core), Design Description Document, WBS 5.5.C.OI.
7. V.Voitsenya, V.Konovalov, O.Motojima et al., Evaluations of different metals for
manufacturing mirrors of Thomson scattering system for the LHD divertor plasma, in:
Research Report NIFS Series, NIFS-463 (1966).
8. M.Yamanake, Recent topics oflaser developments, in: Proc. 7 Int. Symp. On Laser-Aided
Plasma Diagnostics, Fukuoka, Japan, p.217 (1995).

246
TI:SAPPHIRE LASER FOR ITER
LIDAR THOMSON SCATTERING SYSTEM

F. Orsitto l , E. Nava2 , P. Nielsen3, H. Salzmann4

I Associazione EURATOM-ENEA sulla Fusione

2CISE S.p.A.-C.P.12081.I-20134Milano(ltaly)
3JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon, OXI4 3EA, UK
4MPI fur Plasmaphysik, 85748 Garching, D

INTRODUCTION
The choice of the laser wavelength for ITER LIDAR THOMSON SCATTERING
SYSTEM for the core plasma is linked to the extended range of plasma temperatures 1 to be
measured, i.e. 0.S-30keV. The additional requirements! are: temperature relative error
err
AT e=O.1 with spatial resolution of O.lm, plasma density relative error Anelne=O.OS and
spatial resolution O.3m, at a temporal resolution of IOms.These last parameters determine
the laser energy, the pulsewidth and the repetition rate. It has been found 2 that a single
laser working at a wavelength of 790nm solves the problem of measuring the ITER
temperature with a relative error less than or equal to 20%. A Titanium-Sapphire laser
(Ti:AI203) is the natural candidate for such a source since the fluorescence peak is at
800nm, with a very large tunability range between 700 and 1000nm . Other important
characteristics of the material are the large gain cross section, and relatively short
fluorescence lifetime, its hardness and good thermal conductivity properties inherent to the
sapphire host, and the availability in large size, good quality crystals. High power short
pulse Ti:Sapphire lasers can be built. The paper is organized as follows: the required laser
figures are summarized, the main Ti:Sapphire(TiS) material parameters are listed in
comparison to other laser materials, the scheme of a 10Hz TiS laser is presented, the
possibilities of improving the previous scheme to 100Hz source are discussed and a
comparison with other proposed schemes4 is cited, finally the conclusions are drawn about
the possibility of building these sources with present day technology .

LASER FIGURES
The main required laser figures can be inferred from the requirements cited on the
measurements: the spatial resolution range of O.lm - O.3m gives a laser time pulsewith of
'tL=0.6-2ns (the detector rise time is assumed 'tD=O.3ns), while the temperature and density
relative error gives the laser energy about 1-2J for O.lm and O.3m spatial resolution
respectively, finally the time resolution gives the repetition rate that must be 100Hz.
As starting point of the present work, a basic set of laser figures, shown in Table I, is
assumed.

Diagnostics for Experimental The171lonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., P1enwn Press, New York, 1998 247
 Table I.Reference TiS Laser Figures
wavelength 7S0-8oonm
energy/pulse 1.SJ
pulsewidth(FWHM) 0.6/1.Sns
divergence(full angle) <10*diffraction limit
beam pointing instability(90% of pulses) - 1110 divergence
repetition rate 10Hz

The main limitation, in this basic set of parameters, is the laser frequency(lOHz),
which reduce strongly the complexity of the source lay-out, being still useful for most of the
diagnostic necessities of ITER. The reference source can give the required relative errors in
electron temperature and density, with spatial resolution of O.3m('tL=1.Sns), and temporal
resolution of lOOms, for most of the plasma density profile at the lowest density
ne =3. 10 19m- 3 ; while for a spatial resolution ofO.1m('tL=0.6ns) the required accuracy is
achieved marginally only at the plasma center, for the same density.

TiS MATERIAL PARAMETERS

Chemically the TiS consists of sapphire(AI203) in which a small amount (0.1 %) of

the ion A13+ has been replaced by Ti3+ ion. It shares the host material with Ruby, where the
Cr3 + ion replace the A13+ ion. So the main material characteristics are similar for both. In
Table 2 some important parameters 3 of Ruby, Alexandrite(Be:AI204), Nd:YAG and TiS are
reported.
From Table 2 it can be noted that TiS has the same parameters of Ruby in terms of
thermal shock strength, damage threshold, and non-linear index of refraction, while higher
cross section (same as Nd: YAG) and lower fluorescence lifetime. The high thermal shock
parameter and excitation cross section of TiS respect to the Alexandrite as well as the laser
gain parameters, reported in Table 3, give an explanation of suitability of TiS for short pulse
high power applications, respect to the Alexandrite laser.
Because of the low 'tfl fast flash lamps or (better) Nd: YAG frequency doubled
(@532nm) are used as pump sources.

Table 2. Comparison between laser material parameters.

0" n2 'tfl R D.Thr.

1020cm2 10- 13 10-6 s
W/cm GWlcm2
@3OOK esu 'tp<lns
Alexandrite 0.7-1 0.8 260 35-74 1-2
(@75Snm)
Nd:YAG 50 2.7 230 7.9 3
@1064nm
TiS 30 1.3 3.9 100 1-2
(@785nm)
Ruby 2.5 1.4 3103 100 1-2
@694.3nm

The meaning of symbols in Table 2 is:

0" excitation cross section
'ttl fluorescence lifetime
R thermal shock parameter
D.Thr. damage power threshold

248
 Table 3. Laser gain parameters

Gain coefficient for lJIcm3 Saturation fluence (J/cm2)

stored energy(cm- 1)
ruby 0.18 5.7
alexandrite 0.04 26
tiS 1.2 0.85
Nd:YAG 2.7 0.4

TiS 10Hz laser scbeme

The scheme for the reference source (see Table 1) can be made by an oscillator, a
preamplifier with double pass amplification, and a final amplifier.
Each amplification section is preceded by a magnifying telescope with vacuum spatial filter.
The laser pump can be a fast flash lamp or a 10Hz Nd:YAG laser frequency doubled,
pumping the TiS rods in longitudinal configuration, so reaching a 25% of efficiency.
A I1J/lOHz Nd:YAG(@1064nm) laser is needed, for the reference TiS source pumping
necessities: since from this source a laser beam of 6J at 532nm can be obtained, just enough
to give the 1.5J TiS laser.

Oscillator

A TiS oscillator pumped by flash-lamps or doubled Nd: YAG can be realized.

This scheme is suitable for the short('tL=0.6ns) as well as long pulse ('tL=1.5ns) laser:
In the first case an intracavity mode-locking system(acusto-optic modulator) with an etalon
must be inserted, and flash lamps or Nd:YAG doubled can be used as pump sources.
In the second case a very short TiS cavity plus a preamplifier can be used to give about 15mJ,
with a pump energy of 200rnJ from a doubled Nd: YAG.

First amplifier

A first amplifier can be made by a double pass section and realized by a

8mm1diameter rod: on the first pass the small signal energy gain Go=7-8, and on the second
the gain Go=6, giving at the output 4oo-450mJ at 10Hz.

Final amplifier

This amplifier can be realized using a rod approximately doubled in diameter

(i.e. 15mm).A small signal energy gain Go=3 seems feasible giving raise to the 1.5J projected
output.

TiS 100Hz laser

The scheme for the 100Hz source can be similar to that proposed for 10Hz tiS
source: i.e. one oscillator, a preamplifier in double pass, a final amplifier.
For the high frequency TiS source the flash lamp pump scheme is no longer suitable, so
100Hz Nd: YAG laser must be used.
The tiS pump efficiency is a strong function of the laser beam quality so N d: YAG
laser accurately designed for this purpose must be used.
The Nd:YAG laser can still be pumped by flash lamps (while a diode pumped source
could be preferred because of reduced thermal stress on the laser rods); to compensatie for the
thermal lens effect and distorsion induced by the pumping procedure, phase conjugate
mirrors are used, allowing to obtain good wavefront quality.
This type of compensation must be applied for TiS laser itself, thermal lens effect in
the sapphire can be important at high frequency.
A scheme for this source was also proposed in ref.4.

249
CONCLUSIONS

The present paper presented a detailed discussion of the feasibility of a TiS laser for
the ITER LIDAR Thomson Scattering System.
A 10Hz TiS source with basic figures presented in Table 1 seems feasible with
present day technology, at relatively low cost of order of IM1US$11997.
The 100Hz source can also be built but the technological complexity is quite high,
and this raises the cost.

REFERENCES

l.AE.Costley, R.Bartiromo, L.DeKoch, E.Marmar, T.Matoba, V.Mukhovatov,

K.Muraoka,ANagashima,D. V .Orlinsky,M.Petrov,P.E.Stott,V .Strelkov,
S.Yamamoto, and K.M.Young, Requirements for ITER Diagnostics, in: Diagnostic
For Experimental Fusion Reactors, Edited by P.E.Stott, G.Gorini and E.Sindoni,
Plenum Press,NY(1996),p.23.
2.C.Gowers,P.Nielsen,F.Orsitto,FJ.Pijper,H.Salzmann, and B.Schunke, A Thomson
scattering scheme for obtaining Te and ne profiles of the ITER core plasma,
therein p.249.
3.W.Koechner,Solid State Laser Engineering, Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1988.
4.A.W.Molvik, R.ALerche, D.G.Nilson, M.D.Perry, E.B.Hooper, LIDAR Thomson
scattering for advanced tokamaks-final report, UCRL-ID-123434(march 1996).

250
MIRROR CONSTRUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION
FOR ITER LIDAR THOMSON SCATTERING SYSTEM

F. Orsitto 1, A. Brusadinl, M. Di Fin02, c.Gowers 3,

P.Nielsen3, H.Salzmann4

1Associazione EURATOM-ENEA, C.R. Frascati, Frascati (ITALY)

2ENEA-Dipartimento Innovazione, Divisione Laser, c.R. Frascati.
3JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 3EA, UK
4MPI fur Plasmaphysik, 85748 Garching, D

INTRODUCTION

The requirements for the plasma facing mirror for the ITER LIDAR THOMSON
SCATTERING (ILTS) SYSTEM! are: high and ,as uniform as possible reflectivity in the
spectral range 400-800 nm, low sputtering yield, and high laser damage threshold. Thermal
deformation due to nuclear heating is also one of the effects to be taken into account and it must
be compatible with acceptable optical imaging quality. Rhodium coated mirrors with a copper
substrate are considered as possible candidates meeting these requirements. The paper describes
the techniques used for building prototype mirrors with thick (30-80 nm) Rhodium coatings on
copper substrates and their optical characterization.

MIRROR CONSTRUCTION

The mirror construction starts preparing the copper substrate, after that a thin nickel
coating is deposited on the substrate, finally the rhodium coating is applied.

Copper substrate preparation

Copper substrates (two or three inches diameter) were obtained machining pure Copper
(Cu-OFHC) by means of a diamond fly cutting machine. The surfaces were hand polished and
chemically etched for smoothing out the machine grooves. In this way plane mirrors with a
good optical quality were obtained with IJIO (A. =652.8 nm) surface deviation from planarity
on (at least) 75% of the field. Typical roughness of these mirrors is 10-30 nm.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 251
Coating preparation

Two techniques are used : evaporation by means of an electron gun and

electrodeposition using a galvanic bath, To realize the mirrors a thin coating (8-15 nm thick) of
nickel is deposited on the copper substrate, The Ni layer is crucial to obtain a uniform
deposition with both techniques since i) the rhodium direct deposition results in microholes on
the copper surface while the Ni intermediate layer smears out uniformly the rhodium, when
evaporation is used; ii) the Cu substrate is directly attacked by Rh ions in the bath, when
electrodeposition is used, so Ni serves as a protection for the Cu substrate.

Rhodium coated mirrors

Eight mirrors of various diameter with Cu substrate were built.

The evaporation technique was used for obtaining Rh coatings with a maximum
thickness of 35 nm on Ni layers 10 nm thick,
A Rh mirror of 3" diameter was built by electrodeposition with 1.5 Ilm thick Ni layer
resulting in a 0,8 Ilm thick Rh coating.
All these mirrors exibit very good reflectivity in the visible,

CONCLUSION

The electrodeposition technique gave the best result in terms of Rh coating thickness, so far,

l.H,Salzmann, L.deKock, C,Gowers, P,Nielsen, F.Orsitto, C.Walker,

LIDAR Thomson Scattering for the ITER Core Plasma, these proceedings.

252
COLLECTIVE THOMSON SCATTERING(CTS) SYSTEM ON ITER

F.Orsitto 1, G.Giruzzi2 and S.Nowak3

lAssociazione EURATOM-ENEA sulla Fusione

C.R.Frascati-C.P.65-00044Frascati(Italy)
2Association EURATOM-CEA sur la Fusion
Centre d'Etude de Cadarache-13108 St.Paul-Iez-Durance(France)
3Istituto di Fisica del Plasma, Associazione EURATOM-ENEA-CNR
v.R.Cozzi 53- 20l25Milano(Italy)

INTRODUCTION

In a previous work the analysis 1 on a possible CTS system on ITER has led to the
following preliminary conclusions: two options can be taken into account seriously, i.e. i) C02
O..=10.6J.1.m) extreme foreward scattering(scattering angle 9<0.3 0 ) without spatial resolution,
ii)nearly back scattering(9= 170 0 ) configuration using two-colour gyrotron scattering, at
frequencies fO=65 and 72GHz, which can give also an acceptable spatial resolution of the order
of 1110 minor radius 2, launching the principal beam from an equatorial port, just below the
equatorial plane, and collecting the scattered radiation in the same port, placing the array of
collecting antennas above the equatorial plane. The first option brings the tangential injection of
the beam in order to take advantage of null refraction for an easy beam separation on long
paths, furthermore the signal to noise ratio(SNR) is limited only by the noise equivalent power
of the receiver, being negligible the ECE noise of the plasma. The second option, while having
the possibility of a spatial profile measurements with good SNR, identify the scattering volume
by means of the ray-tracing code evaluation of the antenna beam position inside the plasma2,
and the SNR is influenced by the ECE emission. In the present paper the proposal of two-color
X-mode gyrotron CTS below the electron cyclotron frequency is reviewed and some points
already mentioned in that paper are specifically discussed: i) the theoretical model used in the
calculations of ref.2 is commented; ii) a more refined calculation of ray propagation has been
performed using realistic ITER equilibria and gaussian beam ray-tracing code.

REvmw OF TWO COLOR GYROTRON X.MODE CTS ON ITER

The two color proposal for a CTS on ITER was derived since the allowed propagation
window for the incident and scattered wave shrinks and the middle frequency of this interval

Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 253
increases as the plasma density is raised. The figure I shows the minimum(maximum) frequency
fmin (fmax) versus central plasma density for na/ne=0.3%: fmin is the lowest frequency at
which a ray launched at «1>=15 0 (<<I> is the angle between the scattering plane and the direction
normal to the magnetic field) reach the plasma centre, while fmax is the highest frequency for
which the SNR is greater than 10. The dotted line describes the wave upper frequency deduced
from the condition that Rae=Sa/Se>2 ( the ratio between the alpha signal and the electron
signal). The fmin is regulated by the refraction effects , while fmax is regulated by the EeE
maximum radiation temperature.

TeO = 22 keY

70
N

-
:::c
C!)

60

50~~~~~~~~~~~~

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

ne 0 (1 020 m- 3)

Figure 1. Wave accessibility diagram.

In this way, it is of some advantage using two frequency launching(and receiving) systems which
can be used in two intervals of plasma density. In particular2 i) for densities neO,20 < 1.2 , (
ne020 is the plasma density measured in unities of 1020 m- 3) a gyrotron frequency at 65GHz
can be used and the scattered spectrum is measured in the range 59-65GHz while in the interval
1.2 <neO,20<1.4 the upper side of the scattered spectrum is measured; ii) for higher densities a
gyrotron frequency of 72GHz can be used and the possibility of measuring the scattered wave
goes in the same way as 65GHz.
Taking 0=170 0 scattering angle, the scattering length, defined as the maximum length
across the volume where the incident and scattered beam overlap. can be estimated as L=
2wo/sinO, where wo is the transverse size of the wave beams, i.e. typically the gaussian beam
waist. Assuming wO=25. 1O-3m, and 9=170 0 , it is found L=O.28m, namely L-aIlO ( a= ITER
minor radius), which is still a good spatial localisation for the measurement. This localisation
obviously improves decreasing 9 , but because the signal itself decreases with 9 the ratio
Rae=Sa/Se , i.e. the ratio between the signal due to the alphas and that due to the free electrons,
decreases. The signal-to-noise ratio can be restored increasing the integration time of the
measurement, moving from 9=170 0 to 900 , from t=lms to t=30 ms, so spatially resolved
measurements appear feasible. In this way the possibility of measuring the radial profile of the
alpha particles on ITER mainly depends on the availability of access for diagnostics. However a
possible scheme could be the following: the incident beam is launched from below the plasma
equatorial plane, at elevation z=-0.5m aiming to the plasma centre. The scattered waves are
received above that plane, around z=+0.5m at various poloidal angles. This configuration helps
in minimisation of refraction effects. as shown in fig.2. where several rays are traced( see the
following sections for a discussion). This arrangement can be used for the radially resolved ion
population velocity distribution, leading also to the measurements of fast ions and important as
well of bulk ion temperature.

254
DISCUSSION OF THE THEORETICAL MODEL.

The theoretical model used in ref.2 takes the electron density correlation as the leading
term in the CTS dynamic form factor.
Formulas were obtained using a model for the source current jO" of the scattered wave
field EO derived on the basis of plasma kinetic theory3 in the low temperature plasma
approximation. The source current jO has contributions from density ,electric field, current and
magnetic field fluctuations associated to the wave propagating into the plasma which couples
with the incident wave generating the scattered wave. The CTS cross section is proportional the
autocorrelation of the source current <j0jo>, giving raise to various correlation terms ( <nn>,
<EE>, <jj>, <BB» and crossed correlations like <nB> etc. Now it was shown 3 that the terms
different from <nn> are important in geometries where cp_Oo, where the resonances due to the
lower hybrid begin to be important. This subject was also treated4 using a fluctuation-dissipation
theorem for non-equilibrium plasmas.

GAUSSIAN RAY-TRACING ANALYSIS

A ray tracing analysis was performed using realistic ITER equilibria and gaussian beam
propagation 4 . The results are shown in fig.2 : the poloidal(fig.2a) and toroidal (fig.2b)
projections confirm the results already presented in ref.2.

6 ITER equatorial plane

a 10
b
4

5
2
:[
N
0
fo
><

-2 -5

-4
4 6 8 10 12 -10
0 5 10 15
R (m) ylm)
Figure 2 Gaussian raytracing code analysis results: 2a poloidal projection, 2b toroidal projection.

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

The ITER equatorial ports (3 x 1.8 m 2 , HxW) allow for an integrated launching-
collecting system arranged for the backscattering geometry. The main geometrical constraints
on the launching-collecting systems are illustrated in figures 3a and 3b. The toroidal launching
angle cp, which in a backscattering geometry, is also the angle between the scattering wavevector
k=Ki-Ks(Ki incident wavevector,Ks scattered wavevector) and the magnetic field, must be
cp;:15 0 . The emerging scattering geometry is one with the scattering plane ( identified by Ki and
Ks ) tilted by 150 ( or more) respect to the normal to the magnetic field. The fig.3a shows the
launching system ( as projected on the equatorial plane), its cohordinate is z=-O.5m from that
plane, and the orientation is chosen for focalize into the plasma center at a beam waist of
wO=O.OSm. Two quasi-optical systems are arranged inside the cryostat and in the plug: the beam
after emerging from a circular corrugated waveguide pass through a first window and, entering
the cryostat vacuum, it is imaged on the second window with magnification one, in the plug the

255
second optical system matches the beam waist formed onto the first window into a waist
wO=0.05m in the plasma center.
The collecting system is shown in fig.3b, this is a projection on a vertical plane. A mirror
looks at a line of sight passing through the plasma center, at 100 from the equatorial plane (
corresponding to 1700 scattering angle), with toroidal angle $=15 0 • It can be put approximately
0.3m into the blanket, facing the plasma through a hole 0.3m diameter. The imaging optics is
behind this mirror. These optics exhibit a variable ( versus the torus major radius) vignetting,
thus the overlapping efficiency between the input and antenna beam varies through the object
space. This could be tolerated because of the margin on the signal-to-noise ratio. The imaging
optics, again made of two telescopes, map each volume of the object space into an array of
Gaussian antennas. This is similar to the LIDAR Thomson scattering system proposed for ITER.

a PLASMA PLUG CRYOSTAT SHIELD

IU
2nd telescope
.

1sl telescope
n \
wavegUide

U
b PLASMA PLUG CRYOSTAT SHIELD

~;:.>---

~S
»--- antennae
;:. array of

i \In
plasma centre
1st telescope

2nd telescope imaging lens

Figure 3. Launching (3a) and collecting optical system (3b) lay-out.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are pleased to acknowledge helpful discussions with G.Vayakis,

C.I.Walker and E.Doyle.

REFERENCES

l.F.Orsitto and G.Giruzzi, Rev.Sci.Instr. 68(1997)626.

2.F.Orsitto, G.Giruzzi, Nucl.Fus. 37(1997)915.
3.H.Bindslev, Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics 58(1996)983.
4.S.C.Chiu, Phys.Fluids B3(1991)1374. .
5.S.Nowak, E.Lazzaro and G.Ramponi, Phys.Plasmas 3(1996)4140.

256
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW VACUUM WINDOW SEAL
FOR ITER OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS

Akira Nagashima, Tsuneshi Fujisawa, Tatsuo Sugie and Satoshi Kasai

Department of Fusion Plasma Research,

Naka Fusion Research Establishment,
Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute,
Naka-machi, Naka-gun, Ibaraki-ken, 311-01, Japan

INTRODUCTION

Many windows will be required on ITER for optical, infrared, and microwave
diagnostics. The diagnostic transmission systems will be incorporate labyrinths in port
shielding blocks and so the windows will not be located in high levels of neutron and
gamma radiation. Nevertheless it is necessary for the window seals to be able to withstand
pressure transients, temperature excursions and mechanical shocks which are significantly
different from those experienced on present-day tokamaks. The objective of the R&D is to
develop suitable vacuum seal for ITER diagnostic windows concerning to mechanical
capability. The main required features of the window specification for ITER diagnostics
are the following. (1) Vacuum Seal:He Leak < 1 x 10- 10 Pa m3/s, (2) Capacity to Resist
Inner Pressure Rise:> 5 atm, (3) Temperature:> 200 °C, (4) Temperature ramp rate:> 20
°C/hr, (5) Temperature gradients across windows:3~4 points for each surface of window,
(6) Mechanical acceleration of structure:> 15g, duration 10ms, 1000cycles., (7) Optical
property
At present, no commercial window can guarantee all the specification. Under the
R&D, a reliable window seal will be developed to guarantee the specification with
materials of Fused Quartz, Sapphire and ZnSe. At the beginning stage, a prototype
window seal has been examined in successfully with 120mm<1> x 20mmt fused quartz. The
paper describes the performances ofthe new window seal method.

SCHEMATIC OF THE WINDOW SEAL

New vacuum seal for diagnostic window is being developed. The schematic of the
window seal is shown in Figure 1. The important objectives we are considering are the
capacity to resist 5 atm. inner pressure rise and 200°C temperature survivability. To

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 257
develop a suitable seal, the important component is the seal ring with V-shape cross section
(V -ring) which has a role of vacuum tight, and no-welding contact with cylindrical edge
surface of the window material and elastic feature of V-ring eliminates to happen a
shearing stress usually grown at the welding contact boundary originated by the difference
of thermal expansion of materials.

V ring
seal

Vacuum
chamber
Interface for X,Yaxis
Q);": E
~XiS
Vibration .~~ E
test machine -(1)0
~Eo
::: .!!! ....
......_ _ ._(I)"C "

Metal O-ring for window support I -

(not for vacuum capability)

Figure I. Schematic of newly developing vacuum optical window (JAERI Prototype). The vacuum seal is
kept by the two part of V-ring contact. One is at the cylindrical edge surface of the window another is at the
corner of vacuum side flange. The capability of inner pressure rise resistance is maintained by the window
support including metal O-ring.

The remarkable advantageous properties of the window seal using a no welded V-

ring are summarized in Table 1. The table shows that the new seal structure will resolve
many critical problems of conventional window seal method. The important feature of
freedom to select material which will not become radioactive is accomplished only by the
no-welding structure.

Table 1 .The features and advantages of the newly developing window seal

Features of the new window seal Advantages

• freedom to select material which will not
become radioactive
• no effect on optical property of window
no welding method on window • no restriction of using weld capable
material is used for seal. material for window
• re-usable of window flange
• no weld contact between V ring and
window edge surface makes it better for
thermal expansion problem
elastic feature of V ring • better for thermal expansion problem
• better for mechanical shock
• polishing of window's cylindrical edge
necessary notes surface and contact part of V ring for leak
tight
• precise manufacturing of diameter of V-
ring and window

258
PRELIMINARY RESULTS

The prototype examination has been curried out in successfully, concerning the
specification as follows. For (l)vacuum seal, no He leak was detected under the sensitivity
limit 1 x 10- 11 Pa m3/s; (2) capacity to resist inner pressure rise: no He leak was detected
after 5 atm. pressure supply; (3) temperature, 3 heat cycles were performed up to 200'C
and after each cycle, and no He leak was detected at each heat cycle; (4) temperature ramp
rate of ~ 50 °CIhr was done by manual control; (5) temperature gradients across windows is
about 10°C; (6) mechanical acceleration of structure of 15g, duration 10ms, 1000cycles
was supplied for each axis direction ±Z and X and after each 1000cycies no He leak was
detected; (7) Optical property was examined for cracks and twinning before and after the
capability examination, and no change was observed. In these condition, the typical stress
at the contact surface caused by 5 atm. pressure, 15g acceleration and thermal heat cycle
are estimated as 0.75kg of/mm 2, O.0Ikg of/mm 2 and ~IOkgof/mm2, respectively. The values
show the thermal heat cycle is the most important property to be cared for reliability.

Programed Boundary Experienced Wave Form

of Acceleration
~m.~~. 2eee Hz
299 1ines
24. ae !'-19~
. ..,....,""""~-."
Acce lerat. Ion
.. +.:....
?,,~~I : ....H~
-_. w : ... ' .... : ... ~ .. :::... ,,~~;:::;:;.:-l:::ji., '~."'i
rnay lb.G
15GI::;
•.•• . ..•...•... •
. J
mm -2.886
1 : .: .. :.... : ... '... : ...1 ...:..... .... :... :.>.11. •• ;.. ; , :. : J Ve IDe 1 t'.

le. 06 ~~·+·"·~··~···~····~·~·.~·. ·.f/'h···+··+··~···~.·.\J\··+'+"':'-':"'~"'~"'11ilCi~ ;~~.~~ ;

i: : ··,m'-· :. ·lll
Ill- . i··'· .j min -91.42
I· : ... ii.' : c. ! .. ' 1_.
t J ... L.~... f~.: .... :....\1..' ... 1 VlspUc:eornent
e.8BI . 11 II . i (1IHlt'
It·· ' : -nIf .': ... !, (("' :... , I "'~" 0 u':''''
,').O.-t

r:::" . ·. · ,· . ·t
• I .~ .~ ~ -I lIlQ,.... ':':

!. , .... -i" '1 rnm -~I:1.~t

I . •

3e.0781 40.9 50.0

Figure 2. Mechanical acceleration wave fonn to examine window reliability. lOOOcycles survivability has
been examined to every axis of the window assembly under the acceleration condition of 15G and lOmS
duration.

STRESS ANALYSIS FOR THERMAL CONDITION

A linear stress analysis was curried out by a finite element method assist system
(FEMAS). The stress property at V-ring contact was examined respect to the difference
between room temperature and 200°C higher condition. Figure 3 shows the element
structure and the result by the FEMAS analysis. Materials are assumed as fused quartz,
copper and stainless steel for window, V-ring and flange, respectively, In the figure, no
serious change is observed between the two different temperatures at the V-ring contact.
The contour line in Fig.3 (b) and (c) shows the equi-stress lines with unit of kg of/mm 2.
The positive/negative sign indicate tension/pressure stress. The damage stress threshold of
Fused Quartz is recognized as 115 for pressure and 5 for tension. At the contact surface,
only the pressure damage is of concern, and the estimation is suitably under the threshold.
At the higher temperature, slightly higher stress is observed for higher temperature case,
but the stress is suitably under the damage threshold.

259
 (a)

Symmetric Half & 30° Sector

V-Rina
copper

(b) (el

Figure 3. Alinear stress analysis was curried out by a finite element method assist system (FEMAS) for the
window seal structure and applied force condition of(a). The detail of V-ring contact part which is indicated
"A" are shown in (b) and (c). No serious change is observed between (b) the stress map at room temperature
and (c) at 200°C higher temperature. A slightly higher stress can be seen for higher temperature case, but the
stress is suitably under the damage threshold.

DISCUSSION AND FUTURE PLAN

The seal method described in the paper was examined under the conditions which
are considered to happen in ITER operation and has been accomplished by the prototype.
The key structure of the window seal is the elastic feature of V -ring which enables tight
vacuum seal without welding between window material and flange. The structure permits
free selection of material free from weldable condition and makes it possible to eliminate
the problem of using radio-active material as cobalt which usually be used in welding
material. The examination for remained materials Sapphire and ZnSe will be performed
under the similar structure. It will be reported the examined result for those.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report has been prepared as an account of work assigned to the Japanese Home
Team under Task Agreement number S 55 TT 02 96-08-09 FJ within the Agreement
among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA).

260
RADIATION PROBLEMS AND TESTING OF ITER DIAGNOSTIC
COMPONENTS

E. R. Hodgson

Euratorn/CIEMAT Fusion Association, Madrid, Spain.

INTRODUCTION
It is envisaged that by the beginning of the next century ITER will come into
operation. It is hoped that this intermediate next-step "technology" machine will bridge the
gap between the present day large "physics" machines and the pre-commercial DEMO
reactor. Although ITER will help to solve many of the problems which still remain in the
field of plasma physics, it will also present additional operational and experimental problems
due to radiation damage effects as a result of the intense radiation field from the "burning"
plasma. This will give rise to a high energy neutron and gamma flux extending well beyond
the first wall. In other words one foresees a serious materials problem which has to be
solved. In the initial physics phase of ITER it is the radiation flux which will be of concern,
whereas in the later technology phase both flux and fluence will play important roles as the
radiation damage builds up in the materials. For structural metallic materials the problem of
radiation damage is expected to be severe only near to the first wall, however the problem
facing the numerous insulating components is far more serious due to the necessity to
maintain not only the mechanical, but also the more sensitive physical properties intact.
Following a short introduction on the problem of radiation damage in both metals and
insulators, the paper will concentrate on the problem facing the use of insulators. Apart from
their use in the heating and current drive systems, insulators will be required for many
diagnostic components including those which directly affect the control and stability of the
fusion reactor plasma. For all these uses, in addition to mechanical strength and volume
stability, the physical properties of interest will be electrical conductivity, dielectric loss and
permittivity, thermal conductivity, and optical properties (transmission and luminescence,
coloration). The effect of radiation on these properties will be discussed, and in particular
electrical and optical aspects will be highlighted.

RADIATION DAMAGE

Radiation damage is generally divided into two components; displacement damage

and ionization effects. Displacement damage results from the direct knock-on of atoms/ions
from their lattice sites giving rise to vacancies and interstitials. These point defects may either
recombine in which case no net damage is produced, or they may stabilise and even
aggregate producing more stable extended defects. Displacement damage affects both metals
and insulators, although the situation for insulators is in general more complex due to the
poly atomic nature of these materials. The initial damage is measured in "dpa" (displacements

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 261
per atom) where 1 dpa is equivalent to displacing all the atoms once from their lattice sites.
At the first wall of ITER the displacement dose rate will be of the order of 10-6 dpa s-l.
Ionizing radiation although absorbed by both metals and insulators, in general
produces only heating in metals. The effects of ionization on insulators is however quite
marked due to the excitation of electrons from the valence to the conduction band giving rise
to charge transfer effects. Ionizing radiation is measured in absorbed dose Gy (Gray) where
I Gy = I 1 kg-I. At the first wall of ITER the dose rate will be of the order of 104 Gy s-l.
One other aspect of radiation damage that is worth mentioning is nuclear
transmutation. The high energy neutrons will produce nuclear reactions in all the materials
giving rise to transmutation products. These will build up with time and represent impurities
in the materials which may modify their properties. However with the possible exception of
He this is not expected to present a serious problem for ITER.
The result of these radiation damage processes will be a change in the physical and
mechanical properties of the materials. Unfortunately, in general, these modifications do not
improve the materials. The properties of concern which suffer modification are the
mechanical strength and volume, thermal and electrical conductivity, dielectric loss and
permittivity, and optical properties. The effects of such changes are that the materials become
more brittle, they may swell, insulators may suffer louIe heating, and windows become
opaque.
Radiation damage affects all materials, but the poly atomic nature of insulators and
their susceptibility to ionizing radiation makes these materials far more sensitive to radiation
damage than metals. While stainless steel for example can withstand several dpa and GGy
with no problem some properties of insulating materials can be rendered useless by as little
as 10-5 dpa or a few kGy. Because of this the present on-going programmes of radiation
testing for diagnostics are concentrating mainly on the insulating component of the systems
Displacement damage and ionizing radiation degrade both the mechanical and
physical properties of insulating materials. Of the numerous insulating materials it is the
refractory oxides and nitrides which in general show the highest radiation resistance. Of
these the ones which have received specific attention include MgO, A1203, MgA1204, BeO,
AIN, and Si3N4. In addition different forms of Si02, and materials such as diamond for
EeE have been examined.

SIMULA TlON EXPERIMENTS

At the present time no entirely suitable irradiation testing facility exists and as a
consequence experiments are being performed in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators in
an attempt to simulate the real operating conditions of the insulating materials and
components. The experiments required must simulate the neutron and gamma radiation field
i.e. the displacement and ionization damage rates, the radiation environment i.e. vacuum and
temperature, and also the operating conditions such as applied voltage. It is furthermore
essential that in-situ testing is carried out to determine whether or not the required physical
properties of the material or component are maintained during irradiation.
Experimental nuclear fission reactors clearly have the advantage of producing a
radiation field of neutrons and gammas, although in most cases the actual neutron energy
spectrum and the displacement to ionization ratio are not those which will be experienced in a
fusion reactor. The main difficulties with in-reactor experiments come from the
inaccessibility of the radiation volume and are concerned with the problem of carrying out in-
situ measurements and achieving the correct irradiation environment. While considerable
success has been attained in the in-situ measurement requirement, the problem of irradiating
in vacuum still remains, with most experiments being performed in a controlled He
environment. Furthermore many experiments rely on nuclear and gamma heating to reach the
required temperature and hence have difficulty with maintaining a controlled temperature.
Particle accelerators on the other hand are ideal for carrying out in-situ experiments in
vacuum and at well controlled temperatures due to the easy access and very localised
radiation field. It is however in the radiation field where their disadvantage is evident, and
great care has to be taken to ensure that appropriate displacement rates are deduced. A further

262
disadvantage is due to the limited irradiation volume and particle penetration depth. This in
general means that only small material samples or components can be tested.
The present day situation of materials and component radiation testing for diagnostic
systems takes full advantage of both fission reactors and particle accelerators. In-situ
measurements caD. now be made during irradiation of the important electrical, dielectric, and
optical properties. In addition other aspects such as mechanical strength and tritium diffusion
are being assessed during irradiation.

DEGRADATION OF INSULATOR ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Diagnostic systems with components which rely on the insulating material

maintaining a high stable electrical resistance will have to contend with radiation induced
conductivity (RIC), radiation induced electrical degradation (RIED), and surface effects.
Such components include electrical feedtbroughs and standoffs, and mineral insulated cables
and their terminations. In the case of MI cables the additional problem of radiation induced
electro-motive force (RIEMF) must also be considered.
RIC has been studied for man~ years and an extensive data base exists together with
a sound theoretical understanding 1- . This marked increase in the electrical conductivity
during ionizing irradiation is due to the excitation of electrons from the valence to the
conduction band and their subsequent trapping in levels near to the conduction band from
where they are thermally excited once again into the conduction band. It has been shown
that;
crrue = cro + KR()
where cro is the conductivity in the absence of radiation, R the dose rate, K a constant, and ()
is approximately 1. From the many materials which have been examined two general
conclusions I indications may be drawn;

RIC (single crystal) > RIC (polycrystal) and RIC (pure) > RIC (impure)

The following table illustrates this and gives conductivity data4 ;

RIC values at 450C 700Gy/s

Material RIC Slm

MgAl204 sc 9xl0-7
V.C. (170)
MgO sc 6xlO-7
Spicers 4N (500)
Al203 sc 5xl0-7
V.c. (230)
Al203 pc 3xl0-7
Deranox 999
Al203 pc Ix 10-7
Vitox 999
Al203 pc 6xl0-8
Wesgo 995
BeO pc 3xl0-8
G' fellows 995

263
NOTE; solid material (numbers in brackets approximate impurity content). 0'0 for these
materials is in the range 10- 11 to 10- 10 Slm at 450 °C. One expects powders (i.e. MI
cables) to show less conductivity, most probably being determined by the gas conduction.
The data in this table shows that even at first wall dose rates of about 104 Gy s-1 insulating
materials exist with an electrical conductivity of $; 10-6 S m- 1. However it is important to
notice that RIC is a flux dependent effect and will be present from the on-set of operation of
ITER. Hence devices which are sensitive to impedance changes, which will occur for
example in MI cables, must take RIC into account.
RIED is more controversial and at the present time there is no general agreement as to
the possible danger this type of electrical degradation poses for future devices such as ITER.
RIED is due to a permanent increase in the volume conductivity 0'0 and is fluence dependent.
It has been observed to occur in various materials irradiated with an electric field applied and
at temperatures of between about 250 and 500 0c. RIED like behaviour has been observed
during electron5 - 7 , proton8 ,9, alpha 10,11, and neutron 12 - 14 irradiation. However in
contrast some experiments have not observed RIED or have observed enhanced surface
degradation 15- 17 . See also reference 18 for an extended discussion.
From the wide range of experimental results it is extremely difficult to come to a firm
and reliable conclusion as to the importance of RIED for fusion. However it is important to
note that essential parameters such as material type I grade, irradiation environment (vacuum
or air / He), and irradiation temperature are not being taken fully into consideration. It is now
clear that high purity Vitox alumina is susceptible to RIED at relatively low voltages « 100
V/mm), whereas Wesgo 995 alumina is quite resistant to RIED up to about 1 kV/mm. It
would also appear that Deranox alumina which is nominally the same as Vitox is also RIED
resistant 19. However recent results show that even with one nominally uniform grade large
differences exist, as may be seen in figure 1 below for six different Deranox 999 samples 20 .

Electrical degradation
6 nominally equal Derano" samples

1 0. 3

1 0. 4

:..\
.
IB /\.
..
!.~

1 0. 5

~
;; 1 0. 6
.tB 1 0. 7
"
.e
'a
1 0. 8 o
o o
'" o
1 0. 9 o
1I

1 0. 10
. 10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Irradiation time (h)

Figure 1. Electrical degradation of Deranox disc samples due to electron irradiation.

As may be seen the results for the samples fall into two groups, although they are from the
same material and were all irradiated under identical conditions.

264
 One recently completed in-reactor irradiation21 in addition to highlighting the
technical difficulties with such experiments brings to the forefront the problem of the
irradiation environment. The experiment like several other in-reactor experiments was
performed in He and significant sample degradation was only observed for one of the 13
samples. This contrasts with the two in-reactor observations of RIED carried out in
vacuum 12 ,13 where marked degradation was observed. That the effect of irradiating in
vacuum or air / He can play an important role on the electrical d~radation is also evident
from the differences observed in RIED during electron irradiation ,7. Both the experiments
observe RIED but the one carried out in air7 observed the on-set of degradation at a higher
fluence, but more important observed a saturation in the degradation at a level which would
make it difficult to detect in a reactor type experiment (10-7 S m- 1 at 500 oc).
Surface degradation can also play an important ~art in insulator failure. Such surface
effects can be large and may be due to contamination 5,16, but they may also occur in the
material itself possibly due to impurity segregation or vacuum reduction of the surface 22 . It
is moreover very important to carry out irradiation testing in the correct environment as it has
been observed that Wesgo 995 alumina shows no surface degradation when irradiated in air
or He, but severe effects are observed for irradiation in high vacuum23 .
RIC, RIED, and surface degradation can lead to unacceptably high losses at the
insulator component of any diagnostic system. These possibilities must be carefully assessed
to take into account both material and environmental effects.

DEGRADATION OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES

Optical transmission systems will suffer from surface degradation of front mirrors,
together with optical absorption and radioluminescence in lenses / windows and optical
fibres. In this section attention will be concentrated on the results for materials suitable for
transmission in the UV and visible wavelengths. Two materials have been considered, these
are high purity sapphire (Al203) and silica (Si02) including silica glass.

1000
...
AIO " " ...
..
100 2 3
" "
i

/~.///
""
"~ "
10 "
.~
;;
~ 1
...co
==...'" SiO
0.1 2

0.01 ~----~----~----~------~----~----~
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Wavelength (A)

Figure 2. Radioluminescence for sapphire and KU1 quartz glass at 700 Gy/s, 20 0C 24,25.

It became clear at an early stage that one of the serious problems facing optical
components in the UV -visible ran~e would come from the radiation induced light emission,
the so-called radioluminescence 4,25. The intensity of this light for sapphire and some

265
silicas has been shown to be comparable with the intensity of the collected plasma emission.
However it has been shown that certain grades of Si02 show virtually no radioluminescence
in the UV -visible region, the emission being limited almost to the Cherenkov background.
Radioluminescence for Union Carbide UV grade sapphire and RF KUl quartz glass are
shown above in figure 2. Radioluminescence like RIC is dependent on the ionizing flux and
hence will be a problem from the onset of operation of ITER. However it would appear that
a material is available with low emission. It is necessary to check the radioluminescence as a
function of fluence to ensure that the radiation induced defects do not begin to emit light.
The other major problem with optical transmission components is the radiation
induced absorption. Although ionizing radiation can cause increased optical absorption it is
in general the displacement damage mechanism which induces severe absorption. This is a
fluence effect which will mean that with time the optical signal received will be reduced and
distorted as a function of wavelength. Figure 3 gives the initial and final absorption spectra
for KU 1 quartz glass following 500 hours of gamma irradiation at 6 Gy s-l, 20 0C. As may
be seen the induced absorption is essentially confined to below 400 nm. This UV absorption
as a function of irradiation temperature is given in more detail in figure 4. It is clear that for
low radiation levels and for temperatures at or above about 100 °C very little absorption is
induced in this material.

6
• 20°C :i
.!
5
·
"
" x 112

··
0

"
e ,,
0

4
.....'" ,
~
.
0 3
··
2

0
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
Wavelength (nm)

Figure 3. Radiation induced absorption in KU1 quartz glass.

As the radiation damage builds up however, the oxygen vacancy related absorption
bands shown in figure 4 increase and their absorption tails begin to overlap into the visible
region 25 . Sapphire shows more radiation resistance than Si02 in terms of optical
absorption, but as mentioned above it gives intense radioluminescence. However as may be
seen in figure 2 in the region near 500 nm the luminescence is almost as low as in the KU1
material. So sapphire may provide a useful window in this region. Furthermore sapphire is
highly radiation resistant in the IR region up to about 5000 nm.
Radiation induced optical absorption and light emission are problems for optical
window and lens components, but in the case of optical fibres the situation is far worse due
to the length of the optical path. Furthermore due to the manufacturing techniques, fibres
with characteristics as good as those observed for the KU1 quartz glass have so far not been
obtained, however rapid progress is being made2S .

266
 6
. 20·C

4
a... 100 .C"
as
0
3

1 200 ·C·
•..•• ::: :: : : : : : : : : : :: : : ~ ~ ~:: : :: : : :: : : : : : : : : ! ! !: ! !!! ! ! ! !
o ~~~--~--~~--~~~~~~~~~
200 250 300 350 400
Wavelength (nm)

Figure 4. Detail of absorption in the UV for figure 3 together with the effect of irradiation
temperature.

At the present time two particularly difficult problems need attention. The first is
concerned with the windows for the LIDAR system, and the second is concerned with the
requirement to make observations in the UV region. The LIDAR windows will be required
to transmit high power laser pulses in the 500 to 1000 nm region, with only a few percent
absorption in the window. Using standard spectrometer techniques it is extremely difficult to
reliably determine such a small change in the absorption, this is particularly true for samples
which have to be measured post-irradiation. To determine such small changes required in-
situ measurement. In-situ measurement is also required in order to determine possible
radiation enhanced absorption which can easily reach such small values. The possibility of
radiation enhanced dielectric breakdown due to the intense laser pulse and the ionizing
radiation is also being considered. However such a determination requires an elaborate in-
situ experiment.
As may be seen in figures 3 and 4 even low levels of radiation introduce marked
optical absorption in the 200 to 400 nm UV region. This a common feature of all the
possible radiation resistant materials; MgO, A1203, MgA1204, and Si02, and is due to
oxygen vacancy type point defects produced by displacement damage. However another
common feature of these materials is that the complementary defect, the oxygen interstitial,
becomes unstable on increasing temperature. As a result, as may be seen for example in
figure 4, irradiation at high temperatures results in lower absorption. If a window of
sapphire or Si02 could be employed and maintained at about 400 0C most of the radiation
induced defects would be continually annealed out. As the window would be used for the
UV region any possible interference from the black body emission would be negligible.

CONCLUSIONS

Without careful design it will prove extremely difficult to separate out the required
plasma information from the radiation induced perturbations. At the present time a wide data
base exists for several candidate insulator materials for fusion applications, and work is now
underway or planned for specific diagnostic component tests. However we are at the
beginning and much still remains to be done.

267
REFERENCES
1. R.W.Klaffky, B.H.Rose, A.N.Goland, and G.I.Dienes, Phys. Rev. B 21 (1980)
3610.
2. E.R.Hodgson and S.Clement, I. Nucl. Mat., 155 - 157 (1988) 357.
3. G.P.Pells, Rad. Effects, 97 (1986) 39.
4. E.R.Hodgson, ITER Technical Meeting of Irradiation Tests on Diagnostic Components
Garching, June 1996.
5. E.R.Hodgson, Cryst. Latt. Def. and Amorph. Mater., 18 (1989) 169.
6. E.R.Hodgson, J. Nucl. Mat., 212 - 215 (1994) 1123.
7. X.F.Zong, C.F.Shen, S.Liu, Z.C.Wu, Y.Chen, B.D.Evans, R.Gonzalez,
and C.H.Sellers, Phys. Rev. B 49 (1994) 15514.
8. G.P.Pells, UKAEA Fusion Report, AEA FUS 86, 1990.
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10. A.Moslang, E.Daum, and R.Lindau, Fusion Technology 1994 (Proceedings 18th.
Symposium on Fusion Technology, Karlsruhe Aug.1994) 1313.
11. J.D.Hunn, R.E.Stoller, and SJ.Zinkle, 1. Nucl. Mat., 219 (1995) 169.
12. T.Shikama, M.Narui, Y.Endo, T.Sagawa, and H.Kayano, J. Nucl. Mat.,
191 - 194 (1992) 575.
13. T.Shikama, M.Narui, H.Kayano, and T.Sagawa, J. Nucl. Mat., 212 - 215 (1994)
1133.
14. E.H.Farnum, T.Shikama, M.Narui, T.Sagawa, and K.Scarborough, I. Nucl. Mat.,
228 (1996) 117.
15. W.Kesternich, F.Scheuermann, and S.J.Zinkle, I. Nucl. Mat., 206 (1993) 68.
16. P.Jung, Z.zhu, and H.Klein, J. Nucl. Mat., 206 (1993) 72.
17. E.H.Famum, F.W.Clinard Jr., W.F.Sommer, I.C.Kennedy III, and T.Shikama,
I. Nucl. Mat., 212 - 215 (1994) 1123.
18. C.Kinoshita and SJ.zinkle, I. Nucl. Mat., 233 - 237 (1996) 100.
19. A.Moslang, private communication.
20. E.R.Hodgson and A.Moroiio, to be published.
21. S.J.Zinkle, lEA Ceramics Workshop, Cincinnati, May 1997.
22. A.Moroiio and E.R.Hodgson, I. Nucl. Mat., 233 - 237 (1996) 1299.
23. A.Moroiio and E.R.Hodgson, to be presented at ICFRM 8, Sendai Japan, Oct.l997.
24. A.Moroiio and E.R.Hodgson, J. Nucl. Mat., 224 (1995) 216.
25. E.R.Hodgson, T.Nishitani, D.Orlinski, and S.Yamamoto, ITER Technical Meeting of
Irradiation Tests on Diagnostic Components Garching, July 1997.

268
IRRADIATION TESTS ON ITER DIAGNOSTIC COMPONENTS

S. Yamamoto I, L. deKock l , V. Belyakov 2, D. Orlinski 2,

F. Engelmann 3 , E. Hodgson 3 , S. Kasai 4, T. Nishitani 4 ,
E. Farnum S, K. YoungS, S. Bender 2, V. Chernov 2 ,
D. Griscom S, R. Heidinger 3, T. Iida 4 , E. Ishitsuka 4 ,
T. Kakuta 4 , H. Kawamura 4 , A. Krasilnikov 2, V. Lopatin 2,
R. Macaulay-Newcombe 3 , K. Noda 4 , T. Matoba 4 ,
Y. Oyama 4 , P. Pells 3 , A. RamseyS, Y. Revyakin 2,
T. Shikama 4 , R. Snider S, P. Stott3, V. Stepanov 2, U. Tarabrin2,
I. Valeri 2, K. Vasili 2, V. Voitsenya 2, K. Vukolov 2,
V. Zaveriaev 2 , S. Zinkle S, A. Costley6, T. Ando l ,
K. Ebisawa 6 , P. Edmonds l , H. Iida l , L. Johnson6, R. Santorol ,
S. Tanaka I , V. Mukhovatov 6,G. Vayakis 6 ,C. Walkerl,G. Janeschitz

I ITER Joint Central Team, Garching, Germany

2 RFParty
3 EUParty,
4 JAParty
5 US Party
6 ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, USA

ABSTRACT

Radiation effects on key components of diagnostic systems expected to be

subjected to high neutron and gamma fluxes and fluences are being examined in
irradiation tests to evaluate and establish an ITER-relevant database to support the
design. A comprehensive irradiation database has been accumulated and permits
conclusions to be drawn on the application of these components in ITER. The
design studies on prototypical assemblies of diagnostic components are continuing
based on the irradiation data bases, neutronics calculations for evaluating
irradiation environment of diagnostic components and required specification of
diagnostic systems. These studies will aid the recognition of detailed requirements
of diagnostic systems leading to more specific irradiation tests on diagnostic
components.

Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 199& 269
INTRODUCTION

The main objective of irradiation tests on diagnostic components is to

establish a database of irradiation effects on properties of diagnostic components
and to specify appropriately the working conditions for developing diagnostic
systems which can be operated reliably in the ITER irradiation environment.
The first meeting of irradiation effects on ITER diagnostic components was
held at St. Petersburg, Russia in 1991 in order to provide an opportunity for
radiation experts and diagnosticians to develop a common base for understanding
radiation effects on diagnostic components [1]. The second meeting was held at
the Garching ITER Joint Work Site in 1993 [2]. Based on the discussions of those
meetings, an task was initiated. Irradiation tests on ceramics, windows, optical
fibers, mirrors / reflectors and wires / cables were started under the task because
they are key components of diagnostic systems and are expected to be used under
relatively high irradiation environments.
For the irradiation tests on diagnostic components, in-situ measurements
should be emphasised. For ceramics, radiation induced conductivity (RIC),
radiation induced electrical degradation (RIED, which is a permanent degradation
observed in ceramic insulators under applied voltage), dielectric, thermal and
mechanical properties, and tritium diffusion have been studied. For potential
window materials, the optical properties including radioluminescence and optical
transmission have been studied. Similar studies have been carried out for
potential optical fibres. For potential mirror materials, reflectivity is measured at
relevant wavelengths. For wires/cables, RIC, RIED, radiation induced
electromotive force (RIEMF) between sheath and centre conductor of MI cables
and conductor resistance are measured.
Round robin experiments on Wesgo 995 polycrystalline alumina (the lEA
reference ceramic material), fused silica glass KU-1 (distributed by Russia) and
Anhydro-guide (low-OH) fiber with 200/220/280 ~m core/cladding/jacket
diameters (distributed by USA) were also performed by the four ITER Home
Teams using various kind of irradiation sources.
As the design of diagnostic systems progresses, the irradiation tests will
focus on the solution of well defined problems and irradiation of prototypical
assemblies including prototype sensors (magnetic coils, bolometers, pressure
gauges etc.) and transmission components (vacuum seals of windows, vacuum
electric feedthroughs, remote handled electrical connectors, vacuum seals for
optical fibers etc.).
In this paper we will give an overview of the results of the irradiation tests
on diagnostic components and assess the present diagnostic integration design in
the light of these results.

IRRADIATION TEST FAOLITIES

Displacements and ionisation effects (namely, electronic excitation effects)

are very important irradiation effects on materials. The ratio of absorbed doses
used for electronic excitation to those for atomic displacements (REA) under 1.8
MeV electrons, 20 MeV protons, fission neutron and 14 MeV neutron irradiations
are - 10000, -4000, -10-100 and -30, respectively. The REA value near the ITER
first wall is around 10 and varies by many orders of magnitude depending on the
distance from the plasma. Fission neutron irradiation sources seem to be the best

270
available irradiation facilities for testing ITER components except for
transmutation-related issues. However, all irradiation facilities, i.e. fission
reactors, 14 MeV neutron sources, charged particle accelerator facilities and
gamma ray sources should be utilised to provide timely and cost-effective data for
ITER. A balance between low fluence and high fluence experiments and between
in-situ and post-irradiation measurements must be found in order to make use of
the resources in the most efficient way.

SUMMARY OF PRINOPAL IRRADIATION TEST RESULTS

Recommended irradiation test conditions for clarification of the irradiation

effects on material properties and important factors affecting these properties are
summarised in Table 2 [3]. Important factors influencing the properties, including
dose rate, fluence, environment i.e. temperature and vacuum (or gas), impurities
and defects in the material and sputtering, these are designated by X in the table.
Some comments on the necessity for in-situ measurements and additional needs
are also added to the table. Measurements designated U will help to characterise
the processes involved in the response to irradiation. A detailed description of the
important influencing factors will be given in another paper [4].

The principal irradiation test results are as follows [5, 6, 7].

Ceramics:

• In the case of an alumina ceramic Wesgo 995, RIED was not observed under
electron beam or neutron irradiations.
• No catastrophic RIED was observed up to neutron fluence of 3 dpa
(displacements per atom) in helium.
• The maximum RIC at room temperature in ceramics for ionising dose rates
relevant for ITER first wall conditions (-104 Gy/s) is about lxl0-6 S/m.
• The value of RIC due to 14 MeV neutrons is one of the reference values obtained
under other sources of the fission neutron, electron beam, ion beam or gamma
irradiations.
• The swelling behaviour of ceramics is strongly dependent on the irradiation
temperature and the particular ceramic. Typical swelling values of 0.1 to 5% are
observed after neutron irradiation to a damage level of about 10 dpa.
• Ceramics generally experience a slight degradation in strength and fracture
toughness after fission neutron irradiation to - 1 dpa.
• Post-irradiation measurements performed on neutron irradiated ceramics have
found that the thermal conductivity typically decreases to about 1/3 of the
unirradiated value, although significantly larger and smaller changes have been
observed in numerous studies.
• Results for sapphire and alumina indicate an enhancement of the tritium
diffusivity at room temperature by a factor of about 1020 at 106Gy/s, with
electronic excitation effects playing an important role. Initial results for BeO
indicate that the radiation enhanced diffusion is related to displacement damage
rather than electronic excitation.

271
Tabl e2. Recommended'ura d'lation
. test condi·tions and important factors
Factor Important Factor Comments Conditions:
Temperature ('C)
Dose rate (Gy Is)
Flux (n/ cm 2/ s)
Fluence
E-field

Property
Env.
Dose Flu- Temp. Vac. Imps Spu 10- Need
rate ence -tter Situ to be
Gas De- clarified
fects

RIC X:U X X:U X X X:U Transmu 150-650 'C

(Mag. probe) -tation up to 10 4 Gy/s,
Target flux 4x1014 n/cm2 /s
up to 20dpa
Low voltage

RIC X:U X X:U X X X:U Transmu Same as for magnetic probe

(Ceramics) -tation

RIED X X X X X X 150-600 'C

(Ceramics) E-field >l00V /mm
Flux 101L1014 n/cm2/s

Mechnical ? Swelling
(Ceramics) Shock

X SCCG

Thermal Shock
(Ceramics)

Tritium X X X Windows / feedthroughs:

Diffusion < 350'C
Low pressure
Low flux < 1010n/cm2 /s Max

Optical X X X X X 25-400 'C

absorption up to 103 Gy /s

Radio X X X X X 25-400 'C

Luminescence up to 103 Gv /s

Reflectivity X X X 25-400 'C

flux higher for first mirror
up to 10 4 Gy/s,
Target flux 4x1014 n/cm2 /s
up to 20 dpa

X: Important influence
U: Understanding

272
Windows:

• Significant irradiation effects on optical absorption of fused silica glass KU-1 for
visible regions (from 350 nm to 850 nm) were not observed up to 1022n/m2.
Transparency in the wavelength from 450 to 650 nm decreased by 5 % to 15 % in
the range of the fluence from 1022 to 5x1023n/ m2.
• No irradiation effect on optical absorption of sapphire windows for IR regions
(from 850 nm to 5000 nm) was observed up to 4xl024n/m2.
• Radioluminescence in sapphire is very large in the region 200 nm to 750 nm and
two or three orders of magnitude greater than in quartz. Those values at 410 nm
are 1010 photons/Gy / A/st./cm3 for sapphire and 10 7 photons/Gy / A/st./cm3 at
410 nm for fused silica glass or quartz.
• The transient optical absorption in silica glass KU-1 under gamma or electron
irradiations was measured. It was shown that the absorption in the UV spectral
region varies very rapidly during the first few minutes after the start and after the
termination of irradiations. In the middle and red part of the visible spectrum the
sample transparency changes very slowly or does not change at all.
• Annealing effects with the temperature of up to 500 ·C on optical absorption in
sapphire and quartz windows were very small. For UV regions of KU-1, at least
700 ·C is required for significant annealing.

Fiber optics:

• Pure-silica core fibers with polymer jacket can be radiation hardened against
gamma-ray-induced visible absorption (400-700 nm) by high-dose gamma-ray pre-
irradiation (8.3x10 6Gy) in the presence of propagating visible light (-1.4mWh).
This phenomena were not observed in metal-jacketed fibers.
• Noticeable part of the radioluminescence of optical fibers is a Cherenkov
radiation.
• Operating of silica core fibers at >350·C (or periodic heating) appears a
promisimg way to substantiallly reduce the absorption in a relatively low fluence
region.
• Pure silica core fibers with low OH content show better radiation resistance than
other fibers for the visible regions.
• Fibers with extremely low OH (0.5 ppm) and Cl «20ppm) contents in their cores
demonstrated a rather flat induced loss spectrum in the visible region at a level of
2-2.5 dB/m for gamma-doses of about 107Gy.
• Pure silica core fibers with low OH content have an induced loss in the
wavelength region A. > 400 nm less than 10dB/m up to neutron fluence of
1.6xl020n/m2 and in the wavelength region A. > 800 nm less than 10dB/m up to
neutron fluence of 1025n/m2 (ldpa).
• Neutrons causes displacement damage associated with electronic excitation. And
the electronic excitation is introduced densely in a very localised zone. On the
other hand, gamma rays cause mainly electronic excitation. Comparison between
neutron irradiated and gamma-ray irradiated optical fibers showed that neutrons
might have larger effects in causing in-situ absorption than gamma rays.

MirrorslRefleclors:

• Metal mirrors made of copper can be used as first mirrors up to 40 dpa.

273
Molybdenum Corner Cube Reflectors (CCR) were irradiated up to 1.4x1024n/m2.
The surface condition of the Mo CCR was examined by an interferometric
technique and SEM and no irradiation effects was observed.
• Post irradiation measurements of layered synthetic microstructures (LSMs) for
soft x-ray reflectors were completed. Mo/Si, W /B4C and W /C LSMs were
irradiated up to 1.lx1023n / m2 (0.01 dpa). A shift of peak reflectivity to shorter
wavelength regions was observed and the reflectivity of the shifted peak decreased
by 20% compared with the original peak reflectivity of an unirradiated reflector.
• Preliminary reflectivity measurements were completed on dielectric-coated
mirrors for Thomson scattering laser beams. (a) Hf02/Si02 - 37 layers, (b)
Zr02/Si02 - 121 layers, (c) Zr02/Si02 - 29 layers, (d) Ti02/Si02 - 39 layers and
(e) Ti02/Si02 - 39 layers (plate polariser) were irradiated up to 1.lx1023n/m2
with temperature cycled between 60·C to 270·C. Of the 5 types of mirrors
irradiated, two (Hf02/Si02 - 37 layers and TiD2/Si02 - 39 layers) showed little
mechanical damage. But, other three types of mirrors showed flaking or blistering
of the coating. The reflectivity of the undamaged mirrors was measured and to
within ±S% reflectivity, no degradation was observed. Zirconia coatings were
physically damaged but surviving parts retained high reflectivity.
• Some organic x-ray crystals change their characteristics at a relatively low
fluence level. However, inorganic crystals including Ge, Si, Si02 and graphite do
not have a change in their reflectivity, interplane distance and width and form of
diffraction lines up to 1023n / m2. Mica monocrystals preserve their characteristics
up to 1022 n/m2.

Wires/Cables and Magnetic coils:

• RIC values of coaxial cables with 8 different types of powder mineral insulation
(Al203, Al203 doped with Cr, MgO, diamond, mullite and cordierite) were
measured. The lowest levels of RIC were observed in the fine mesh high-purity
alumina powder (-0.3 I.IID particle size). The extrapolated conductivities of these
cables are <10-8 S/m at temperatures up to -450·C for ionising dose rates as high
as 104 Gy/s.
• No catastrophic RIED was observed up to 1.8 dpa (_1.8x10 25 n/m2 (E>O.l MeV»
in MI cables irradiated with temperature of below 440T and with applied electric
field of 80 to 490 V/ mm .
• No major change of MgO insulation resistance of MI cables under neutron
irradiation up to fluence 3x1025 n/m2 (3 dpa) and then gradual decrease by a
factor of 3-4 to a final fluence of 1026n / m2 were observed.
• No inductance change of a magnetic coil made of MI cables was observed up to
neutron fluence of 6x1024n/ cm.
• The observed values of RIEMF in about 10m long MI cables under fission reactor
irradiations are about 3.0V. The RIEMF may be current driven.

The recommended materials and maximum allowable dose or dose rates to

these materials are summarised in Table 3. A set of one-page-summaries for all
irradiation tests and the summary of irradiation test results under this ITER
programme will be available as an ITER memo.

274
EVALUA TION OF LIFE TIME OF DIAGNOSTIC COMPONENTS

Diagnostic components will be located at several locations in the ITER

device. In order to simplify the maintenance scheme of the diagnostic systems, in-
situ replacement of diagnostic components due to irradiation damage should be
avoided. If the diagnostic components installed in in-vessel components, for
example, diagnostic divertor cassettes, diagnostic plugs in horizontal diagnostic
ports or in vertical diagnostic ports, survive longer than the lifetime of these in-
vessel components, the diagnostic component can be repaired when the related in-
vessel component is replaced. According to the ITER maintenance classifications,
divertor cassettes and diagnostic plugs in the horizontal or vertical ports are
categorised as Class 1 components. Blanket modules and back-plates are
categorised as Class 2 and Class 3 components, respectively. The required
numbers of full power discharges with 1000 seconds for each class and the
maximum dpa in ceramics before the replacements of the in-vessel components are
shown in Table 4. The total flux (>0.1 MeV) and ionisation dose rate at the first
wall of ITER are 3x1018 I m 2I sand 3x103Gy I s during operation with a wall load
of 1MW 1m2, respectively. A total fluence of 102Sn/m2 makes about 1 dpa
damage in ceramics, O.Sdpa in stainless steel and 0.7dpa in copper. Therefore, a
total damage of Sdpa in ceramics and 2-3dpa in metals and a total ionisation dose
of 1010Gy in ceramics are expected at the first wall at the end of Basic Performance
Phase (BPP) with a total fluence of 0.3MWa/m 2. Gamma-ray radiation produced
by the residual 16N in cooling water resulting from the 160(n,p)16N reaction
(T1/2 = 7.13 s) is about 0.06 Gy Is at 1 m from the coolant channels. This effect
cannot be ignored especially near the cryostat. Each location of the component and
the radiation shield configuration for the component must be designed taking into
account the life time and required signal to noise ratio of the diagnostic system.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS

The quality of electrical insulation by ceramics is one of the key issues for
ITER diagnostic systems. Ceramic insulators will be used in electric feedthroughs,
connectors, mechanical supports and general standoffs, MI cables and their seals,
substrates (bolometers), and other sensor devices such as pressure gauges.
The important factors of RIC are the operating temperature and irradiation
dose rate. The RIC was quantified and should not a problem in diagnostic design.
For example, the magnetic coils made of MI cables require an insulating
conductivity of less than 10-6 Sim (preferably much less i.e. 10-7 S/m). MI cable
resistivity on the back plates of the blanket structure meets these specifications.
The RIED is still only partly understood [8]. The important factors of RIED
are an applied voltage, operating temperature and irradiation dose. The RIED
only occurs if the following two conditions are satisfied at the same time:
Experiments have shown that if an electrical field greater than 50 kV1m is applied
during displacive irradiation and the working temperature is between 17S±2S"C
and 600±SO"C. If we avoid the above mentioned RIED expected conditions or
select particular materials ( for example, Wesgo AL995), the RIED will not be a
serious issue for the use of ceramic insulators. Some early RIED measurements are
now believed to be due to surface contamination through surrounding
environments and this is serious concern for installation. We must take
possibilities of surface contamination and degradation into account and consider

275
Table 3 Recommended materials and maximum allowable dose or dose rates
Diagnostic Recommended Accumulated effects Dynamic effects
components materials
Ceramics Single crystal sapphire 3dpa in helium 104Gy/s
(electrical and polycrystal alumina (RIED: No catastrophic (RIC: <lO-6s/m)
insulators) (AIZOJ) degradation)
Wires MI-cables: SUS, Inconel 1.8dpa 104 Gy/s
/Cables (sheath)/MgO, AIz0:3 (RIED: No catastrophic (RIC: <lO-lis/m)
(insulator)/ Cu, Ni degradation)
(centre conductor)
l(PGy/s
(RIEMF: <lOV )
Windows Fused Silica/Quartz 1O-3dpa Radioluminescence:
(400-1ZOO nm) (Transmission; 5% l(Yphotons/Gy.A.sr.cm3
degradation)
-
Sapphire 0.4dpa Radioluminescence:
(800-S000nm) (Transmission; No 1010photons/Gy.A.sr.cm3
degradation) at410nm
Optical fibers Pure silica (core)/F 107Gy Radioluminescence:
doped (clad)/ AI jacket (Transmission: Z-Z.5 dB/m)
(Visible region) 6xlO-6dpa
(Transmission: lOdB/m)
~~,,~ ~ ,,~- ~~-~-~~

Pure silica (core)/F Idpa Radi'Oluminescence:

doped (clad)/ AI jacket (Transmission: 1OdB/m)
(IRregion)
Mirrors First mirrors: 40dpa (Cu)
/Reflectors Metal (Cu, W, Mo, SS, AI) (Reflectivi!y: No degradatioi1)_ -~-~,~~~~,

First mirrors for UDAR:

S~ coated (Rh/V )?
DIelectric mirrors: < lO-Zdpa (Flaking, Blistering)
(HfOZ/SiOz, TiOz/SiOZ)
? ~~,~ ~"C,,_~,~_

LSMs: (Mo/Si, W /B4C < lO-Zdpa

and W/q? (the shift of the peak
reflectivity to shorter
wavelength)
x- ray crystals: (Ge, Si, lO-Zdpa
Si02, Graphite)

Table 4 The Maximum Flux and Fluence to Surfaces of the Plasma Side of each In-
VesseIComponent
Maintenance Example Required Flux Fluence dpa
Classification lifetime [n/m2/s] [n/m2]
in
Numbers of (>0.1 MeV) (>0.1 MeV) ceramics
discharges
with 1000 sec
Class 3 Back plate 10000-30000 2xlO 16 (Z-6)xl023 (2-6)xHr Z
Class 2 Blanket module 3000-5000 3xlO18 (9-1S)x1024 0.9-1.5
Class 1 Divertor cassettes 1000-3000 3x1018 (3-9)xl024 (3-9)xlo- 1
Diagnostic plug
(Horizontal
and Vertical)

276
counter measures to mitigate such effects.
Fused silica glass or quartz windows should be used in spectroscopic
systems for visible regions and sapphire windows should be used for IR regions.
During operation optical fibers for the IR regions can be used inside the
cryostat but optical fibers for visible regions can only be used outside the bioshield.
Windows, electric feedthroughs and optical feedthroughs constitute very
important vacuum and tritium barriers in diagnostic systems. A window seal
design is required to accommodate the high bakeout temperature of 2S0·C.
Windows as a first vacuum barrier must withstand a S bar accident. Window seal
configurations will be accepted only after they are subjected to at least S bakeout
and pressure cycles, a full expected dose of neutron and gamma radiation and
mechanical acceleration tests to lSg.
Metal mirrors (Copper and Molybdenum) are preferable for first mirrors in
the ITER irradiation environment. There is a possibility that it will not be
necessary to change the mirrors close to the first wall during the ITER life time if
other adverse effects of sputtering, evaporation or coating are not too serious.
Single coated metal mirrors of suitable combinations have to be used as a LIDAR
first mirror. The design of mirror assemblies to reduce mirror distortion due to
radiation heating is very important. Especially, dielectric mirrors and LSMs
should be used in well-shielded locations and under temperature control.
The experiments show that magnetic coils with MI cables on the back plates
will survive the life time of ITER. Observed radiation induced drift of an
integrator/ coil combination may limit an observable pulse duration to ~OOOs.

The following irradiation issues have still to be resolved for ITER diagnostic
systems in the near future.
• Irradiation effects on seals of windows [9], electric feedthroughs and optical
feedthroughs.
• Irradiation effects on remote handled electrical connectors.
• Laser power absorption and thermal shock in lenses and windows; in order to
evaluate the life time of the high power laser window, irradiation effects on
transient and permanent absorption should be investigated with 1 % accuracy.
• Damage threshold of dielectric mirrors and LSMs under irradiation.
• Laser damage threshold in irradiated dielectric mirrors or single coated mirrors.
• Reliable cable termination techniques with low leakage currents for MI cables.
• RIEMF effects on total magnetic measuring systems; origin of the RIEMF has not
been understood yet. Recently, an integrator concept for much longer times than
103 sec has been demonstrated Measurements of the radiation induced noise
including the RIEMF and any radiation induced drift in the long pulse integrator
are under way.
• Development of radiation hardened bolometers; the JT-60-type bolometer made
of a stainless-steel mounting frame, gold absorber and polyimide sheet was
irradiated up to 220 MGy under gamma irradiations. No significant change in the
bolometer sensitivity was observed. A JT-60-type bolometer made of AIN
substrates was completed and will be irradiated under fission neutron fields. The
JET-type bolometer made of mica substrates, usable at elevated temperatures of
300·C is under neutron irradiation. A few candidates of substrate materials,
Si3N4, AIN, Al203 or MgAl204 for the JET-type bolometer were proposed for
further irradiation tests [to].
• Development of radiation hardened pressure gauges; based on the ASDEX-type
pressure gauge, the ITER-relevant pressure gauge will be developed [11].

277
Irradiation effects on the mechanical strength of hot cathodes should be addressed.
Parasitic signals due to RIC, surface leakage current due to surface contamination,
degradation or gas ionisation due to tritium or gamma irradiation should be
evaluated.

ACKNO~EDGEMENTS

This paper was prepared as an account of work performed under the

Agreement among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of
Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the
United State of America on Co-operation in the Engineering Design Activities for
the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactors (ITER EDA Agreement)
under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (!AEA).

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[9] A. Nagashima, T. Fujisawa, T.Sugie, S.Kasai, "Development of New Window
Seal for ITER Optical Diagnostics", these Proceedings.
[10] RReichle, M.Di.Maio, L.C.lngesson, K.F.Mast, "Progress of the reference
design for ITER bolometers and development of a high performance alternative",
these Proceedings.
[11] G.Haas, H.-S.Bosch, D.Coster, L.deKock, J.Neuhauser, R.Schneider,
J.Schweinzer, "Pressure Gauges and Neutral Pressure Measurement in ITER", these
Proceedings.

278
CHANGE OF THE OPTICAL REFLECTIVITY OF MIRROR SURFACES
EXPOSED TO JET PLASMAS

M. Mayer, 1 R. Behrisch, 1 C. Gowers,2 P. Andrew,2 and A.T. Peacock 2

1Max Planck Institut fiir Plasmaphysik, EURATOM Association,

Boltzmannstr. 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany
2JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3EA,
United Kingdom

INTRODUCTION

For passive and active optical plasma diagnostics mirrors are needed at the ves-
sel walls. However, all surface layers of plasma exposed surfaces have been found to
be modified by erosion, redeposition and hydrogen implantation from the plasma [lJ.
These modifications will generally decrease the reflectivity of the surfaces [2J and fre-
quent recalibration of the diagnostics are necessary. They may even result in damage
of the mirrors, for example in the case of high power laser pulses.
Diagnostic mirrors are typically far away from the plasma. They are, however,
bombarded with neutral hydrogen and impurity atoms created in charge-exchange (CX)
collisions [3, 4, 5], resulting in surface layer modifications. Neutral CX-hydrogen atoms
have an energy distribution with a high energy tail which reaches into the several ten
keY range, resulting in erosion of the exposed surfaces and hydrogen implantation
[6, 7, 8J. There is only little knowledge about the change of the optical reflectivity
of different materials due to CX-bombardment. In order to get more insight into
the mechanisms resulting in changes of the reflectivity we have examined the surface
modifications and the reflectivity change of carbon, aluminium and nickel samples
exposed to JET plasmas. From these results lifetime predictions for mirrors used in
ITER can be obtained.

EXPERIMENTAL

About 30 polished carbon long term samples (LTS), partly covered with 530 nm
aluminium were mounted at the JET vessel walls at distances between 150 mm and

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aJ., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 279
500 mm from the plasma surface in the shadow of the protection limiters in March
1996 and replaced in October 1996 after about 2000 discharges (about 50000 plasma
seconds). The optical reflectivity of the LTS was measured at a wavelength of 670 nm
before installation and after removal. The change of the surface topography of the
LTS was investigated with scanning electron microscopy. The surface roughness was
measured with a mechanical profiler with a vertical resolution of about 5 nm. The
compositions of the LTS surface layers were determined with MeV ion beam techniques
(RBS, NRA, PIXE) [7].
The CX-flux to the inner vessel wall of JET, as determined by the measured erosion
of the LTS, is of the order of 5 X 10 19 D-atoms/m 2s [7], giving a total CX-flux hitting
the LTS of about 2.5 x 10 24 D-atoms/m 2 during the whole discharge period. This value
is an upper bound due to the additional erosion by He glow discharge cleaning [7].

RESULTS

Change of Reflectivity

The LTS mounted at the outer torus wall showed thick deposits mainly of Be and a
large decrease of reflectivity. This is mainly due to the regular beryllium evaporations
applied for wall conditioning in JET.
LTS mounted at the inner torus wall showed no or only minor Be deposits. This is
due to the lower Be evaporation rate at the inner wall and a probably higher erosion
rate. The Al and Ni layers of these LTS were eroded.
Table 1 summarises the measured erosion or deposition and the change of reflectivity
of some samples. The reflectivity of eroded samples after exposure has decreased by a
factor of roughly 2-3. For the Al samples 240-380 llIn of initially 530 nm Al were eroded.
The samples with the highest erosion showed also the highest decrease of reflectivity.
As has been shown by Bohmeyer et. al. [2] for plasma exposed mirror surfaces eroded
at the Berlin plasma generator the decrease of the direct optical reflectivity is associated
with an increase of the diffuse reflectivity. The decrease of the direct optical reflectivity
is even more pronounced for shorter wavelengths [2].
For samples with deposited layers on the surface the decrease of reflectivity was
large. For deposited layer thicknesses around 2 Jim the reflectivity decreased to nearly
zero.
The decrease of the reflectivity of eroded samples is mainly due to two effects:
1. Surface roughening due to erosion
2. Change of the chemical composition of the near surface region.
Additionally recrystallisation of the surface may occur [2].

Surface Roughening

Fig. 1 shows the surface roughness of an Al layer before and after exposure. The
total erosion of this AI-layer was 240 nm. Due to the erosion the roughness of the
surface has increased. For a quantitative description of surface roughness we introduce
the mean roughness Ymean:
1 N
Ymean = N L IYil
i=l
(1)

with Yi the vertical deviation and N the number of data points.

Fig. 2 shows the measured surface roughness of the AI-layers as a function of the

280
 Table 1: Reflectivity of some LTS at a wavelength of 670 nm before and after exposure.

Material Reflectivity Reflectivity Total Total Position

before after erOSlOn deposition
exposure exposure
C 1-3% ~O ? inner wall
Al 19% 11% 236 nm inner wall
Al 19% 7% 383 nm inner wall
Ni 65% 32% 100 nm outer wall
Al 22% ~O 2000 nm outer wall

amount of eroded aluminium. The mean roughness of the non-eroded samples was
about 20 nm. As shown in fig. 2 the surface roughness of the eroded samples increases
about linearly with increasing erosion. The mean roughness is about equal to the total
erosion. There is also some experimental evidence from laboratory experiments that for
low bombarding fluences the surface roughness increases about linearly with incident
flucnce. This was demonstrated for the bombardment of pyrolytic graphite by 2 keY
deuterium ions [9]. At large fluences (> 10 19 D-atoms/cm 2 ) the surface roughness
saturates and does not increase further.

Compositional Change of the Surface Layer

°
Fig. 3 shows the depth profiles of AI, C, 0, D and Ni of an AI-layer before and
after exposure. Initially the evaporated AI-layer contained about 5% and 8% C due
to the vacuum conditions during evaporation. After exposure about 300 nm Al are
eroded. The surface is oxidised within a depth of about 50 nm. Ni, Fe and Cr, but
also other impurities such as P, S, CI, K and Ca, are present in the whole layer with
a total concentration of about 0.5-1 %. Deuterium has been implanted up to a mean
concentration of about 4%. Because of the poor depth resolution for D it cannot be
determined if the D is present mainly at the surface or is distributed throughout the
whole layer. Additionally some per cent Be may be present in the layer. The reflectivity
of this sample has decreased from 19% to 10%.
On carbon samples the main impurities observed at the surface are implanted hy-
drogen isotopes and oxygen, the amount of other impurities is generally much smaller
than for aluminium layers (of the order of 10 15 atoms/cm 2 ).

PREDICTIONS FOR ITER

Energy Distribution of the CX-Flux

The energy distribution of the CX-flux is measured at ASDEX-Upgrade in detail in

the outer torus midplane with the Low Energy Neutral Particle Analyser (LENA) in
the energy range 30-1000 eV [10, 11] and with the Neutral Particle Analyser (NPA)
for energies> 500 eV [11, 12]. The flux below 30 eV is based on simulations with the
EIRENE code [13, 14, 15]. The CX energy spectrum measured at ASDEX-Upgrade
during a standard shot (# 6535, ne = 3 x 10 19 m- 3 ) is shown in fig. 4 together with a
preliminary calculation for the flat-top phase ofITER [16]. Both spectra are normalised

281
 2.0

-after exposure
l.5
------ before elJlOSure
400
1.0
•
! • •
•
i
= -1.0
100
-1.5

-2.0 °0~--~~I00~~~~~~~~~~~4OO--~~SOO
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Position (IJIII) Erosion of AI (run)

Figure 1: Surface roughness of an Al Figure 2: Mean surface roughness of dif-

layer before and after exposure. The mean ferent AI-layers as a function of AI-erosion.
roughness before exposure was about
20 nm and increased to about 240 nm for
the eroded sample.

Before exposure After exposure

Depth (nm)
o 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
l00~~-'~~'-~-'--~~~~ ~~-r~--~~-'--~'-~--n

AI c
:... c
.....................................
AI
'\

40

20

o 0'----~----2ooo.L.....--~---"'4ODD"'-"'=~----6OOD... 0 2000 40DD

600D

Depth (1015 atomsicm1

Figure 3: Depth profiles of AI, C, 0, Ni and D of an AI-layer before and after exposure.
The depth given in the top scale uses the theoretical Al density.

282
 10 17

- - ITER (preliminary calculation)

- -- -- - ASDEX-Upgrade (shot #6535)
'i:;' r tot =2x 10 19 atoms m-2 sec- I
>'"<II
CJ
<II

'"'"
e 10 13

e
"-
10 12
....
Q
~
'-' 1011
~

~ 1010

1(J9
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Energy (eV)

Figure 4: Energy distribution of the eX-fiux measured at ASDEX-Upgrade and a prelimi-

nary calculation for the fiat-top phase of ITER. The total fiux r tot is 2 x 10 19 atoms/m 2 s in
both cases.

to the same total flux of 2 x 10 19 atoms/m 2 s (see below). The high energy component
which originates from the core plasma is small, and the eX-flux decreases by several
orders of magnitude with increasing energy. The differences between the two spectra
are low.
For an incident flux with an energy distribution qE) an effective sputtering yield
Yej j can be defined by

Yeff = _1 jY(E) r(E) dE (2)

r tot
where Y(E) is the energy dependent sputtering yield and r tot the total incident flux,
r tot = J r(E) dE. The effective sputtering yields Yeff for D, T and He bombardment
at normal incidence are tabulated in table 2 for different materials. The sputtering
data from [17] were used for the calculation of Yeff. The effective sputtering by T
atoms is typically 3-4 times higher than the sputtering by D atoms due to the lower
sputtering threshold energy of T. The sputtering by He is about 5-10 times higher than
the sputtering by D.

Total CX-Flux to the First Walls of the Main Chamber

The mean eX-flux at the inner torus wall of JET, as determined from the measured
erosion of long term samples, is of the order of 5 x 10 19 D-atoms/m 2 s [7]. At the outer
torus midplane of ASDEX-Upgrade the measured eX-flux is 10 19-10 20 D-atoms/m 2 s,
depending on the discharge conditions. Preliminary calculations for ITER indicate a
smaller eX-flux than in present days machines due to the smaller recycling of neutral
hydrogen in ITER. For an estimate of the expected eX-erosion in the torus midplane
of ITER we use a conservative value for the total eX-flux of 2 x 10 19 Atoms/m 2 s.
However, it should be noted that the charge-exchange flux is strongly dependent on
the position in the torus. It has been demonstrated at ASDEX-Upgrade that the total
flux varies by about 3 orders of magnitude depending on the position in the torus [8]:
The highest fluxes are observed at the divert or entrance and exceed the given values
by about two orders of magnitude. At the top of the torus the smallest eX-fluxes are

283
Table 2: Effective sputtering yields Yeff for the bombardment of different materials with D,
T and He at normal incidence. Energy distribution of the incident particles as in ASDEX-
Upgrade shot #6535, fig. 4.

Material Bombarding species

D T He
Be 1.3 x 10 2 1.5 x 10 2 2.5 x 10
Al 5.9 x 10- 3 2.3 X 10- 2 4.9 X 10- 2
Fe 5.7 X 10- 3 1.3 X 10- 2 2.7 X 10- 2
Ni 7.8 x 10- 3 1.2 X 10- 2 3.9 X 10- 2
eu 1.4 x 10- 2 1.6 X 10- 2 6.3 X 10- 2
Mo 5.2 X 10- 4 4.2 X 10- 3 5.7 X 10- 3
Rh 2.4 x 10- 3 5.0 X 10- 3 1.1 X 10- 2
Ag 8.7 X 10- 3 1.3 X 10- 2 4.4 X 10- 2
W 1.2 X 10- 4 7.4 X 10- 4 1.4 X 10- 3
Au 1.9 X 10- 3 4.4 X 10- 3 1.2 X 10- 2

observed. At these positions the eX-flux is about one order of magnitude lower. The
energy distribution of the charge-exchange flux is also position dependent [8]. Also
near sources of neutral gas such as limiters much larger fluxes may be expected. These
positions should be avoided for mirrors.

Erosion and Reflectivity Change of Mirror Surfaces in the Main Chamber

We assume a total eX-flux of 2 x 10 19 atoms/m 2 s hitting the walls. The flux consists
of 50% D and 50% T. Although the concentration of He may be 10% in the core plasma
of ITER, the charge-exchange cross-section for the creation of neutral He is much lower
than the cross-section for creation of neutral D or T. The concentration of neutral He
in the eX-flux hitting the walls is considered to be below 1% and is neglected.
The mirror is located in a duct with diameter 20 cm and is 50 cm away from the
plasma surface. The solid angle 6.0 of visible plasma is 0.126 sr. If we assume a cosine
angular distribution of the incident eX-flux then the number N of removed atoms/m 2
from the mirror surface during a discharge time T is given by

(3)

Secondary effects, such as reflection of particles at the walls of the duct and sputtering
at the duct walls, are not considered.
The results obtained at JET and predictions for ITER are summarised in table 3.
The Al layers exposed at JET see an effective plasma solid angle of nearly 27r. The
measured erosion of the exposed Al layers at JET is about one monolayer Al during a
shot. For ITER about 500 shots per year are expected. We assume a linear relation
between surface roughening and decrease of reflectivity and normal incidence. As can
be seen from eq. 3 the erosion of mirror surfaces may be largely reduced if the solid
angle is decreased, i.e. by placing the mirror further away from the plasma. From the
viewpoint of surface roughening due to eX-sputtering tungsten is the most promising
material due to the smallest sputtering yield of all materials. Gold is excluded as mirror
material due to transmutation to mercury by neutron bombardment and is listed in
table 3 only for comparison.

284
Table 3: Measured erosion and reflectivity decrease of the Al layers exposed at JET and
predictions for ITER. The eX-flux is given for the torus midplane. The solid angle assumed
for ITER is for a mirror with 20 cm diameter which is 50 cm away from the plasma surface.
The erosion is given in monolayers [ML] per shot, the reflectivity is at 670 nm.

JET ITER
eX-flux [Atoms/m 2s] <6x 1019 2 x 10 19
Composition D 50% D, 50% T
Solid angle [sr] 211" 0.126
Shot length [s] 25 1000
Erosion [ML per shot]
Al 1 1
Mo 0.1
Rh 0.2
Ag 0.6
W 0.02
Au 0.2
Reflectivity decrease
after 2000 shots
Al 40-60% 50%
Mo 5%
Rh 10%
Ag 30%
w 1%
Au 10%

For tilted mirrors the sputtering yields are higher by a factor of about 5 in the worst
case, which is 70-80° particle incidence angle relative to the surface normal. However,
the erosion given in table 3 may be exceeded by a factor of about 100 if the mirrors are
placed close to the plasma or in regions with large eX-flux. For mirrors located at the
top of the torus the erosion may be ten times smaller than given in table 3 due to the
smaller eX-flux.

Reflectivity Change of Mirror Surfaces in the Divertor

In the JET divertor thick deposits with thicknesses up to 100 p,m, consisting mainly
of carbon with some beryllium and oxygen, are observed besides the strike points. For
mirrors in the ITER divertor therefore not erosion, but deposition may be the main
mechanism for changes of the optical reflectivity. As can be seen from table 1 the
optical reflectivity of deposition dominated samples is largely reduced and decreases to
nearly zero for layer thicknesses of 2 p,m. However, currently no predictions about the
change of reflectivity of mirrors in the ITER divertor can be made.

CONCLUSIONS

The optical reflectivity of erosion dominated carbon and aluminium surfaces from
the inner torus wall decreases by a factor 2-3 after exposure to about 2000 JET plasma
discharges. The erosion is due to sputtering by charge-exchange hydrogen and He glow
discharge cleaning. The decrease of the surface reflectivity is mainly due to two effects:

285
 1. Surface roughening of eroded surfaces
2. Change of the chemical composition of the surface.
The roughness of eroded surfaces increases with increasing total erosion. To minimise
the effect of erosion induced surface roughening materials with low CX-erosion yields
should be used, such as high Z materials. The change of the chemical composition of the
surface layers at the JET conditions is material dependent. The change of the chemical
composition due to bombardment with hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and beryllium is hard
to predict and should be investigated for the mirror materials anticipated for use in
ITER.
Samples located at deposition dominated areas show thick deposits. The reflectivity
of these samples decreases to nearly zero.

REFERENCES
[1] R. Behrisch, M. Mayer, and C. Garcia-Rosales, J. Nucl. Mater. 233-237 (1996) 673.
[2] W. Bohmeyer, G. Fussmann, P. Kornejew, H. Reiner, and H. Grote, in: 23rd EPS Conference on
Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, europhysics conference abstracts Vo!' 20 (1996) p. 1128.
[3] H. Verbeek and the ASDEX-team, J. Nuc!. Mater. 145-147 (1987) 523.
[4] R. Behrisch, J. Roth, G. Staudenmaier, and H. Verbeek, Nuc!. Instr. Meth. B18 (1987) 629.
[5] G. Staudenmaier and W. Wampler, J. Nuc!. Mater. 162-164 (1989) 414.
[6] M. Mayer, R. Behrisch, V. Prozesky, P. Andrew, and A. Peacock, in: 22nd EPS Conference on
Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, europhysics conference abstracts Vo!' 19C (1995) p. 301.
[7] M. Mayer, R. Behrisch, P. Andrew, and A. Peacock, J. Nuc!. Mater. 241-243 (1997) 469.
[8] H. Verbeek, J. Stober, D. Coster, and R. Schneider, in: 24th EPS Conference on Controlled
Fusion and Plasma Physics, europhysics conference abstracts Vo!' 21A (1997) p. 1457.
[9] M. Kiistner, Zerstaubung rauher Oberflachen, PhD thesis, Universitat Bayreuth, 1997, (in
german).
[10] H. Verbeek, J. Phys. E 19 (1986) 964.
[11] H. Verbeek, O. Heinrich, R. Schneider, H. Fahrbach, W. Herrmann, J. Neuhauser, U. Stroth, the
ASDEX-team, and D. Reiter, J. Nucl. Mater. 196-198 (1992) 1027.
[12] H. Fahrbach, W. Herrmann, and H. Mayer, in: 16nd EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and
Plasma Physics, europhysics conference abstracts Vo!' 13B (1989) p. 1537.
[13] D. Reiter, Technical Report .Jiil-1947, Forschungszentrum Jiilich, 1984.
[14] D. Reiter, The EIRENE Code, Users Manual, Technical Report Jiil-2599, Forschungszentrum
Jiilich, 1992.
[15] J. Stober, H. Verbeek, D. Coster, H.-U. Fahrbach, O. Heinrich, W. Herrmann, G. Haas, O. Kar-
daun, D. Reiter, R. Schneider, .J. Schweinzer, W. Suttrop, ASDEX Upgrade Team, NI Team,
ICRH Team, and ECRH Team, in: 22nd EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma
Physics, europhysics conference abstracts Vo!' 19C (1995) p. 249.
[16] A. Kukushkin, private communication, 1995.
[17] W. Eckstein, C. Garcia-Rosales, J. Roth, and W. Ottenberger, Sputtering Data, Technical Report
IPP 9/82, Max-Planck-Institut fiir Plasmaphysik, Garching, 1993.

286
INVESTIGATION OF THE FIBER OPTIC RADIATING RESISTANCE
AND RADIOLUMINESCENCE UNDER IR-8 REACTOR CONDITION

Andrei A. Ivanov, Sergei N. Tugarinov, Igor N. Rastyagaev,

VladimirN. Amosov, Yuri A. Kaschuck, Anatoli V. Krasilnikov,
Sergei E. Benderl

TRINITI, Troitsk, Moscow region 142092, Russia

lNIIEFA, St. Petersburg, 189631, Russia

INTRODUCTION

Optical fibers have a promising application in diagnostic systems of nuclear sites. In

particular, it is revealed that fiber optics has become a common technique to transmit ana-
log light signals from the limited-access areas near tokamak fusion reactors to remote diag-
nostic instruments. Typical examples of fiber-based diagnostic are visible bremsstrahlung
diagnostic (A,=535 nm) and beam emission spectroscopy system using D.. fluorescence
(A,=656 nm). However, the problems of the fiber optic radiating resistance connected with
sharp degradation of their optical characteristics and the induced luminescence under neu-
tron and y flux are appeared.I.S Previous experiments have shown that the optical fibers
with pure quartz core are more stable to irradiation, but radiation resistance such kind of
fibers produced using different technology is also different.6
In this paper three fiber types simultaneously exposed to reactor irradiation are com-
pared from the view point of both the radiation induced transmission loss and the radiolu-
minescence, observed in green at 535 nm and in red at 656 nm, vs neutron flUX/fluence.
The total fast neutron fluence and y dose were l't<8x10 14 nlcm2 and l't<17 Mrad, respectively.

SAMPLES, IRRADIATION CONDITIONS AND SETUP

The three different types of fibers used in the study are described in Table I. The core
material of fibers was Si02, and Si02 claddings were fluorine dropped. All fibers have the
same cladding diameter, numerical aperture and polymer coating but differed in OH-group
contents, except for fibers #2 and #3. A KU-I silica core material (fiber #3) is a commer-
cial product of the Russian industry analogous to Heraeus FIOO silica (fiber #2). All fibers
were produced in the Steko, St. Petersburg, Russia, by plasma outside deposition technique.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 287
 Table 1. Specifications of optical fiber studied.

Fiber Name and Core/Clad OH-group

No. Core/Clad Diameter, Jacket type NA contents, Producer
type (microm.) (ppm)
1 DSF-3 2001240 epoxyacrylate 0.2±O.02 25 Steko
SiO/Si02:F S.-Pet, Russia
2 HmleusFlOO 2201240 epoxyacrylate 0.2±O.02 >900 Steko
SiO/Si02:F S. -Pet, Russia
3 KU-I 2001240 epoxyacrylate O.2±O.02 >900 Steko
SiO/Si02 :F S.-Pet, Russia

All three fiber types were simultaneously exposed to reactor irradiation at reactor
powers of 50, 100 and 200 kW (see Table 2) and temperature of 55 C. A neutron/gamma
reactor output was changed due to changing of reactor power.

Table 2. Neutron/gamma reactor OUtput, 1 and total fluence/dose at the moment

of spectral measurement.

Reactor Fast neutrons Thermal neutrons Gamma radiation

power, Flux, F1uence, Flux, F1uenee, Dose rate, Dose,
(kW) (Dlemz!s) (Dleml ) (Dleml!s) (Dlenr) (radls) (rad)
0 - - - - 147 8.1 '" lOS
SO 1.1*1011 8.5*1013 1.5*1012 1.2*1015 2.2* lOS 1.9*10·
100 2.2*1011 3.7*101' 2.9"'1012 5.0*1015 4.4"'lO' 7.8*10·
200 4.4*1011 8.3*101' 5.9*1012 1.1*101• 8.7*lO' 1.7*107
lResearch reactor IR-8, FSC "Kurchatov Institute", Moscow, Russia, wet channel no. 6-3.

The experimental Setup7 involved 51 m total length of both sample and reference fi-
ber, coiled inside the reactor zone (58 em height) into double and single loops, respec-
tively, of each fiber type studied. The length difference between the homogeneously irradi-
ated parts of the sample and reference fibers was 56 em. These fibers were illuminated with
a spectrometric tungsten lamp that has been calibrated for absolute measurements in terms
of photons/s/em2/A/sr. To avoid photobleaching effects the distance between W-lamp and
fibers input was adapted so that input light power was below than 0.03 J.LW.
Both the radioluminescent and transmission spectra were detected by charge-coupled-
device (CCD) detector (1024 pixels, peltier cooled, has time resolution from 4 ms up to 1
min) with image intensifier providing the brightness intensification coefficient of 5xlif
and the dynamic range of 4x103 counts. It was placed downstream of the output slit of a
polychromator with the spectral window from 440 to 740 nm and the resolution of 1 nm.
The two camera objectives (f/#) were used to conform the fibers light output to the poly-
chromator light input. A personal computer was used for detector control and data storage.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To investigate both the induced transmission loss and radioluminescence, step by step
in-situ spectral measurements have been carned out according to reactor power (see Table
2). The results are summarized in Figures 1 and 2.

288
 The incremental transmission loss was evaluated in terms of dB using the relation
lOxlog(I/12), where 11 is the signal intensity before and 12 is the intensity after the irradia-
tion. In Figure 1, the incremental fiber attenuation, observed in green (A.=535 nm) and in
red (A.=656nm), as a function of fast neutron fluence is given for fibers studied. This shows

=
"0
.;;
25

""
=
....:l 20
.S=
""
.r.l 15
e
""=
f 10
E-<
-=
=
~

5
e
~

I»
100
CJ
.:I 0
0 2 4 6 8
14 2
Fast neutron f1uence, 10 n/cm

Figure 1. Incremental fiber attenuation in green and red as a function of fast neutron tluence for the fibm
studied. Fiber 1 - 535 run (+) and 656 run (+), Fiber 2 - 535 run ~ and 656 run (e), Fiber 3 - 535 run (.)
and 656 run (T).

a linear loss with neutron fluence for all fibers. Comparing three fibers with one another
one can see clearly that the loss level in the fiber #3 is noticeable lower than that of the fi-
bers #1 and #2. On reactor power of 200 kW (with 8.3*1014 nlcm2 at the fibers loop) the
fiber #3 lose 6.9 dB in the red while the fibers #1 and #2 loses 16 dB and 8.3 dB, respec-
tively. It is similar to behavior observed in the green. It is to be noted that the fiber trans-
mission loss at 656 nm associated with non-bridging oxygen hole centers (NBHOC), which
form an absorption band at 630 nm. Therefore, to fabricate a radiation-resistant fiber, it is
necessary to reduce the concentration of hydroxyl.
Just as for fiber transmission, we measured the radioluminescence as a function of fast
neutron fluence at 535 and 656 nm. The luminescent spectra were corrected for fiber
transmission. As can be see in Figure 2, the linear dependence on neutron fluencelflux was
retained for all fibers. Note that in high purity silica fibers, radioluminescence appears to be
dominated by Cerenkov radiation from electrons of 200 keV or higher energy in the core.

CONCLUSION

It follows from presented results that KU-l based optical fibers with fluorine dropped
cladding are more stable to reactor irradiation, but radiation resistance such kind of fibers
produced using different technology is also different.
Our in-situ measurement technique allows to determine most promising technologies
for producing radiation-resistant optical fibers.

289
 2

:i
~
or
=
(J

cu
(J

rl
.5
e
=
Q
:a
~
0
0 2 4 6 8
14 2
Fast neutron fluence, 10 n/cm

Figure 2. Plot of measured luminescence at 535 run and 656 run vs fast neutron fluence. It is corrected for
fiber transmission. For curves note see Figure 1.

Finally, it is important to note that pure quartz optical fibers manufactured with dif-
ferent radiation-hardening technologies could be successfully used in ITER conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank V.A. Belyakov and E.A. Azizov for their support and helpful
discussions. This work has been supported by the ITER Russian Home Team (ITER tasks
T28 and T246).

REFERENCES

1. M. Decreton, V. Massaut, and P. Borgennans, Potential benefit of fibre optics in nuclear applications:
the case of the decommissioning and the waste storage activities, in: Proc. SPIE, 2425:2 (1994)
2. A. T. Ramsey, D-T radiation effects on TFTR diagnostics, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:871 (1995).
3. H.G. Adler, K. W. Hill, AT. Ramsey, and W. Tighe, Luminescence and transmission measurements
on fibm; exposed to high neutron fluxes, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:904 (1995).
4. W. Tighe, P. Morgan, H. Adler, D. Cylinder, D. Griscom, D. Johnson, D. Palladino, and A. Ramsey,
Proposed experiment to investigate use of heated optical fibers for tokamak diagnostics during
D-T discharges, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:907 (1995).
5. S.F. Paul, J.L. Goldstein, R.D. Durst, and RJ. Fonck, Effect of high-energy neutron flux on fiber
optics in an active diagnostic on TFTR, Rev. &i. Instrum. 66:1252 (1995).
6. D.L. Griscom, K.M. Golant, AL. Tomashuk, D.V. Pavlov, Yu.A. Tarabrin, Gamma-radiation
resistance of aluminum-coated all-silica optical fibers fabricated using different types of silica
in the core, to be published in Appl. Phys. Lett.
7. AV. Krasilnikov, A.A. Ivanov, S.N. Tugarinov, LN. Rasyagaev, AYu. Tsutskih, V.N. Amosov,
Yu.A. Kaschuck, S.E. Bender, Transmission and radioluminescence of all-silica optical fibers
exposed to gannna-source and reactor radiation, in: Proc. 9th National Topical Conference on High-
Temperature Plasma Diagnostics, Saint-Petersburg, 2-4 June, 1997.

290
 RAD-HARD OPTICAL FmRES FOR DIAGNOSTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL FUSION REACTORS

O. Deparis a, P. Megret a, M. Decreton b, M. Blondel a ,K.M. Golant c, A.L. Tomashuk C

Q Faculte Polytechnique de Mons (Belgium)

b SCK.CEN, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre, Mol (Belgium)
" Fibre-Optics Research Centre at the General Physics Institute of the Russian Academy
of Sciences, Moscow (Russia)

INTRODUCTION
Because th~ can be used for monitoring and controlling the plasma conditions, radiation-
resistant optical fibres are among the key components for diagnostics on fusion reactors.
Ideally, the optical fibre spectrum should cover the wavelength range from 200 nm to 2000 nm,
namely from the ultraviolet to the visible and infrared ranges. Whereas a lot of data exist on the
radiation tolerance of optical fibres at telecommunication wavelengths (0.85, 1.3 and 1.55 11m),
much less is available below, in the visible (400-700 nm) and especially in the ultraviolet
« 400 nm) range. Moreover, the spectrometry of the radiation-induced loss in the ultraviolet
requires measurement devices such as light sources and detectors that are quite different from
the standard equipments used for visible-near infrared spectrometry (e.g. tungsten-halogen light
sources, semiconductor detectors). Key information however can be gained from recent
investigations around radiation hardened fibroscopy, performed as part of the ITER remote
handling studies.

FmRE OPTIC IMAGE GUIDE

As image guides, optical fibres offer a very flexible possibility of visual control during in-
vessel maintenance tasks. For such application, optical fibres ought to maintain good
transmission only in the visible range and over relatively short lengths (about 10 to 20 meters).
Rad-hard fibres with pure silica core and F-dored silica cladding have proven their capability to
withstand very high gamma doses (up to 10 _10 7 Gy) due the saturation phenomenon of the
radiation-induced loss with dose. In the absence of data in the ultraviolet range, one can
nevertheless infer some useful features from what has been measured in the visible range.

RADIATION TOLERANCE OF PURE SILICA CONVENTIONAL FmRES

It is for instance known that radiation-induced loss between 400 and 700 nm mainly results
from the superposition of an attenuation band near 600 nm attributed to nonbridging oxygen
hole centres (NBORCs), together with band tails extending from the ultraviolet due to intrinsic
or extrinsic defect centres [1][2][3]. The concentration of precursors of radiation-induced colour
centres depends primarily on the specific fabrication technology of the silica used as the fibre
core material. In conventional fibres with a core fabricated from SiCI 4, the intensity of a near-
UV band tail is related to the chlorine impurity concentration in the core. The radiolytic atomic
chlorine species are believed to absorb light around 340 nm and therefore their concentration
should be minimised for use in the ultraviolet and the visible ranges. On the other hand, it is
also desirable to minimise another kind of impurity : the hydroxyl (OR) groups, which are

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 291
 NBOHC precursors. The simultaneous reduction, however, of CI and OH concentrations is a
contradictory goal in the conventional technology. With conventional pure silica core fibres,
reduction of radiation-induced loss by a factor of 100 has been achieved by in-situ thermal
annealing (at 400°C) during deuterium-tritium operation of the TFTR fusion test reactor at
Princeton University [4].

LOW HYDROXYL LOW CHLORINE FIBRES FABRICATED USING KS-4V SILICA

A new glass fabrication approach overcomes this dilemma and is able to produce silica
with very low concentrations of both OH and CI [5]. This is KS-4V silica developed in the
Silicate Chemistry Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences and brought into Russian
industry. Fibres with a KS-4V core and an F-doped silica cladding demonstrate a rather flat
induced absorption spectrum in the visible spectral region at the level of - 2 dB/m in a wide
dose range from 1 to 10 MGy [1). A shortcoming of KS-4V fibres is a strong transient
absorption band at 670 nm, arising at low doses (- 100 Gy) and vanishing with increasing dose.
This transient absorption band is believed to be inherent in CI- and OH-free silicas [6]. Recently
it has been found that this band can be totally suppressed by loading fibres with molecular
hydrogen [7].

IRRADIATION RESULTS
a. Comparison of conventional (Suprasil F-lOO) and KS-4V fibres
For fibroscopy, a conventional polyimide-coated high-OH low-CI fibre (Suprasil F-100)
and an aluminium-coated low-OH low-CI (KS-4V) fibre have been tested with y rays (5 kGy/h)
up to very high doses (Figs. I and 2). Both fibres have an undoped silica core and a F-doped
silica cladding. Their characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Table I

Fiber Suprasil F-100 KS-4V

--Technoiogy--------SiCG"base-'C-------TS-:4Vgiass------
Diam. (!1m) 100/1101125 10011201150
Coating polyimide aluminium
[OH] (ppm) 600-800 < 0.2
[CI] (ppm) 100-125 < 20

Typical radiation-induced attenuation spectra are shown on Figs. 1 and 2 for the conventional
and the new fibre respectively. For both fibres, the level of radiation-induced attenuation
reached in the MGy range is lower than ,.,2.5 dB/m (maximum measurable level). Due to its
induced absorption band at 600 nm, the Suprasil F-100 fibre shows a dose or time-variant
induced attenuation spectrum during both irradiation and recovery cycles. The UV band tail
associated with chlorine is here not very intense. By contrast, in the KS-4V fibre, the 600 nm
band is absent. On the other hand, the increasing but stable induced attenuation at shorter

2.5 0.8MGy (I)

1.0MGy(2}
l.2MGy (3)
E 2.0
1.4MGy (4)
~ 1.5 MGy (5)
6 1.5
1.3 h (a)

J
~ 1.0
100.2 h (b)

~
~ 0.5
,~:::~~~c___________ :_~..::-:::~:::::~:
____~____~
__ . ~~
0.0 +-~-~_~--t---j-~-+--U--f--I--~
a B @ ~ ~ ~ ~ l~ lD
Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 1 : Visible-infrared radiation-induced attenuation spectra in a conventional rad-hard fibre.

Legends (1-5) give the cumulated dose in MGy (SiO,). Legends (a-c) give the recovery time
after irradiation (hours) [21.

292
 2.5 0.8 MGy (I)

1.0 MGy (2)

2.0

t
~
I.5MGy (3)

1.71 h (a)
§ 1.5
100.56 h (b)

'J
~ 1.0
195.48 h (c)

)
- 0.5

0.0 J..-~+----'---+---+~~-----;--+-~
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 2 : Visible-infrared radiation-induced attenuation spectra in a low OH low CI rad-hard fibre.

Legends (1-5) give the cumulated dose in MGy (SiO,). Legends (a-c) give the recovery time after irradiation
(hours) 121.

wavelengths suggests the existence of intense but stable intrinsic defect centres in the ultraviolet
(Fig. 2). The comparison of the radiation tolerance of conventional and new rad-hard fibres can
be made on the basis of data recorded in the visible range. Some trends can be stated for the
optimisation of the fibre fabrication (e.g. low concentrations of OH and Cl impurities should be
desirable). However, for the use of fibres in the widest wavelength range (200-2000 nm), one
still needs of course to investigate the radiation-induced defect centres and their associated
absorption bands in the ultraviolet range.

b. Hydrogen loading as an efficient technique for radiation hardening

In order to study the influence of H2 loading on the radiation tolerance of silica fibres,
pieces of KS-4V and high-OH KU polymer-coated fibres (KU silica is similar to Suprasil F-
100 glass) were kept in a pressurized H2 atmosphere (240 MPa, room temperature) for 11 days.
For good comparison purpose, the fibres were chosen with the same geometry (core and
cladding diameters of 100 and 120 microns respectively). All samples were then gamma
irradiated in two steps with a 6O CO source (dose rate of 6.6 Gy/s and T-40°C), up to 297 Gy
(step 1) and 1.7 MGy (step 2). During step 1, the transient 700 nm absorption band in KS-4V

. ~ ) ()

.... ,~r:;"KU, unloaded'-!)

"\ i (~;
';, KS-4V, unloaded nJ
~
E 1000
()

""- c'
CD
-0
Ul
tI)
.2

-
(ij
.9
100
KU, H,-Ioaded

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

wavelength, Ilm

Fig. 3 : Loss spectra in H1-loaded and unloaded fibres with KU and KS-4V cores
measured within several hours after gamma-irradiation to 1.7 MGy (Si)

293
 OH absorbtion
~
{
NBOHe I
E 1000
i
--
.::t!
III
"C
~ I
H,-Ioaded &
u) irradiated
III
.Q

--
ro
0 100
,
.\.
• as-drawn

10~~-L~~~~~~~~~~~-L~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
wavelength, Ilm
Fig. 4 : Evolution of the loss spectrum of the KS-4V fibre as the result of
hydrogen loading and gamma-irradiation to 1.7 MGy (Si)

fibres was totally suppressed as the result of the H2 loading. After step 2, the induced absorption
in the visible spectral region for both types of Hrloaded fibres, turned out to be more than an
order of magnitude lower than in the as-drawn fibres (Fig. 3). The absorption levels in both H2
loaded fibre types were sImilar. It is also worth noting that during the three days of irradiation, a
major part of the H2 molecules entered into the glass matrix through radio lytic reactions. This
was for instance manifested by a tremendous rise of the OH-group absorption peak at 1380 nm
in the KS-4V fibre, from 45 to 1600 dB/km (Fig. 4). The test assessed hydrogen loading as an
efficient technique for radiation hardening of fibres, to be used for diagnostics purposes.

CONCLUSION
Experimental results were presented for the radiation tolerance of pure silica fibres in the
visible region of the light spectrum. Different fibre types were compared, showing the
favourable influence of low Cl concentration and of H2 loading. Although some trends can be
extrapolated towards the UV region, further tests should be needed on these fibres to assess
their characteristics fro UV plasma diagnostics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support is gratefully acknowledged by A. Tomashuk to the Russian Basic Research
Foundation (Grant 97-02-16552), and by M. Decreton to the European Commission (Fusion Underlying
Technology Programme, Contract ERB 5004 CT 97 0058).

REFERENCES:
[I] D.L.Griscom, K.M.Golant, A.L.Tomashuk, D.V.Pavlov, Yu.A.Tarabrin,
Gamma Radiation Resistance of Aluminum-Coated All-Silica Optical Fibers Fabricated Using
Different Types of Silica in the Core, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, pp. 322-324, 1996.
[2] O. Deparis, P. Megret, M. Decreton, M. Blondel,
Gamma Radiation Tests of Potential Optical Fibre Candidates for Fibroscopy, IEEE Trans. on Nucl.
Sci., vol. 43, n06, pp. 3027-3031,1996.
[3] D. L. Griscom,
Gamma and fission reactor radiation effects on the visible-range transparency of aluminum-jacketed,
all-silica optical fibers, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 80, n04, pp. 2142-2155,1996.
[4] A. T. Ramsey, W. Tighe, J. Bartolick, P. D. Morgan,
Radiation effects on heated optical fibers, Rev. Sci. rnstrum., vol. 68, nOI, pp. 632-635, 1997.

294
[5] V.A. Bogatyrjov, I. I. Cheremisin, E. M. Dianov, K. M. Golant, A. L. Tomashuk,
"Super High Strength Metal Coated Low Hydroxyl Low Chlorine All Silica Optical Fibres", IEEE
Trans. on Nucl. Sci., vol. 43, n03, Part I, pp. 1057-1060, 1996.
[6] D.L. Griscom,
VisiblelInfra-Red Absorption Study in Fiber Geometry of Metastable Defect States in High-Purity
Fused Silicas, Proc. 13th International Conf. On Defects in Insulating Materials (Wake Forest
University, Winston-Salem, NC), July 1996.
[7] A.L.Tomashuk, E.M.Dianov, K.M.Golant, A.O.Rybaltovskii,
Gamma Radiation-Induced Absorption in Pure-Silica-Core Fibres in the Visible Spectral Region: the
Effect ofH2-Loading, RADECS'97 Conference, Cannes, September 15-19,1997.

295
XUV AND VUV SPECTROSCOPY OF ITER

N. C. Hawkes, R. DeAngelis!, S. Dillon 2 , P. Edmonds 3 , J. Edwards,

R. M. Giannella4 , P. Gray 5, G. Janeschitz 3 , K. D. Lawson,
M. 0'Mullane2 , N. J. Peacock, M. Valisa6 , C. I. Walker3
UKAEA/Euratom Association, Culham, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 3DB, UK.
1 ENEA-C. R. E. Frascati, Rome, Italy.
2 JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon, OX13 3EA, UK.
3 ITER JCT, Garching JWS, Garching, Germany.
4 CEN Cadarache, 13108 Saint-Paul-Iez-Durance, FRANCE
5 Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon, OXIl OQX, UK.
6 Istituto Gas lonizzati del CNR, 1-35020 Padova, Italy.

ABSTRACT
The vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) spectral regions, together
comprising the wavelength range from about 1-100 nm, contain important information
about the state of a tokamak plasma. The short wavelength end of this band, in par-
ticular, contains much useful information about light impurity distributions yet is one
of the most difficult spectral regions to diagnose. This paper will describe the uses to
which information from this spectral region will be put on ITER, the difficulties to be
encountered and the solutions envisaged.

INTRODUCTION
The XUV spectral region (1-10 nm) encompasses the Lyman emission lines of the light
impurities found in present tokamaks (C, 0, Be) while the VUV region (10-100nm)
includes the n=2-2 emission lines of metallic impurities (Fe, Ni) and strong emission
features of likely plasma dopants for radiative edge operations. The monitoring of
these impurity species will be important for ITER for the diagnosis of overall machine
conditions, for diagnosis of impending fault conditions and for the real time control of
the level of impurity dopants. Measurements of the spatial distributions of impurity
ion emission features and their time evolution following transient events (the deliberate
introduction of trace impurities, for example) can be used to determine the profiles of
the transport coefficients. Differences in the transport properties of metals and light
impurities are expected due to Z-dependencies within neoclassical theory. As well as
their direct relevance to impurity and ash control in a steady-state reactor, the measured
transport profiles yield important clues as to the nature and form of the background ion
and energy transport. It has therefore always been a goal of experimentalists to be able

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott etal., P1emun Press, New York, 1998 297
to measure the radial profiles of XUV and VUV emission from plasma devices. VUV
emission has also been used to measure ion temperatures and plasma flows, 1 although
care is needed in the interpretation of measurements from multichannel grazing incidence
spectrometers where the instrument function may playa large role in determining the
lineshapes. 2
In this paper we consider the specific needs of ITER and the constraints imposed
by its radiation environment. Two schemes are presented, one vertically viewing giving
space resolution of the plasma edge and wavelength coverage to below 2 nm, the other
a radially viewing VUV survey spectrometer.

REQUIREMENTS OF VUV AND XUV SPECTROSCOPY

The broad requirements for this diagnostic are outlined in the specification of the expert
group,3

Impurity Content range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Z::;8 0.5-20% 30cm lOOms 20%
Z>8 0.01-0.3% 30cm lOOms 20%

For a more detailed specification of the desired performance of the diagnostic we

must examine the predictions of impurity transport simulations of the ITER plasma.
Simulations have therefore been run using the radial profiles of temperature and electron
density given in ref. 4 with transport coefficients appropriate to both Land H-mode
conditions, figure 1. For intermediate Z impurity ions (iron), the radial positions of the
emission shells lie inside the region of the transport barrier and thus are not oversensit-
ive to the details of the model. For the low Z impurities (carbon), the ratio of emission
from different ion stages is very sensitive to the details of the H-mode transport model,
in particular to the location of the transport barrier. 5 The edge Te profile determines
whether the C VI shell lies within the last closed flux surface (LCFS) or in the scrape-off
layer (SOL). Therefore, the calculations of the positions and intensities of the light im-
purity emission has been based on an L-mode transport model. An important function
of this diagnostic will be elucidate the details of the H-mode transport at the edge of
ITER and the role of ELMs in controlling impurity levels (of particular relevance where
edge radiating impurities are deliberately introduced to reduce the divertor heat load,
but where occurence of these impurities in the bulk plasma is to be avoided).
The results of the transport modelling show that the space resolution of the dia-
gnostic must be of the order 5 cm at the plasma edge, reducing towards the plasma
centre where the profiles are expected to be flatter and the relevant ionisation stages
exist over a larger temperature range. However, it should be borne in mind that in
present reversed-shear experiments a sharp barrier to transport is found at about half
radius and the diagnostic should ideally be capable of resolving details such as this.
As a design goal we therefore aim to have a space resolution of 5 cm over the outer
50 cm of the plasma becoming rapidly coarser towards the plasma centre.

ITER SOLUTIONS
From the foregoing remarks it is clear that the edge plasma is the most important in
terms of space resolution. It is the important Lyman lines of the light impurities that
radiate near the edge. These lines lie in the shortest wavelength region (l-lOnm) to
be covered by the diagnostic. In this region the optical system must be designed with

298
 Fe C
1.4
2.5

1.2
2.0
f" 1.0
E

bs: O.B
()

1.5

-
: ; 0.6
:~ 1.0
Ul

·e 0.4
Ul

w
0.5
0.2

0 0
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Minor radius (m) Minor radius (m)

Figure 1. The radial emission profiles of an intermediate Z impurity (iron) and a light
impurity (carbon) using the plasma Te and ne profiles given in ref. 4. The transport model
used for the simulation is L-mode like for the C simulation (since the details of the edge
transport barrier in H-mode have a profound effect on the C emission profiles) while the Fe
simulation is based on an H-mode transport model.

grazing incidence (5° or less) reflections throughout. These twin constraints severely
restrict the range of options available for the layout of this diagnostic. The only scope
for tangential viewing of the edge plasma with a grazing incidence flightline is from the
vertical ports, figure 2. Access to the plasma edge from the radial ports entails reflection
angles of the order of 45° restricting the operating wavelength to above 30 nm.
Where longer wavelength coverage only is required, or where no space resolution
is needed, considerable choice exists on the location of the spectrometer. It is proposed
to include such a longer wavelength spectrometer as part of the diagnostic package in
radial port 7 as a relatively simple survey diagnostic. 6
Vertical Viewing XUV System
The general layout of the vertical viewing design is of a duct containing two mirrors,
figure 2. A first (plane) mirror deviates the light providing shielding against the direct
neutron flux while a second (curved) mirror focusses the light into the spectrometer.
Each spatial chord has a separate spectrometer and beamline, the optical components
would be assembled and aligned as a single entity before installation into the vacuum
assembly and shielding structure in the port.
The space restrictions within the vertical port force the use of 5° incidence devi-
ating mirrors for the edge channels. The more central channels are less restricted and
could therefore use shallower incidence mirrors, however the direct neutron flux will be
higher for these central chords and the higher deviation angle will offer better radiation
attenuation. Additionally, radiation below 5 nm is not expected for these chords and so
extreme grazing incidence optics are not required.
In order to maintain the angle of incidence at 5° for the deviating mirror the viewing
chords make use of the gap between blanket tile segments near the top of the machine.

299
 Single Channel
Spectrometers

- Focussing mirror (2.5°)

Multi-Channel
Spectrometers
Focussing
Mirror

Deviating
Mirror
_ _ Deviating mirror (5°)

II
II
II
II
II
I
I
I
I

I
I

•- Object point in plasma

Figure 2. Sketch of optical arrangement and engineering layout of the complete vertical port
system.

Normally this gap is about 2 cm but this would have to be enlarged to 5 cm on this
port to match the light collection aperture of the diagnostic and ensure maximum signal
levels.
The central channels of the diagnostic each collect light from a single chord and
use a focussing mirror near the spectrometer to match its acceptance cone, keeping the
shield duct diameter as small as possible. The density of chords required at the plasma
edge would involve many (ten or more) individual spectrometer and mirror assemblies.
Such an arrangement would be both expensive and extremely difficult to accomodate
in the restricted space of the vertical port extension, while siting the instruments above
the biological shield is discouraged. Instead, an imaging arrangement has been used,
splitting the cluster of edge chords into two groups. The focussing mirror of the central
chords is replaced by a toroidal mirror that forms an image of the plasma, seen through
the blanket slot, along the length of the spectrometer entrance slit. Relatively wide
ducts are needed in the shield to accomodate the full image size, however these need
only be 5 cm thick slots, and will not receive radiation directly from the centre of the
plasma.
The central chords are arranged to avoid viewing the divertor volume. This region
is a strong emitter of soft X-ray radiation which can swamp the relatively weak emission
from the plasma centre, figure 3.
Optical Design The optical design for each of the edge imaging systems is identical
and is based on a 2 metre Rowland circle grazing incidence spectrometer. A toroidal
mirror 600 mm in front of the spectrometer images the plasma view (seen though the
blanket module slot) onto the spectrometer entrance slit. In the raytrace plots, figure 4,
300
 ;;; ;;;::
xx x::
xii
8 zi:
< <i:
I': ~i:
"'" C?::

~jUj\1:

o~~~~~--~~~--~~--~--~~·
175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
;qA)

Figure 3. Comparison of spectra from a radial viewing and a vertical viewing spectrometer
(SPRED7) on JET. The vertical spectrometer looks into the divertor volume through the plasma
centre and demonstrates how the spectra are completely dominated by the divertor emission.
For measurements of the plasma centre it is therefore important to avoid lines of sight that
intercept strong divertor radiation.

a single point in the plasma forms an image of 3-6 mm in extent (at various wavelengths).
The magnification of the system is 12 which therefore results in a resolution in the
plasma of 35-70 mm with the poorest resolution occurring at long wavelengths and at
the extreme ends of the imaging region. It is likely that the design can be further
improved to give better resolution in these regions.
The highest space resolution is seen at the entrance slit position. It is possible
to place a pinhole at this position and allow only light from a single spatial position
into the spectrometer thereby obtaining higher resolution (17-30mm) than is possible
with the multichannel system (the spectral resolution would also be improved). This
technique has been used in high resolution VUV solar imaging spectrometers. 8 However,
this scheme requires the pinhole to be moved across the slit to obtain a spatial scan and
hence would not allow simultaneous measurements across the whole profile which would
be a significant disadvantage.
Radiation Shielding The radiation shielding has to be sufficently effective to reduce
the neutron (and gamma) induced noise in the detector to significantly below the signal
countrate. In a multichannel detector neutron induced signal constitutes a pedestal
on which the spectral information sits. 4 In principle this pedestal can be subtracted
away leaving the spectral information alone, however the shot noise associated with the
neutron signal remains and degrades the signal to noise ratio of the measurements.
The transport calculation of figure 1 can be used to estimate photon fluxes in the
spectrometers, including the reflection losses at the two mirrors. Data on the reflect-
ivies of gold for the deviating mirror at 50 and the focussing mirror at 2.5 0 incidence are
taken from. 9 For a line of sight viewing the plasma tangentially to flux surfaces and a
concentration of Fe in the plasma of 0.007% a countrate of 4 x 104 cts.s- 1 (Fe XXIV) is
anticipated. For the LO/ line of carbon the intensity in H-mode is sensitively dependent
on the transport assumtions. However, for L-mode transport a countrate in the spectro-

301
 100A
+150mm ,
+100 mm 'm
i=-

Omm I I
1
t
7.omm

-100mm l
1
0.1 mm

-150 mm
Figure 4. Raytrace calculations of the images in the spectrometer at two wavelengths (10 and
35 nm). The spot patterns shown are from points in the plasma at 0, ± 10 and ± 15 cm from the
optical axis, ie a coverage of 30 cm. The sizes of the spot patterns yield a resolution between
30 and 70 mm in the plasma.

meter of 5 X 10 5 cts.s- 1 is predicted at a carbon concentration of 1% and n e =1 X 1020 m- 3

Neutron and gamma radiation levels for this diagnostic are estimated using the
'HANDC' code.lO The calculations are based on two shields in series, the first between
the plasma and the deviating mirror, the second between the mirror and the spectro-
meter. No account has been taken of the extra reduction in neutron flux obtainable by
a moderate amount of tight baffling near the spectrometer entrance slit, where only a
very small optical aperture is needed. An effective shield can be constructed here which
could also lead to weight savings elsewhere.
In the calculations it is assumed that neutron radiation reaching the deviating mir-
ror is collimated by the penetration in the first shield and therefore does not enter
directly into the duct of the second shield. The effectiveness of this shielding arrange-
ment depends critically on this assumption for without it the neutron flux entering the
spectrometer is higher by a factor of 103 • Preliminary MCNP calculations agree with
the results of the HANDC code with this assumption.
Care should be taken to keep the exposed mass of the deviating mirror low to avoid
forward scatter of radiation towards the second shield. (The mirror could be constructed
of lightweight material supported on a stable structure to either side of the path of the
streaming neutrons.)
The calculations give a neutron rate of 3 X 1011 n.m- 2 .s- 1 at the spectrometer posi-
tion. The radiation sensitivity figures for micro channel plate detectors 11 , 12 indicate that
these devices are more sensitive to gamma rays than to neutrons at 2.2 X 10- 2 C.,-I, so
assuming that the neutron flux is accompanied by an equal gamma flux a noise signal
is induced in the spectrometer of 4 X 10 2 C. pixel- 1 .s- 1 • Even over a typical spectral
linewidth of 3-5 pixels this countrate is much lower (at least a factor of 100) than the
estimated signal levels and indicates that the shield is effective. However, the spectro-
meters are within the biological shield and so subject to the ambient radiation flux of

302
the cryostat thus there would probably have to be extra shielding installed around the
sides of the vertical port to give adequate attenuation of this radiation.
Instrumentation The calculations of the imaging system have assumed grazing incid-
ence spectrometers as are required for coverage down to 1-2 nm for the strong emission
lines of light impurities. The maximum wavelength of such instruments is typically
35 nm, wavelengths above 10 nm being the domain of higher incidence angle devices.
As the incidence angle is increased instrumental aberrations become less and imaging
becomes simpler; above 50 nm normal incidence spectrometers can be used to good ef-
fect,I3 however the high f-number of the relay optics will impose a limit on the optical
thoughput of such a system.
Since a large part of the complication and cost of installing this diagnostic on
ITER will involve the shield and transmission optics it is important to exploit these
components to the full by making the spectrometer as flexible as possible. Options for
extending the wavelength range of the system with a second spectrometer on each chord
include using the zero order light from the XUV system 4 or tilting the spectrometer
so that light from the entrance slit illuminates a second grating. The coverage of the
grazing incidence instrument itself can also be extended (to ""'100 nm) with a longer
Rowland circle.
Detectors In the radiation calculations above a microchannelplate based detector was
assumed although other possibilities are available. A critical issue for the detector choice,
apart from those of sensitivity to XUV photons and neutrons, is that of sensitivity to
tritium poisoning. The spectrometers and detectors lie within the ITER primary vacuum
boundary and as such will be exposed to the tritium present in that environment.
Microchannelplates are likely to be poor candidates with regard to tritium poisoning
since they present a large surface area for absorption and the decay f3s would each
trigger an electron avalanche in the detector (a photon counting energy discriminating
readout system could be an advantage in this situation). A better approach could be
to use a very thin photon converter (scintillator) and relay the visible light to a CCD
(or CID) outside the vacuum chamber, but at present data is not available to make the
comparisons. In the event that tritium poisoning remains an issue, steps would have to
be taken to exclude it from the spectrometer chamber (perhaps by a low pressure purge
of hydrogen) or to clean the detectors in-situ (outgassing of channelplate detectors with
a UV radiation source).
Certain detectors, notably photomultiplier tube and image intensifiers, but also
microchannelplates (to a lesser extent) are sensitive to the magnetic environment. For
the location of the spectrometers within the cryostat the magnetic fields can be of the
order of 0.5 T (ref. 14). These types of detectors would all require shielding against
such fields.
First Mirror Lifetime The radiation levels calculated at the location of the deviating
mirror are low, 7 x 10 14 n.m- 2 .s- 1 , while the damage threshold for a steel substrate
mirror is probably in the region of 10 23 n.m- 2 .s- 1 . 15 Thus a lifetime in excess of 106
ITER discharges is expected for this component. The neutron heating rate is less than
23 W which again is well within safe limits.
While the deviation mirror is well protected from radiation effects there remains the
issue of contamination of the mirror surface. The indications from JET4 are pessimistic,
giving a lifetime for contamination of only 50 ITER shots (to 50% transmission at
10 nm). However, the JET mirror contamination data translate into rather high impurity
fluxes which may have occurred outside of plasma pulsing (for instance during cleaning).

303
Radial Impurity Survey
It is planned to include a broadband survey spectrometer as part of the integrated
diagnostic package in the radial port 7 (see ref. 6) operating above 10 nm, figure 5. The

~
'0 "C
0-
-Q)
0·-
.- .s::.
COUl

Figure 5. Plan view of radial port 7 showing the location of a VUV survey spectrometer.

instrument would incorporate a focussing mirror to image the aperture in the port shield
onto the spectrometer entrance slit and match the spectrometer acceptance aperture.
A plane deviating mirror at 5° incidence is included within the access cell to allow the
sharing of the port with other diagnostics.
The optical and radiation design considerations are broadly similar to the 'vertical
XUV spectrometers considered above, but with some reduction in neutron and gamma
radiation flux due to greater depth of shielding.
Calibration
The calibration of XUV and VUV spectrometers is always an area of great difficulty;
there are very few sources in this spectral region that can be used as either a transfer
or absolute standard. The sensitive components of the spectromter, its reflectors and
detectors, are all part of the tokamak primary vacuum and thus vulnerable to surface
contamination that can alter their characteristics over time. These problems mean
that the most successful techniques for the calibration of spectrometers in this spectral
region would either use an in-situ calibrated source or make use of the plasma itself as
a transfer standard. The latter technique utilises branching ratios from the visible,16
referenced back to an absolutely calibrated visible instrument. A combination of these
two techniques seems the most promising for ITER, although VUV spectrometers have
been successfully calibrated using synchrotron sources 17 and X-ray tubes. However, the
20% accuracy specified by the expert group is probably unattainable; the typical best
accuracies obtained in present day XUV /VUV spectrometers are 50%.

CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have presented a scheme for the design of a spatially resolving XUV /VUV
spectrometer system for ITER. Areas of uncertaintly are higlighted, in particular the
neutron shielding efficiency of shallow bend angles in the shield ducts. Nevertheless, the
design appears to hold promise and fulfills the requirements specified for its design.

304
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge useful discussions with Dr. P. Van Belle and the support of
the UK DTI and Euratom.

References
1 M. Mattioli, J. Ramette, B. Sautic, B. Denne, E. Kallne, F. Bombarda and R. Gi-
annella, Journal of Applied Physics 64, (7), 3345
2 K. D. Lawson and N. J. Peacock, Optics Communication, 68, (1988) 121. (see also
JET-R(88)12)
3 Minutes of 4th Meeting of the ITER Physics Expert Group on Diagnostics,
S CX MI 9 96-01-03 Fl
4 N. J. Peacock, R. Barnsley, N. C. Hawkes, K. D. Lawson, M. G. O'Mullane, Dia-
gnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et al.,
(editors), Plenum Press, 1996, page 291
5 D. Pasini et al. Nuclear Fusion 30:2049 (1990)
6 P. H. Edmonds, R. Barnsley, N. Hawkes, A. Kislyakov, G. Vayakis, C. Walker,
L. de Kock, G. Janeschitz, A. E. Costley, T. Steinbacher, 1997, this confer-
ence.
7 R. J. Fonck, A. T. Ramsey, and R. V. Yelle, Applied Optics 21:2115 (1982)
8 K. Lidiard et al. to be published in Optical Engineering, August 1997
9 G. P. Williams and M. R. Howells, Photon Flux Calculations at the NSLS UV
Facility, Brookhaven National Laboratory Report BNL 26121
10 H. Iida, D. Valenza and R. T. Santoro, A Handy Method for Estimating Ra-
diation Streaming Through Holes in Shield Assemblies, ITER Report
G 73 CC 196-07-18 W 1.1.
11 J. G. Timothy and R. L. Bybee, Review of Scientific Instruments, 50:743 (1979)
12 S. S. Medley and R. Persing, Review of Scientific Instruments, 52:1463 (1981)
13 N. C. Hawkes and N. J. Peacock, Nuc. Fusion, 25:971 (1985)
14 ITER Diagnostic Group, 1995, Report S 55 RE 195-07-11 F 1, ITER Information:
Updated Background Information relating to Diagnostic Task Agreement.
15 E. H. Farnum, F. W. Clinard, Jr., S. P. Regan and B. Schunke, Neutron Damage to
Diagnostic Mirrors, JET Internal Report, JET-IR(94)03
16 B. Denne and E. Hinnov, Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical
Physics, 1:699 (1984)
17 B. C. Stratton, R. J. Fonck, K. Ida, K. P. Jaehnig and A. T. Ramsey, Review of
Scientific Instruments, 57:2043 (1986)

305
X-RAY SPECTROMETRY SYSTEMS FOR ITER

R Barnsleyi, PH Edmonds 2 , R M Giannella3 , M G O'Mullane.

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, OX14 3EA, UK.

iLeicester University, LEI 7RH, UK.
2ITER JCT, Garching JWS, Garching, Germany.
3CEA, Cadarache, France.

INTRODUCTION

This paper continues the progress, reported i at the 1995 ITER diagnostics workshop
in Varenna, toward the design of an integrated soft x-ray spectroscopy system for ITER.
Instrumentation for the soft x-ray region has several advantages; absolute sensitivity
calibration is possible, surface effects are relatively unimportant, vacuum isolation windows
can be used, and radiation-hard detectors are available whose photon-counting nature
allows additional background rejection. Details of the proposed installation on Port 7 of
ITER are contained in Edmonds et al2, these proceedings.
The integrity and condition of the machine will be monitored in the soft x-ray band
between about 1 A and 100 A, where all impurities have strong lines characteristic of their
radiated power losses. This function is fulfilled by a broadband soft x-ray survey
spectrometer (XCS-S) which is at present unchanged from the 1995 design, and uses a two-
reflection instrument to achieve excellent shielding.
High resolution crystal spectroscopy in the band below about loA is an established
technique for measuring tokamak plasma T j and rotation profiles 3 . Due to access
restrictions, the ITER crystal spectrometer array (XCS-A) uses graphite prereflectors in the
blanket to relay relatively narrow spectral regions to the spectrometers outside the cryostat.
Because the viewing angles will be fixed in the blanket, the corresponding wavelengths
and chordal views cannot be varied and must be chosen carefully. Most of the work
presented here relates to the feasibility study for this scheme.
The radial distribution of impurity line radiation must be predicted, so that suitable
transitions can be selected, firstly for the (central-chord only) impurity monitor, and
secondly for radial profiles of Tj • Line emission from relevant ionisation stages of the
expected intrinsic impurities has been modelled with the SANCO impurity transport code,
using transport profiles shown in figure 1. The Te and ne profiles used here4 are for an
ignited plasma, and are relatively broad and flat, whereas ITER can be expected to operate
with a wide range of profiles before it achieves reactor conditions. Therefore these
simulations probably represent the outer limit of rIa for each emission shell - this being the
most important condition to model, particularly when choosing transitions suitable for
measurement of T j profiles.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al.• Plenum Press, New York, 1998 30-7
 I I

0- -------- -
"' \
--2- \ -
\
-4- I -
\
-1-
(j
1
0 0.5
rIa
D (mJ\2/s)
V (mls)

Figure 1. Profiles of transport parameters D and v, used in the SANCO impurity transport code.

0.OO15r-------r-------r-------r-------r-------r------,r-----_,

~O.OOl
~
E
!Ul
0.0005

0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.05

ria
H-likeO
H-likeC
H-like Be

Figure 2. Emissivity profiles of light impurity ions, from the SANCO code.

0.0008r---------~--------~--------,_--------,_--------,---_,

0.0006

0.0002

O~------~--------~~~~~--------~~--~--~--~
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
ria
H-likeCI
He-likeCI
Li-like Cl
H-likeAr

Figure 3. Emissivity profiles of Cl and Ar ions, from the SANCO code.

308
 0.006 .-------.,.1----1.----,--1---'1----,..--,1

~ 0.004 I-
I
/""'
\
-
~
.!,!
I \
~ I \
tIl
0.002 I-
I \
-
}. "

--=>< \:~:,
, \ \ I '

--------------""'",..
OL----~I---~I~---~I--~~~~-~~~~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
rIa
H-likeFe
He-like Fe
Li-like Fe (x5)
Ne-like Fe (x5)
Figure 4. Emissivity profiles of Fe ions, from the SANCO code.

0.0006 . - - - - - - - . , . - - - - - , - - - - - - - . . - - - - - , - - - - - , . - - ,

,..().0004 r - - - -__
<'a
!tIl /
,I
0.0002

o~---~----~---~---~~-~~~~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
rIa
H-like Kr
He-likeKr
Li-like Kr
Ne-like Kr (xlO)
Figure 5. Emissivity profiles of Kr ions, from the SANCO code.

SURVEY X-RAY CRYSTAL SPECTROMETER (XCS-S)

The SANCO modelling shows that the innermost (H-like) line radiation from the
light impurities Be, e and 0, is localised close to, or overlapping the separatrix (fig.2).
There are suitable lines from all impurities in the region outside r/a-O.S (figs.2-5), making
this a good first-choice for the sight-line of a single-chord soft x-ray impurity monitor.
Using such an outer chord would reduce the bremsstrahlung component ofthe signal, and to
some extent reduce the neutron flux at the spectrometer, factors which would improve
detection thresholds for the line spectrum. However, with the access available for the
present design, the broadband impurity monitor uses a central chord.
The survey spectrometer (XeS-S) is based on DT experience with the single and
double reflection instruments at JET, and uses a combination of crystals and multilayer
mirrors to survey the spectrum between about 1 A and 100 A, with a resolving power /JOA.
of -500 below 25 A and -50 above 25 A, the chosen diffractors and wavebands being

309
unchanged from ref. I. It requires a vacuum beamline with a direct view of the plasma, but
has no optical elements within the cryostat.
The present design, detailed in ref. 2, includes a two-reflection instrument similar to
that installed at JET 5 since that has been shown to have excellent shielding properties6 .
However, even the single-reflection monitor spectrometer7 showed good signal-to-noise
performance during recent DT discharges at JET. Figure 6 shows the raw data from the JET
single reflection x-ray monitor spectrometer during about 2 MW of DT power, where the
noise in the background channel is about 20 times less than the continuum level in the line-
scan. Due to the small crystal aperture relative to the beamline aperture, the neutron/gamma
etendue of the instrument is 20 times greater than the x-ray etendue, so there is considerable
scope for a signal-to-noise improvement if the sight-line shielding can be matched to the x-
ray aperture. Given that further improvements in detector shielding and pulse-processing
are also possible, these results indicate that a single-reflection survey instrument should be
feasible for ITER, in which case other optical schemes become possible. Figure 7 shows the
two main types of broadband crystal spectrometer, which, for a given resolving power and
Bragg angle range, have equivalent sensitivitl. However, the polychromator has a better
signal-to-noise ratio because the neutron/gamma etendue of the input slit can match the x-
ray etendue, and there is scope for some additional shielding between the crystal and
detector, whereas a large-area collimator tends to be transparent to neutrons and gammas.
The polychromator also has the advantage of needing no moving parts. Suitable position-
sensitive detectors are available.
Further to the spectra and radiated power components presented in ref. 1, figures 8
and 9 illustrate additional features of the x-ray spectroscopic data obtained at JET. The
ability of a soft x-ray spectrometer to monitor the bremsstrahlung continuum is shown in
figure 8, where the measure spectrum from Ge(lll) is compared with the calculated
sensitivity function. The presence of the Ar-K edge at the calculated ratio confirms that the
continuum signal is due to the plasma free-free/free-bound continuum. Figure 9 shows an
example of long-term soft x-ray spectroscopic data, where the trend in the Cl XVI 4.444 A
line is plotted over a series of several thousand discharges.

I8

20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23

lim.(,)

Figure 6. Raw data from the JET single-reflection x-ray monitor spectrometer during about 2MW of DT
power terminating at 21s. (Above) line-scan of C VI Lyu. (Below) Noise in the background channel. Due to
the small crystal aperture relative to the beamline aperture. the neutron/gamma etendue of the instrument is 20
times greater than the x-ray etendue.

310
 LJ
'Ught-bucket' detector Position sensiUve detector

.,'
"
I }
.. .. . ... : \ I

.
.
.
.: ',\
\.
/'
r

"
... /
"

\.,
/

. -L~cc='=1'
\
\ \.:' :/
. \. ,'I,
- --------~+

L~;Z I~ ::o~.~"'. Curved crystal

Figure 7. The two main types of broadband crystal spectrometer.

(Left) Scanning monochromator, with input collimator, flat crystal and "light bucket" detector.
(Right) Polychromator, with input slit, fixed crystal and position sensitive detector.

~ ~---'----~----~-----r-----r----'-----~--~

2.5 3.5 4 4.5 5.5 6

W avelength ( Angstrom)
Ge( II I ) spectrum (background of 9ctlms subtracted)
Synthesised sensitivity (scaled to fit al Ar- K edge)

Figure 8. Ge(lll) spectrum from the JET broadband monitor. Main features are the detector Ar-K
absorption edge at 3.87A, and the (unresolved) principal lines of H- and He-like Cl at 4.zA and 4.45A
respectively. The presence of the Ar-K edge at the calculated ratio confirms that the continuum signal is due to
the plasma free-freelfree-bound continuum.

2. 10"

I (ph/em's)

1.10" .••

36000 37000 39000

JET Pulse no.

Figure 9. Intensity of He-like CI at 4.44A, measured at 5.5 s into the discharge, for a long series of JET
discharges. Similar data are available for all the major intrinsic impurities.

311
HIGH RESOLUTION X-RAY CRYSTAL SPECTROMETER ARRAY (XCS-A)

Within the constraints of the allocated Port 7, it is not possible to view a useful
range of minor radii with a fan-array of direct-viewing chords, which would be the
preferred option. A practical solution is to use an array of graphite prereflectors to view a
wide range of minor radii, each with a toroidal component (fig.lO). The relay sight-tubes
are parallel, are contained within a shielding plug, and are isolated from the spectrometers
by beryllium windows. Advantages of this scheme are that moving parts inside the cryostat
are unnecessary, and that a large reduction in the neutron flux at the spectrometers can be
expected, since there is no direct line-of-sight to the plasma.
The lowest measurable T; is limited to about 200 eV by the resolving power of
available crystals, and by the excitation of suitable ions (KAP(002), Ne IX). The use of
graphite as a prereflector raises the lower limit to about 500 eV (CI XVI) by limiting the
longest observable wavelength to about sA. SANCO modelling shows that lines suitable
for high-resolution spectroscopy can be observed across almost the entire minor radius, out
to an rIa of at least 0.95 (figs. 3-5). Depending on impurity transport, medium-Z intrinsic
impurities such as Fe are likely to be fully ionised on axis, so to be certain of obtaining
good measurements within r/a-O.5, this study has been based on added Krypton (Z=36). Kr
is almost ideal for the ITER plasma since the H-and He-like ionisation stages will
predominate on-axis, while the H-like stage will not burn out at the expected central Te. If
tungsten (W, Z=74) is included in the divertor, it will be a rich source of line radiation
suitable for Doppler measurements.
Measurements will be avoided at minor radii within any emission shell, because
there will be insufficient viewing chords to make a satisfactory Abel inversion of a hollow
emission profile. Therefore one aspect of the modelling is to enable the selection of
ionisation stages whose line emission is unlikely to peak at an rIa greater than that of a'
given chordal view.

Rowland circle, diameter R ~\ Detector~

\.

Figure 10. Schematic of a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector to provide shielding and allow
poloidal and toroidal components of the line of sight. The wavelength range 1lA, and the crystal filling factor
K, are both determined by the sight-tube dimensions.

312
 Graphite(OOI) 2d=6.70sA has a peak reflectivity of typically 10%, and a mosaic
spread between, 0.3° and 1.5° depending on sample preparation9 • A mosaic spread of 0.8°
has been used for this study. In addition to the signal loss due to the graphite peak
reflectivity, the main disadvantage is the severe band-width constraint imposed by the
requirement to have the graphite input and output angles fixed within the blanket module.
Therefore a major purpose of this study was to find a working set of Bragg angles for the
prereflectors. The requirement is that the Bragg angle should access a spectral region that
contains suitable spectral lines, preferably from more than one ionisation stage of more than
one impurity. The input sight-line then lies on a cone, and must be orientated so that the
plasma can be viewed along a chord where the relevant spectral lines are emitted, preferably
on the outside of any emission shell.
Sensitivities S). have been synthesised (fig. 11 ) from the energy-dependent
transmission, absorption and reflectivity of each component, using Henke'slO atomic
scattering factors and crystal reflection integrals (except for Ge( 440) which was calculated
at ENEA Frascati ll ). The sight-line geometry, with its constraints on the free spectral range,
has been included, as shown in the plots of overall sensitivity and band-pass. The count-rate
N' A(countls) from a spectral line with intensity ~ (photonlcm2.s), is given by

N'A,=IA,'SA,
where, for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector, the sensitivity function
S). (cm2 ) is given by
lC-'l'·Rc A-
SA-=Pgr A-' .hx· hY'11 A-
4·1t
The terms are: graphite peak reflectivity Pgr)., vertical divergence 'l' (rad), crystal
reflection integral RCA (rad), projected crystal width hx (cm), crystal height hy (cm), and the
combined detector and window efficiencies 11).. The fraction 1C of the crystal aperture filled
at a given wavelength depends on the source and bearnIine geometry.
In this application, where owing to space restrictions the source-crystal distance will
be two to three times the crystal-detector distance, 1C may be kept close to unity by using an
asymmetric crystal cutl2 to move the virtual entrance slit into the plasma.

---,,,,.

Wavelength (Angstrom)
Ge(220)
Ge(440)
Si(lll)
Figure 11. Synthesised sensitivity functions for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector

313
 To mitigate the sensitivity losses imposed by the prereflectors and by the relatively
narrow (25 mm dia.) sight-tubes, it is important to maximise the throughput of the
spectrometers, mainly by using a crystal with the highest possible reflection integral
consistent with sufficient resolving power. A near-optimum crystal is Ge(220) 2d=4.00 A,
which has a high reflection integral and adequate resolving power ( Rc-O.OS rnr and
AloA-7000 respectively). Other factors being equal, the use of doubly-curved diffractors 13
will improve the signal-to-noise ratio, by allowing for a smaller input aperture and smaller
detector. As a complement to calculated calibrations, the complete instruments should be
calibrated with a purpose-built large-area source l4 . Any in situ calibration will be limited to
the ex-vessel spectrometers, while the attenuation due to the graphite will be determined by
using the direct-viewing monitor sight-line as a reference.
The derived sensitivities were superimposed on synthetic spectra of the main H- and
He-like lines of Cl, Ar, Fe, Ni and Kr, and Li- and Be-like lines of Kr. Representative
results are shown in figures 12 to IS, and if the 2nd order of graphite is also used (about a
factor two less intense than 1st order) there are several useful bands. Figure 13 shows that
the overall sensitivity is comparable to that of the existing JET instrument. A summary of
the calculations for a S-chord array is given in table 1, with the preferred options
highlighted. A set of viewing-chords compatible with the Port 7 installation is shown in
table 2. Based on the SANCO simulations and the calculated instrument sensitivities,
estimates of count-rates in impurity Lya lines have been derived, and are shown in table 3,
together with the estimated radiated power loss for seeded Kr.
The spatial resolution of this system depends on several factors, including the beam-
spread of each sight-line, and the errors associated with deconvolving the chord-integrals.
However, if the beam-width is minimised, and measurement inside hollow emission
profiles is avoided, then the main limitation on spatial resolution will be the number of
chords. The present design is based on S chords, but an increase to at least 10 chords would
greatly improve the quality of the derived Ti and 0) profiles. The accessible chordal views
give components of toroidal rotation velocity which are similar to those observed at JET
(sinlS0 to sin200) and the lowest measurable rotation velocity should be about 10 kmls.

2 10-8 .....---.-1----....--1------.-----,-----.......,
0

1.5 0 10-8 - - - - - - - - - -- ~-;.... - - -

----------------
- .......... ,

~ /1 \ ... "
~ /'" I \ "
'; 10 10-8 - / I \ "
.~ "/ I ' "
.~ / /" I \ " ..
'" '" I \
50 10-<) r- I ' -
I \
I \
1 I !I ~ J
0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98
Wavelength (Angstrom)
Graphite(OOI)/Ge(220) peak sensitivity
Graphite(OOI) passband at 8.0deg Bragg angle
Spectrometer passband
H-like Kr
He-like Kr
Figure 12. Accessible spectrum and spectrometer passband, in the region of the principal lines of H- and
He-like Kr, for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector.

314
 3'\0<1 , . . - - - - - - r - - - - - - r - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - - - ,
1 1 1 1

-------------~~-;----:,:----------------~-
...... . ,- -"
,
'-0.
,
, -
, ~
:'
./
/ ,
,I ,
:, ,,,
, 1
,:
,
,
, '. -
"
,,::
I'

1.52 1.56 1.58 1.6 1.62

Wavelength (Angstrom)
Graphite(OOI)/Ge(220) peak sensitivity
Graphite passband at 13.5 deg. Bragg angle
Spectrometer passband
JET spectrometer (Ge(440»
H-likeNi
He-likeNi
Figure 13. Accessible spectrum and spectrometer passband, in the region of the principal lines of H- and
He-like Ni, for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector. The sensitivity and passband of the existing
JET instrument are shown for comparison.
3'10<1 .------.-1-------.-1------..-1----...,

,...- - - - - - - - - - - -- -7"", - - - - - - - - , - - - - - =
/, , "
.I '"
/ I , \ -
I I , ,
/ I \ \
I I I , -
I " \
/ "I \
,I
/ ':'
I",
~,
, '
-

5'10--g ,...
./
/ ""
,,' ~ 1 I,'0 r., '1 -
I" 'II'
~
,. or I , ; II \
o~--~u---~------~~~~~~----~~~------~
~ IJ~ !, Jlf,
' " t "-
I' "' "' -
1.8 1.85 1.9
Wavelength (Angstrom)
Graphite(OOl)/Ge(220) peak sensitivity
Graphite(OOl) passband at 8.Odeg Bragg angle
Spectrometer passband
H-likeFe
He-like Fe
H-like Kr (2nd order)
He-like Kr (2nd order)
Figure 14. Accessible spectrum and spectrometer passband, in the region of the principal lines of H- and
He-like Fe and Kr, for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prereflector.

315
 1.5 0 10-8 , - - - - - -I , - - - - -Ir - - - - , -
I
-----,

- - - - - - - - - - -:...= - - , - - - - - - - - - -
./ I "-
/ I "-
~ 10 10-8 - / I ,,_
~
'" /
/
I
I r"
, '
f , "
:1 ' \\
'" 5°1O--<J

I
,
I
\
\
-

, f\ \

O~----U-~~~~L-~~--~~
11 \ A Jl\ \
3.68 3.7 3.72 3.74 3.76
Wavelength (Angstrom)
Graphite(OOI)/Ge(220) peak sensitivity
Graphite passband at 33.7 deg. Bragg angle
Spectrometer passband
H-likeAr
He-like Fe (2nd order)
Figure 15. Accessible spectrum and spectrometer passband, in the region of the principal lines of H-like Ar
and He-like Fe, for a Johann spectrometer with graphite prerefiector.

Table 1. Observable impurity ions and Ti ranges at five chords, using graphite prereflectors.

ftBgr. Chord Ion Tjmin Tjmax rIa rIa Comments

(deg.) rIa (I) (keY) (keY) min max

8.0 0,0025 'H'-Kr 10 (2) 50 0 0.75

0.5 'He'-Kr 4 20 0.3 0.85

16.0 0,0.25 'H'-Kr 10 50 0 0.75 Kr in 2nd order

0.5,0075 'He'-Kr 4 20 0.3 0.85
'H'-Fe 3 20 0 0.7
'He'-Fe 1.5 10 0.3 0.8

33.7 0.75, 1.0 'He'-Fe 1.5 10 0.3 0.8 Fe in 2nd order

'H'-Ar 1 5 0.85 1.0

36.3 1.0 'Li'-Kr 3 8 0.7 0.95 Kr lines weak,

'He'-Ar 0.5 3 0.9 1 Lowest measurable Tj
No intrinsics
38.5 1.0 'Li'-Kr 3 8 0.7 0.95 Needs only Kr added
'Be'-Kr 2.5 6 0.8 1.0 2ft == 77° may be too great
'H'-CI 1 4 0.85 1.0

(l) First choice for each ofthe five chords is shown in bold.
(2) Indicative max and min Tj at each chord is shown in bold. Since the measurable Tj range is
related to Te and impurity transport, the values given can only be approximate.

316
 Table 2. Chords and graphite angles accessible with the port 7 design.

Major radius Minor radius ria Graphite angle

(mm) (mm) (deg)
8317 0 0 direct
9121 804 0.25 16
9700 1383 0.5 16
10321 2004 0.75 16
10690 2373 0.875 16
11085 2768 1 16

Table 3. Count-rate and radiated power estimates.

Transition Count-rate for fimp=1O-6 Prad for fimp=lO-o

(count/s) (kW)
ArLya 6000
FeLya 30000
NiLya 30000
KrLya 20000 260

CONCLUSION

The technique of broadband soft x-ray spectroscopy is fully demonstrated at JET

and provides unique data during DT discharges. Results from the JET single-reflection
spectrometer indicate that a single-reflection survey polychromator could be developed for
ITER. It would have greater sensitivity and be mechanically much simpler than a two-
reflection system, but until an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio is demonstrated we include a
two-reflection system in the design. The need for real-time display and analysis of
spectroscopic data is being addressed at JET, where a real-time data acquisition system for
the survey spectrometer will be commissioned.
The study for the high-resolution array shows that the sensitivity and band-width
losses imposed by graphite prereflectors can be accommodated, and that a compatible set of
sight-lines, wavelengths and spectral lines can be found. A further iteration of the design is
required, because several features require clarification or improvement. The most
significant improvement will be to increase the number of chords from the present five, to
the largest number practical. Energy dispersive ray tracing of the full system is then
required, partly to improve the sensitivity calculation, but mainly to minimise the beam-
width in the plasma by optimising the free parameters in the optics (graphite/crystal radii,
crystal-cut asymmetry etc.). These results, combined with modelling of the plasma
emissivity and flux surfaces for the expected range of plasma parameters, will facilitate
optimum chord placement, and allow the accuracy of the deconvolved profiles to be
assessed.
Also required are detailed calculations of the neutron and gamma fluxes throughout
the sytem, and tests of neutron damage to graphite. A study of the tungsten spectrum should
extend existing work 1S to as near ITER-relevant conditions as possible. Although krypton
has been used for this design study, if tungsten is present in ITER there will be an
abundance of suitable spectral lines throughout both the spectrum and the plasma.

317
REFERENCES

I R Barnsley et ai, Applications of x-ray spectroscopy to ITER, pub\. in:

Diagnostics for experimental thermonuclear fusion reactors,
Ed. P E Stott et ai, Plenum Press, New York, (1996) 353-364.
2 PH Edmonds et ai, Integration of vacuum coupled diagnostics. These proceedings.
J M Bitter et ai, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(10) (1988) 213l.
4 ITER Diagnostic Group report, S 55 RE 95-07-1\ F l.

5 R Barnsley, U Schumacher et ai, Double crystal spectroscopy at JET,

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62(4) (1991) 889-898.
6 R Barnsley et ai, Bragg spectroscopy during the JET preliminary tritium experiment,
Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63(10) (1992) 5023.
7 R Barnsley et ai, Bragg rotor spectrometer for tokamak diagnostics, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 57(8) (1986) 2159.
8 R Barnsley et ai, JET Diagnostic Design Study 12-6, Euratom (1982).
9 K D Evans et ai, Calibration data for the Ariel 5 Bragg spectrometer, Space Sci. Instrum. 2313-323 (1976).
10 B L Henke et ai, X-ray interactions: Photoabsorption, scattering, transmission and reflection,
Atomic and Nuclear Data Tables 54(2) (1993) 181-342.
II F Bombarda, private communication (\989).
12 R Bartiromo et ai, The asymmetric Johann spectrometer and its application to plasma diagnostics in

tokamaks, Nucl. Inst. Meth. 221 (1984) 453-459.

IJ V.A.Bryzgunov and A.B.Gil'varg, X-ray crystal spectrometer - proposal for ITER These proceedings.
14 U Schumacher et ai, Investigations on calibration sources for soft x-ray plasma spectroscopy and

impurity monitors. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67(8) (1996) 2826-2830.

15 R Neu et ai, Observations of x-ray spectra from highly charged tungsten ions in tokamak plasmas,
IPP Garching report 1017 (June 1997).

318
PHOTOELECTRON PLASMA DIAGNOSTICS

Yu.V.Gott, VA Shurygin
RSC "Kurchatov Institute", Moscow, Russia

INTRODUCTION

The development of plasma diagnostics has been associated historically with the
borrowing of methods and means of detection from other areas of physics: astrophysics,
nuclear and atomic physics, ets. The need for such borrowing increased significantly when it
became apparent that even in the planning stage for diagnostic array in a thermonuclear
reactor there must be modernization of a significant fraction of the measurement techniques
and development of new diagnostics. In this connection special attention should be directed
at present time to certain unconventional measurement techniques which have been used
successfully outside the area of thermonuclear studies. One of these is the photoelectron
technique for analyzing X-ray spectra and detection of X-ray fluxes.
This development may be said to have begun with A.Einstein, who explained the
photoelectric effect (1905), and the work of H.Robinson (1914) who formulated the
fundamental ideas of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. At present photoelectron
spectrometers (PES) are used to determine the energy of r rays (up to 3 MeV) in nuclear
physics, in order to measure the electron binding energy in atoms ( with a resolution of up to
10-5 ) in electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), and to study secondary electron
emission produced by effect of photons in irradiate a solid objects.
The study of plasmas with he)p of the photoelectron spectra exited by X rays from
them began with the work ofY.Afrosimov et al.
Historically, measurements of the soft X-ray spectrum from a hot plasma have been
performed over a wide energy range using puis-height analysis (PHA) systems, operating in
the pulsed detection mode and accumulating the analysed spectra. In practice these
measurements involve a spectrum that dies away rapidly ( usually exponentially). In the high-
energy region such a spectrum may be represented by a dozen pulses accumulated over a
period of 5-50 ms, which clearly shows the "value" of detecting every photon. In addition,
these detectors usually have a detection efficiency close to unity. In this connection an
erroneous idea regarding the small X-ray emission flux from the plasma is sometimes
encountered. It arises because it seems at first glance contradictory that PES that have a low
quantum efficiency (10-4 - 10-5 electronslphoton) can operate in small devices in the current
mode of detection with a time resolution less than 1 ms , and the measurements themselves
consequently appear inefficient.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 319
 This misunderstanding is easily explained: on the one hand, the actual number of
photons from the "warm" part of the plasma X-ray spectrum that can reach the spectrometer,
depending on the experimental parameters, is usually equal to 108 -10 14 photonl(scm2); on the
other hand, it is necessary to limit the load of a PHA system (using filters and diaphragms) to
a level of less than 104 - 105 pu/sesls over the whole measured spectrum. This imposes a
significant limitation on the sensitivity of the measurement system, regardless of the plasma
parameters and the size of the device. This drawback manifests itself in a bad time resolution
of PHA. There is no such limitation in photoelectron spectrometry; its advantages in
sensitivity are therefore especially noticeable in small devices and PES signal increases as a
function of the quantity n; . a ,where ne is the plasma density and a is the characteristic
plasma dimension along a sight line.
If we take into account the ITER conditions, we can state that semiconductor
detectors are completely inappropriate for D-T experiments both because of sensitivity to
and damage by neutron and gamma irradiation. Design of photoelectron spectrometer gives
as possibility to shift its detector from the plasma line of sight and so to shield it from neutron
and hard X-ray radiation effectively.
The purpose of the present paper is to demonstrate the diversity of the ways in which
this unconventional method can solve the majority of conventional problems in X-ray plasma
diagnostics.
A lot of References on this problem one can found in our Review article [1).

THEORY OF THE PHOTOELECTRON METHOD

To analyse the X radiation from a plasma by the photoelectron technique we need

information about the structure of photoelectron spectra and the sources of the component of
the spectrum: how the bremsstrahlung and recombination continua and the line spectrum are
transformed into the corresponding photoelectron components.

1. FORMATION OF PHOTOELECTRON SPECTRA

The main process that occurs when X radiation with energy less than some Ecrit
interacts with material is the photoelectriC effect. The value of Ecrit depends on material
atomic number and, for example, is about 50 keVfor AI, 150 keVfor Cu and 500 keVfor
Ph. The photoelectron energy Ee emitted by a free atom due to the photoelectric effect is
related to the photon energy Er by Einstain relation

(1)

where Enl is the electron binding energy in the nl suborbital ( here n is the principal and I is
the orbital quantum number ).
The general appearance of the electron spectrum (Fig.l) emitted from the surface of a
material subjected to X radiation is determined by a number of processes associated with the
photoelectric effect, the passage of the resulting photoelectrons through the layer of material,
and the production of secondary emission fluxes: slow secondary electrons with energies less
than 50 eV, Auger electrons and fluorescence (See Fig. I.)
From Eq.(1) it follows that each X-ray line is represented in the photoelectron
spectrum by a combination of photoelectron lines resulting from the photoelectric effect in
those sublevels for which Enl < Er .

320
 From Fig.l one can see that spectrum of Auger and photoelectrons consist from
narrow line produced by photoelectrons which have not lost their energy and from the low
energy part that is produced by the photoelectrons that are lost part of their energy in leaving
the irradiated target.

Ie. I. u.
Not To Scale

Fig.t. Electron emission spectrum of an irradiated solid target: 1) slow (less than 50 eV) secondary electrons;
2) Auger electrons; 3) photoelectrons from K and L shells of target atoms

The straggling of the narrow photoelectron line is very small: the full width at half-
maximum (FWHM) of this distribution is less than 3 eV and to detect it we need the
spectrometer with very good resolution - 10-4 - 1O·~ . The FWHM of low energy part of
electron distribution depends on the target thickness. If the target thickness greater than the
photoelectron range in the target we have so called equilibrium target and the relative value
ofFWHM is about 45%.
Consider the conversion of the continuous X-ray spectrum, i.e., the continuum from a
Maxwellian plasma, into the photoelectron spectrum. Initially we will neglect the slowing
down of photoelectrons when they leave the target material. The photoelectron spectrum
thus produced can be viewed as the result of adding up the corresponding partial spectra of
all the nl sublevels. The partial spectra are displaced relative to one another and with respect
to the X-ray spectrum in energy in accordance with Eq. (1).
A hot plasma whose electron component is heated up to temperature Te is a source of
bremsstrahlung. In this case the bremsstrahlung X-ray spectrum has the form

Ir - ex~- i]e (2)

Substituting Eq. (1) in (2) we find that photoemission from all the nl sublevels of
target atoms converts it into photoelectron spectrum of the form

Ie = Ii: 1- ex i - Ee] .Lfnl .ex i - Enl] (3)

nl -'\ Te nl -'\ Te
where J"I is the efficiency with which a photon is converted into photoelectrons. If we
assume that J"I varies as a function of energy more slowly than I y , than, comp;¢.ng the
original X-ray spectrum (2) and photoelectron spectrum (3) , we note that the exponential
shape has been preserved by this transformation. The discontinuities that characterise the
corresponding dependence of the total photoabsorption cross section on the radiation energy
are absent from the photoelectron spectrum because each partial photoelectron spectrum is
shifted with respect to the X-ray spectrum by an amount Enl .

321
The calculations fulfilled in Ref 1 show that
fnl -- f.lniR for d> R
fnl -- f.lnl d for d <R (4)
here d is the target thickness, Pnl is the linear photoabsorption coefficient in the nl subshell
and R is the effective distance required for photoelectrons to escape from the target.
For the R value we have
R =900E;.3 / pO.8 for O.1s;Ee s; 4keV

R = 560E;.7 / pO.9 for 4 keY ~ Ee (5)

here R is in A, Ee is in ke V. P is in glcm3 (p is the target density). The values of Pnl one
can find in Ref 1.
To calculate the shape of the photoelectron continuum in real situation we need to
take into account the target thickness and material, the contributions of different subshells,
the slowing down of photoelectrons when they leave the target, and the photoelectron
spectrometric instrument function.
In this case the shape of the photoelectron continuum in the region
Ee > ( 2 - 3) Te can be represented in the form
dN e = const·n2 .r'T-~ .flVE T) .ex~- Ee) (6)
dE e.., e ~ e' e T
e e
where , is an enhancement factor, i.e., the enhancement of the radiation intensity in the x-
ray continuum above the radiation from a purely hydrogenic plasma due to an impurity
presence, the function l/J( Ee,Te) describes all the elements of conversion of X-ray
photons into the photoelectrons. The efficiency of the PES target «(fJ) not only increases
with increasing atomic number of the target material , but also it becomes more weaker
function of the energy in a wide energy range.
The plasma electron temperature may be found from Eq. (6) as follows

1 dln(dN~E/ 1 dlntP
(7)

where Texp is the temperature found experimentally. From Eq. (7) one can see that Texp f::f

Te if liTe » Id lntPl dE el .In the reality the difference between T exp and Te usually is
enough small.
In this paper we mainly discuss the measurements of X-ray continuum. The
measurements of line radiation are described in Refs. [1-3].

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

The description of several types of spectrometers one can find in Ref. [1]. Here in Fig.
2 one can see the tokamak T-I0 photoelectron spectrometer.
The photoelectrons emitted from the target 1 are analysed in energy in longitudinal magnetic
field produced by the coils 4 and then registered by the microchannel electron multiplier 3.
The plasma X-rays pass through the carbon filter (with thickness of about 500 A), which is
placed before the PES enter and intended to protect the detector 3 from ultraviolet radiation
and neutrals coming from the plasma.

322
 x- rays
-
t 2

1><]
~
-~
--- - - --

I><J
-
x - rays t 10 em

Fig.2. PES with magnetic analyzer: I-target, 2-diaphragms, 3-detector, 4coils, 5-magnetic shielding.

In Fig. 3 one can see the photoelectron spectrum obtained on small tokamak T -13 (
minor radius a = 6.5 em, major radius R = 41 em, plasma density ne = 1013 em- 3 , plasma
current I = 30 kA, PES target was from carbon 380A thick). This spectrum was obtained
on the ramp up stage of discharge. The plasma electron temperature was 110 e V at that
moment.
The photoelectron spectrum and an example of Te determination on tokamak T -10 (
minor radius a = 36 em, major radius R = 150 em, plasma density ne = 5.10 13 em-\ plasma
current I = 300 kA, PES target was from silver with - 400A) are shown in Fig.4 [4]. The
spectrum was recorded in the time interval of about 200 ms. This time interval was limited
due to low intensity of the X-rays incident on the PES target from the plasma. Unfortunately,
in these first experiments the X-ray flux coming to the PES target was strongly restricted by
the small size collimator with the spatial resolution in the plasma centre of about 1.5 em. It is
evident that the increase of this size up to 5-8 em leads to significant (squared) increasing of
the measured signal. One can see that electron temperature in this discharge was about 1 ke V
I., a.u.

10'
PES
10'

.... I 10'
e '
a.u.
10' T. = 110 eV 10'

1<1'

200 300 400 500 600 700 0 2 4 6

E., eV Ee,keV

Fig. 3. Photoelectron spectrum on tokamak Fig. 4. Photoelectron spectrmn on tokamak

T-l3 T-lO

323
The recording of the time traces for the spectral signals may have of special interest, since the
correlation of these traces for example with electron cyclotron emission signals (BeE) reveals
the valuable information about interaction processes between the plasma electrons and
impurities. The correlation between the PES signal (E r ~ 1 keV) and the ECE signal
recorded just after the disruption in T -lOis shown in Fig. 5. From Fig. 5 one can seen that
the PES signals are shifted in time compared with the ECE signals and the delay time is about
1.9 ms. This shift may be depend on some peculiarities in process of impurity ionisation. It is
clear that the high temporal resolution of the PES spectral signals and their scanning in a
wide energy range give the new approach to study the nonstationary processes, particularly,
for the edge plasma study with proper analysis [4].

shot # 62813
I,
a.u.

10

520 560 600

time, ms

Fig. 5. Correlation between PES and ECE signals just after disruption

VACUUM-PHOTODIODE DETECTOR.

For the measurements offutl X-ray flux from plasma (without energy resolution) and
for plasma imaging it is convenient to use vacuum-photodiode detectors (VPD) [1], [5]. The
design of such detector proposed in [5] one can see in Fig.6. The radiation flux is incident on
the conical cathode, the photoelectrons from which are directed toward the conical or
cylindrically-symmetric anode. Between the cathode and anode various potentials up to 1-2
kV are applied. In order to distinguish flux of neutrals from the X-ray flux or to obtain a
spectral resolution My / Ey -1, filters must be placed in front of the entrance to the device.

..'.~ ....--------
Fig. 6. Schematic of vacuum-photodiode detector

324
 A VPD has a short response time - it can operate in the picosecond range, and the
linear dependence between the radiation dose and output signal is maintained as the dose
varies over 15 orders of magnitude.
In additional to ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from plasma a VPD can also register
charge-exchange neutral fluxes if it is used without filters. The contribution of neutrals to the
total VPD signal depends on the specific experimental conditions.

ITER APPLICATION

It is well known that the semiconductor detectors are completely inappropriate for
ITER, both because of sensitivity to and damage by neutron and gamma irradiation.
The proposed PES techniques for investigation of plasma X-ray radiation can be
successfully utilised in the ITER - experiments with deuterium-tritium plasma. Indeed, the
dimensions of the instrument are sufficiently small that considerably alleviates their shielding
against hard X-ray and neutron radiation. Detectors in these instruments (microchannel plate
multipliers) have a relatively weak sensitivity to such radiation and they do not face the
plasma directly that significantly reduce the background signal.
For ITER parameters it will be possible to obtain the signal from PES in analogue
mode of operation with amplitudes 0.01- I Vin the range of X-ray energies 0.1-200 !reV
The time resolution may be not worse than 1-10 ms, and the spatial resolution may be
not worse than 10 em.
The fact that the PES detector may be shifted from the diagnostic penetration axe on
any desirable distance gives us the possibility of effective shielding of instrument against hard
X-ray and neutron radiation.
Estimation of PES background signal due to neutron radiation near the diagnostic
penetration with diameter of 3 em shows that the value of background signal after proper
shielding may be 102 - 103 pulse per second. In the same time the useful signal must be 106 _
10 8 pis.
So we believe that the PES diagnostic will meet no difficulties from the hard
radiation.
The more serious problem may be the influence of tritium on the detector. Now we
have no enough information to discuss this problem.
Vacuum-photo diode detectors will be placed near ITER walls and so its shielding
r
from the effect of and neutron radiation will be impossible. Let us to estimate the effect of
hard radiation on VPD signal.
The bremsstrahlung flux on the chamber wall is
2
W = 1.7 .10-21 . a· ne photonlm2 .s (8)
Fe
For ITER we have that a = 2.8 m, Te = 20 keV, ne = 5.10 19 m'3, and W"" 3.10 18
photonl~.s . The mean energy of the gamma-rays is in the range of 0.5-1 Me V and gamma
flux near the first wall is 2.10 18 y / m2·s [6]. The full flux of photoelectrons is proportional to
the value j.iR ~ E; 1.3 , where f..l is the full linear photoabsorption coefficient. So one can
see that the background signal from r flux is about two orders of magnitude less than signal
from X-ray flux.
To our great regret we did not find any data concerning the secondary electron
emission coefficient under effect of neutrons but our estimation show that signal from
neutron flux must be one-two orders of magnitude less than signal from r flux.

325
CONCLUSION

PES and VPD are extremely useful and versatile due to their simplicity, compactness
and high sensitivity.
The PES give us possibility to obtain a great amount of information in a wide range of
plasma electron temperatures with high time and space resolution.
The VPD is very convenient for plasma imaging, for MHD oscillation investigations
and for charge-exchange flux measurements.
The above-done consideration allows one to state that the proposed techniques for x-
ray spectrum analysis and plasma imaging can be successfully utilised in the ITER -
experiments with deuterium-tritium plasma.

REFERENCES

1. Gott Yu., V., Shurygin V.A., Plasma Phys.Rept., 1993, 19, 559
2. Shurygin V.A., Plasma Phys.Rept., 1996,22,975
3. Rantsev-Kartinov V.A., Shurygin V.A., Plasma Phys.Rept., 1997,23, 1
4. Gott Yu., V., Shurygin V.A., 22nd EPS Com. on Contr. Fus. and Plasma Phys.,
Boumemouth, GB, 1995, 19C, ptJV, 221
5. Seguin F.H., Petrasso R.D., Li Ch ..K., Radiation-Hardened X-Ray Imaging for Buming-
Plasma Tokamaks, Accepted for publication in Reviews of Scientific Instruments
6. ITER Diagnostics, ITER Documentation series, #33, IAEA, Vienna, 1990

326
DIVERTOR IMPURITY MONITOR FOR ITER

Tatsuo Sugie, Hiroaki Ogawa, Jun Katsunuma 1, Mitsumasa Maruo 1,

Katsuyuki Ebisawa2, Toshiro And03, Yoshio Kita4, and Satoshi Kasai

Naka Fusion Research Establishment, Japan Atomic Energy Research

Institute, 801-1 Mukoyama, Naka-machi, Naka-gun, Ibaraki-ken, Japan
INikon Corporation, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
2ITER - EDA Joint Central Team, San Diego, CA, USA
3ITER - EDA Joint Central Team, Garching, Germany
4Toshiba Corporation, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan

INTRODUCTION

The design of the divertor impurity monitoring system for ITER is now well advanced.
The main functions of this system are to identify impurity species and to measure the two-
dimensional distributions of the particle influxes in the divertor plasmas. The expected
impurities are carbon, tungsten, beryllium and copper originating from the divertor target
plate and from the surface of the first wall in the main chamber. Neon and other impurity
gases injected into the plasma for radiation cooling in the divertor will also be observed. The
wavelength range is 200 nm to 1000 nm. This system, which is one of the most important
diagnostic systems for plasma control, is included in the start-up set of ITER diagnostics I.
The temperature of the divertor plasma is lower than that of the main plasma. Many
spectral lines originating from neutral and ionized atoms and molecules are emitted in the
ultraviolet and visible region as well as in the vacuum ultraviolet region. These spectral lines
have information of plasma-wall interaction. In existing tokamaks, visible spectroscopy is
used extensively to study divertor plasmas and also edge plasmas, because the apparatus of
visible spectroscopy is relatively simple compared to that of the vacuum ultraviolet
spectroscopy which needs a vacuum extension and a pumping device. For example, impurity
species identification, particle influx measurements and studies of the impurity generation
and particle recycling mechanism2;3,4,5,6,7 have been carried out in various tokamaks.
Electron temperature and density measurements 8 and ion temperature measurements have
been also attempted. These techniques will be able to extrapolate to ITER divertor diagnostics
except in the very high electron density and low temperature region where the recombination
process is dominant.
In this paper, the conceptual design and the detailed optical design of the divertor
impurity monitoring system are described. In addition, the measurable limit, the neutron and

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott etal., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 327
y-ray irradiation effect on windows, a calibration method and an alignment method are
considered.

REQUIREMENT

The identification and monitoring of the impurity species, and the two-dimensional
measurement of particle influxes in the divertor plasma are very important for ITER plasma
control. As shown in the section 5.5.E.04 of the ITER design description document9 , the
objective of the divertor impurity monitoring system is to obtain spatially resolved
measurements from the plasma in the divertor channel to identify and quantify the impurity
species. The wavelength range of 200-1000 nm and two-dimensional measurement in the
poloidal plane are required.
The more detailed requirements for parameters to be measured, parameter ranges,
spatial resolutions, time resolutions and accuracies are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Target requirements for impurity monitoring system.

• Impurity Species Monitor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Be influx TBD Several point 10 ms 10 % (reI.)

C influx TBD TBD 10 ms 10 % (reI.)
Cu influx TBD Several point 10 ms 10 % (reI.)
Ne influx TBD TBD lOms 10 % (reI.)

• Key Divertor Parameter

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

"Ionization front" position 0- 2 m -lOcm 1 ms 10%

• Impurity and D, T Influx in Divertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

rBe,rC,rW 1017 _ 1022 at/sec lOmm 1 ms 30%

rD,rT 1019 _ 1025 at/sec lOmm 1 ms 30%

• Divertor Helium Density

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

nHe 1017 _ 1020 m- 3 1 ms 20%

• nT/nD, nH/nD in Divertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

nT/nD 0.1 - 10 lOOms 20%

nH/nD 0.Q1 - 0.1 100 ms 20%

328
 Table 1 (continued). Target requirements for impurity monitoring system

• Ion Temperature in Oivertor

Parameter Parameter range Spatial res. Time res. Accuracy

Ti 1-200eV 10 cm (along legs) I ms 20%

0.3 cm (across legs)

CONCEPTUAL COMPOSITION AND ARRANGEMENT

In order to realize the required measurements, the divertor impurity monitoring system
has three different types of spectrometers; one for each function.
The first are visible survey spectrometers for impurity species monitoring and particle
influx measurements with a time resolution of 10 ms. These spectrometers have more than
12 lines of sight in the divertor legs. The spectral lines emitted from 200 nm to 1000 nm will
be measured simultaneously.
The second are filter spectrometers for two-dimensional measurements of particle
influxes with the spatial resolution of 10 - 15 mm and the time resolution of 1 ms. These
spectrometers have almost 500 lines of sight and will be able to measure over 12 spectral
lines for every line of sight simultaneously. The ionization front and helium density will also
be measured by these spectrometers. The measurement of electron density and the electron
temperature will be attempted.
The third are high dispersion spectrometers for measuring the ion temperature, the
particle energy distribution and the ratios of tritium density to deuterium density (nT/no) and
hydrogen density to deuterium density (nH/no) in the divertor plasma. The ion temperature
will be derived from the Doppler broadening of impurity lines. The ratios of nT/no and
nH/no will be estimated from the intensity ratios of tritium Ta to deuterium Da and hydrogen
Ha to deuterium Da respectively.
The functions and outline specifications of each spectrometer are summarized in Table
2.

Table 2. Functions and outline specifications of proposed spectrometers.

• Visible survey spectrometer
Parameters to be measured: Impurity species, Impurity and Off influx
Wavelength range: 200 nm - 1000 nm (simultaneously)
Wavelength resolution: - 0.1 nm
Time resolution: lOms
Spatial resolution: - 12 sight lines for divertor legs

• Filter spectrometer
Parameters to be measured: 2-dimensional impurity and Dff influx, Ionization front,
Helium density, (De, Te)
Wavelength range: 200 nm - 1000 nm (- 12 lines)
Wavelength resolution: - I nm
Time resolution: I ms
Spatial resolution: -IOmm

• High dispersion spectrometer

Parameters to be measured: nT/nn and nH/nn ratio, Ion temperature
Wavelength range: 200 nm - 1000 nm (simultaneously)
Wavelength resolution: < 0.01 nm
Time resolution: lOms
Spatial resolution: - 12 sight lines for divertor legs

329
First mirror

Because of intense nuclear radiation the first mirror should be metallic 10. The
reflectivity of molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), copper (Cu) and aluminum (AI) are shown
in Figure 1 as a function of the wavelength 11. In the region of 200 - 500 nm, the reflectivity
of Mo is better than that of Cu and W. In the region of 500 - 1000 nm, Cu is better than Mo
and W. The reflectivity of AI is high from 200 nm to 1000 nm. The sputtering yield of Mo
with deuterium is almost 1140 of that of Cu and Al at the deuterium energy of 200 eV12.
Therefore, we selected molybdenum as the material of the first mirror in the divertor cassette.
On the other hand, it is better to use aluminum for the mirror located behind the biological
shield.

--- ":7 0
:-

0_8

.?:- 0_6
s
15
(])

'$ 0.4
a:

0.2
----~w~
~
=~~
-----AI

200 400 600 800 1000

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 1. Nonnal incidence reflectivity as a function of wavelength for tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo),
copper (eu) and aluminum (Al)ll.

Transmission loss of optical fiber

The transmission loss of the optical fiber is large at short wavelengths even if it is
optimized for the ultraviolet region. For example, the transmission loss is 1 dB/m at 200 nm,
0.02 dB/m at 450 nm and 0.005 dB/m at 800 nm. It is difficult, therefore, to measure
spectral lines below 450 nm through long optical fibers. Therefore, spectrometers for the
wavelength range of 200-450 nm should be located just behind the biological shield.

Conceptual arrangement

From the considerations above, the conceptual arrangement shown in Figure 2 has
been chosen. The light from the divertor region passes through the quartz windows on the
divertor port plug and the cryostat, and goes through the dog-leg optics in the biological
shield. The light is then focused on the ends of the fiber bundle by collecting and focusing
optics. The fiber bundle guides the light to the spectrometers. The spectrometers with the
wavelength region below 450 nm are installed just behind the biological shield to minimize
the transmission loss in fiber. On the other hand, the light with A > 450 nm is guided by long
optical fibers to the spectrometers which are located remotely in the diagnostic room in order
to have good accessibility. We will be able to change the spectrometers easily corresponding
to the change of the experiment.
The spectrometers for 200 - 450 nm and the local controller are installed on a movable
trolley so that they can be removed in a short time before the divertor maintenance.

330
 -1i::;:::;;~*+ To Diagnostic Room
< Top view > " (>450 nm)
Terminal Box

Local Controller

I
Collecting & Focusing Optics

(~~~~:~:~~~l~t~t:~i~~E~~~i~=~MovableTrolley
.,... PolfPlug

Diagnostic Dlvelfor Cassette

Cryostat Biological Shield

Figure 2. Conceptual arrangement of impurity monitoring system.

LINE OF SIGHT AND RAY TRACE ANALYSIS

Line of sight

The two-dimensional measurement in the poloidal plane is perfonned with two viewing
fans, which intersect, namely OV and OH for the outer divertor region, and IV and IH for
the inner region. These viewing fans are realized by metallic mirrors (made of molybdenum)
located in the divertor cassette as shown in Figure 3. The number of lines of sight for each
viewing fan is given in Table 3. The 10 rom spatial resolution will be realized by filter
spectrometers. The region from approximately up the divertor leg to the x-point will be
observed with the additional viewing fans named XL and XU through the gap between the
divertor cassettes.

<T'r:~ i [[I II·~ i f~ AGEJ XU,XL

< Side view> I
Inner Dlvertor Outer Divertor

Figure 3. Viewing fans in the divertor cassette. The additional viewing fans XL and XU observe the
region near the top of the divertor leg to the x-point through the gap between the divertor cassette13.

331
 Table 3. Number of lines of sight for spectrometers in each viewing fan.
Viewing fan Visible survey spectrometer Filter spectrometer High dispersion spectrometer

OV 4 100 4
OH 100
IV 4 100 4
ill 100
XL 2 50 2
XU 2 50 2

Ray trace analysis

The optimum optical arrangement is determined for each viewing fan by a ray trace
analysis. For each viewing fan, rays are emitted from the several points of the fiber bundle
and go to the divertor plate through the collecting and focusing optics and the penetration
optics. The results confirm that 10-15 mm resolution will be satisfied for all regions of the
divertor plate. A typical result for the viewing fan IV, which observes the inner divertor from
the dome, is shown in Figure 4. The traced rays, the spot diagrams on the divertor plate and
the contours of irradiance for the images of the fiber cores are shown in this figure. Here, it
is assumed that the core emits the light uniformly.

( Contour of )
Irradiance <Spot Diagram>
Iby Trace of Viewing Fan IV
',}
;:-.,.,~

• 2
•

• 3 _ Mirror in Dome

• 4 ,

• 5 ,
10.0mm
...............

Figure 4. The traced rays, the spot diagram and the contours ofirradiance for the viewing fan IV. Rays are
emitted from the five points on the end of the fiber bundle and go to the divertor plate through the penetration
optics.

SPECTROMETERS

Spectrometers have been designed in accordance with the required functions as shown
in Table 2.

Visible survey spectrometer

The spectral lines in the wavelength range of 200 - 1000 nm are observed
simultaneously by sixteen grating spectrometers. Each spatial line of sight has sixteen fibers
and each fiber guides the light to the spectrometer. The light from over twelve spatial lines of
sight are observed by each spectrometer simultaneously. Here, it is assumed that spectral

332
lines are detected by an ICCD detector with 1024 x 512 pixels (imaging area: 2.5 cm x 1.25
cm). If we use a larger detector, the number of spectrometers will be decreased.

Filter spectrometer

There are two sets of filter spectrometers. One is the set for the viewing fans OV, OH,
IV and IH. Another is the set for the viewing fans XL and XU. Each set has four
spectrometers and each spectrometer can observe three different spectral lines
simultaneously. The spectrometer for the wavelength region of 200 - 450 nm is set on the
movable trolley just behind the biological shield. The other spectrometers for the wavelength
range 450 - 1000 nm are installed in the diagnostic room. The number of lines of sight and
fibers are shown in Table 3. The set for the viewing fans of OV, OH, IV and IH has 400
lines of sight and each line of sight has four fibers in order to guide the light to each
spectrometer.
The optical design has been carried out for twelve selected lines: 1) Ha+Da+Ta, 2)
HeI 667.8 nm, 3) HeI 706.5 and 706.6 nm, 4) HeI 728.1 nm, 5) Hell 468.6 nm, 6) Bell
313.0 and 313.1 nm, 7) BeIII 372.0, 372.1 and 372.3 nm, 8) BeIV 465.9 nm, 9) CII 657.8
nm, 10) CV 227.1 nm, 11) CuI 521.8 and 522.0 nm, and 12) NeI 640.2 and 640.1 nm. As
an example, the schematic view of the filter spectrometer for 200 - 450 nm is shown in
Figure 5. The light emitted from the optical fiber bundle, which is composed of 400 fibers,
passes through a collimator. After that, the light of a required wavelength region is reflected
by a dichroic mirror. It passes through a band-pass filter (full width of half maximum: -1
nm) corresponding to the selected spectral line and is focused on a 2-dimensional detector by
a camera. The light penetrating the dichroic mirror goes to the next dichroic mirror. The spot
diagrams on the detector at 300 nm are also shown in Figure 5. The spot size even at the
position of 3 mm away from the axis is about 50 !lID. This size is small compared with the
diameter of the fiber core of 200 /lm so that each image of the 400 fiber cores will be
resolved on the detector.

< Filter Spectrometer for UV region>

Spot Diagram (at 300 nm)

Detector /Detector
/ Camera Camera
-G--- / yand Pass Filter .s / /Band Pass Fitter

~~Mirro\ fJf!JJ.~ 3 mm away from allis

Sl
e-am-'~'74-~
/ ~.~ LroicMirro,J i'~ 2 mm aN8y from axis

COllimator J2l\ " "Band Pass Filler

"'-Camera
Optical Fiber Bundle Detector (i) on axis

0.048 rnm

Figure 5. Schematic view of filter spectrometer for UV region and the spot diagrams at 300 nm.

High dispersion spectrometer

The high dispersion spectrometer is a Littrow type spectrometer with an echelle

grating.

333
EVALUATION OF OPTICS

Number of photons coming into the detector

The numbers of photons Nd (photons·s- l ) incident on the detector is

(1)

where Imv is the intensity of the spectral line emitted in the divertor, T is the transmissivity of
the optics from the divertor to the detector, Or is the effective solid angle on to the fiber and
Sr is the area of the fiber core.
Or , Sr and T for the filter spectrometers with the viewing fans of OV, OH, IV and IH
are 3.8 x 10-3 sr, 1.26 xlO- 7 m 2 and 0.06 - 0.15 respectively. On the other hand, Orand T
for the filter spectrometers with the viewing fans of XL and XU are 5.1 x 10-2 sr and 0.12 -
0.24 while Srremains 1.26 xlO- 7 m 2.

Intensity of spectral lines in the divertor

The particle influx r is given by

r =41t·K-I, (2)

where K is the number of ionization events per photon for the observed line with the
intensity of I.
The required range to be measured for the deuterium total influx is 10 19 - 1025 at·s- l as
shown in Table 1. Since the power deposition area on the divertor targets is about 10 m 2, the
measurable range of the deuterium influx density r to the divertor is 1018 - 1024 at·m-2.s- l .
In a similar way, the influx density to be measured for carbon and beryllium are 10 16 - 1021
at·m- 2.s- l .
We estimated the intensities ofDa, CII(3s-3p, 657.8 nm) and BeII(2s-2p, 313.06 nm)
lines for each required influx density region using equation (2) under the conditions of
electron density of lxlO l9 - Ix 1022 m- 3 and electron temperature of 1 - 50 eV. These values
are expected for ITER divertor plasmas. The values of K are calculated in references14.l5.l6
for wide ranges of electron density and temperature.
The calculated results are shown in Figure 6.

Measurable limit

If we assume the lower limit of the number of photons is 1000 photon·ms- 1 at the
detector, the measurable intensity limit in the divertor derived from equation (1) is about
1.4x1016 - 3x10 16 photon·m-2·sr l.s- 1 for the optics of viewing fans of OV, OH, IV and IH.
From Figure 6, it is expected that the measurable limits for influxes will be different
depending on the electron density and temperature. For example, it is difficult to measure the
carbon influx density of lx10 l6 m- 2·s- 1 for Te=5eV. Also, it is difficult to distinguish
between line emission and bremsstrahlung emission by filter spectrometers. The calculated
line intensities of the bremsstrahlung emission (ZerF1.5, Te= 5-50 eV) are also shown in
Figure 6. Here, we have assumed that the integrated length is 5 cm and the wavelength band
width is 1 nm which is the same as that of the band pass filter of the spectrometer. In the
high density region, it is necessary to confirm the bremsstrahlung component by survey
spectrometers.
In the low temperature and high density region, more detailed consideration of atomic
and molecule process is necessary.

334
 10 24
Oa 10 24 Gil (657.8nm)
~_
6
To=JIDeV
Te- 5eV
Teo-50 eV

10 22

10 '8 ----- ----- 10 '6

10 '4 ISrem 10 '4

10 '2 10 '2 10 '2

10 '8 10 '9 1020 10 21 10 22 10 '8 10 '9 10 20 10 21 10 22 10 '8 10 '9 10 20 1021 1022
ne (rrr3) ne (rrr3) n.(m-3)

Figure 6. Intensities of DIl, Bell (313.06 nm) and ell (657.8 nm) lines as a function of electron density
for various influx densities and electron temperatures, and bremsstrahlung emission IBrem.

ALIGNMENT

The alignment of the optic axis will be carried out with a laser, a diffuser, a plane
mirror and a comer cube reflector (CCR) mounted between the line of sight in the divertor
cassette. The laser is shone through the optical axis of the system and the position of light
spots created by the diffuser, the plane mirror and the CCR are monitored with a CCD
camera.

CALIBRATION

Before the installation of the diagnostic divertor cassette and the penetration optics, the
sensitivity calibration will be carried out by arranging the real components in the same
arrangement as the real optics with standard light sources set in the divertor. After the
installation, the standard light will be set behind the biological shield. The light will be
applied to the molybdenum CCRs through the same optics as used for the measurements.
The CCR will be installed in the pocket which is free from neutral particle bombardment and
from dust deposition. The spectral intensity of the reflected light from the CCR will be
monitored by a spectrometer in order to monitor the degradation of the penetration optics.
Only a few areas of the optics will be calibrated by this method. The details of the alignment
and calibration are still under development.

NEUTRON AND 'Y-RAY IRRADIATION EFFECT ON WINDOW

The neutron flux and "(-ray dose rate at the port plug are calculated to be 2xlO 13 m- 2 's- 1
and 200 Gy/h 17 respectively. The windows located at the port plug are shielded by water
cooled stainless steel tubes as shown in Figure 2. The neutron flux and 'Y-ray dose rate at the
windows are expected to be 6xlO 11 m- 2·s- 1 and 3 Gy/h. The degradation of trasmissivity
(A.>350 nm) of fused silica KU is less than 5 % at the neutron fluence of 1021 m- 2 and the 'Y-
ray dose of 107 Gy lO,18. At 200 nm, the degradation is 17 % at the 'Y-ray dose of 105 Gy.

335
 From these consideration, the windows will survive during ITER operation (50,000
shots x 1000 sec) for the wavelength region of A.>350 nm.
For the wavelength region of 200 - 350 nm, the windows will survive against the y-ray
irradiation. For the neutron irradiation, more careful consideration is necessary

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper has been prepared as an account of work assigned to the Japanese Home
Team under Task Agreement numbers S 91 TD21 95-01-20 FJ and S 91 TD31 95-08-04 FJ
within the Agreement among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of
Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States
of America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The authors are grateful to Drs. A. Costley, S. Yamamoto, L. de Kock, C. Walker, V.
Mukhovatov, H. !ida, H. Nakamura and the members of ITER EDA Joint Central Team for
their fruitful discussions and cooperations. We also greatly appreciate fruitful comments by
Dr. H. Kubo. We would like to express our gratitude to Drs. T. Tsunematsu and S.
Matsuda for their continuous encouragement of this work.

REFERENCES
1. A. E. Costley, K. Ebisawa, P. Edmond, et aI., Overview of the ITER diagnostic system, These
proceedings (1997)
2. K. H. Behringer, Spectroscopic studies of plasma-waIl interaction and impurity behavior in tokamaks, J.
Nucl. Mater, 145-147: 145 (1987).
3. H. Kubo, M. Shimada, T. Sugie, et aI., Impurity generation mechanism and remote radiative cooling in
JT-60U divertor discharges, J. Nucl. Mater, 196-198: 71 (1992).
4. P. Bogen, D. Rusbiildt, Velocity distribution of carbon and oxygen atoms in front of a tokamak limiter, J.
Nucl. Mater, 196-198: 179 (1992).
5. D. Reiter, P. Bogen, U. Samm, Measurement and monte carlo computations of Hn profiles in front of a
TEXTOR limiter, J. NucZ. Mater, 196-198: 1059 (1992).
6. B. Unterberg, H. Knauf, P. Bogen, et aI., J. Nucl. Mater, 220-222: 462 (1992).
7. H. Kubo, T. Sugie, H. Takenaga, et aI., High resolution visible spectrometer for divertor study in JT-60U,
Fusion Eng. Design, 34-35: 277 (1997).
8. B. Schweer, G. Mank, A. Pospieszczyk, Electron temperature and electron density profiles measured with a
thermal He-beam in the plasma boundary of TEXTOR, J. Nucl. Mater, 196-198: 174 (1992).
9. A. E. Costley, et aI., ITER Diagnostic System, in: ITER Design Description Document, (1996).
10. D. V. Orlinski, Radiation hardening of diagnostic components, in: Diagnostics for Experimental
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stoott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni, ed., Plenum Press, New
York (1996).
11. J. H. Weaver and H. P. R. Frederikse, Optical properties of metals and semiconductors, in: CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, D. R. Lide, ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton (1994).
12. Y. Yamamura, H. Tawara, Energy dependence of ion-induced sputtering yields from monatomic solids at
normal incidence, Report NIFS-DATA-23 (1995).
13. K. Ebisawa, T. Ando, A. Costley, et aI., VUV divertor impurity monitor for ITER, These proceedings
(1997)
14. L. C. Johnson and E. Hinnov, Ionization, recombination, and population of excited levels in hydrogen
plasma, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 13: 333 (1973).
15. K. Behringer, H. P. Summers, B. Denne, et aI., Spectroscopic determination of impurity influx from
localized surfaces, Plasma Phys. Cont. Fusion, 14: 2059 (1989).
16. H. P. Summers, W. 1. Dickson, A. Boileau, et aI., Spectral emission from beryllium in plasma, Plasma
Phys. Contr. Fusion, 34: 325 (1992).
17. R. T. Santro, H. Iida, V. Khripunov, Neutron and gamma-ray flux and dose rate levels in the cryostat and
gallery cells. Impact on electronic instrumentation, ITER Internal Report NA:NAG-31-l6-05-97
(1997).
18. S. Yamamoto, The present status and future plan of task T246, in Technical Meeting on Irradiation Tests
on Diagnostic Components based on the T246 task agreement, Garching (1997).

336
VUV DIVERTOR IMPURITY MONITOR FOR ITER

K. Ebisawa l , T. Ando2, A. Costley!, G. Janeschitz2, E. Martin2

and T. Sugie 3

lITER Joint Central Team, San Diego JWS, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road,
La Jolla CA 92037, USA
2ITER Joint Central Team, Garching JWS, Germany
3Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Naka, Ibaraki-ken, Japan

ABSTRACT

The function of measurements of VUV radiation emanating from the plasma in the divertor
region are briefly summarized. The engineering constraints that would have to be satisfied
in the implementation of VUV measuring systems for this region are identified. Two
proposed configurations for the installation of a VUV spectrometer are considered and the
further work that is necessary to develop these design options is identified.

INTRODUCTION

The ITER Divertor is designed to cope with a radiated power loading of order 100
MW, and to control the location of the radiation region by confining the recycling of
neutral impurities such as Ne and Ar, and DT fuel to the divertor channels. The electron
temperature in the divertor plasma ranges from 1-20 eV near the divertor plate to 200-500
eV near the separatrix at the mid plane, hence Neon and higher Z impurities can radiate 50-
70 MW from the divertor and the scrape-off layer (SOL) plasma for a separatrix density of
10 20 m- 3. H, He, Be and C radiation and charge exchange losses supplement total power
losses.
Measurements of spatially resolved radiation emissivities of the impurity radiation
by spectroscopic means are very important to ensure the proper operation of the
divertor 1,2,3. Since the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) region is expected to contain useful
emission lines arising from recombination, charge exchange collisions between light and
medium Z atoms as well as Lya emissions, the possibility of installing a VUV
spectrometer at the divertor level is being considered.

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 337
FUNCTION REQUIREMENT FOR IMPURITY MONITOR

It is necessary for the plasma control and divertor optimization to measure line
emission over the wide range of wavelength (10 nm>A> 1000 nm) from the plasma near the
divertor plate and/or the X-point. Analyzing the measured line spectrum gives information
on impurity species and transitions. Impurity fluxes, r, can be obtained from the line
intensities together with the excitation and ionization rates. The functions requirement for
VUV and visible spectrometers and parameters to be measures are listed in Table 1. Here
measurements are divided into three categories for the priority purpose4,5; basic machine
protection and plasma control (la), advanced plasma control (1b), evaluation and physics
studies (2).

Table 1: Target Measurement Requirements for Divertor Impurity Monitors

Measurement (Category) Parameters Parameter range Spatial resolution Time

of interest resolution
hnpurity species Be TBD Several points IOms
monitoring (l a) C TBD Several points IOms
Cu TBD Several points IOms
W TBD Several points 10ms
Extrinsic ,gas TBD Several points IOms
(Ne,Ar)
Impurity and D,T influx rBe,rC, rW 1017 - 1022 at/sec 3mm 1 ms
(lb) ro,I'r 1019 - 1025 at/sec 3mm 1 ms
Key Divertor parameter Ionization 0-2m IOcm 1 ms
(la) front
Electron density and ne 1019 _ 1022 /m3 10 cm along legs 1 ms
Temperature (lb) 0.3 cm across legs
Te 1-200eV 10 cm along legs I ms
0.3 cm across legs
Ion temperature (2) Ti 1-200eV 10 cm along legs I ms
0.3 cm across legs

IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS

There are four Divertor remote handling ports and 16 Cryo-pump ports at the
divertor level where potentially VUV monitors could be installed. Installation in the pit
area outside a remote handling port has the disadvantage that it would delay the changing
of the divertor cassettes since it would have to be removed before this activity could
commence. For the initial work, therefore, we have examined the possibility of installing
the spectrometers at a pumping port. Direct view of VUV spectrum into the ITER divertor
channel is very restricted at the divertor level. A narrow gap of order of 10 mm between
divertor cassettes could possibly be used as an opening for a line of sight. This opening
would permit a viewing cord from X-point to the upper half of the divertor leg. Due to the
internal components such as a cryogenic pump and divertor cooling pipes, only a small
solid angle would be possible.
Two possibilities are being considered for the installation of the spectrometers and
detectors ; namely installation in the pit area outside the Bio-shield, or installation in the
pumping port inside the cryostat. Several key engineering factors have to be considered in
each case including Tritium barrier boundary, neutron and gamma-ray flux, and movement

338
of torus components. Many of the factors are common to other diagnostic systems but for
spectroscopic systems which employ photomultiplier devices the magnetic filed is also an
important consideration. The factors and the corresponding design requirements are shown
in Table 2. Additional factors not shown in Table 2 are operation temperature, cooling,
vacuum pressure, out gassing and maintenance for which requirements will be addressed
more specifically at a later stage.

Table 2: Engineering Aspects and Design Requirements for Installation of the VUV
Spectrometers and Detectors

Engineering Aspect Conditions Design Reguirement

Outside the Bio-shield
Tritium barrier In an atmosphere, surface Minimum extension of double wall
contamination is restricted & of vacuum boundary.
controlled.

Neutron flux 2x10 2 /cm2 sec (En>O.1 MeV) (Fluence< 10 14 /cm 2 ) .

Dose rate 37 Gylh at 1 m from the cooling Total Dose < 104 Gy
pipes.
Magnetic field 0.2 T at R=21 m, z=-5 m B< 100 Gauss
Port/Cryostat, cassette Max. IlR=50 mm,
Design must account for
movement due to Baking, IlTroidal= 25 mm,
Vertical Displacement Event. Ilz= 45 mm for port movement
movement

Interference with other Remote handling machine at the Removed evry 1000 pulses.
components head of divertor cooling pipes.

Inside the cryostat

Tritium barrier In the secondary vacuum Extension of torus vacuum
boundary
Neutron flux lx108 Icm 2 sec (En>O.l MeV) labyrinth and shield
Dose rate 37 Gylh at 1 m from the cooling Total Dose < 104 Gy
pipes.

Magnetic field 0.6 T at R=16.5 m, z=-5 m Error field at plasma< 10-5

Cassette movement due to TBD Optical path adjustment
Baking, VDE
Loads on the port extension 7.5 ton Support against disruption

DESIGN FEATURES

Installation Outside the Bio-shield: Vacuum Extension

For installation outside the bioshield, a line of sight to the divertor channel is only
possible in between the divertor cooling pipes because a large removable closure plate on
the cryostat occupies a wide area in the port entrance (Figure 1). A primary vacuum duct
directly coupled with the torus vacuum is extended into the pumping pit for about 3 m
outside the Bio-shield. At the end of the vacuum extension, a detector box is fixed on a
support flange from the pit floor with a small auxiliary cryopump. The vacuum duct,
detector box, auxiliary cryopump and valves for isolation are 5 bar rated and covered by the
secondary vacuum boundary which prevents tritium from leaking at any accidental failure.

339
Bellows mounted both on the primary and the secondary boundary absorb relative
displacements due to the port and cryostat movements. Since it is very difficult to mount
any focusing or reflecting mirror inside the flexible double wall duct, a straight viewing
line from the detector to divertor channel without a mirror is employed.

Diverlor Casseua

2nd Vacuum Boundary

Oivertor Cooli ng Pipes

Spectrometer
modules

Fig. 1. Isometric view of the VUV spectrometer looking at divertor leg region through the gap.
For clarity. Bio-shield and divertor cassette of the other side are not shown. The auxiliary
vacuum pump is just for an example.

Even though the duct size is kept to a minimum diameter of 165 mm inside the Bio-
shield, an additional shielding around the extension duct is necessary to reduce neutron
streaming to an acceptable level. Gamma-ray flux from the divertor cooling pipes which
run parallel with the vacuum extension is so strong that any reflecting mirrors in front of
the detector with a grazing angle would not decrease the streaming effectively. Hence the
gamma-ray shielding is achieved by shielding blocks inside the detector box with a normal
incident mirror.
Alignment for this configuration is difficult. Differential movement of the long,
narrow slot between the divertor cassettes (1.4 m x 10 mm) and the apertures in the cryostat
could restrict the direct line of sight The position of the detector box would have to be
automatically adjusted to compensate for this movement. Another disadvantage of this
configuration is that the detector box will interfere with a special machine which is
mounted on the cooling pipe header to cut pipes when divertor cassettes are removed for
repair.
The spectromterldetector could be similar to the Off Roland, normal incidence
spectrometer employed in the VUV spectrometer of JT-60U6. Figure 2 shows the general
layout of a defining slit, a deviating mirror, a grating mirror and a detector mounted on a
solid mono-block base firmly as a spectrometer module. The detector consists of an open
micro channel plate (Mep) image intensifier, a phosphor plate, fiber optics and a photo
diode array. The concave grating is made by a holographically recorded grooves covering
60 - 160 nm spectral range over the 60 mm focal plane with resolving power 'A111'A about
300. Both deviating and grating mirrors are coated with Al+MgF2 for the normal incident
angle ofT - 14°.
The dimensions of the module are width 30 cm, length 98 cm length and height 5
cm. It is also possible to cover the 160 - 200 nm spectral range by changing the relative
position of the deviating mirror and employing a larger incident angle on the grating
mirror. Similar spectrometers are used elsewhere 7, and the technology of these
components, particularly the semi-conductor devises, are making rapid progress. A wider
spectral range with a compact detector size and high resolution is anticipated.

340
 ---
2nd Vacuum Boundary
\
Grating Slit
~~~,-+,~ Detector
Mirror

1If-----(
/\~~~)
"""~~-~/' \

/
/

Support Position Adjustment Spectrometer Module

Fig. 2. Four spectrometer modules are stacked inside the doubly confined box. Open space in the
box is filled with Lead blocks for gamma-ray shielding. Feed through for cabling, cooling are not
shown.

With this flexible module, many important spectral lines of D I Lya, ell-IV, 0 III-
VI could be measured and used in studies of the radiation power loss. Impurity lines of Ne
I-II, Ar I-II are expected but more precise analysis is needed to predict their intensities.
Intensity calibration using the branching ratio method is possible by comparison of a line
pair, for example, C III 78.44 nm in VUV and 298.21 nm in the visible. Typically high
count rates are expected: for example, a count rate of 2x104 cts/sec is anticipated for C IV
154.8 nm line at ne = 1x1020 m- 3 . This should be an order of magnitude higher than the
counts originating from the background gamma rays. Studies of the performance of the
spectrometer - signal/noise, spatial resolution etc - are in progress and will be reported
seperately.
Inside the spectrometer box, four modules are supported by the position adjustment
mechanism so that four spatial chords will cover the area from the X-point to the upper half
of the divertor channel with an average separation 20 cm (Fig. 3). Since a grating with a
long focal length is employed, there is enough room to install gamma-ray shield around the
detector and viewing line inside the box. Lead shielding blocks with 10 cm thickness
reduce the gamma-ray flux to the level of 107 y/cm2 sec so that the gamma induced
background noise will be much less than the expected signal levels.

Lines of sight

Divertor channel

Divertor cassette

Fig. 3. Four lines of sight cover the area from the X-point to the upper half of the
divertor channel. The seperation of the lines can be adjusted.

SpectrometerlDetector mounted inside the cryostat

For the mounting inside the cryostat, the relative displacement between the divertor
cassette and the detector is expected to be relatively small and the requirement for optical
alignment is less demanding. Figure 4 shows the isometric view of a proposed installation
inside the cryostat. Viewing lines are deviated by a common mirror about 105° at the end
of vacuum port into a labyrinth which reduces the direct neutron flux. At the end of the
viewing duct, spectrometer modules similar to those described above are installed for
measuring in part of the wavelength range 60 - 200 nm.

341
 An important practical aspect for this configuration is the magnetic field at the
proposed detector location (about 0.6T). Substantial shielding would be necessary to
reduce it to below O.OlT. Without the mirror used to deviate the radiation, the
spectrometer/detector module can be reduced in size to about width 20 cm, and length 40
cm and four modules can be mounted in a cavity of 32 cm diameter. A prolate shape iron
shield of 1.06 m diameter by 1.5 m length and 37 cm thickness reduces the magnetic field
to below 100 Gauss at the detector as required. A simple dipole model approximation
indicates that the relative error field due to the magnetic shield at the plasma center may
reach 3xlO- 5, three times larger than permissible. A more careful multipole analysis is
needed to determine more accurately the magnitude of the associated error field.

Divertor Cassette
Vacuum Vessel

2nd Vacuum Boundary

/
/

Cryopump

Fig. 4. Isometric view of the VUV spectrometer located inside the cryostat. The mirror is revealed
just for explanation. The auxiliary vacuum pump is to be connected to the cavity in the magnetic
shield.

The dominant source of radiation would still be the water in the cooling pipes. The
iron shell reduces the radiation flux by two order of magnitudes to an acceptable level of
108 ylcm2sec. The modules inside the magnetic shield are confined in the primary vacuum
boundary. A small cryopump, not seen in the figure, exhausts gas into high vacuum side of
the pumping port.
The maintenance of the spectrometer is also a critical iss~e for this configuration. If
a substantial part of the magnetic shield has to be removed along with a malfunctioned
spectrometer module, the entire cyopump assembly will need to be taken out beforehand.
The disconnection of the foreline and removal of the cryogenic valve box will have to be
carried out carefully to prevent tritium contamination in the pit area, and such a procedure
would be possible a few times in the operational life of ITER.
The magnetic shield will have a mass of about 7.5 ton. Analysis of the dynamic and
electromagnetic force caused by a sudden motion or plasma disruption is necessary and
assessment of dynamic stress on the supporting structure will be important if this
arrangement is pursued.

SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORKS

Two configurations for installing a VUV spectrometer at the divertor level are
under consideration: in one case the spectrometer/detector is mounted outside the cryostat
in the pit while in the other it is mounted inside the croystat. The key engineering aspects
have been identified in each case and solutions to some of the key interface problems have

342
been found. Both cases have the merit of a direct view through a narrow gap between the
divertor cassettes which removes the need for a first mirror. The reflectivity of such a
mirror would most probably be seriously and rapidly degraded by material deposition and
would have to be frequently replaced. Employing a compact spectrometer/detector with a
concave grating in normal incident it is possible to monitor the 60 - 200 nm spectral range.
The detector must be shielded against the strong gamma flux from the water in the nearby
cooling pipes.
For the case of installation outside the Bio-shield, the method of coping with the
differential motion of the port and cryostat remains to be devised. Interference with the
remote handling machine for the divertor cooling pipes is also a key issue. For the case of
installation inside cryostat, the error field due to the large amount of magnetic shielding a
concern but the maintenance scheme is probably the most critical issue in this
configuration.
Further feasibility studies are necessary, including detailed optical design for the
long, narrow line of sight with the compact spectrometer/detector modules, and evaluation
of the error field due to the magnetic shield for the detector. Remote maintenance, local
vacuum pumping, detector cooling and methods of alignment remain to be developed. The
alternative location for the spectrometer, at a remote handling port, should also be
considered.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This report has been prepared as an account of work performed under the
Agreement among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

REFERENCES

1. N.J. Peacock et aI., Spectroscopy for Impurity Control in ITER, in: Diagnostics for Experimental
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et aI., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
2. R.C. Isler, Spectroscopy of Divertor Plasma, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors, P. E. Stott et aI., eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
3. A.T. Ramsey, Tokamak Spectroscopy in the UV - Is This the Golden Age?, in: UV and X-ray
Spectroscopy of Astrophysical and Laboratory Plasma, Cambridge Univ. Press (1993)
4. V.S. Mukhovatov et aI., Role and Requirements for Plasma Measurements on ITER, These Proceedings
(1997)
5. A.E. Costley et aI., Overview of the Diagnostic System, These Proceedings (1997)
6. H. Kubo et aI., Study of Impurity and Radiative Loss in Dovertor Plasma with Absolute Calibrated VUV
Spectrometers in JT-60U, Nuclear Fusion, 33 (1993) 1427
7. R.J. Fonck, A.T. Ramsey and R.V. Yelle, Multichannel grazing-incidence spectrometer for plasma
impurity diagnosis: SPRED, Applied Optics, 21 (1982) 2115

343
LUMINESCENT EFFICIENCY OF THIN PHOSPHOR SCREENS

A. Baciero, K. J. McCarthy, L. R. Barquero, A. Ibarra and B. Zurro

Asociacion EURATOM/CIEMAT para Fusion. E-28040 Madrid

INTRODUCTION

In a previous work, we presented a feasibility study for a broadband X-ray/VUV

radiation detector, based on the luminescence of a phosphor, for ITER-like plasmas l . Its
immunity to electromagnetic interference, its radiation hardness plus its capability of
operation when access to a machine is limited, make it attractive as a global radiation detector
for harsh plasma environments, such as ITER.
In this work we extend the work to estimate the efficiency of phosphor screens as a
function of screen thickness and incident photon energy. Two models are compared using
efficiencies measured with an X-ray tube source to provide fitting parameters for extending
the models over a broader range of photon energies. In this way screen thicknesses can be
tailored to energy ranges of interest whilst reducing background noise signal.

DESCRIPTION OF MODELS

Two models are considered here. In the first model the phosphor screen is assumed to
be a uniform infinite slab having a mass thickness W (mg/cm2). When VUV or X-ray
radiation is incident on the screen (see Fig. 1), the ratio between the forward luminescent
light output and the incident radiation, 17u (efficiency in transmission mode) is given by2,3

where (j and f3 are the phosphor self-absorption and light scattering coefficients for the
luminescent light, J1 is the energy dependent mass attenuation coefficient4, E is the incident
photon energy, 17e is the light conversion efficiency, and t and r are the plate transmissivity
and reflectivity. The term p is defined as p = (1- r) / (l + r).
In the second model the phosphor screen is considered to be thin and microscopically
non-uniform, as for the case when a screen is prepared by sedimentation. With this method
phosphor grains are deposited randomly over the plate surface. For modelling purposes it is

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 345
assumed that the grains are identical and are laid down randomly over the surface so that
grain stacks of different heights are built up on the plate surface (see Fig. 2). It is also
assumed that the light emitted from individual grain stacks does not interact with other grain

Phosphor grain

Backward Luminescent Light

Phosphor
Screen {-_____- - - - - ' j ta:·~w
=0
~
iii
Plate
Forward Luminescent Light

Fig. 1. Excitation of a phosphor screen with Fig 2. Dead layers in the phosphor grains. The
radiation grains are assumed to be rectangular.

stacks (i.e. scattering of light is not considered). The screen efficiency in transmission mode
at energy E is estimated by summing the efficiencies over all possible grain stack heights
weighted by each stack height fractional probability. This can be estimated by5

L 1Ju(E,kliJlayer)(Nk)ak(l- a)N-k
N
1J/E,liJ) = (2),
k= l

where 1Ju(E,kliJlayer ) are the transmission mode efficiencies of a layer kliJlayer' (k being the
layer thickness in grains and liJla"r the mass thickness of a single layer). Here, N is the total
number of particles on the screen surface, a is the ratio of a single grain effective area to the
total phosphor surface area under consideration, and (Nk ) are the number of combinations of
k grains taken from N grains.
In the granular model the presence of a dead layer on the phosphor grains is also
considered, Le., every grain has a superficial sublayer (see Fig. 2) that does not emit
luminescent light. The thickness of this layer is an inherent phosphor parameter and it has
been estimated6 to be of the order - 0.1 J.lm.
When the incident radiation is not monochromatic, Le., a continuous spectrum such as
the output from an X-ray tube, then the screen efficiency is given by

rEo rEo
1Jspecrrum(Eo,liJ) = Jo 1J(E,liJ)f(E)dE / Jo f(E)dE (3),

where 1J(E,w) is the screen efficiency at energy E. For the case of an X-ray tube with a thin
aluminium filter between the source and screen, the flux incident on the screenf(E) at energy
E is given by 7

(4),

where J-lAI is the mass attenuation coefficient for aluminium, liJAlis the filter mass thickness,
and EO is the X-ray lamp peak energy.

346
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

Measurements to check and compare the models have been made using a tube source of
X-rays and the phosphor Y3A150l2:Ce (P-46). This phosphor has been selected for use in
the TJ-ll stellarator8 and has an emission peak at 530 nm (yellow-green), a density of 4.15
g/cm3, and a mean grain size of 6.64 ~m. Screens of mass thicknesses between 1 and 22
mg/cm 2 were deposited on quartz plates having t = 0.94 and p = 0.89. The samples were
excited using lamp peak voltages of 30 kV and 52 kV. A 1 mm thick aluminium filter was
used to shape the X-ray spectrum, see Fig. 3. The output from the phosphor screen was
collected using an optical fibre and was analysed using a monochromator and a cooled
photomultiplier tube to measure the luminescent light spectrum between 400 and 800 nm.
7 ",,-.-.-..-.-~~,,-.-.-..-.-~~,,-,

6 o 30 kV-peak
o 52 kV-peak
- - - 30 kV-peak lMOdel)
~5 - - - - - 52 kV-peak Model)
'?
o
o

o
X-ray lamp

5 10 15 20
Thickness ( mglcm2 )

Fig. 3. Experimental set-up to Fig. 4. Results from X-ray lamp for several screen thicknesses
measure the phosphor screen of the phosphor Y3AlsOI2:Ce. Experimental and theoretical
efficiency. results are indicated.

In Fig. 4, we show the experimental results for light measured at 530 nm together with
curves obtained using the granular model. For these curves, a continuous filtered spectrum
was used and curve was fitted to the data points setting the parameters f3 =0.063 and (j =
12.6 cm 2/g. The granular dead layer was taken to be 0.07 /lm. The efficiencies were
normalised t0 9 11c=0.033, to compare the results for different lamp energies. A factor-fi
was included to account for the beam angle of incidence to the screen, i.e., 45". Similar
curves (not shown) were generated using the uniform model, albeit with different values for
the parameters f3 and (J. It might be expected that the form of the curves from both models
should be similar for the range of screen mass thicknesses used, as X-rays in this energy
range should undergo little absorption when passing through the phosphor layers. In this
narrow energy range the phosphor X-ray mass attenuation coefficients for the phosphor
components are low, so the granular and dead layer effects are not as critical as in regions
with higher coefficients where all the radiation is absorbed in the first few phosphor layers.
Although the range of experimental energies studied is quite narrow the measurements
and curves provide the fitting parameters needed to extend the models to lower X-ray and
VUV energies, where the diagnostic would be operated. For this we have chosen the
granular model as it provides a more realistic description of the actual structure of the thin
phosphor screens needed for this application. The results of these computations are shown in
Fig. 5 for a wide range of screen mass thicknesses and a broad range of energies. At the
lowest energies, < 10 keY, efficiencies of the order 10- 2 are achieved with screen mass
thicknesses of the order 20 mg/cm2 . Furthermore the efficiency to hard X-rays, i.e., > 25
keY, is < 2xlO- 3 and decreases rapidly with increasing energy. Hence, the background
signal from high energy photons will be considerably diminished.

347
CONCLUSIONS

Good agreement has been found between different models to compare the response of a
phosphor screen over the X-ray range 30 to 50 keV. These measurements have allowed
curves to be generated for a wide range of energies and to allow screen mass thickness to be
tailored to the energies of interest and to provide an indication of the background signal. The
models can be applied to other phosphors once their fitting parameters are determined.
100"rrrrnn~nrrrnr~rrrrrrn"mr"nmrrnmrr~rnrr~rnrn

80

(/)
(/)
<D
c
-"
1:1 40
I-

20

o 10 20 30 40 50
Photon energy ( keV )
Fig. 5. Contour plot of Y3AIsOI2:Ce phosphor screen efficiencies (10- 3) modelled using the granular
model for monoenergetic excitations. The large jump at 17 keY is due to yttrium.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education under
contract DGCYT No. PB 94-1229.
A. B. is supported by a Scholarship from the Institute of Energy Studies.

REFERENCES
1. B. Zurro, e. Burgos, A. Ibarra and KJ. McCarthy, Fusion Engineering and Design, 34-
35:353 (1997)
2. H. e. Hamaker, Philips Res. Rep., 2:55 (1947)
3. G.W. Ludwig, J. Electrochem. Soc., 118:1152 (1971)
4. 1.H. Hubbell and S.M. Seltzer, NISTIR 5632 -Web Version 1.02, (1996)
5. G.E. Giakumakis, M.e. Katsarioti and I.E. Lagaris, J. Appl. Phys., 69:6607 (1991)
6. S. Koboniwa, T. Hoshina and M. Kanamaru, J. Electrochem. Soc., 120:1734 (1973)
7. E. Storm, Phys. Rev. A, 5:2328 (1972)
8. B. Zurro, e. Burgos, KJ. McCarthy and L.R. Barquero, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 68:680
(1997)
9. G. Blasse, B.C. Grabmaier, Chapter 9, in: Luminiscent Materials, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg (1994)

348
THERMONUCLEAR PLASMA X-RAY DIAGNOSTICS
WITH COMPTON SCATTERING

D.V.Portnov, Yu.A.Kaschuck, A.V.Krasilnikov

Troitsk Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Researches,

Troitsk, Moscow area, Russia.

INTRODUCTION.

Our objective is to provide tools for X-ray spectral, time and spatial resolving meas-
urements on ITER. Spectral range should be 2-5 Te for good sensitivity to electron tempera-
ture changes. That means a spectral range up to 150 keY. The level of accompanying neu-
tron radiation will be so high, that we need use some deflectors to separate neutron and X-
ray fluxes. In the case, the crystalline reflectors cannot provide the wide range,,2. Kumak-
hov X-Ray optics 3 does not allow to deflect a radiation with an acceptable angle.
We suggest the other approach: to use a difference in scattering a X-Ray radiation and
neutron on the light elements. Let's assume, that we have a deflector consisting of hydro-
gen. Neutrons cannot deviate on an angle more 90° by elastic scattering on protons. The X-
Ray will be deflected according to Compton effect. In this ideal case the ratio of X-Ray and
neutron powers will increase infinitely. However, hydrogen deflector is hard to use.

PRELIMINARY ESTIMATIONS.

Accepting an average differential Compton cross section of scattering equal 0.05

barn/steradian (varies ±30 %), we shall receive the following evaluations for above
«amplification factor» (deflection angle 154°) for different light elements:

Table of 1 Interaction of neutrons with the light elements.

Element Z X-total dXn-n 1 EgammadX-eliastiK
Li6 3 1.449 0.0001 1.5 0.002 75
Li7 3 1.442 0.0005 0.447 0.004 38
Be9 4 1.528 0.0070 0.039 5
C 6 1.27 0.0180 4.439 0.014 21

• Z - Number of electrons in atom,

• X-total- total cross section interaction with 14MeV neutrons, barn;
• dX-n-nl - n-n'y (the first level excitation cross section, is divided on 41t to compare with differential cross
sections of X-ray and elastic neutrons scattering; we believe this channel of inelastic interaction is the main
source ofy-noise from a reflector, for preliminary estimations the inelastic scattering of neutrons can be
neglected, barn/ster;
• Egamma - energy of a gammas produced at inelastic scattering, MeV;
• dX-ellastic - differential cross section of neutron elastic scattering, barn/ster;
• K - Arbitrary amplification factor

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plemnn Press, New York, 1998 349
 Li shows the greatest difference in Compton and neutron scattering. Besides, it is nec-
essary to take into account a photo absorption in a reflector at measurements in low energy
range «10keV), e.g., it is necessary to select a material with small Z. And, at last, Li has
the minimal inelastic cross section. Thus, it is necessary to apply for deflector substance
containing a lithium, for example, LiH. Li6 isotope is preferable.

BACK SCATTERING METHOD APPLICATION FOR ITER.

In ITER the configuration with Compton deflector is much easier than configuration
with application of X-Ray optics. Probably, it would be possible to use neutron collimator
channels for these diagnostics. To do that, it is necessary to use Be entering window instead
of steel and to locate a LiH deflector in the channel. The deflector is almost transparent for
neutrons, so it'll not influence on neutron diagnostics. The detector of a deflected radiation
can be arranged in additional collimator directed in the angle range 140-160° in respect to
initial radiation direction.

Table 2 Parameters for estimations of potencies of streams on the detector

Parameter Value Units.
Volume of a reflector 400 cm3
Square of a reflector 10 cm2
Distance from plasma up to a reflector 15 m
Square of the detector 1 cm2
Distance a reflector the detector 50 cm
Te, in a max. 25 keV
Ne, concentration 10 14 cm·3

The application of a reflector gives improving a signal/noise ratio in dozens' time.

Table 3 Powers of streams

Pcsitim RrSv.al, Ch d:fIErtcr, ChcItErta
Wcrrf''Z'fJ.ff Wcrrf'2 Wcrrf'2
SXR 6.928 3(E-a5 1.1
mtrm 2EJ.7 1.(E.{)3 9.4
S'NRaio 019 003

The Detector Choice.

TabA-5 were calculated for Be entering window thickness 5mm, detector-2mm.

Table 4 Performances scintillating of detectors

Material of Z Density, Scintil!. Energy reso- Effectiveness of
the detector g/cm3 Effect. to lution for Ey the detector
NaI (TI), % 662keV, % Ey 150 keY, %
Nar(TI) 11,53 3.67 100 -6 30.8
CsI (Na) 53,55 4.51 85 -6 40.7
CsI (TI) 53,55 4.51 45 -6 40.7
BaF 2 9,56 4.88 - -8 39.2
Bi 4Ge 30 12 32,8,83 7.13 10 ~ 10 74.5
CdW04 8,48,74 7.90 20 67.7
ZnW04 8,30,74 7.33 28 65.6
CaW04 8,20,74 6.06 80 61.6

350
 To improve a signal/noise ratio it is necessary to use scintillators with large Z and
small sensitivity to neutrons. Such crystal can be Bi4Ge30h (BGO) - energy resolution
<10% (for crystal 25 mm and thickness of 2.5 mm). A rather small highlighting time and
absence of long-term components allow to receive a good time resolution.

Table 5 Performances of semiconductor detectors

Material of Z Density, Energy. A Energy. A so- Energy. A Effectiveness

the detector r/cM3 solution for lution for solution for of the detec-
Ey 5.9 keY, Ey59.6 keY, Ey 122 tor for Ey
keY keY keY, keY 150 keY, %
Ge 32 5.32 19.5
CdTe 48,52 6.06 1.1 3.0 7.5 43.4
HgI2 80,53 6.40 0.2 1.2 2.0 65.7

The detectors from Hgh are characterized by high radiation resistance. The energy
resolution of detectors practically does not vary in an interval fluence 109 - 4_10 1S
neutronicm2 (En = 8MeV).

Table 6 Interaction of neutrons with an energy 14 MeV with heavy elements

Material of the detec- Stotal Sinelastic Sch.particles (bam) SSXR 150keY K
tor (presence, %) (bam) (bam) (bam)
Na-23 (100) 1.72 0.75 0.199 5.16 26
Cs-133 (100) 4.86 0.16 0.013 163.727 12594
F-19 (100) 1.76 0.25 0.525 3.98 8
Ba-138 (71.7) 5.0 0.47 0.032 176.433 5514
Bi-209 (100) 5.35 0.39 0.005 722 144400
Hg n.a. n.a. n.a. 590.293
Ge-74 (36.5) 3.70 1.22 n.a. 29.756
0-16 (99.76) 1.61 0.43 0.220 3.5 16
W-nat 5.47 0.49 0.004 483.153 120788
1-127 (100) 4.79 0.55 0.019 147.159 7745
Cd-nat 4.62 0.37 0.021 103.688 4938
Ie-l30 (33.8) 4.67 1.50 0.002 134.567 67284

-Stotal - total cross section of neutron interaction with substance;

-Sinelastic - inelastic scattering cross section;
-Sch.particles - cross section of charged particles emission (n, p), (n, d), (n, a) etc.;
-SSXR 150keV - cross section of interaction with a 150keV X-ray radiation
-K - Arbitrary sensitivity to SXR and to neutrons
Optimal choices are:
-From scintillators - BGO,
-From semiconductor detectors - Hgh.

Spectrum Restoring Method Errors.

To evaluate errors the calculations for the targets of various shapes were carried out by
a Monte-Carlo method. The events of a reflection (including multiple) and absorption in a
reflector were played. The quants deflected under defined angles, were considered regis-
tered. The initial spectrum was selected from single line, Maxwell and uniform distribution.

351
 1.E+OO 1i!::.:-:-:------------------,
1.E-01 --Original
1.E-02 --Measured
1.E-03 ......... Restored
1.E-04 +---+_--+_----:::~+_--..,..:::~~
o 20 40 60 80 100
E,keV
Figure 1. Restoring method evaluation.

The increasing of the slope of a «registered» spectrum with growth of an energy is due
to dependency of Compton scattering from an energy and energy loss. The fall down at
small energies is due to absorption in the deflector. At high energies the procedure of re-
storing does not meet problems. At small energies, the procedure of restoring requires to
take into account an absorption in deflector. It is required to determine some function from
an energy which is falling down from infinity for E = 0 up to I for large E. The registered
spectrum should be multiplied on this function
Functions defined for one spectrum, appeared to be suitable for restoring all remain-
ing. That is fitting parameters are completely determined only by geometry, and do not de-
pend upon initial spectrum. The restoring does not increase the relative error.

Evaluation Of A Space And Time Resolution.

The spatial resolution cannot be better, than sizes of a reflector and collimator entering
window, that is about several cm. From a point of view of the amplitude analysis the appli-
cation Compton deflector gives a count rate exceeding possibilities of a modem electronics
(more 106 s-'). Probably, in a few years the progress of electronics will change the situation,
but now, in case of the amplitude analysis, the time resolution is limited only by electronics
and is of the I Oms order. For faster «Ims) flux measurements the SXR-power is too small.

CONCLUSIONS.

Suggested X-ray diagnostics with Compton Scattering can be successfully used for
electron temperature profile measurements in ITER burning plasma experiments with spa-
tial and time resolutions of about 10 cm and 10 ms correspondingly. An application of Li
deflector and Hgh semiconductor or BGO scintillator detectors in suggested diagnostic
scheme will provide the increase (with respect to detector placement in strait collimator
channel) of signal to noise ratio by - 40 times in ITER conditions.

REFERENCES
1 K. W .Hill, M.Bitter et aI., Proceeding of the International Workshop on Diagnostic for ITER, edited by
P.Stott, G.Gorini, E.Sindoni, p.341-351, (Varenna, Italy, 1995).
2 R.Barnsley, R.M.Giannella et aI., Ibid, p.341- 351 (1995).
3 A.G.Alekseev, V.NAmosov et aI., Ibid, p.365-368 (1995).

352
 NPA at ITER: physical basis and conceptual design

A.I.Kislyakov, V.I.Afanassiev, A.V.Khudoleev, S.S.Kozlovskij*, M.P.Petrov

A.F.lo.IJe physical-technical institute a/Russian Academy a/Sciences, St.-Petersburg, 194021 Russia

.State Technical University a/St.-Petersburg, St.-Petersburg, 195251 Russia

1. Introduction
To control the isotope density ratio of the hydrogen ions in the plasma is an important
issue for optimization ofbuming plasma parameters in ITER. The measurement of the ratio of
deuterium/tritium fluxes emitted by the plasma in the energy range of few maximal ion
temperatures has been proposed to determine nillt ratio in the ITER plasma [1]. Along with
the isotope ratio control the measurement of the energy distribution of He atoms in the energy
range up to a few MeV can be used to diagnose the fast confined alpha particle behaviour [2].
In this report we will concentrate on the isotope ratio measurements. Possibilities of alpha
particle diagnostics have been discussed earlier [3].

2. Physical bases
The hydrogen plasma ions can be neutralized due to charge exchange with the atoms
penetrating into the plasma from the periphery (background neutrals), with the diagnostic beam
atoms, with the not fully stripped impurity ions and due to radiation recombination with the
electrons. For all the cases an intensity of the fluxes of the hydrogen, deuterium and tritium
atoms produced by a unit of the plasma volume is proportional to the density of the
corresponding ions:

tPH,1).T (E) = no np,d,t !"d,{E) < av> ex (1)

tPH.D.r (E) = 11. np,d,t h,d,t(E) <av>r (2)

where 110, IIp,d,t and n. - density of targets for charge exchange, density of hydrogen isotope ions
and electron density, <av> - rates for charge exchange and recombination, (1) is related to
charge exchange and (2) - to recombination. Assuming that the distribution functions h,d,t (E)
of the different hydrogen ions are identical and measuring the ratio of the corresponding
atomic fluxes we can determine the ratio of the hydrogen isotope ions in the plasma. Doing this

Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 353
the differences of <ov>cx and of absorption of atomic fluxes in the plasma for the different
isotopes should be taken into account.
The atomic fluxes C,,,,(E) emitted by the plasma and measured outside are different
from ¢"",(E) due to integration along line of sight and absorption by the outer layers of plasma
f f
1

[H.vAE) = ¢H.vAE,I).exp{ - nrrabs(E)dx }dl (3)

L
where I is coordinate along line of sight starting from the plasma edge and rr abs is the total
absorption cross section.
In the case of active measurements the detected atoms are produced by charge
exchange with diagnostic beam atoms. The origin place of the detected fluxes is fixed by the
geometry of the diagnostic set up and defined as a crossing area of the observation field and
the beam. To obtain the isotope ratio of the plasma ions from measured ratio of the
corresponding atomic fluxes we should take into account only the difference in the absorption
and in charge exchange cross sections for the different isotopes.
In the case of passive measurements the plasma region in which emitted atoms are
being born is not very well localized. Its position depends on a number of plasma parameters.
It can be determined by modelling of the residual neutral density profile and calculating
dependence of the emission function over the observation line. For the modelling and the
calculating it is necessary to have detailed information about the plasma parameters, especially
near the plasma periphery. As a rule it is better to operate with high energy particles which are
emitted from the inner plasma area where they are neutralized mostly by recombination.
A radial dependence of the emission functions calculated for ITER plasma of one
possible scenario with the flat ion temperature profile can be seen in fig. I a,b [4].

1.2 ;:i
..;
1.2
;:i I 2 3 2 1
...; 1.0 cl' 1.0
cl' .9
t)
.9 0.8 t::
0.8
t)
t:: 0.6 ..at:: 0.6
..at:: 0
. iii
0.4 0.4
'8'"
0
.iii
·s'"Q)
0.2
0.0
0
0
Q) 0.2
0.0
I
0
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 'F-<" 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from the edge I, cm Distance from the edge I, cm

Fig. I. Emission functions of D and T atomic fluxes from ITER plasma for flat ion temperature and flat electron
density profiles.
a - for D fluxes of 10 keY (1), 50 keY (2) and 150 keV(3).
b - for D (1) and T (2) fluxes of 150 keY.
Ti - ion temperature profile.

The passive fluxes of the atoms with higher energy are emitted from the deeper regions of the
plasma (fig.la). The atoms with the energy around ISO keY should be used to measure the
isotope ratio of the more than 0.5 m deep plasma. Spatial resolution defined as width of the
emission function on the half of the height is estimated as Lix/x = 25 - 30 %, where x is a
distance from the plasma edge till position of the maximum of the emission function. The
emission functions of D and T atoms of the same energy have different radial distributions

354
(fig.lb) and the isotope ratio measurements are possible only when plasma parameter profiles
are very well known and when isotope plasma composition is assumed to be constant along
line of sight of the NPA.
Above we considered the energy range up to 200-300 keV and assumed maxwellian
distribution of the hydrogen isotope ions. In the burning plasma MeV energy tails of h,d,1 (E)
are expected to be produced due to knock-on collisions of the hydrogen ions with alpha
particles and with the other products of the fusion reactions [5,6]. Density of MeV energy tail
d- and t-ions can reach 10-5 - 10-6 of the bulk ion density at the energy above 1 MeV. JET
experiments [7] and later simulations [8] show a high probability for these ions to be
neutralized due to charge exchange with H-like impurity ions such as C+S and Be+3 and
radiation recombination with electrons and we can expect a flux of MeV Drr atoms which will
be high enough for nd/nl measurements [9]. Due to high permeability ofITER plasma for MeV
Drr ions these measurement will provide an isotope ratio in the plasma core as well as an
information about the distribution function of confined alpha particles because fa should
correlate with fp,d,1 in this energy range. But more simulations taking into account different
scenarios of the impurity behaviour in ITER are needed.

3. Description of the system.

Based on considerations presented above the following diagnostic system has been
proposed (fig.2) [10].

Fig.2. Set up ofNPA diagnostics proposed

in [lO).
DNB - diagnostic beam injector.

It consists of the neutral beam diagnostic injector combined with 3 couples of neutral particle
analysers (NPA). The diagnostic beam is injected into the plasma almost horizontally
perpendicular to the plasma axis. Each NPA couple consists of one middle energy NPA and
one MeV energy NP A. They are placed along the same axis one after another in such a way
that the flux of neutrals passing through the first (middle energy) NPA enters the second
(MeV energy) one. Three units ofNPA couples view the plasma through a vertical port. Their
lines of sight intersect the diagnostic beam at the distance of 0.56 m, 1.12 m and 1.62 m from
the plasma edge to have the measurements at three different points along the radius. One more
couple of NPA' s with the line of sight along the major radius Crossing the plasma centre has
been added.

355
 Fig.3 presents the results of the computer simulation of the active and passive energy
spectra of deuterium and tritium atoms for diagnostic beam of 10 MW beam power and 100
keV/a.m.u. particle energy and NPA which line of sight intersects the beam at 1.62 m from
the plasma edge [4]. To provide the required 20% accuracy of the measurements with required
time resolution 100 ms the counting rate should be not less than 103 kHz. For passive
measurements it is possible in the energy range up to 130 keY and for active - in the energy
range above 160 keY.

108
107
'"
=
"r;s
106
:s
0 lOS
0 Fig.3. Active and passive fluxes of D (open
" 104 symbols) and T (closed symbols)
~ 103 atoms from ITER plasma with nd=n, ,
~ 102 flat ion temperature and flat electron
density profiles.
101
0 40 80 120 160
Energy E, keY

The background level shown in fig.3 is calculated for NP A surrounded by additional

concrete shielding of 1 m thickness with the input aperture 2 x 2 cm2 . The NPA is supposed to
be equipped by advanced detectors with pulse height analysis system [11] which are assumed
to be developed as a result of the proposed R&D (see paragraph 4). We should not expect
problems with background counting rate but we should keep in mind that background
produced by neutrons is strongly affected by surrounding diagnostic and technological
equipment.
Computer simulation allows us to find a plasma parameter range where DfT flux ratio
is less sensitive to the shape of the plasma density and temperature profiles for fixed isotope
ratio of plasma ions. This is important for estimation of the reliability of the measurements.
Some results are given in figA. We can see that situation improves with broadening of Ti
profile andlor decreasing of the plasma periphery density.

...::!10
!"><
8
6
Fig.4. Energy dependence of r D I r T ratio
from ITER plasma witb nd=n, for
different energy and temperature profiles.
& 4 2 1,2,4 - n. - (1-(r/a)~, RT~O) =175 em (I),
RT~O) = 185 em (2), RT~O) =200 em (4)
.~ 3
3 - n. - (l-(r/ah RT~o)=185 em
'"
~ 2 4 RT~O) - radius of plasma core where ion
~
temperature Ti = Ti(O), for r> RT~O) Ti
~Cl 40 80 120 Iinearily decreases to 0 to the plasma
edge r=a.
Energy E, keV

At present only the passive measurements are approved for ITER. In this case
localisation and spatial resolution of the measurements are not determined by the diagnostic set

356
up. They can be determined only by computer simulation. Besides data proceedings are not
possible without information concerning density and ion temperature profiles, especially at the
outer rcgion of the plasma.

4. NPA prototype and R&D needed for its optimisation to ITER

GEMMA-type NPA [12] used for investigation of H and He neutral fluxes in the
energy range 0.1 - 4 MeV at the largest tokamaks JET, JT-60U and TFTR is suggested as a
prototype. Its operation is based on stripping atoms by means of a carbon foil, subsequent E II
B analysis of secondary ions and detection of them by detectors that consist of thin (2-2S llm)
scintillators opticalIy coupled to photomultiplier tube (PMT). PMT's are chosen due to their
high radiation resistivity. Thickness of scintillator is minimized according to the particle energy
detected in the NP A channels to decrease the sensitivity of the detectors to the neutron and
gamma background. The detectors can be used for detection of hydrogen and helium ions
with the energy higher than 100 keY.
For implementation on ITER the prototype should be optimized to extend the low
energy limit of the measurements to 10 - 20 keY, to decrease further the sensitivity to
background radiation and to improve the signal to noise ratio. This is a purpose of our R&D
program during which we are going to test

• new types ofPMT;

• new types of scintillators;
• a more complicated version of the detectors using ion-electron converter with a
high conversion ability;
• a system for acceleration of the secondary ions by additional voltage of order 100
kV which will transform the fluxes of the energy range 10 - 200 keY to the energy
range 110 - 300 keY.

We hope results of the proposed R&D program enable us to make a design of the
final NPA prototype for ITER probably covering the whole energy range from 10 - 20 keY till
4 MeV by one instrument.

5. np/Ild measurements at COMPASS tokamak and W7-AS stellarator.

Measurements of np/nd were carried out with NP A ACORD-12 [J 3]which enables to
detect simultaneously Hand D fluxes and their energy spectra. Three pairs of its energy
channels measure the fluxes of Hand D atoms of the almost the same energy. It provides a
possibility to follow for the correlation betweenfr,(E) and.ld(E) in the same energy range and it
is convenient for np/nd determination. The correction factors needed for obtaining np/nd from
the measured values of rJ{ / r D are calculated by a computer program which simulates the
production and emission of the active and passive fluxes of the fast charge exchange atoms.
At COMPASS tokamak the ohmically heated plasma with line density up to 2 x 10 19
m and ion temperature about 200 eV has been investigated [I4]. A large portion of protons
2

(up to 60%) has been observed in the plasma of deuterium discharges after switching the
operation of tokamak from hydrogen to deuterium and wall boronization by B(CH3)3 being
increased from shot to shot after cleaning the walI by glow discharge (fig.S). This result shows
a sensitivity of the technique to changing of the isotope ratio of the hydrogen plasma ions.

357
 l. 8 rrTTTTTTTTT"l..,-,-rTTT1rrT"1'CTTT""rrn"
1.6
1.4
1.2
.f!' 1.0
c:::"'" 0.8 ~ Fig.5. Isotope ratio nJnp for a sequence of
0.6 0 COMPASS shots in D2 following 15 min
0.4 I He glow cleaning discharge.
0.2 I
0.0 Ull.JL.J...UL..LW.J...U...L..I...L.1..U...Ll1.L.L.L.J..J..1-LLJ
5280 5290 5300
Shot Number

At W7-AS stellarator a diagnostic neutral beam of20 - 35 keY energy has been used
to localize the measurements near the plasma centre [15]. By chopping the beam the active
fluxes has been separated from the passive ones. It was found that active and passive
measurements agree each other in the limit of the error bars (fig.6a,b,c). Data presented in fig.6
are averaged over 3 different energies and over duration of diagnostic beam pulse or time
interval between pulses, normally 50 ms. In the case of electron cyclotron plasma heating a
typical percentage of protons nrf(llp+nd) (ratio of the proton density to the total density of the
hydrogen isotope ions) was found between 20% and 40% showing a weak: tendency to the
increase during a discharge (fig.6a). In the case of neutral injection heating a percentage of the
protons increases during injection (fig. 6b) which results from the injection of hydrogen by the
heating beams.

50 50 2.5

/
a) b)

~ o.~.O'~'O'~
40 40 2.0
-;J. ~
0
,..-::

+
r:Z" 30
?+ 30 1.5 >-
<I.)
..14
c:::"- 20
",:.
-- DB DB DB DB DB c:::"- 20 l.0
rI
'-' '-' ~-
--",
c:::'" c::: )t-Pl
10 10 NI 0.5
EC EC
0 0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 OJ 0.4 0.5
time, s time, s

20 1.0 Fig.6. Relative proton content in deuterium

I? 'El discharges of W7-AS for different
c) r:J 0.8
-;J. 15 heating scenarios. Active (i) and
,..-:: 0.6 >- passive (0) measurements.
c:::"'" 10 :.A 'l>-....,t. a - electron cyclotron heating.
+"- !l--.1!t-d 0.4 ~ b - neutral beam injection heating.
c::: ...
~
~
'-' 5 c - H minority ion cyclotron heating.
? 0.2
EC - ECR power heating, DB -
0 ICR 0.0 diagnostic beam pulses, NI - neutral
injection power as a function of time (.4
0.0 0.1 0.2 OJ 0.4 0.5 0.6 - 1.2 - .8 MW), ICR - ion cyclotron
heating power. Ion temperature:
time, s protons (+), deuterons (x).

358
 From diagnostic point of view measurements made in ion cyclotron H minority
heating regime are of the most interesting. During ion cyclotron heating phase the effective
temperature of the hydrogen minority increased more than twice compared to deuterium
majority temperature (fig.6c). In spite of the large difference between TH and TD the
measurements of the hydrogen percentage which has been made by three pairs of the NPA
channels for three different energies agree very well if the difference between TH and TD is
taken into account in calculations of the correction factors.
The measurements show a significant decrease of the hydrogen percentage in the ICR
heating phase. There are two possible explanations of the decrease observed. Firstly, it is
possible that the number of the protons in the plasma is decreased indeed due to enhanced
losses of the energetic RF heated protons. Secondly, it is possible that the measured ratio n/nd
is decreased only due to the disturbance of the isotropy of the proton distribution function in
the velocity space which results in a relative decrease of the particles with a velocity parallel to
the line of sight of the NP A
Thus, the measurements carried out for different heating scenarios which can
influence the temperature ratio of protons and deuterons confirm a possibility to control the
isotope ratio by charge exchange atomic fluxes during a plasma discharge. Unfortunately up to
now the measurements has been made for the plasma with line density below 2 x 10 19 m2 which
is much less than ITER parameters. The technique should be approved at the largest machines
such as JET and JT-60U.

6. Conclusion
The isotope composition of the hydrogen plasma ions in ITER can be measured by
measuring the ratio of DIT atomic fluxes. The ratio of the fluxes is proportional to the density
ratio of the corresponding plasma ions. The coefficients of the proportionality are calculated by
computer simulation using additional information about density and temperature radial
distributions.
For measuring the density ratio of the hydrogen isotope ions in ITER plasma it was
proposed to use the passive as well as the active diagnostics. If only the passive diagnostics is
used the localization of the measurements will become worse and more intensive additional
information will be needed to obtain required accuracy of the measurements.
Expected counting rates will provide accuracy of the ndlnt measurements equal 20%
or better with time resolution O.1s. Measurements in the energy range 1 - 3 MeV enable us to
obtain nint in the plasma core and the alpha particle distribution function.
Existing NPA should be optimized to extend its energy range to 10 - 20 keVand to
decrease further its sensitivity to neutron and gamma background.
Efficiency of the techniques has been demonstrated at small scale plasma devices. The
further testing at larger machines including JET and JT -60U is necessary.

References
I. AB.Izvozchikov, AI.Kislyakov, M.P.Petrov, AV.Khudoleev, DlTlHe composition
diagnostics on ITER. Alpha Diagnostics, ITER-IL-PH-7-9-S-07 (J9{J9).
2. M.P.Petrov, AB.Izvozchikov, AA Basalaev et aI., Proposal for active charge-exchange
diagnostics of charge fusion products in JET plasma, Rep. A.F.Ioffe Physical-Technical
Institute, Leningrad, 1990; AB.Izvozchikov, AV.Khudoleev, M.P,Petrov et aI., Charge

359
 exchange diagnostics of fusion alpha particles and ICPF driven minority ions in MeV
energy renge in JET plasma, JET Rep. JET-R(91) 12,1991.
3. M.P.Petrov, R.K.Fisher, Charge exchange diagnostics of fast confined alphas: present
situation and prospects for ITER, in "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors", P.E Stott, G. Gorini and E.Sindoni, ed., Plenum Press, New York and London
(1995) p.49S.
4. AV.Khudoleev, V.I.Manassiev, F.Y.Tchemyshev, Possibility to control an isotope
composition of dense plasma by charge exchange atomic fluxes, 9'h National Topical
Conference on High Temperature Plasma Diagnostics, St.-Petersburg, Russia, June 2-4,
1997.
5. D.Ryutov, Energetic Ion Population Formed in Close Collision with Fusion Alpha-
Particles, Physica Scripta 45 (1992) 153.
6. R.K.Fisher, P.B.Parks, McChesney, M.N.Rosenbluth, Fast Alpha Particle Diagnostics
using Knock-on ion Tails, Nucl.Fus. 34 (1994) 1291.
7. M.P.Petrov, V.I.Manasyev, S.Corti et al., Neutral particle analysis in the MeV range in
JET, Proc.19th EPS ConJ.on Contr.Fus.and Plasma Phys., Innsbruck, 1992, vol. 16C, part
II, p.l034.
S. AAKorotkov, AGondhalekar, AJ.Stuart, Impurity induced neutralization of
megaelectronvolt energy protons in JET plasmas, Nucl.Fus., 37 (1997) 35.
9. AY.Khudoleev, V.I.Manassiev, AI.Kislyakov, M.P.Petrov, S.S.Koziovskij, Neutral
particle diagnostics in the MeV energy range at the large modem tokamaks, 9'h National
Topical Conference 011 High Temperature Plasma Diagnostics, St.Petersburg, Russia,
June 2-4, 1997.
10. ITER design description document (DDD), Neutral particle analyzers, WBS S.S.E.OS,
RV4, 26 Nov.l996.
11. S.S.Kozlovskij, V.I.Mineev, V. V. Grebentschikov et a1., Detector of particles emitted by
plasma based on electron multiplier and converter with increased electron emission, 9th
National Topical Conference on High Temperature Plasma Diagnostics, St.Petersburg,
Russia, June 2-4, 1997.
12. AI.Kislyakov, A.V.Khudoleev, S.S.Kozlovskij, M.P.Petrov, High Energy Neutral Particle
Analyzer, Fusion Engineering and Design 34-35 (1997) 107.
13. A.B.Izvozchikov, M.P.Petrov, S.Ya.Petrov,F.V.Chernyshev, I.V.Shustov. The
Akord-12 multichannel analyzer for simultaneous recording of the energy spectra of
hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Sov.Phys.Tech.Phys. 37 (1992) 201
14. HG.Esser, SJ.Fie1ding, S.D.Hanks et al., Boronization of COMPASS, 1.Nucl.Mat. 186
(1992) 217.
15. AI.Kislyakov, M.Kick and W7-AS team, Measurement of np Ind ratio on W7-AS
stellarator, 9'h National Topical Conference on High Temperature Plasma Diagnostics, SI.-
Petersburg, Russia, June 2-4,1997.

360
PROSPECTS FOR CORE HELIUM DENSITY AND RELATED MEASUREMENTS
ON ITER USING ACTIVE CHARGE EXCHANGE

D.M. Thomas, K.H. Burrell, M.R Wade,* RT. Snider

General Atomics
P.O. BOX 85608
San Diego, CA 92186-5608

*Oak Ridge National Laboratory

P.O. Box 2009
Oak Ridge, TN 37831

ABSTRACT
The measurement of low-Z impurities, in particular He ash, in the core of International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) remains an outstanding diagnostic issue. The
only credible candidate at present is active charge exchange recombination spectroscopy
(CER) utilizing a diagnostic neutral beam (DNB) optimized for the dual requirements of
beam penetration and charge exchange cross section, resulting in beam energies of
-100 keV/AMU. Using the existing ITER parameter profile and eqUilibrium data files and
reasonable assumptions regarding viewing optics and DNB performance, we have
employed a benchmarked multistep beam penetration code to yield signal-to-noise esti-
mates for possible core helium concentration measurements. These studies confirm the
importance of precise determination of beam intensities via accurate modeling and indepen-
dent measurement, as well as the need for beam modulation, to satisfy the stated measure-
ment precisions needed for ITER Comparable calculations have been done for an intense
pulsed neutral beam based on ion diode technology, as well as other candidate He-CER
wavelengths, to assess the relative advantages of these techniques. Since any DNB-based
diagnostic system actually deployed on ITER will likely be used for a variety of purposes,
signal-to-noise calculations for the related active CER measurement of ion temperatures
have also been performed and will be presented.

1. INTRODUCTION
Active plasma spectroscopy, or spectroscopy based upon local signal enhancement via
a penetrating neutral atomic beam, is employed as a key diagnostic on almost all present-
day tokamaks. This technique is utilized for a wide variety of measurements in the plasma
edge and core, including ion temperature [via Doppler broadening of intrinsic impurity lines
which are efficiently populated by charge exchange from beam atoms - charge exchange
recombination spectroscopy (CER)], plasma rotation (via Doppler shift of the same impu-
rity lines), and impurity profile information (via quantitative spectroscopy of the impurity

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aJ., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 361
line intensities). Other important measurements that can be undertaken with active spec-
troscopy include plasma turbulence levels [via fluctuation analysis of the collisionally
excited beam emission - beam emission spectroscopy (BES)] and local magnetic/electric
field determination [via polarimetry of the beam emission polarization state induced either
by the motional Stark or Zeeman effect (MSE)].
These measurements, all variations of a theme, have substantially increased our
knowledge of the behavior and optimization of fusion plasma experiments. Our present pic-
ture of core and edge barrier transport formation based on shear suppression of turbulence
owes its basic experimental underpinnings to well designed and deployed active spec-
troscopy systems. f-3 Similarly, studies of core helium ash formation and transport, and the
performance of pumped divertors for helium exhaust, have benefited from the precise, local,
absolute measurements possible using this technique. 4,5
Adoption of active spectroscopy for the International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor (ITER) represents a challenging opportunity. As discussed in previous contribu-
tions to this workshop6,7 there are numerous obstacles to deployment, the two most impor-
tant of which are as follows:
1. The large size of ITER compared to present experiments implies much longer
beam propagation path lengths resulting in severe attenuation of the neutral beam
as it penetrates to the core region. One cannot simply go to higher energies to
improve this situation. As pointed out,6,7 the energy dependence of the beam
attenuation and charge exchange cross sections results in an optimal beam energy
of -100-150 keV/AMU. The substantially longer path lengths through the plasma
for the viewing chords imply any spectroscopic measurement, whether active or
passive, will have to be made in the presence of a substantial bremsstrahlung
background, typically several orders of magnitude larger than the desired charge
exchange or emission line intensity. This implies that any usable system must
have extremely good dynamic range and low noise.
2. The ignited phase of ITER will create an intense radiation zone around the device.
Measurements in this environment will require diagnostic immunity/resistance to
neutron and gamma radiation at a level substantially beyond present day experi-
ments. Relevant issues include the radiation hardening of optical elements and
detectors, including the survivability/distortion/erosion of first wall optical ele-
ments which will be required for any reasonable measurement. In addition, this
same environment demands the utmost in reliability and remote maintenance
capability from the diagnostic; aspects which are relatively less important (and
hence less developed) on existing experiments.
Despite these obstacles, substantial design and development work continues on active
spectroscopy systems for ITER because of the unique information they can provide on core
plasma conditions. In the case of core helium density measurements - a crucial indicator
of the success of ITER - no credible alternative to CER has emerged. In this paper we
expand on previous work 6,7 to present a detailed performance estimate for a diagnostic
system appropriate for measurements of core helium concentrations in the ITER environ-
ment, based upon active spectroscopy of the 4-3 He II transition. In Section 2 we review
the desired measurement resolutions and relevant ITER geometry to arrive at a realistic lay-
out for the diagnostic. Section 3 describes several ITER profile scenarios based upon the
existing ITER parameter profile and equilibria data files and lists the assumed values for the
diagnostic neutral beam (DNB) performance. Section 4 covers the calculations of expected
beam intensities and signal-to-noise ratios, based on a benchmarked multistep beam atten-
uation code 8,9 and the various profile scenarios. Section 5 discusses the advantages asso-
ciated with using a pulsed beam based on ion diode technology as opposed to the baseline
DNB design. In Section 6 we investigate the possible benefit of using an alternative wave-
length - the 5-4 He II transition in the infrared- for the helium concentration measure-
ments. We discuss the prospects for ion temperature and rotation measurements using active
CER in Section 7. In Section 8 a summary and some conclusions are presented.

362
2. ITER PARAMETERS AND REQUIREMENTS

The following diagnostic requirements are based upon the minutes of the ITER
Diagnostic Expert Group Meeting (3/96):
These four parameters represent zeroth, first, and second order moments of the inten-
sity distribution of the emitted He line. We note the fourth parameter listed - ion tempera-
ture - will be the most difficult measurement in terms of satisfying the quoted require-
ments, since the spectrum must be resolved sufficiently. The requirement for measuring
plasma rotation demands orthogonal views of the beam, implying a vertical viewport must
be considered a necessary part of this diagnostic system. The helium density profile mea-
surement requires an absolute intensity calibration. This calibration must be maintained
across the substantial number of viewing chords needed to satisfy the spatial resolution
requirements. In Table 2 we lists what are believed to be reasonable parameters for a pro-
totypical active CER system, based on the most recent engineering layouts and dimensions.
The number of chords permits good coverage of the minor radius region 0.2-2.7 m (Fig. 1).
The auxiliary chords for monitoring beam emission Ha serve as a crucial experimental
cross-check of the beam attenuation calculations, which are sensitively dependent on local
impurity densities and accurate cross sections. It may be desireable to have additional Ha
channels having higher spatial resolution to accurately determine the lateral dimensions of
the beam in situ. The auxiliary visible bremsstrahlung measurements at the He wavelength
displaced laterally from the beam serve as a cross-check on the beam calculations.

Table 1. ITER requirements for active CER measurements.

Required Resolution Required

(Spatial) (Temporal) Accuracy
Parameter Range (cm) (ms) (%)

Core helium density (Category 2) 1%-20% 30 100 10

Toroidal plasma rotation (Category 1) 1-200kmls -5 10 30
Poloidal plasma rotation (Category I) I-50 kmls -5 10 30
Ion temperature profile (Category 2) 0.5-50 keY 30 100 10

Table 2. Strawman active spectroscopy system parameters.

Number of optical penetrations 10 (5 vertical, 5 tangential)

Size of individual penetration 0.2mxO.2m
Total estimated penetration area 0.4m 2
Number of sightlines. total 128
Number of tangential sightlines 40 CER signal
14Ha
10 Background
Number of vertical sightlines 40 CER signal
14Ha
10 Background
Collection area of first mirror 0.2mxO.2m
Characteristic chord length -16m
Presumed emission area-toroidal view 0.2 m vertical x 0.05 m radial
presumed emission area-vertical view 0.2 m toroidal x 0.05 m radial
Collection solid angle, first mirror 4.9 x 10-4 sr
Etendue through spectrometer (est.) 2 x 10-7 m2-sr

363
3. PROFILES AND OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS

For the calculations presented here, we have used flat and peaked reference profiles
from the ITER database 10 (Fig. 2). The relevant Te, ne, Zeff, etc. profiles were first
mapped to minor radius using the associated equlibria to provide suitable inputs for the
beam attenuation and rate equation codes. We have assumed two cases for the study. The
first is a steady state case represented by the flat profile, and assuming a constant (with
density) 10% helium fraction. The second is an early ignition case, where we assume a 1 %
helium fraction at the core that falls off radially like the temperature profile.

DNB Projected Performance

A separate diagnostic neutral beam (DNB) design is crucial to the success of the
above measurement. For our calculations we have relied on the provisional design parame-
ters from Ref. 11, summarized in Table 3. Options to increase the design beam energy to
125-150 keY are being pursued. We also note the measurement time limitation, which
serves to minimize the overall neutralizer gas flow into the plasma, will serve as a funda-
mental limit on any active spectroscopy measurements. Finally, the quoted footprint size
may be somewhat optimistic based on present technology.

4. MULTISTEP BEAM PENETRATION MODELING

Modeling and estimation of the observed helium signal depends crucially on accurate
cross sections and rates for beam attenuation and helium emission. We have adapted a pre-
viously bench marked multistep collisional-radiative model 8,9 for the specific ITER geome-
try, profile conditions, and putative DNB parameters. The code uses the most recent colli-
sional rates available from the Atomic Data and Analysis Structure (ADAS) database. I 2
Initial runs verified the importance of the multistep corrections to beam attenuation calcula-
tions, with attenuation enhancement factors from 6-8 found compared to the earlier single-
step estimates.6 For the energy range of interest, attenuation factors of 10-3 to 10-4 are
common for the core region Pmin ~0.5 m (p ~ 0.1).
The helium emissivity based on the calculated source strength, along with the compet-
ing bremsstrahlung, is then calculated using the assumed geometrical factors from Tables 2
and 3. Figure 4 shows the results for the startup and fully ignited cases.
The signal-to-noise of the He II CER measurements may be estimated under the fol-
lowing assumption: for the no competing lines case we presume the fluctuations in the
continuum background to be the dominant noise source. Then the SNR will be given by 6,7

SHe~tDF ~DF
(1)
~RSHe~tDF ~(SHe ~t )(R + DF) ~(R+DF)

~ ~I~ II~III~IIII ~IIII~IIII ~ IIIII~ IIII~I~

I I I I
0.0 0.5 1.0 (m) 1.5 2.0 2 .5

o 0
Pm1 n

He 11(486) Ha (656) ~ Vbb (486)

Figure 1. Possible layout of viewing geometry , showing the 64 He CER, Ha BES. and VBB (visible
bremsstrahlung) locations. The basic element dimensions are 20 cm (lateral) by 5 cm (vertical), and are
presumed superimposed on the beam trajectory. Two orthogonal arrays - one vertical, one toroidal- are
presumed, for a total of 128 discrete spatial points.

364
 Reference profiles·nat case Reference profiles-peaked case
30 1.5 1.5
Sid case

20 1.0 -::0: 1.0 -::0:

0
:> ~ :>
0
~

:! 3
'"
0 :! ~
3
cI> ~
10 0.5~ 0.5

Pmin(m) Pmin(m)

Figure 2. Reference profiles extracted from the ITER profile database, showing density, ion and electron
temperatures for flat and peaked temperature profile scenarios. The "low density" (-1.0 x 20 m-3) cases are
most relevant to planned ITER operation. Zeff profiles for all cases were reasonably flat with Zeff -1.5.

Table 3. Provisional parameters of diagnostic neutral beam 11

Beam species HO
Beam energy (keV) 100
Neutral equivalent current (A) 50
Beam power (MW) 5
Beam divergence 0.20
Beam footprint at beam focus 0.2x 0.2 m 2
Beam focus At ria = 0.3-0.4
Equivalent HO density at focus (unattenuated) 1.78 x 10 15 m-3 (-2 x 10-4 ne)
Beam modulation frequency (Hz) 5 (0.1 son, 0.1 s oft)
Measurement time (s) 1-3 every 10-20

0.0001 ......................................................................................U-I...........
o 2 3
Pmin (m)

Figure 3. Calculation of 125 keY HO neutral beam transmission for the ITER flat profile case
(scenario 1), using a simple single step and full multistep attenuation calculations.

365
 4000

E
c Visible BlI!IIIsstrahlung
1017
U)

~
a:
w
u
CD 2000
i
lID 1015
>
0
i

0 1013
0 2 3
Pmin (m)

Figure 4. He CER and bremsstrahlung emissivities at 468 nm for the startup and fully ignited scenarios.
Also plotted are the emissivity ratios for the two times. Beam energy = 125 keY, assumed neutral current
density of 103 Nm2 (40 A neutral equivalent current).

where SHe = helium intensity, R = VBBlHe intensity ratio,,11 = integration time and DF =
duty factor for beam. Calculations were performed for the two cases assuming a 50% duty
cycle and 100 ms integration time - the cited time requirement. We note the 5 Hz DNB
modulation frequency in Table 3 will permit four 50 ms timeslices (two si~ and two
background) per beam cycle. Longer integration times improve the SNR as ."j At . Figure 5
shows the results for the startup and fully ignited cases. For the calculation of absolute
signal levels we have assumed the etendue and other optical parameters listed in Table 2.
The values of SNR found are marginal (for the desired time resolution) at the smaller
radii, especially if we are interested in tracking the buildup of helium at the beginning of the
ignited phase. The situation will be even more marginal for ion temperature and rotation
measurements, or for plasma densities higher than those presumed in the modeling.

5. PULSED BEAM PROSPECTS

Because of the narrow limits set on the beam energy by the penetration and charge
exchange requirements, the principal beam improvement that could be made would be an
increase in current density. A substantial improvement in SNR would result from the
deployment of an intense pulsed neutral beam based upon ion diode technology .13 Figure 6
shows the calculated improvement from a hypothetical 100 keY, 50 kA IDNB, presuming
the same beam footprint as for the conventional beam. Such beams are close (within a fac-
tor of about two) to satisfying the intensity and divergence requirements; remaining issues
include beam repetition rate and effective neutralization. The use of these beams would
improve the SNR at the stated time resolutions by factors of 10-20 in the core.
Especially for the temperature measurements, the increase in SNR will probably be
necessary. A side benefit of the pulsed beam concerns the relative ease of fitting the line-
shape: the technique of using background subtraction to reject edge He II emission will be
far more effective on the 1 Jls timescale, and the peaks may be better fit by a single
Gaussian representing the hot core CER signal.

366
 104

109 :J:
<II
.j>,
UI co
E en
0 tA
0 IQ'
:s
=-" 100
!2.

a:
:c
z 107 :s'

en sa.
0
:s
!
1 105
0 2 3
Pmin (m)

Figure 5. SNR estimates (and the associated signal levels in photons/s) based on the preceding beam calcu-
lations. Integration time lOOms, 50% duty cycle. An overall system etendue of 2 x 10-7, optical efficiency
of I x 10-2, and bandwidth of 2 nm is assumed in the calculations. Beam energy = 125 keY, assumed neutral
current density of 103 Nm 2 (40A neutral equivalent current). Snrcw2 =SNR for startup, snrcw =SNR for
fully ignited case. Sigrate2 = signal level for startup, sigrate = signal level for fully ignited case.

---snrcw
___ snrp30
_snrp300

E 1000
o
o

"
a:
~ 100

rmin(m)

Figure 6. SNR estimates for a I J.ls 50 kA pulsed ion diode neutral beam (IONB) , compared to the
conventional DNB for the fully ignited scenario. The two cases shown are for 30 fPs and 300 pps rep rates.
2
Inte ration time 100 ms, 50% duty cycle. An overall system etendue of 2 x 10- , optical efficiency of Ix
10- , and bandwidth of 2 nm is assumed in the calculations. Conventional beam parameters: energy =
125 keY, assumed neutral current density of 103 Nm 2 (40A neutral equivalent current).

6. THE He-II S-4 TRANSITION

One possible improvement for the helium intensity measurement involves the use of
alternative wavelengths to the standard 486 nm N = 4 ~ 3 transition of He II. In particular,
the N = 5 ~ 4 transition of He II offers several potential advantages. This near-infrared
(A = 1012.3 nm) line is also efficiently created by the charge exchange process and can be
efficiently detected using present day technology. Figure 7 shows the two rate coefficients
for Scenario 1 as a function of beam energy. For the energies of interest, the ratio of
(crv)4-3 to (crv)S-4 is about 2.4 for the entire plasma profile.

367
 4686110123 rates
3 ~~~r-~~r--r--~~3

U)
;;-
E
II) I...... ratio-core I
...><
"iCI 2 2
..
a
.!!
I'll
a:::
o·
c
0
·iii
11/
·E
w

o 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Energy (keV/AMU)
Figure 7. Emission rates for the 468.6 nn and 1012.3 nm transitions in He II as an injection energy function
for the ITER flat profile case (Scenario 1). The ratio (av)4-3/(crv)5-4 is also plotted.

Because of the 1..-2 dependence of the bremsstrahlung intensity, the competing back-
ground light would be expected to drop by a factor of (A.NIR/A.VIS)-2 - 4.6. Since the
required Doppler measurements will also scale with wavelength, an improvement of
A.NIR/A.VIS - 2.2 in the SNR should be obtained. This effect directly compensates for the
sonewhat lower emission rate for the 5 ~ 4 transition.
Detection of the 1012.3 nm radiation can be accomplished using e.g., silicon APDs; at
room temperature the quantum efficiency is -70%.14 These devices are presently used
with great success for Nd:YAG Thomson scattering measurements on DIII-D at greater
wavelengths (A. < 1100 nm).15 Temperature stabilization of both detector and electronics is
crucial for this application. We have observed both lines simultaneously on DIII-D dis-
charges using cooled silicon CCD detectors. 16 In this case the system was not specifically
designed for high NIR sensitivity and the quantum efficiency is about 10% at the 5-4
transition frequency. Germanium or other infrared detectors may be considered.
The use of the longer wavelength has two additional advantages related to the optical
system. First, the transmission efficency through previously irradiated optical fibers is
seriously diminished 17 in the visible. As it turns out the transmission is substantially better
in the NIR 18 which would lead to relatively larger and less distorted measurements.
Second, the longer wavelength will be more efficiently reflected from the metal mirrors
used for the collection optics, and should be less affected by the surface coating, radiation
damage and erosion which will inevitably occur to the plasma-facing mirrors.
For either transition wavelength, there are competing transitions due to the other light
impurity ions, specifically C and Be (Table 4). Although we hope the absolute concentra-
tions of these species will be low there may be enough to complicate the analysis of the He
line. We are presently examining the relative scalings of these higher-n trasnsitions to see
if this represents an additional advantage for the 5 ~ 4 transition.

Table 4. Relevant impurity transitions for helium measurements.

Ion Species 468.6nm 1012.3 nm

Hell 4~3 5~4
Be IV 8~6 1O~8
CVI 12 ~9 15 ~ 12

368
7. ION TEMPERATUREIROTATION MEASUREMENTS

As mentioned earlier, in contrast to the basic intensity measurement necessary for

calculating the helium concentration, determining the ion temperature and rotation requires
spectral analysis and fitting of the Doppler-broadened emission line - in effect taking
higher order moments of the spectral distribution The degradation in SNR was earlier esti-
mated6 by presuming an increase in 10 in the required spectral resolution (to 0.2 nm) lead-
ing to a similar loss in the time resolution to recover the SNR. To follow the evolution of
temperature and rotation during the plasma startup, or during a core barrier formation
period where the temperature may be somewhat lower than the ignited case, it is clear we
will require spectral resolutions substantially better than the factor of ten for adequate con-
fidence in the line broadening and line shift values. For example, assuming a 20 km/s reso-
lution requirement for the poloidal field measurement from Table 1 implies a needed spec-
tral resolution AA =A(Av/c) =0.03 nm in the case of the 486 nm line, a factor of seventy
smaller that for the helium concentration determination. Similarly, a 1 keY resolution at
10 keV ion temperature will require differentiating between spectral halfwidths of roughly
0.90 and 0.86 nm, or 0.04 nm. Since the SNR scales with the square root of the signal
intensity, it is clear that the requested time resolutions for temperature and rotation are
incompatible with the capabilities of the conventional DNB. The only possible hope with
the IDNB is to gate the detection in phase with the pulsed beam. As a reference point, in
Fig. 8 we show the SNR estimated for the startup scenario with a 0.04 spectral window,
assuming the imaging area has been increased by a factor of six to give 30 em resolution,
and 100 ms time resolution as before.

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Using fairly detailed assumptions about ITER plasma conditions, geometry, and diag-
nostic neutral beam performance, we have tried to assess the prospects for measuring the
core helium concentration profile, and to a lesser extent the ion temperature and plasma

SNR··0.04 nm resolution

'iii' 10.0
E
...
CI
CI

"
:!:::,.
a:
z
en 1.0

Pmin(m)

Figure 8. SNR estimates for a I Jls 50 kA pulsed ion diode neutral beam (IDNB), compared to the conven·
tional DNB for the startup scenario, using wavelength resolution suitable for temperature or rotation mea-
surement. The radial resolution assumed is 30 cm. The two IDNB cases shown are for 30 pps and 300 pps
rep rates. Measurement time 100 InS, 50% duty cycle. An overall system etendue of 2 x 10-7, optical effi-
ciency of I x 10-2, and bandwidth of 0.04 nm is assumed in the calculations. Conventional beam parame-
ters: energy = 125 keY, assumed neutral current density of 103 Nm 2 (40 A neutral equivalent current).

369
rotation profiles, using the visible He II 486.nm line. Using more accurate modelling of
beam penetration and charge exchange we have performed signal to noise estimates for the
desired measurement precision for the fully ignited case as well as a simple startup case. It
is clear that measurements within r = 1 m will be difficult but doable for reasonable optical
penetrations and collection efficiencies. However it is also clear that the stated measurement
precisions for these parameters, as exemplified in Table 1, are not compatible with the
expected DNB performance as listed in Table 3. This argues either for a relaxation of the
desired resolution(s), or further work on a pulsed, high current alternative to the conven-
tional DNB, if the more difficult (higher order moment) measurements are to be pursued.
The short pulse length of the IDNB also lends itself to short detection gating strategies that
should simplify the spectral analysis as well as increasing the SNR. We see that, even for
the highest rep rate IDNB case, the Ti and Vro~ measurements will be marginal for the very
smallest radii at the highest expected densities. The use of other impurity species, e.g., C or
Be is probably not of utility until their concentrations approach a few percent, which is
unlikely for the presumed operation of ITER. Finally, the use of an alternate NIR He transi-
tion offers some advantages for making these measurements in the ITER environment, and
we are continuing to investigate the relative merits of this option.

9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract Nos. DE-AC05-
960R22464 and DE-AC03-94SF20282, Subcontract ITER-GA-4002. The authors have
benefited from numerous stimulating and informative discussions with C. Walker,
G. Vayakis, V. Mukhovatov, K. Young, E. Marmar, R.C. Isler, and D.G. Whyte.

References
1. EJ. Strait, et aI., Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 4421 (1995).
2. F.M. Levinton, et aI., Phys. Rev. Lett. 75,4417 (1995).
3. K.H. Burrell, Phys. Plasmas 4, 1499 (1997).
4. D.L. Hillis, et aI., Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 2382 (1990).
5. M.R. Wade, et aI., Phys. Plasmas 2, 2357 (1995).
6. E.S. Marrnar, Diagnosticsfor experimental thermonuclear fusion reactors. P.E. Stott, G. Gorini, and
E. Sindoni, ed., Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 281 (1996).
7 M.G. Von Hellerman, et aI., Diagnosticsfor experimental thermonuclear fusion reactors. P.E. Stott,
G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, ed., Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 321 (1996).
8. W. Mandl, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Munich, JET-IR (92) 05 (1992).
9. D.F. Finkenthal, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley (1994).
10. Profiles courtesy ofD. Bouchet and G. Vayakis, ITER-JCT.
11. R. Hemsworth, A. Krylov, M. Hanada, Proposal of a design of diagnostic neutral beam injector, ITER
Memorandum, December 1996.
12. ADAS documentation set, http://patiala.phys.strath.ac.ukladas.
13. H.A. Davis, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 332 (1997).
14. P.P. Webb, R.J. McIntyre, Properties of Avalanche Photodiodes, RCA Review, June 1974.
15. C.L. Hsieh, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61, 2855 (1990).
16. D.M. Thomas, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68,1233 (1997).
17. D.V Orlinski, Diagnosticsfor Experimental thermonuclearfusion reactors.P.E. Stott, G. Gorini, and
E. Sindoni, ed., Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 51 (1996).
18. K. Young and A. Ramsey, Application offiberoptics to present large tokamaks, Proc. of ITER
Technical Meeting of Irradiation Tests on Diagnostic Components, Garching, Germany (1996).

370
ACTIVE SPECTROSCOPY ON JET AND ITER

R.W. T. Konig, H. Anderson2, P. Breger, W. G. F. Core, J. P. Feist,

N. Hawkes', M. G. von HeUermann, A. C. Howman, A. C. Maas,
P. D. Morgan, M. F. Stamp, H. P. Summers2, J. Svensson, M. Tunklev 3,
P. R. Thomas, K.-D. Zastrow

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OXI4 3EA, UK

'UKAEA Government Division, Fusion, Culham, Abingdon, Oxon.
OXI4 3DB, UK (UKAEAlEuratom Fusion Association)
2University of Strathclyde, Scotland
3University of Lund, Sweden

INTRODUCTION

Ion temperature and velocity distribution functions, ion densities, plasma rotation
velocities and magnetic fields have been identified by the ITER design team as key
parameters', for which spatially-resolved profiles with medium time resolution are of vital
importance in three major areas. These are: machine protection and plasma control,
evaluation and optimisation of plasma performance, and investigation of the physical
phenomena which might limit ITER's performance. Only a diagnostic based on active-
charge-exchange (CXRS) and beam-emission spectroscopy (BES), using a dedicated
neutral beam, can provide all these data with the accuracy and resolution required (table I).

Table 1. Resolution and data accuracy requirements for those plasma parameters that can
be provided by a CXRS diagnostic.

Parameter Parameter range Sl!atial resolution Time resolution Accuracy

Vtor 1 103 - S 104 mls O.Sm IOms 30%
Zeft (steady state) 1-3 0.3 m 100 IDS 10%
Zeft (transient) 1-3 0.3 m 0.1 ms 20%
Ti 0.5 -SOkeV O.3m lOOms 10%
nHe I ne 1-20% 0.3 m lOOms 10%
nimP (Z < 8) 0.S-20% 0.3m 100 IDS 20%

As the specific re~uirements for a CXRS diagnostic have already been discussed at
some length elsewhere, -4 we have concentrated here on a number of points in areas which
still require further specification and where we have made considerable progress over the
last two years.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plemun Press, New York, 1998 371
BEAM REQUIREMENTS FOR AN ACTIVE CXRS DIAGNOSTIC ON ITER

A dedicated diagnostic beam with an energy of 120 keV/amu is required for ITER?
This specific energy results from the energy dependence of the CX excitation rates and the
beam stopping cross-sections. As pointed out previousll it might be feasible to develop a
neutral beam based on a negative ion source, which fulfils the requirements for a CXRS
diagnostic. First experiments on JT-60U with this type of beam are very encouraging. The
required low beam divergence of <3.5 mrad has already been demonstrated on this system. s
Signal-to-noise considerations, however, indicate that the required time resolution of 100
ms cannot be achieved for central viewing lines. It might be possible to overcome this
restriction with an intense pulsed ion beam from a diode, like the one presently under
development at LANL. 6 Extrapolation from the existing source makes it appear feasible to
develop one, which would improve the signal to noise ratio by about a factor of 30
compared to the CW beam, sufficient to fulfil the ITER requirements (tab. 1).

Table 2. Comparison of different neutral beam sources.

6CX diagnostic ITER heating JT-60U 7Intense 7Intense

beam required beam design pulsed beam pulsed beam
for ITER (for (under required for
comparison) construction) ITER
Beam source tvoe negative ion negative ion negative ion Ion diode Ion diode
Reoetition rate CW CW CW 1- 30 Hz 300Hz
effective beam power per 10 16.7 11 3 kJ in 1.5 fls 10 kJ in 1.5 fls
source (MW) (2GW) (10 GW)
energv (keV/amu) 120 1000 500 250 120
neutral beam current SOA 40A 22A 12kA 50kA
beam divergence 0.20 0.3" 0.10 _ 0.20 O.SO 0.25 0
Dist. Source plasma centre 30
1m
beam dimensions in w.l=O.I,
plasma centre (m) wl. o .s .=0.3
central target densitv (m- 3 ) 1.1020 1.05.1020 1.05.1020
beam oath length (m) 2.S
line integral to centre (m- 2 ) 2.10 20
plasma composition D(74%),
He(l 0% )C(1 %)
Emission rates (lOI5m3s-1) He: 0.56,
C: 5.09
beam attenuation (and error) 0.013 (43%)
integration time 500ms
SIN-ratio ('t"p. = 100 ms)
He-ash (line integrated -3 12 100
Tj, VrOI (soectrallv resolved) <0.3 <I < 10

MODELLING AND MEASUREMENT OF THE BEAM ATTENUATION

It is the accuracy with which the local neutral beam density is determined that governs
the accuracy with which the impurity density profiles can be measured. To control the
helium ash density it is necessary to measure its central value to better than 10 %. This
cannot be achieved by the current method of calculations of neutral beam attenuation.
Extrapolating to ITER conditions - a central density of 1.1020 m- 3 and a 120 ke V/amu

372
 Plasma Parameter meas. Oct intensity of the
&
excited neutral beam atoms

beam attenuation ----3>/ I<:'----I"erive n=3 population and

calculation use population model to
erive local beam density

ADAS
bundled-n collisional
radiative model

Figure 1. Methods for the determination of the local neutral beam density.

neutral beam with all measured plasma parameters and atomic data known to an accuracy
of 10 %, an error of 40 - 50 % in the helium ash density is indicated.
Improved accuracy can only be achieved by measurement of the local neutral beam
densities using BES. Such a diagnostic has been under development at JET for several
years. 8 A major obstacle has been the complexity of the beam emission spectrum - up to 69
individual lines arising from 3 beam energy components, motional Stark splitting, normal
and tangential beams, edge emission and impurity lines. However, reliable fitting routines
have now been developed and Fig. 2 shows the result of such a fit.

- - observed spectrum
- - fitted spectrum

~
Q)~
uN- 20
@E .
'6~
co
a:c
(f)

- .s plasma edge
~ ,g Dct-line
Uc.
~'<t

-
en ~ 1.0
,...

6540 6560 6580 6600 6620

Wavelength (A)
Figure 2. Neutral beam emission spectrum.

373
 1.8 '-.,j--:------+;--w.,.-----, .. 4.50,-----------,
=> H .~. beari\" e
M + H(n=3)beam
1.6 / \, 4.00
c:
U
o
3l ~ 1.2
1.4
ADAS1"Z) \ :g
o
3.50
~3.00

'~
E UN

J\
§~ 1.0
<J)

.§ ~U 2.50
<J)

§~ 0.8 .~ ~ 2.00
:;::T'"" Q)w
.~-O.6 ==Q) :::'1.50 ..........
c:
.Q 0.4 !
1.00
/ .............
.........
0.2 ././' ADAS 1997 .............
~..................-..
0.50
.......................
0.0 -I-"":;;;.....-~--...,...---~ 0.00 - I - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - l
0.1 10 100 1.00E+19 1.00E+20 1.00E+21
energy (keV/amu) density I m"-3
Figure 3. Cross sections for ionisation from n=3. Figure 4. Effective Balmer-a. emission coefficient as
a function of the plasma density at an energy of
100 keV/amu.

In addition, early atomic data on ionisation cross sections were inaccurate, leading
to differences of 100 % between beam neutral densities derived from BES and attenuation
calculations. The adoption of improved atomic data, as implemented in the ADAS 'JET
1997 Ion Collision Database' has improved the agreement to better than 20 % (Figure 5).
Figure 3 illustrates the old and current ionisation cross sections from excited H levels, while
figure 4 shows the change in the effective Balmer-a. emission coefficient for a
100 keV/amu neutral beam and for a plasma composition as stated in table 2.

R = 3.06 m
2
C\j'1
~
'¢
g F------------------t
R = 3.21 m
T'"'

~2

#40298
12.2 12.6 13.0 13.4
time (s)

Figure 5. Measured (thick grey line) and calculated (solid line) local neutral beam density. The data are
integrated along the I.o.s. through the neutral beam.

374
NEURAL NETWORK REAL-TIME DATA ANALYSIS FOR MACHINE CONTROL

It is not only essential for ITER to have a real-time ex data analysis system, also at
JET the need for such a system is ever increasing. In order to prevent disruptions, real time
ion temperature gradients are for example required for the heating power control in
optimised shear discharges. A neural network has been developed at JET which produces
real-time ion temperature, toroidal rotation and ex line emissivity profiles. 9,10 The
derivation of a 12 point radial profile takes about 5 ms on a conventional Pentium pe,
which is well within the exposure times of 50 ms at JET and the anticipated lOOms for
ITER. The alternative scheme normally employed for ex data analysis is a comparatively
slow interactive least-square minimisation procedure, which requires initial guesses by a
skilled human operator and is therefore unsuitable for any real-time data analysis.
The neural network presently used at JET consists of a system of 22 (7x3+1) feed-
forward networks with one hidden layer and sigmoidal activation functions (figure 6).
Before a spectrum is passed on to one of seven groups consisting of three networks each, it
has to pass a novelty detector test. The different groups are each trained for a particular
range of radial positions in the plasma. Three networks were used in each group: one for
ion temperatures, one for toroidal rotation velocities and one for the total integrated line
intensity of the ex line. In the final step the results of the different networks are then put
together to reconstruct real-time ion temperature, toroidal rotation velocity and ex line
intensity profiles together with their error bars. A further separate network is used to predict
the bremsstrahlung intensity underlying the ex spectra.

Irp..t spedrun
t

7x3+ 1=22 networks

12 r;: rs:
\ Prdile recx:rstrLdia"l\

R R R
Figure 6. Structure of the neural network system presently used at JET.

375
 For the training of the neural networks we did not follow the conventional way of
directly using real data that had already been analysed with the least-squares method, since
this would mean that after every change in the environment (change of the instrument
function or dispersion of a spectrometer, new port location for the diagnostic causing a
different Doppler-shift of the ex lines emitted from the rotating plasma, etc.) one would
have to first analyse a large number of spectra with the least-squares method before one
could re-train a neural network. (The training data set at JET consists of - 150000 analysed
spectra analysed over several years.) We circumvented this problem by reconstructing the
joint input space density in the space of the physical parameters that describe a full
spectrum with all its spectral lines. Samples from this distribution are then used to produce
synthetic spectra, which are likely to appear in a real JET experiment, with the correct noise
characteristics and for any given new set-up of the diagnostic. The synthetic spectra can
then be used to train individual neural networks for each parameter in the sample. This
method has been successfully employed on JET to adapt the networks to a new viewing line
geometry, without the need to first analyse a large number of spectra with the new system.
We have paid particular attention to the robustness of the neural network system since
it is a major factor for its usefulness. A real-time novelty detector has therefore been
developed, which prevents the network from analysing the data whenever novel spectra are
presented to the input neurons, thereby allowing switching over to another control system.
This novelty detector uses the Gaussian mixture estimate of the joint probability density in
the space of the input neurons. II An input spectrum is regarded as novel when the
probability density of the input vector is much smaller than for any point in the training
data set. The advantage of using a novelty detector based on the Gaussian mixture method
is that the calculation of the probability density is very fast; it takes only about the same
amount of time as one feed-forward of the input data through the neural network. Figure 7
and 8 show an example of a case where a novel spectrum has been presented to the system
at one time point (13.3 s).
The system also provides a real-time error estimate lO for the output parameters Ti, D lor
and lex caused by the noise on the input signals (figure 9). A new method has been
developed which allows to calculate the error to be calculated on the time scale of about
one feed-forward of the net. This can be achieved by using a locally linear approximation to
the feed-forward network function. The error of the output parameter can be calculated by
using the values on the hidden layer of the previous feed-forward of the spectrum.

20 20 Ti
Ti
15 [keY] [keY]
15

\
10
5 10
0~-4---+--~~+-~

11.312.012.7 3.514.2 5
-5
t [s]
t [s]
-10 OL-~--~--L-~--~

-15 10.5 11 .3 12.0 12.7 13.5 14.2

Figure 7. Network without novel spectrum detector. Figure 8. Novel spectrum detector prevents
analysis at 13.3 s.

376
 10

2
3.0 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.7
R [m]

Figure 9. Neural network result (thick line) with error bars (thin lines) and least-squares fit result (dotted grey
line)

IN·SITU CALIBRATION CONTROL WITH VISIBLE BREMSSTRAHLUNG

Maintaining the absolute calibration of the optical system will be a major challenge for
an ITER ex diagnostic, since over long operating periods one has to expect coatings on
optical components, as well as increasing transmission losses due to high neutron fluences.
A possible solution for this problem could be the simultaneous derivation of Zeff profiles
from active ex measurements of all important low Z impurity ion density profiles and from
Abel inversion of the bremsstrahlung signals underlying the ex spectra, as shown in figure
10. 12 On JET we can measure impurity density profiles of all relevant ions simultaneously,
i.e. of He, Be, e, Nand Ne. For the Abel inversion of the bremsstrahlungs signal we have
so far used only the 121.0.s. that each of the three individual ex systems on JET provide.

Figure 10. Principle of the self-consistency check for the channel to channel relative calibration control of a
ex diagnostic system utilising the bremsstrahlung signals underlying each of the ex spectra.

377
 With a least-squares fitting routine one could then vary the transmission factors for
each l.o.s. until both methods give identical Zeff profiles. Further cross checks can be
undertaken at each of the intermediate steps shown in fig. 10. Implementation at JET has
shown, that the main problem is that the Zeff derived from bremsstrahlung is, in general, too
large in the outer 1/3 of the plasma (figure 11). This phenomenon has been observed on
many machines and is still not understood.

6 #40077
t=47.12 s
Abel-inverted
5 Bremsstrahlung

4
:t:
Q)
N3

2
local charge exchange
measurement

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

rIa

Figure 11. Zeff profile comparison

RADIATION EFFECTS ON HEATED AND UNHEATED OPTICAL FIBRES

Fibre loops and blind fibres running right up to the optical heads of several diagnostics
on JET are used to measure the transmission losses and the luminescence produced in these
fibres by the neutron bombardment during tritium experiments. 13• 15 So far the aluminium
clad, wet fibres used at JET show no detectable long term transmission losses provided they
are kept at -250 DC. On JET the fibres inside the optical periscope are at about 250 - 300 DC
determined by the vessel temperature of 300 DC. From the end of the periscope to outside
the biological shield a special heated hose is used, which keeps the fibres at 250 DC. It will
be difficult to extrapolate the transmission losses to ITER, since the neutron fluence inside
the JET ports is 104 - 108 times smaller than on ITER behind a periscope or inside the
diagnostic channel. We may, however, learn in the course of the DTEI (Qeuterium Tritium
Experiment) experiments what the highest acceptable neutron fluences for heated optical
fibres are, i.e. from which location onward one can use on ITER optical fibres instead of
complicated mirror links. Moreover, JET is suitable to study the effect of fibre
luminescence on the background light level, since the neutron fluxes at the JET periscopes
are only 2 - 10 times smaller than inside the ITER diagnostic channels (fig. 12). The effect
on Zeff derived from bremsstrahlung certainly can not be neglected. 16 Since the intensity of
the Cerenkov radiation, which is the main source of the fibre luminescence for heated
fibres, is proportional to II')..?, it might be worthwhile to investigate whether the He CX-line
at 1013.6 nm is more suitable for He-ash density profile measurements than the currently
used line at 468.6 nm, because the additional 'background intensity' due to fibre
luminescence would be -5 times smaller there.

378
 1.0 1.0000
0.8
.;, c
0.6 0
'iii 0.9988
CD
W 0.4
0.2 '"
'E
0.01== ==:=!........----=:======9
heated libre:
ex diagnostic
'"c 0.9976
~
periscope
!!? 0.996
.0
:;::

~
100.
.~
unheated fibre loop:
'"
.!a
99.5
~ after subtraction?
near main horiz. port
co
jg 99.0 01luminescence O . 9928 L-~-~-~_....o...-_~---l

54 56 58 60 62 64 66 70 o 2 4 6 8 10 12
time / s
time l s
Figure 12. Observed neutron induced luminescence Figure 13. Recovery of an unheated fibre from
and transmission losses for a JET tritium pulse. induced absorption.

First experiments during the DTEI campaign with unheated fibres running up to a
position near a main horizontal port show only a small luminescence signal due to the
relatively large distance to the plasma, i.e. to the neutron source (fig. 12). Nevertheless, the
unheated fibre shows clearly increasing transmission losses in the course of the pulse
reaching a maximum of -0.7 % towards the end of the pulse (fig. 13). At room temperature
it takes about 7 s until the transmission losses have reduced to about 0.2 %.

SUMMARY

An active charge exchange and beam emission diagnostic will be absolutely vital
for the control and analysis of ITER plasmas. There exists no alternative diagnostic that can
monitor the helium- ash and the other low-Z impurity density profiles. Ion temperature and
rotation velocity profiles can, in principle, also be measured by passive emission
spectroscopy, but it will be difficult to achieve the required spatial resolution of
M/r < 0.05. Any passive technique, like X-ray spectroscopy, neutral particle energy
analysis or neutron spectroscopy, though very valuable as additional source of information,
can only provide line-of-sight integrated parameters, i.e. non-localised quantities. Local
values can only be derived indirectly from these measurements by tomographic techniques
or by calculating the location and radial width of emission shells. For example, for an X-ray
diagnostic system one requires a large fan of 1.0.s. each dedicated to a specific ionisation
stage of a specific ion, this often requiring the seeding of the plasma with some amount of
high-Z impurities. The radial resolution will then depend on the width of the emission
shells and therefore vary in the course of a pulse with changes in the plasma parameters,
making the whole system not only technically difficult to install, but also the derivation of
ion temperature and rotation velocity dependent on other parameters like electron
temperature and density as well as atomic physics data. The charge exchange diagnostic has
an overwhelming advantage over the other techniques, since it provides a direct local
measurement of these parameters with good spatial resolution.
A ex diagnostic with a modulated negative ion source beam could just about meet
the requirements on spatial and time resolution as well as accuracy over a considerable part
of the plasma. The strong neutral beam attenuation towards the plasma centre would
however mean that one had to accept integration times of up to 1 s for central viewing lines.
It seems feasible to accomplish all requirements on time and spatial resolution as well as

379
accuracy, if an intense pulsed ion diode based diagnostic beam were used. This would
require some investment in R&D.
It is essential to combine the ex with a BES diagnostic since He-ash and other
impurity densities can only be derived with the required accuracy if the local neutral beam
densities are directly measured with a BES diagnostic. The recently reached accuracy of
about 20 % at JET raises hopes that a further improvement to about 10 % within the next
few years is achievable.
It has recently been demonstrated on JET that ex data can be analysed in real-time
and can therefore be used for machine feedback control. A robust neural network system
has been developed at JET, which includes real-time novelty detection and error analysis.
Experiments on JET show that in-situ calibration control with visible
bremsstrahlung might be possible, but that the cause for the strong emission from the outer
part of the plasma has to be understood first.
During the initial phase of the DTE! experiments the heated optical fibres used at
JET have so far shown no radiation induced transmission losses. If any long term
transmission losses are observed later in the program they will give an indication of what
the maximum permissible neutron fluences would be for ITER and therefore from which
point onward one can use optical fibres instead of mirror links.
The effect of fibre luminescence can be studied on JET, since the neutron flux is
nearly comparable to levels expected in the ITER diagnostic channels. The luminescence
can lead to a considerable apparent increase of the bremsstrahlung background that needs to
be corrected for.

REFERENCES
I. A.E. Costley et aI., in "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors", ed. by P. E. Stott,
G. Gorini, E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York & London, 1996, p. 23
2. M.G. von Hellermann et aI., in "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors", ed. by
P. E. Stott, G. Gorini, E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York & London, 1996, p. 321
3. E. S. Marmar, in "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors", ed. by P. E. Stott, G.
Gorini, E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York & London, 1996, p. 281
4. D. M. Thomas et aI., Progress Meeting on the Design of ITER Diagnostic Systems, San Diego, 27 Feb.
1997
5. H. Horiike, private communications, 1997
6. M. G. von HeUermann et aI., Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion 35, 799 (1993)
7. C. W. Barnes and H. A. Davis, Progress Meeting on the Design of ITER Diagnostic Systems, San
Diego, 27 Feb. 1997
8. W. Mandel et aI., Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion 35, 1373 (1993)
9. R. Konig,et aI., 21't EPS Conference on ControUed Fusion and Plasma Physics, Montpeliier, p. 1264
(1994)
10. J. Svensson, M. von HeUermann, R. W. T. Konig, in 'Neural Networks in Engineering, ed. by A. B.
Bulsari and S. KaUio, p. 321 (1997)
II. C. M. Bishop, 'Novelty detection and neural network validation' in lEE Proc.-Vis. Image Signal
Process., Vol. 141, No.4, August 1994
12. J. P. Feist, R.W. T. Konig, P. Breger, M. G. von HeUermann, A. C. Howman, 'Selbstkonsistente
Messung von Verunreinigungsionen in einem Fusionsplasma', Verhandlungen der DPG, Mainz, 1997
13. A. T. Ramsey, H. G. Adler, and W. Tighe, 'The use of optical fibres on the next generation of tokamaks',
36th Annual Meeting, APS Division of Plasma Physics, Minneapolis, USA, 7 - 11 November 1994
14. A. T. Ramsey, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 871 (1995)
15. A. T. Ramsey, W. Tighe, and J. Bartolick, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 632 (1997)
16. P. D. Morgan, 'Irradiation of optical fibres at JET through 14 MeV neutron production', Proceedings of
the 17th Symposium on Fusion Technology, Rome, 14- 18 September 1992, p. 722

380
MEASUREMENT OF THE HID/T MIXTURE BASED ON DOPPLER-FREE
TWO-PHOTON SPECTROSCOPY AND NEUTRAL BEAM INJECTION

Dietrich Voslamber and Wilhelm Mandl

Ass. EURATOM-CEA, DRFC-SPPF, CEN Cadarache

F-13108 St. Paul-lez-Durance

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the density ratios of the hydrogen isotopes is of prime importance in mag-
netic confinement fusion (MCF). The measurement of nD+/nr+ in the plasma core is listed in
"category (1)" of the diagnostics required for ITER, i.e. in the category that is considered to
be indispensable for machine protection and plasma control. The determination of nH~nD+ in
the plasma core (plasma dilution) and of nvlnr at the plasma edge is included in "category
(2)", i.e. in the list of measurements for performance evaluation and optimisation.
For measurements at the plasma edge a local and time-resolved diagnostic, based on
Doppler-free two-photon laser induced resonance fluorescence (in Ly-a), has been suggested
previouslyl.2 Here we address the question whether this method can be extended farther into
the plasma bulk by using a neutral diagnostic beam and exploiting the thermal neutrals that
are created by charge exchange (CX) between the beam neutrals and the plasma ions.

DOPPLER-FREE TWO-PHOTON INDUCED FLUORESCENCE

In MCF plasmas the Doppler widths of the hydrogen lines are much larger than their
isotope shifts. Isotope-selective resonance fluorescence can thus only be achieved by elimi-
nating the linear Doppler broadening in the excitation process. This can be done using two-
photon excitation in two anti-parallel laser beams, each having half the atomic resonance fre-
quency and providing one photon to an atomic excitation. The Doppler shifts of the two
photons have then opposite sign and cancel each other in the frequency sum. Hence all atoms,
irrespective of their velocity, are in resonance with the two laser beams. While the two-pho-
ton absorption lines are thus Doppler-free, the fluorescence lines are not; these, however, can
be separated by introducing a short time delay between the two laser shots for D and T.
Among the various possible transition schemes, we consider here the case where both
excitation and fluorescence occur between principal quantum numbers n = 1 and n = 2
(Lyman-a). The n ~ 2 levels form a triplet due to the Stark-Zeeman effect that is caused by

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 381
the magnetic field B and the electric field v x B (v being an atom's velocity). Only the cen-
tral component of this triplet can be excited efficiently, because its position is nearly unper-
turbed by the external fields and gives rise to a narrow peak in the two-photon absorption
profile. Spectral profiles of this peak are shown in Fig. 1 for D and T atoms in a plasma with
equal portions of D and T. Their normalisation is such that the surface under the curves is
proportional to the frequency-integrated two-photon transition strength and to the fluores-
cence intensity perpendicular to the magnetic field. The profiles are shaped by quadratic
(relativistic) Doppler broadening, by motional Stark broadening (effect of the v x jj field on
the fine-structure components), by plasma Stark broadening (predominantly due to atom-ion
collisions) as well as by distorting effects arising from fine and hyperfine splitting. Fig.l
does not include possible broadening effects arising from the laser (finite angle divergence
and finite bandwidth). The total line width is seen to be at most a few GHz. This is much
smaller than the 113 (335) GHz in laser frequency which separate the D from the T (H) lines.

1.6 1.6
GHz-1
Deuterium Tritium
1.4 1.4

1.2 1.2
0.1 keV

0.3 keV
0.8 0.8
1 keV
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
oliiiiiiii~::::::1~~--J 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 2 -1 0 1 2
Ltv!' [GHz] Ltv!' [GHz]
Figure 1. Spectral profiles (as functions oflaser detuning) of the central Stark-Zeeman component olD and T
atoms in a Drr plasma for various temperatures. (B=4T, n.=3 }(j9m-3, nv.lnT+= 1, Z.u= 1)

The peak intensities of the profiles are seen to decrease noticeably with increasing tem-
perature. The reason is that for larger temperatures one has both a lowering of the two-pho-
ton transition strength and a rise of the quadratic Doppler width. Unlike the peak intensities
themselves, their ratios In/lrJIT taken from H, D and T profiles at identical plasma conditions
depend only weakly on the plasma parameters. Therefore, rough knowledge of these pa-
rameters from independent diagnostics suffices for the determination of the mixture nH/nr/nT.

DETECTION LIMIT AND EXPERIMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Assuming the signal-to-noise ratio to be dominated by photon statistics, the detection
limit nc for the neutral densities nH. nD and nT is found to be of the order of 10 14 m-J • This
number is based on customary optical parameters and on the assumption that the background
radiation around the Lyman-a wave length is of the order of 1019 photons m-2s-1sr-1, which is

382
characteristic of the cool edge emission of tokamaks of any size (far from limiters, antennas
and cold gas injection ports). Bremsstrahlung usually remains below this level, even in a
tokamak like ITER The same is true for the background radiation from excited beam-created
neutrals (m case a neutral beam is used), except for such high neutral densities where the
signal-to-noise ratio is so large that the background radiation can be ignored anyway.
While nc is relatively independent of the plasma parameters, the laser characteristics that
are required for producing sufficient fluorescence signals strongly depend on them. In par-
ticular, the pulse energy has to increase with temperature (roughly as rl2) so as to compen-
sate for the decreasing peak intensities of the two-photon absorption profile (see Fig. I). Up
to about 1-2 ke V, 30-50 mJ pulse energy suffice to attain signal-to-noise ratios of the order
of two at neutral densities of the order of nco However, nearly 1 J laser energy is necessary to
achieve the same at 15 ke V.
With the laser spectrometer developed at PTB Berlin3 (tunable at 243 run, bandwidth s
0.5 GHz, beam divergence ~0.3 mrad, pulse duration 2.5 ns, pulse energy up to 50 mJ) the
diagnostic should be applicable in edge and divertor regions of large tokamaks, such as
ITER; it should further be applicable in the main plasma up to temperatures of 1-2 keV if
neutral densities in excess of nc can be generated with the help of a neutral beam (see next
section). Further progress in laser technology (100 mJ in each laser beam are foreseen for the
near future) should allow measurements at 5-10 ke V.

OPERATING WITH A DIAGNOSTIC NEUTRAL BEAM

The diagnostic can be extended well beyond the edge and information can be won on the
isotopic ion mixture nHJnoJnr+ if a neutral particle beam is used whose characteristics are
such that they assure efficient creation of thermal neutrals via CX reactions between the beam
atoms and the plasma ions4 . Choosing, for instance, a co-axial or nearly co-axial arrangement
of the neutral particle beam and the laser beams, one would be able, with a single beam
geometry and different viewing lines, to probe all those points along the beam line where the
detection limit nc is attained. However, for radial beam injection this necessitates a retro-
reflector at the inner wall, which may be problematic for ITER Different geometrical choices
are, of course, possible. A co-axial arrangement of the viewing line with the laser beams' may
be suitable when signal maximisation and background minimisation are important issues. .
To study the potential of such diagnostics, we have done a model calculation for a D
beam penetrating a ntr plasma that may contain some C6+ impurities (ZefJ =1 and 2t. The
beam attenuation was evaluated accounting for ionising collisions (including excited atomic
states) with electrons and ions and for Cx. From the birth rate of thermal neutrals due to CX
and their loss rate due to ionisation and diffusion out of the neutral beam the neutral density
profiles ndr) and nr(r) were calculated and maximised to find the optimal beam particle en-
ergy Eopt{r). The beam power Pcrilr) needed for attaining nc was then calculated as a function
ofr. The cross sections for the various reactions were taken from ADAS and Aladdin6 •
We have considered two ITER scenarios (A and B) with density profiles n.=nel+(n.rr
neJ(I-(r/a/J, where neO=I.41r1° m·J, n.I=O, p=.5 for case A, and n.o=l.3 1r1° m·J, n.I=5
1018m-J, p=.1 for case B. For the temperature, T=20 keV (1-(r/a//, was chosen for case A,
while for case B it was taken from a model calculation for ITER7 (flat rise to 13 keV at
r/a=l, then steep rise to 27 keVat r/a=O). A beam radius of 10 em was chosen in both cases.
Figure 2 shows the optimal beam particle energy Eopl and the required beam power Peril
as a function of the penetration depth I = a - r of the diagnostic (distance from the edge)*. It
is seen that with the 5 MW power planned for the diagnostic beam of ITER the diagnostic
*Differences with respect to Ref.8 are due to the more accurate optimisation procedure and refined beam halo
model used in the present calculations.

383
would cover about 1 m of the outer plasma radius (assuming 60-80 /reV beam particle
energy). In order to achieve this, the pulse energy per laser beam would have to be at least
100 J. If 1 GWbeam power (at ~lOO keV) were available (short-pulse (~ 1 ps) multi-GW
beams are under development but not yet accomplished\ the diagnostic might cover about
2 m of the outer plasma radius ofITER, provided that the laser pulse energy attains 700 mJ.

Eopt{keV] 3 Pcrit{MW]
10
102
T11T1E!!i!:::i?n!!!~U1~?!~~:;
......... : .........:...... ;... : ....... .

10' !!::!!!!!!!:J;~~~~~!i:!l!, !:!!

: :, !!!"jj~r~:~! !~! ! ! ! i! :! ! !!!
.......................................
... .... -:..........:- ........ ..
~

101L---~----~----~--~ 10-2 . . .
o 0.5 1 1.5 2 o 0.5 1 1.5 2
I {m] I{m]
Figure 2. Optimal beam particle energy and required beam power as a function of the penetration depth lof
the diagnostic. Curves A and B represent two different ITER scenarios. _ _ Z.jf= 1, - - - Zelf = 2.

FURTHER DIAGNOSTIC OUTPUT

Besides the isotope mix, further diagnostic output can in principle be obtained by tuning
the laser over the atomic resonances (assuming narrow laser bandwidth) and also by exciting
the beam atoms in addition to the atoms generated by ex. Information on the ion tempera-
ture or Z.ff(according to whether quadratic Doppler or plasma Stark broadening prevails) can
be obtained from the line profiles. By crossing the two laser beams under a small angle, the
ion velocity distribution perpendicular to the laser beams (implying temperature and plasma
rotation) can be inferred from the linear Doppler broadening thus introduced. Excitation of
the beam neutrals (in the 1t components of the Stark triplet) induces fluorescence lines largely
Doppler-shifted from those of the eX-created neutrals. Their polarisation (parallel to the
electric field vbeam X jj ) would yield information on the q-profile analogously to the classical
MSE experiments, while their intensity would be a measure of the beam attenuation.

REFERENCES
1. D. Voslamber, reportEUR-CEA-FC-1387 (1990)
2. D. Voslamber, in Spectral Line Shapes, Vol.S (AIP Conf. Proc. 328), Ed. A.D.May,
1.R Drummond, E. Oks, AIP Press, New York 1995
3. K. Griitzmacher et ai, in Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors,
Ed. P.E. Stott, G. Gorini, E. Sindoni, Plenum Press, New York 1996
4. D. Voslamber and W. Mandl, report EUR-CEA-FC-1607 (1997)
5. K. Griitzmacher et ai, these Proceedings
6. H.P. Smnmers, report JET-lR (94) 06 and Aladdin data base, ORNL-6086Nl (1985)
7. I. Voitsekhovitch, private communication
8. D. Voslamber and W. Mandl, Proceedings of the 23rd EPS Conference on Controlled
Fusion and Plasma Physics (Kiev 1996), Vol. 20C, part m, p.987
9. D.1. Rej et af, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63, 4934 (1992)

384
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF TWO·PHOTON INDUCED La
FLUORESCENCE: A PROOF FOR TOKAMAK EDGE DIAGNOSTICS

K. Grutzmacher, A. Steiger, Ch. Seiser, M.1. de la Rosa and U. Johannsen

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Berlin, Germany

ABSTRACT
Future application of two-photon induced Lyman-a fluorescence (2y-La) measurements
as an isotope selective determination of small neutral densities (H, D, T) in magnetically
confmed fusion plasmas require quantitative studies of this novel technique. A first feasibility
study has been terminated recently in a close cooperation between PTB and Max-Planck
Institute of Plasma Physics (IPP), Ass. EURATOM, at the Plasma Generator l PSI-1 at IPP.
Quantitative 2y-La measurements were mainly carried out in order to proof the detection
sensitivity achievable at PSI-I. Deuterium densities as small as 1010 cm- 3 were determined in
a measurement volume of only 0.1 cm- 3, while the background radiation was like commonly
stated for tokamak plasmas. Relying on theoretical predictions2,3,4, we are therefore
convinced, that measurements of the DT I DD ratio from 0.1 to 10 will be possible in the edge
plasma of ITER, with single shot accuracy better than 20% and with the rquired spatial
resolution. The detection limit for each isotope is expected to be well below 109 cm- 3.

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS

Although the principle of 2y-La fluorescence is very simple, quantitative measurements of
small neutral densities of hydrogen isotopes in the magnetically confmed plasmas beam of
PSI-l required extensive experimental developments in order to achieve the demanded
measurement performance which is depending on:
• the quality of the laser-spectrometer generating pulsed tunable narrowband radiation
around 243 nm required for two-photon excitation,
• the properties of the detection system for measuring the 2y-La fluorescence,
• the VUV background emission of the PSI-1 plasma in the spectral region around 121 nm.
Because of the small two-photon absorption probability, the method requires pulsed tunable
laser radiation of high spectral quality at 243 nm with much more power than provided by
common laser systems. A new type of solid-state laser-spectrometer has been developed

Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al.• Plenum Press. New York, 1998 385
based on a commercial injection seeded Q-switched Nd:YAG laser, a single mode
OPOffi:Sapphire system pumped by the second harmonic of the Nd: YAG,and a BBO crystal
for the fmal generation of 243 nm radiation by frequency mixing. This table-top system
delivered typically 30 mJ pulse energy in 2.5 ns with a bandwidth of about 300 MHz at a
repetition rate of 10 Hz. Pointing stability (about 10-5) and shot to shot reproducibility are
excellent, and the spatial laser beam profile is sufficiently good. Frequency control of the laser
output at 243 nm is provided by Doppler-free optogalvanic measurements in a reference cell
containing atomic hydrogen or deuterium due to thermal dissociation.
The detection system was optimized to achieve high selective sensitivity for l.a.-radiation
at 121 nm, high temporal resolution, reduction of the dc background signal by gating in
order to avoid degradation of the photomultiplier. Properties of the system are given below:
imaging: 1: 1, f = 125 mm MgF2 lens, 0 = 50 mm
photomultiplier: particle detector + MgF2 window(special design,custom made)
temporal resolution: 2.5 ns, gain of about 1()6
electronic gate: 8 ms on, 60 times suppression of the dc signal
spatial ftlter: aperture in the image plane: 3 mm x 16 mm
spectral ftltering: the photomultiplier itself, sensitivity range: 115 nm - 140 nm
l.a.-interference ftlters, optional for stepwise attenuation
02 gas-filter, pressure dependent variable attenuation
The 02 ftlter provided excellent suppression (i.e. two orders of magnitude) of the strong
molecular background radiation emitted by the PSI-l plasma, while the l.a.-radiation was
attenuated only by a factor of about 3. The absolute sensitivity of the entire detection system
was determined several times, and was found to be sufficiently stable and reproducible. For
this, a La-lamp was used, which has been calibrated as l.a.-radiation transfer-standard by the
PTB laboratory for VUV radiometry at the electron storage ring BESSY I.
The laser-spectrometer was set up in a nearby laboratory and the 243 nm radiation was
directed to the PSI-I. After beam preparation, fmally two counterpropagating circularly
polarized beams of equal pulse energy - typically 10 mJ each - were directed into the PSI-I.
The measurement volume, at a distance of 20 m from the laser, was as small as 0.1 cm 3
(03 mm x 15 mm). The detection system was situated on top of the target chamber viewing
downwards.
The plasma generator PSI-l is providing a magnetically confined horizontally
propagating plasma beam of 100 mm in diameter. For the 2y-La measurements, the discharge
was operated in pure deuterium or various hydrogen-deuterium mixtures at currents from
70 A to 400 A. The corresponding parameters of the plasma beam were: Ne in the range of
10 12 cm-3 to 5.10 12 cm- 3, Te in the range of 5 eV to 10 eV,magnetic field strength about
0.1 T, total pressure in the target chamber about 10-3 mbar.

DATA RECORDING, EVALUATION AND RESULTS

Typical measurements consisted of 600 recordings of the detector signal for subsequent
laser pulses (10 Hz rep. rate). Such measurements were performed with the laser frequency
either fixed at the center of the resonance or tuned across the resonance in order to obtain
spectral proftles. For each laser pulse the l.a.-detector signal at 50 n was recorded at 2 GHz
sample rate with a fast digital storage oscilloscope for a time interval of 100 ns. Additionally
the optogalvanic signal was recorded as frequency monitor. The recorded 2y-l.a. signal
represents the 2"(-l.a. fluorescence and the l.a. radiance of the stationary plasma, see Fig.l.

386
 ~~~,~~~~~~.~~.~~.~ 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~

300 A i -Single shot 100 A i -Single shot

., ! -,-5 s~ots ~erag
··100% DeuterlulII!..· ....!..........,..........+..........!.........
mV .. ....1..........1...... - 5 shots ave
50% deuterium i i i i i
80 ..~~.~~....1....... t.........t......J.........t........
~ ~
........1..........t..........1...... t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..l........

~=t=+=t --~~=~=~=t=-
iii 30

L. . L. . .
iii
.
.~
~
........1...
:
.......1! ..1 ................L
........: :
.... .
'a.
~ ....oJ. 1 i ........i..........1 oJ .. 1..
J 0'+--4-4-~~--2.~5~ns-M-a~·m-tio-n~ti~--~i--+ O+--+--+-~--~!--~!--~~~,
!
;

i-t 2,5 ns Mcilalion lime i

!
:

i from laser pulse i ! from laser pulse !

~ ~ ~ 0 W ~ 30 ~M~ -30 ~ -10 0 10 ~ 30 ~n.50

Ti~_ Time_

Fig. 1: Single shot Signals compared to S shot averages, obtained for deuterium at different
discharge conditions and different detector configurations. Immediately with the laser excita-
tion appears well pronounced the 2y-La. signal. Left figure: deuterium discharge at 300 A.
Right figure: discharge with SO% hydrogen and SO% deuterium at 100 A, corresponding to an
atomic number density of about S·1QIOcm-3 and Tokamak La. background radiance.

From the La signals recorded, various results were evaluated as described below, e.g.:
• A statistical analysis exhibited, that the standard deviations of the signals were close to the
limit of the Poisson statistic corresponding to the numbers of detected photons. Photon
numbers corresponding to 2r-La signals and the background were obtained from integra-
ted photomultiplier signals and the photomultiplier gain (measured to be 85·1 OS).
• The background radiance emitted from the stationary PSI-l plasma was determined via the
calibrated La sensitivity of the detection system. At currents of 100 A the radiance is equal
to the La radiance commonly stated for tokamak plasmas, i.e. lOIS photons/(s·sr-cm.2 ).
However, at the highest discharge current of 400 A investigated, the radiance of PSI-l is
twenty times larger compared to tokamak plasmas. This was a severe difficulty at the
beginning of the measurements.
Beside of the calibrated detection sensitivity the determination of absolute atomic number
densities requires the knowledge of the 2r-La. fluorescence yield Ya., i.e. the probability per
atom to emit a two-photon induced La photon.
• Ya. depends on the 21 absorption profile and on the spectral, temporal and spatial
distribution of the irradiances provided by the laser beams in the excitation volume. Mter
the correct treatment of the spectral profiles (laser and 21 absorption) rate equations
accounting for two-photon excitation and de-excitation, as well as for the detrimental
photo-ionization due to a third photon were time integrated for the temporal laser pulse
shape. For the conditions at PSI-l ,the maximum valueofYa. was found to be 10% for an
time averaged (2.5 ns) irradiance of 100 MW/cm 2. This fits well with the chosen excitation
conditions: about 10 mJ in 2.5 ns for each beam with 3 rom f/.I. Finally, the spatial
integration was done for the beam profiles, which were recorded with a CCD camera.
• Compared to the ideal case of homogeneous irradiance, the distributions in the laser beam
profiles led to a loss of about 50% in the integrated Ya. due to areas, where quenching by
photo-ionization was dominant, e.g. for irradiances exceeding 150 MW cm- 2 . However,
this is partially compensated by the advantage, that - for higher irradiances and corres-
ponding pulse energies - Ya. is fairly insensitive with respect to pulse energy fluctuations.

387
 • Finally, atomic number densities of D and H were determined and found to range from
1010 cm- 3 to 10 12 cm- 3,depending on plasma parameters and isotope mixtures.
In addition to Doppler-free excitation by exactly counterpropagating laser beams, a small
crossing angle of 52 mrad for the two laser beams was used. This causes a residual Doppler
width of 2.6 %which dominates the 2y absorption profile. From the residual Doppler width, a
kinetic temperature of 1.6 eV was derived for atomic deuterium.

CONDITIONS AND SET UP FOR ITER EDGE AND BULK nT/nD RATIO
Considering tokamak edge diagnostic, the real advantage of 2y-La measurements turns
out for the determination of isotope density ratios, because ratios of the predicted two-photon
transition strength for H,D and T are almost independent2,3 on variations of the temperature
(0.3 keVto 3 keY) and of Zeff (1 to 3). 2y-La fluorescence signals for two different isotopes
represent therefore quite well directly the ratio of the isotope densities.
In order to obtain best 2y-w fluorescence yield Ya for ITER edge diagnostic 5, the laser
setup should provide for each isotope two times 100 mJ pulse energy in 1.5 ns at 243 nm,
1 GHz bandwidth. The beams have to enter counterpropagating at the Mid Horizontal Port 8
(or Port 7) and Port 3. The detection system (observation angle 100 msr) has to be positioned
in Port 8 or 7 and views side on the excitation volume (10 mm ~,e.g. 50 mm long). This setup
will provide single shot nT/nD ratios, with a detection sensitivity well below 109 cm- 3.
Concerning the demanded nT/nD ratios in the bulk plasma of ITER, Voslamber6
investigated the enhancement of ground state atom densities - which present the local ion
densities - created by ex due to neutral beam injection. The study revealed promising results,
i.e. the possibility of single shot nT/nD ratio measurements in the outer part of the bulk
plasma. The laser beam handling described above for edge nT/nD ratios will allow also for
nT/nD measurements in combination with the Diagnostic Neutral Beam (Port 4) at a pene-
tration depth of 1.20 m. Under these excitation conditions, the laser beams are crossing the
neutral beam nearly perpendicular. Together with a 2y-La detection system viewing co-axial-
ly to the laser beams from Port 3, this arrangement is expected to combine the largest 2y-La
signal with the smallest La background signal and could provide therefore the best signal to
background ratio achievable, i.e. the best detection sensitivity for small isotope densities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TIlls work was performed in a close cooperation with the Max-Planck Inst. of Plasma Physics
(IPP), in order to develop 2y-La measurement technique. We are very grateful to G. Fussmann
as well as to W. Bohmeyer, H. Grote and H.D. Reiner operating the PSI-1 at IPP, Berlin Branch.

REFERENCES
1. W. Bobmeyer et aI., in:21st EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasnw Physics, E. Joffrin,
P. Platz, P.E. Stott, eds., Europhysics Conference Abstracts Vol. 18 B, part III, p. 1328 (1994)
2. D. Voslamber, Determination of neutral particle density and magnetic field direction from laser-induced
Lyrnan-a fluorescence, II - Two-photon excitation, Report EUR-CEA-FC-1387 (1990)
3. D. Voslamber, Some novel concepts for diagnostics in tokamaks, in: Spectral Line Shapes, Vol. 8
(AlP Conf. Proc. 328), A.D. May et aI. eds., American Inst. of Physics, New York (1995)
4. J. Seidel and D. Voslamber, to be published
5. K. Gtiitzmacher, PTB Report, to appear in october 1997
6. D. Voslamber and W. Mandl, Determination of the Drr fuel mixture using two-photon laser induced
fluorescence in combination with neutral bemn injection, Report EUR-CEA-FC-I607 (1997), also
appearing in this volume

388
PROGRESS OF THE REFERENCE DESIGN FOR ITER BOLOMETERS

AND DEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH PERFORMANCE ALTERNATIVE

Roger Reichle l, Marco Di Maio and L.Christian Ingesson

JET Joint Undertaking

Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 3EA, UK
lnew address: CEA Cadarache DSMJDRFC/SPPF/ITPP Bat. 508
13108 St-Paul-Lez-Durance CEDEX, France

INTRODUCTION

The reference design for the bolometer system of ITER, which had been outlined and
justified against the ITER requirements [1] and to some degree detailed [2] before, has been
critically reviewed against the first wall design and access possibilities [3]. The design
iteration following this review is the main part of this contribution. As a separarate issue
some initial results from a potential high performance alternative are also presented here.
The reference design is based on ASDEX-Upgrade type detectors [4,5], modified for the
JET high temperature in vessel bolometer [6,7] and draws on the experience in the
European tokamaks [8,9,10,11]. The outline proposal was based on parallel lines of sights
from 5 directions. Maintenance considerations, the progress of the first wall design, and the
importance of the neutral particle contribution to bolometer measurements in the divertor
drove the design towards its present manifestation, as will be detailed in the first chapter.
The lines of sight are discussed and prioritised in the second chapter making use of
tomographic methods. Some technological advances and radiation issues are discussed in
chapter 3. Chapter 4 reviews a development project at JET which aims towards an
alternative type of high performance bolometer. Finally the state of the different
development lines is compared.

DESIGN CRITERIA

The main design criterium is to be able to produce a good tomographic reconstruction

of the radiation distribution. The spatial resolution aimed for is 10 cm in the divertor and the
edge and 50 cm in the bulk plasma. To achieve this spatial resolution by tomography
without any a priory information requires a few thousand lines of sight. Since this is
impractical, either the number of viewing directions in the case of parallel lines of sights, or
the number of camera positions in the case of fan shaped arrangements has to be reduced

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et at., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 389
from the optimum number, which than has to be recovered by mathematical means, like the
anisotropic diffusion model tomography [12]. Nevertheless a few hundred lines of sight
have to be regarded as the absolute minimum, with which this task can be fullfilled, and
quite a few camera positions will have to be in the blankee, rather than in the port or the
divertor cassette. This requires radiation hard high temperature detectors [1]. Tomographic
artefacts should be kept to a minimum, and further developments along the lines already
used [11] will be needed. The envisaged overall accuracy for spatially integrated
measurements of bulk and divertor radiation should be better than 10%. The envisaged
temporal resolution is 1 ms. With such a system, the lesser requirements for control and
protection as well as the measurement of total radiation can be fullfilled by selection of a
suitable subset of sight lines - especially when the full complement of lines of sight can be
used extensively beforehand for gaining experience.
The best conditions for tomographic reconstructions are given when all data are
sampled from the same poloidal plane. It is known [1], that the puffing of gas creates strong
extra radiation locally at the gas inlet valve, mainly through charge exchange neutrals.
Therefore it is advisable to select a poloidal plane which has no such disturbances of the
main set of measurements. This should be complemented with a smaller subset of
measurements in a sector with a gas inlet. In high density conditions, charge exchange
neutrals give a large contribution to bolometer measurements in the divertor, which are not
observed by measurements of the divertor radiation taken through the bulk of the plasma
from the upper half of the blanket [10]. It has also become possible to determine the
divertor neutral particle fluxes by making them an additional free parameter in tomographic
reconstructions [11]. Closing the divertor increases neutral losses at JET and even larger
effects are expected in ITER since it has an even more closed divertor. The consequence of
this is, that a large number of lines of sight both in and out of the divertor are needed, to
account for the loss power due to neutrals. Other reported neutral particle effects are
neutral pressure related changes [1,8,13], which are being addressed by constructive means
as outlined in the technology section later on. Measurements of the calibration constants as
a function of the pressure at JET showed no significant change in the range of interest up to
0.1 mbar (see fig. 1), which should simplifY potentially necessary corrections.

180

160

140

I
p
120

100

80

60
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
p (mbar)
Figure 1. Calibration time constant as a function of the pressure for the present JET bolometers.

1 The cameras look through poloidal gaps between blanket modules of 2 cm width, which gives sufficient
signal strength [1].

390
 The other main constraints in the design of the layout are technical concerns. For
better maintenance it is advisable to concentrate as many of the important channels as
possible in areas where they can be exchanged, i.e in the ports and the divertor cassette. The
present first wall design features interlocking keys (see fig. 2) between toroidally adjacent
blanket modules that are meant to withstand the shear forces induced by halo currents. This
restricts the choice of viewing positions from the blanket to some degree and has to be
accounted for. In the port area there is a different arrangement of the shear keys, such that
they can be ignored there as far as the bolometers are concerned. The number of connectors
and pins which are available at the back of the blanket restricts the number of sight lines.
The sectors to avoid with the main bolometer installation are 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 since
they contain gas inlets. Other potential disturbances by for example the pellets in sector 19
and the NBI in 4, 5, 6 - are considered negligible. Useable diagnostic ports are then the
horizontal port in sector 9 and the vertical port in sector 10. Sector 10 has also 17 blanket
connectors that can be used for bolometers. In sector 9 some more could be found by
sharing with other diagnostics. The fact, that there is another set of blanket connectors
available in sector 16 makes it attractive for the complementing detailed measurements in a
gas inlet sector. There is a problem with the divertor cassette since the nearest sector with
an instrumentation cassette is in sector 8, which causes a problem with the gas inlet. To
solve this, it is here proposed to modify the cabling concept of the divertor cassettes, that
the measurements can be taken in sector 10. This would then give the main set of
measurements in sectors 9 and 10. For toroidal asymmetries a few wide angle channels in as
many as possible sectors would be the best solution.

typical shearkey

SDB21--
EDB21----''
XPF 15 "."._.-
SDF21-·-------..

Figure 2. Various plasma shapes in the current first wall design, also showing the shear keys.

391
 The expected radiation profile in ITER has a sharp localised peak at the edge and a
relatively broad peak as central contribution [14], which justifies the high resolution in the
edge and the low resolution in the bulk. There are various plasma shapes envisaged, the
main difference of which - as far as the bolometers are concerned - is the shape in the upper
inner comer [15] as fig. 2 shows.

LINES OF SIGHT

Fig. 3shows the lines of sights which are proposed to be implemented in sector 10 and
the horizontal port in sector 9 following the criteria outlined in the previous section. Fig. 4
gives an overview of all the lines of sights in a p-~ diagram 2. Both figures illustrate, that the
the coverage will be dense in the edge and the divertor and relatively homogenous in the
bulk area.

6.0

4.0

2 .0

Z(m) 0.0

-2.0

-4.0

·6.0

6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

R(m)

Figure 3. Overview of lines of sight.

The special emphasis given to the divertor coverage expresses itself in the
implementation of a total of 8 divertor viewing fans, evenly distributed along the usable

2 In such a diagram each line of sight is represented as a point defined by two coordinates: the impact
parameter p relative to a reference point, usually the plasma centre, and the angle ~ of this line of sight
relative to a reference direction.

392
circumference of the blanket, each looking with about 10 channels at the divertor. They are
highlighted in fig. 4. The most important ones are the 2 fans located in the ports and the
lowest inner and outer extremes. Edge coverage is provided by 10 fans, 5 of which
originate from the ports with 5 to 6 channels each, which all are important. With this kind of
edge coverage one can expect to be able to use the bolometers for position control of the
plasma edge around the bulk plasma. The most important bulk coverage is provided from
the port views and again from 2 relatively low fans at the inner and outer blanket half, about
2 m below the midplane. The other 5 bulk fans are required to obtain an even coverage of
p-~ space.

o 45 90 135 ISO 225 270 315 360

~ (<leg)

Figure 4. P~ Diagram of all sight lines with reference point in the centre of the plasma. The lines of
sights looking from outside into the divertor are highlighted. The darkened regions within the plasma
boundary are areas which are in the shadow of obstacles when looking from one of the two directions.
The squares are the points corresponding to actual lines of sights, wheras the diamonds indicate virtual
lines of sight that look in the opposite direction, where this view is not blocked by structures.

-3.0

Z (m) -4.0

-5.0

-6.0 '--_ _--'-_ _ _-'-_ _ _..L-_ _- - - ' _ - - '

5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
R(m)

Figure 5. Divertor sight lines: priority fans are marked with 'P' .

393
 The details of the divert or coverage are illustrated in fig . 5and a special p-~ diagram in
fig. 6, for which the reference point has not been placed in the plasma centre as usual, but in
centre of the outer divertor leg, to bring out the regularity of the coverage more clearly.
There are 6 fans per leg proposed with on average 13 channels each, covering the same p-~
area as the external cameras plus the areas that can not be accessed from outside. The
highest priority have 2 orthogonal fans per divertor leg as indicated in fig. 5. To distinguish
the neutral and the electromagnetic power loss, the complementing fans from outside the
divertor are of course also necessary. Table I gives a summary of the lines of sights
required and fig. 7 is a typical example of a tomographic reconstruction possible with the
full complement of the lines of sight proposed and a present day tomographic algorithm
[II].

Figure 6. p~ Diagram of divertor sight lines in outer divertor leg with reference point in the divertor leg.

Table 1. Line of sight summary

Purpose Detail Number of channels

Priority fans for tomography Total: 200

All port fans for: divert or, edge and bulk 80
2 orthogonal divertor fans per leg 55
2 divert or viewing fans in the blanket 20
5 edge viewing fans in the blanket 2S
2 bulk viewing fans in the blanket 20
For more detailed tomography 200
Gas inlet monitor
Subset of priority channels in gas inlet sector 50 ... 100
Toroidal asymmetries
Small subsets (10-1 S) of priority channels in
as many as possible other sectors 100 .. . 200

394
 (a) ( b)
-2.0

-3 .0

I -4.0
N

-5.0 1.0

0.0
-6.0 •
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8 .0 9.0
R(m) R(m)

Figure 7. a) Phantom and b) reconstruction of a partially attached case study of the ITER radiation based
on B2-Eirene results (16). Note that the emission in the bulk plasma is more than one order of magnitude
lower than in the divertor.

TECHNOLOGY

a) b)

Figure 8. a) Internal wiring of a JET gasbox divertor bolometer (small tick on scale: I mm):
b) detail. showing ball bond connections (small tick on scale: 0.1 mm).

Neutral pressure effects have been minimized at ASDEX-Upgrade [17] and for the
JET gasbox divertor bolometers by removing the copper shield in front of the reference
window, to allow pressure equilibration. From the same design change it is also expected,
that high frequency interference becomes less, since the conclusion from laboratory

395
experiments at JET has been that this copper window actually allows an eddy current to
flow which heats up the reference bolometer. On the side of electrical connections, it has
become clear through investigations of used JET divertor bolometers, that the weakest
electrical connection is the crimp connection at the back of the detectors. This crimp
connection has now been replaced by a bond connection for the JET gas box bolometers -
see fig. 8.
Radiation doses at bolometer locations at the back of the blanket during the first 2... 3
years of operation ofITER are expected to be minimal. In the following 10 years 0.03 ... 0.1
MWalm2 or dpa are possible and the final dose after 20 years may reach 0.13 ... 0.3 MWalm2
or dpa. This means it is prudent to look for materials for the insulators in particular, that
survive 1 dpa. Simultaneous technical requirements for the substrate are a reasonable
flatness on the side where the meanders of the resistors are. Good values would be 20
nm... 50nm. The operational temperature range should reach up to 300°C and no electrical
breakdown should occur under conditions of3.5Vnns at 20kHz over a 30 J.lm gap. Materials
considered are Mica, Ah03, AlN, Spinel, glasses and Silicon coated with ShN4 . Mica has
been tested up to 10-4 dpa without problem [17], but due to its hydrogen content it is
suspected, that it may fail at more relevant doses. Since the most positive experience exists
with Al203, and it seems to fullfill most technical requirements, apart from the flatness,
which may be achieved by polishing, it is the favourite candidate to start a development of
substrate samples with thin enough membranes (",20 J.lm). Spinel is electrically doubtful [18]
but otherwise interesting and some glasses look as if they might be radiation resistant
enough, which should make the surface flatness requirement achievable. Once suitable
substrates have been produced, radiation tests with in situ measurements need to be
performed.

IDGB PERFORMANCE ALTERNATIVE

f (kHz) C (nF)
70 140

60 120
C

50 100

40 80

o 20 60 100 180
T (0C)
Figure 9. Capacity C and frequency f as a function of temperature.

Problems with the reference design are: noise pick-Up on amplitude measurements, the
relatively small change of the specific resistance with temperature and the large number of
cables. At JET an alternative bolometer design has been started [19,20] which offers some
interesting solutions to these problems. First of all the measurements taken are not

396
amplitude measurements, but frequency measurements. This frequency is the resonance
frequency of a tuned circuit, which has as a temperature sensitive element a ferroelectric
capacitor. Near the Curie point, the dielectric constant rises very steeply with temperature
and therefore the primary effect is larger as in resistor bolometers. In principle, many
frequencies can be multiplexed on one cable, reducing the number of required feedthroughs.
The potential problems of this alternative design are that the operational range of the
temperature is limited to the region near the Curie point, which may be a useful range of
50 ... 100 degrees. Fig. 9 shows a typical measurement of the change of the capacity and the
frequency as a function of temperature. The electronics used to measure the change of the
resonance frequency of the tuned circuit is a phase locked loop which presently is capable to
track frequency changes well above 50 kHz, indicating that the electronics will not limit fast
measurements. Tokamak tests are still outstanding. The design contains a coil in the vicinity
ofthe temperature sensitive capacitor. This is inside the toroidal field coils. To avoid pick
up problems a miniature toroidal design of the coils could be used, which is similar to low
noise toroidal transformers used in audio equipment. This problem will be further alleviated
by the fact, that the magnetic field varies only very slowly. A method for calibration is
presently considered, which uses the intrinsic losses to heat up the detector foil. This still
needs to be proven. The radiation hardness of ferroelectrica is reputedly good [18]. The
cables have the additional specific requirement that they have to be able to transport 20
MHz. The present state of developments is that a proof of principle has been achieved. The
next step is the improvement of the electrical Q value of the tuned circuit and the thinning
of the membrane.

STATE OF DEVELOPMENTS

The steps required until installation on ITER differ in complication for the individual
lines of developments. For the reference design the main issues apart from the technical
detail of designing the individual assemblies are radiation related. Do mica, or the
replacement substrate material and the mineral insulated cables survive?
In the case of the development of so called feedback bolometers [21, 22] new masks
need to be made for the photolithographic processes that are used. Also new electronics are
required. Both fields of work are presently addressed. After they have been solved, the final
steps are the same as for the reference design bolometers. Ferroelectric bolometers first
need to prove to work as bolometer system in the laboratory and then be installed on a real
tokamak. Radiation hardness is the same concern as above.

CONCLUSION

The present line of sight proposal is compatible with the first wall. It allows good
tomographic reconstructions from one poloidal position if the instrumented divertor cassette
is moved. The neutral particles in the divertor and from the gas inlets are accounted for.
Toroidal assymmetries will be recorded. Measurements of the total radiation can be done
with a small subset of the channels, so no extra system is required. However the other
requirements regarding spatial resolution in the divertor in particular make it indispensable
to have the full system implemented. It looks as if the proposed system could be used to
control the edge position. Initial steps regarding the radiation hardness of the reference
design detectors are being taken. The high performance alternative to the reference detector
looks promising, but still has a long way to go. The technical developments are progressing.

397
ACKNOWLED GEMENTS

The provision of relevant ITER data by C. Walker, L. De Kock, S. Gerasimow and D.

Bouched as well as usefull discussions with K.F. Mast are gratefully acknowledged. We
also thank P. Bocker and L. Horton for the help with the fig. 1 and 7 respectively.

REFERENCES

[1) 'Bolometer for ITER', R Reichle, J.C. Fuchs, RM. Giannella, N.A.C. Gottardi, H.I. Jaeckel,
K.F. Mast, P.R Thomas, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, eds.
P.E. Stott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni (plenum Press, New York, 1996) pp. 559
[2) 'Bolometry - core and divertor', R Reichle et al., Progr. Meeting on Diagn. Systems, 15-17 Jan.
1997, Garching JWS, Germany
[3) priv. comm. C.1. Walker
[4) IPP 11224 E.R Mueller, G. Weber, K.F. Mast, G. Schramm, E. Buchelt, C. Andelfinger, Max-
Planck Institut flir Plasmaphysik, Garching, Oct 1985
[5J 'A low noise highly integrated bolometer array for absolute measurement ofVUV and soft X-ray
radiation' K.F. Mast et al., Rev. Sci. Tnstrum. 62(30) March 1991. p 744
(6) 'Divertor Radiation in JET', R Reichle, N.A.C. Gottardi, RM. Giannella, H.I. Jaeckel, A.C.
Maas, Contrib. to the 36th ann. meet. of the DPP/APS 1994, 7-11 Nov. 1994, Minnesota, USA
[7) 'Radiation in JET's Mark I Divertor', R Reichle et aI., Contr. 22nd EPS on Contr. Fusion and
Plasma Phys., Boumemouth. 3-7 July 1995. Poster R022
[8) 'Miniaturisiertes breitbandiges Bolometerarray', F. Mast et al., Technisches Messen: Scnsoren,
Gerate, Systeme, 4/97, Oldenburg Verlag, pp. 164
[9J 'Fast bolometric diagnostic in the RFX reversed field pinch experiment', K.F. Mast et al., Rev. Sci,
Instrum. 63 (10), October 1992, pp. 4714
[10) 'Low energy neutral particle fluxes in the JET divertor', R Reichle, et aI., Contr. 12th Int. Conf.
Plasm. Surf. Interact. in Contr. Fus. Dcvic., St. Raphael, France, 20-24 May, 1996
[11) 'Radiation distribution and neutral-particle loss in the JET Mkl and Mklla divcrtors', 1.C.
Ingesson, R Reichle, G.c. Fehmers, H.Y. Guo,1. Lauro-Taroni, A. Loarte, R Simonini, Contr. to
24th EPS Conference. Berchtesgaden, Germany, 9 -13 June 1997
[I2J 'Two dimensional reconstruction of the radiation power density in ASDEX Upgrade', J.C. Fuchs et
al., Contr. 21st EPS Con. Contr. Fus. Plasma Phys., Montpellier, France, June 27 - July 1, 1994
[13) 'Bolometric measurements in the ASDEX Upgrade divertor', I.C. Fuchs, K.F. Mast, G. Haas,
ASDEX Upgrade team, et aI., , Contr. to 24th EPS Conference, Berchtesgaden, Germany, 9 -13
June 1997
(l4) S. Gerasimov, priv. comm. July 97
[15) D. Bouched, priv. comm. July 97
[16) 'Effect oflight impurities on the divertor performance in ITER', A.S. Kukushkin. et aI., Contr. to
24th EPS Conference, Berchtesgaden, Germany, 9 -13 June 1997
(17) K.F Mast, priv. comm.
(l8) E. Hodgson, priv. comm.
[19) 'Ferroelectric Bolometer', M. Di Maio, R Reichle, UK Patent application, provisional no:
9623139.4, Nov. 1996
[20) 'Design of a Ferroelectric Bolometer', M. Di Maio, R Reichle and R. Giannella, Contr. to the 17th
Symposium of Fusion Engineering IEEEINPSS 6-10 Oct. 97 St. Diego, USA
[21) N.A.C. Gottardi, K.F. Mast, Euratom Patent
(22) K.F .. Mast,et al., Progr. Meeting on Diagn. Systems, 15-17 Jan. 1997, Garching JWS, Germany

398
IMAGING BOLOMETRY DEVELOPMENT
FOR LARGE FUSION DEVICES

G. A. Wurden 1, B. 1. Peterson 2

lLos Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos, New Mexico, 87545 USA

2National Institute for Fusion Science

Toki, 509-52 Japan

INTRODUCTION

As magnetic fusion experiments progress towards longer time-scales, more intense

neutron and gamma backgrounds, larger physical dimensions, and use of diagnostics for
real-time control, the measurement of total radiated power (including total neutral particle
fluxes) becomes more challenging. The use of thin foils that absorb and convert the
radiation and particle fluxes into a measurable temperature rise, is a standard tool for the
plasma diagnostician. Both wide-angle, and tightly collimated foil detector arrays have
been used on nearly every tokamak or alternative concept device. The temperature readout
is usually accomplished via a DC or AC bridge circuits, to recover the millivolt-level
signals, and then differentiated to get power from the time-integrated heat load on the foil
and substructures. The challenge lies in making fast bolometers, responsive over the
expected range in incident energies, which are also robust, reliable, compact, convenient
to calibrate, and cheap enough to afford hundreds of channels for good spatial resolution
using tomographic techniques. So-called "ASDEX" or JET-style bolometers manufactured
by PTS GmbH, represent the present standard of performance. A new imaging bolometer 1,
using infrared readout of hundreds of mini-foils in an actively cooled mask, has been built
by LANL, and is presently being tested on the CHS and LHD plasmas in Japan. We
describe work in progress towards a radically different approach to obtaining bolometer
signals, which has many advantages (and a few disadvantages) over present conventional
bolometer systems. We explore a system using technology available today, which
simultaneously allows for a cheaper per!channel cost, a high degree of radiation-
hardening, no wiring-harnesses in the vessel, no pre-amplifiers, good noise immunity,
compatibility with long-pulse operation and real-time readout, and hundreds of channels to
form a bolometric image. The drawbacks are the requirement for an optical path to the
backside of the detector array, and some sacrifice of sensitivity. *

• This work is supported by the U. S. DOE contract #W-7405-ENG-36, and by Monbusho

(Japan) through NIPS.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et ai., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 399
BACKGROUND
Numerous review articles have been written over the years on the topic of
bolometry in fusion plasma devices 2•3.4. The general theme is one of trading off various
sensor types to achieve sufficient time and spatial resolution in measuring the radiation
losses from the plasma. The most sensitive detectors (semiconductors, thermopiles,
pyroelectrics, and thermistors) are all unacceptably sensitive to gamma and neutron
damage as well. For this reason, metal foil bolometers, which are more radiation-hard and
high temperature compatible, have been chosen by most large fusion devices in recent
years (TFTR, JET, ASDEX, JT-60U, Tore Supra, etc.). A resistive element is bonded to
the radiation absorber, and then wire leads (2 to 4 per unit, including a matched (blind)
reference detector) are brought out of the vacuum vessel. Unfortunately, this resistive
element is also subject to nuclear radiation-induced changes, in its temperature/resistance
coefficient. The signal levels are very small, necessitating a pre-amplifier as close as is
practical in the signal pathway. An AC bridge circuit is often used in the readout. With
these techniques, sensitivity levels down to 1 j.lwattlcm2 using 10 millisecond averaging,
have been achieved in the lab. Noise due to magnetic pickup or auxiliary heating typically
raises this lower-bound number by several orders of magnitude. Arrays of 30 - 100
detectors have been employed to reconstruct the spatial profiles of the plasma radiation.

The next generation plasma fusion machines (LHD, W7X, KSTAR, and ITER),
will offer a new (or at least more difficult) set of problems for implementing bolometry.
The major difficulty will have to do with the issue of survivability in the face of neutron
and gamma bombardment of all elements of the bolometer, including sensor, insulators,
cabling, or any other close-in components. Furthermore, due to the fact that they will be
capable of long-pulse (> 10 second) operation, bolometers which have up to now been
inertially cooled, will need active cooling as part of their basic design. Although present-
day analysis typically take into account the cooling of the sensor element, usually the
cooling time is long compared to the desired time response, and the bolometer temperature
rise is differentiated to yield the radiated power, with minor corrections for thermal losses.

Sources of Noise and Pickup

For the metal foil bolometer, the electrical bridge circuit which measures a change
in resistance (of the resistor bonded to the metal absorber) is sensitive to a number of noise
sources. At a very basic level, there is l/f and shot-noise in the resistor. By using an AC
bridge circuit measurement, at a carrier frequency of 100 kHz to several megahertz, the lIf
noise can be avoided. Although twisted pair or even coaxial leads are used, there still can
be additional electrical pickup introduced in the relatively long leads coming from the
diagnostic to the location of the discrete amplifiers. This pickup can include effects from
magnetic field coils, RF Heating, and other auxiliary systems around the machine. In the
case of ECH, it is even possible for actual thermal (resistive) heating of the foil to occur
due to absorption of the microwave radiation itself. Consequently, the laboratory lab
bench noise level limit of a working bolometer system is often much lower than the
effective noise limit of the bolometer when used on a plasma device. The use of "blind"
reference detectors, co-located with the plasma facing detectors is one way to "null out" a
significant part of the magnetic pickup and nuclear radiation induced effects.

400
Sensitivity of Historical Metal Foil Bolometers

Metal foil bolometers have been the bolometer of choice for the present generation
of large magnetic fusion plasmas, due to their moderately good radiation resistance,
vacuum and bakeout compatibility, good time response (-10 msec) and reasonable
sensitivity. The TFTR metal foil bolometers (derivatives which are also used on DIll-D)
have an equivalent sensitivity of 60 mWJcm2 with a 10 millisecond time resolution, and
were packaged individually. The Physikalisch-Technische Studien GmbH (or PTS for
short), Freiborg, Germany, has successfully developed a bolometer head with 2x4 sensors
(four that are active, and four that are reference). The detectors are in a compact (33 mm x
20 mm x 15 mm) frame, which is bakeable to 300 D C, and have a claimed sensitivity of 1
microwattlcm2 with a time resolution of 10 milliseconds, while responding to photon
energies of up to 5 keY. These units have been sold to JET (England), RFX (Italy),
ASDEX-UG (Germany), JT-60U and LHD (Japan), where they are employed in a
pinhole/slit camera arrangement to form I-D arrays.

At JET, the kapton substrate/gold resistor versions5 (in the KB 1 camera) have an
equivalent noise level of 70 microwattlcm2 at 20 Hz, with a comparable level of magnetic
pickup. Careful matching with blind detectors reduces both thermal drift and magnetic
pickup noise problems. More recently, the new KB3D and KB4 cameras 6 , employ a mica
substrate/gold resistor, and a much smaller thermal capacity, leading to improved signals.
A noise level of 20 microwattsJcm2 is reported, but with substantially larger magnetic
interference problems due to more demanding mounting locations, at 400 microwatts/ cm2 •

PTS units rurchased for eventual use on LHD7, are also measured at NIFS to have
a 2 microwattlcm equivalent noise level on a lab test stand. On the CHS plasma, due to
residual magnetic pickup and ECH interference, this number is also about lOx higher.

IMAGING BOLOMETER DEVELOPMENT

A new type of bolometer for magnetic fusion research is under development l at

Los Alamos, using a state-of-the art infrared imaging video camera to image the
temperature rise on a segmented foil, thereby making hundreds to thousands of "channels"
of bolo me try possible without wire leads to each foil element. In the late 1970's and early
1980's, single-channel, single detector infrared bolometers were first used on plasma
experiments (TFR8 and ZT-40M\ In the intervening 15-20 years, infrared detector
technology has progressed to the point where lO's of thousands of detectors are available
in one camera chip. Advantages of using an IR imaging bolometer for ITER were pointed
out two years ago. \0 The sensitivity achievable by IR readout techniques (rather than
resistive electrical measurements) will be a key tradeoff. Indeed, previous authors 2 have
dismissed so-called "thermographic bolometers" because of sensitivity limitations (real or
perceived) at that time. On the other hand, present specialists point out the need for 3000-
4000 channels6 for adequate reconstruction of ITER radiation profiles, and then dismiss
this out of hand as too expensive. We hope to demonstrate that the IR bolometer can
indeed answer these issues, and at the same timc obtain unprecedented imagery of the
plasma radiation profiles.

401
 IRCamera

Figure 1: Artist's view of imaging bolometer concept for LHD. The pinhole-camera arrangement which
holds the masks, is water-cooled.

The bolometer is very simple (as shown as an artist's concept in Figure 1, and in a
CAD wire-frame in Figure 2, and actually realized in Figure 3). It uses an IR camera to
view a segmented foil created by sandwiching a thin foil in-between heat sink material
(copper) which has a suitable pixel pattern drilled into it. The pixel array views the plasma
through a water-cooled pinhole camera. The plasma radiation heats the individual pixel
elements on the foil, each of which is thermally isolated from its neighbor by the "thick"
copper mask.

IMAGING BOLOMETER

Figure 2: Wire frame schematic of imaging bolometer re-entrant head.

402
 For a I f..Lm-thick gold foil, coupled with a 25 mOK IR camera sensitivity, the
imaging bolometer would have a 250 f..Lwattlcm 2 equivalent noise level at a 60 Hz image
rate. Tests in the lab with actual windows, emissivity, and camera geometries suggest an
actual sensitivity somewhat worse, at -0.5 mW/cm2 . If the foil is lOx thicker to stop
higher energy photons, then the sensitivity will be correspondingly reduced.

Figure 3: Front assembly of LHD imaging bolometer prototype, with two mask/foil assemblies shown. A
mask/foil assembly is placed at the back of the water-cooled pinhole camera nosecone. Two (copper-
constantan) thermocouples, and tubes carrying water, are also attached to the copper housing.

Figure 4: 12 x 12 copper mask, with gold foil which has been blackened with graphite spray.

403
For the small and relatively cold CHS plasma ll , we expect radiation ranging from 50 kW
to 1 Megawatt levels. Thin foils (0.5 - 2.0 microns of gold) are sufficient to absorb the
radiation of interest. In hotter (10-30 ke V) plasmas, thicker foils are required (-10 microns
gold). Even the most sensitive IR camera has only 10 milliKelvin sensitivity limit, at 30
frames/second near room temperature (the Amber Engineering Model 5128 research
camera can do 1000 frames/sec but with only 128x128 pixel resolution). The infrared
camera shown in Figure 5 costs approximately $100k as configured, including remote
computer control and long lens. Consequently thicker foils will mean a loss of sensitivity
for the bolometer measurement as well. Dynamic range of these camera systems is 12-bit
in the infrared flux, which must then be converted to a temperature via Planck's Law for
blackbody emission. Fortunately, ITER makes up for the need for thicker foils, by giving
off more total radiated gower (up to -600 Megawatts during normal operation). However,
it has been pointed out 2 that nuclear heating of the foils will compete with the desired
plasma radiation signal. Blind pixels will be needed for compensation.

Figure 5: 3-5 micron band, 12-bit, infrared video camera, "Radiance 1" from Amber Engineering, with SiGe
75-250 mm f2 .3 telephoto lens and internal filter wheel , all controlled by an RS-232 port. Standard 50 rnrn
f2.3 lens is next to some of the filters.

Limitations on Sensitivity of IR Bolometer Systems

The sensitivity limitations come from several intrinsic issues: The noise equivalent
power of the thermal imager in the IR wavelength band of interest sets a lower bound.
Secondly, background object radiation (due to reflections or stray background thermal
radiation) onto the foil of interest will contribute heat or IR emission in competition to that
from the plasma radiated power deposited in the foil. Thirdly, IR photon statistics: You
need to collect enough photons per desired observation time interval. That is to say, you
can't determine a temperature change, if you don't have adequate IR photon statistics.
Consequently, the optical throughput of the IR optics will effect the minimum llT that can

404
be resolved. Next, in order to get the largest L'1T, for a given power flux, you want the
lowest heat capacity for your absorber. This is in direct contrast to the requirement that
the foil be thick enough to absorb a significant fraction of the soft x-ray flux that hits it.
So, the hotter the plasma, the thicker the minimum thickness foil will need to be. This
means that (strength issues aside) you can't make an arbitrarily thin foil, (in order to
minimize the heat capacity of the target) and thereby boost up the L'1T for a given radiation
flux onto the foil. Finally, the bolometer sensor must be shielded against microwaves, in a
microwave-heated plasma, such as on CHS or LHD. A free-standing metal mesh must be
placed over the entrance pinhole to preclude heating of the foil by microwaves. Cooling
for this mesh must come from the boundary of the pinhole camera pinhole.

Calibration Tests (on the bench and with a plasma)

The imaging bolometer prototype, which employs a water-cooled copper pinhole-

camera, shielded by a stainless-steel nose-cone, has been vacuum tested in the lab at the
National Institute for Fusion Science, in Toki, Japan. A simplified (non-cooled) imaging
bolometer has been installed on the CHS plasma in August 1997. To facilitate visible light
He-Ne laser calibration, both gold and aluminum foils have been blackened with
"Aerodag-G", commercially available micron-sized graphite spray from Acheson
Corporation. Typical temperature rises are no more than 1°C for expected plasma sources.
Response to a calibration laser is shown in Figure 6.

12 x 12 Mask, 0.5 Micron Blackened Gold

24
23.8 ... . . ..
'fJ)
G 23.6
Nif;tIm!'.v
*.
~~
.. ~
~ ~ .
..
d> 23.4
~ 23.2 • Series2
~ + Series1
:3 23

. .
"til - 4 per Mov. Avg. (Series1)
~ 22.S

.
h"-
Q. - 4 per Mov. Avg (Series2)
E 22.6
~;,~ "'~ I~
!Wilt'
~

Ul:
.A
71'Il
... •
.~
t-
22.4 .". ~1lt!.".. ~ ltiJ.'IJ. frO AC t.X
'"
iJ.
t:tK •
22.2 ~

22
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (seconds)

Figure 6: Point temperature measurement made by Agema 9600 IR camera of a foil pixel being illuminated
by a 1.5 mW calibration laser (in air).

1). Difference between in-air, and in-vacuum response. The bolometer is observed to be
approximately a factor of 2x more sensitive to radiation in vacuum than it is in air, due to
the additional cooling pathway represented by the air hitting the foil. This pathway is
absent in vacuum below 100 milliTorr. The magnitude of observed signals in vacuum is at
the same time a factor of -2x larger than our simple model of a cylindrical absorber of
conducting material surrounded by a perfectly clamped temperature boundary condition

405
would predict. The peak to average temperature ratio across each pixel, is also observed to
be different in air than in vacuum, due to the edge-cooling dominating in vacuum, but with
surface-cooling also contributing in air.

2). Degree of thermal cross-talk observed between nearest-pixel neighbors. First

generation masks and foil assemblies are observed to have approximately 10% crosstalk
levels between nearest neighbor pixels. This is most likely due to imperfect bonding (or no
bonding in some cases) between the thick cold mask, and the very thin foil laid across it.
The mask must be very flat, and the foils smooth, for good thermal contact. In principle,
the foil/mask assembly should be done in a clean room, to keep dust from getting between
the surfaces.

3). Decay time of signal. The decay times have not yet been systematically compared to
theoretical predictions. Some of the initial foils have an additional complication of a
comparable thickness mylar backing film (for strength), which undoubtedly alters the
thermal properties of the foil. For these foils, the decay times appear to be somewhat
longer (-2-3 x) than initial simple design estimates, which don't include mylar.

4). Observation of air-currents across surface of the mask. When a mask/foil is heated by
several degrees, and then allowed to cool, it is possible to see "waves of cooling" roll over
the mask, which is the signature associated with air-currents. Similarly, spatial isolation
of the signals from two -lmW laser spots onto the array (in air) is easily achieved, as
shown in Figure 7.

Figure7: Two laser spots illuminate the front surface of a 144-element array, and the IR image is taken from
the back side of the foil/mask assembly. The two concentric bright rings are shiny copper and stainless
sections of the 1.3 meter LHD prototype. An Agema 900 Thermovision 900 long wavelength series IR
camera made the image.

6). Effect of a nearby hot filament ionization gauge: We installed a filament hot cathode
ionization gauge about 20 cm to the side of the simple imaging bolometer for CHS. We
could easily notice a several degree heating effect from this source. During plasma
operations, the filament is off. We can report here that good signals have been seen during
shots with from 50 to 400 kW of total radiation, although data is still being analyzed for
possible ECH pickup. We use soft iron shielding to protect the IR camera from - 1 kG
magnetic fields under the CHS machine.

406
7). Necessity to keep hot objects out of the optical IR field of view. The optical IR field of
view between the backside of the mask, and the IR camera, should be isolated from
objects hotter than the operating temperature of the mask, to prevent un-wanted IR
reflections.

8). Problem of reflection of the cold camera dewar into the center of the field of view
(FOV), for normal incidence alignment. This suggests the use of a background subtraction
technique to allow for easier analysis.

9). The thermal emissivity of the backside of the foil (the side viewed by the IR camera)
should be close to unity over the wavelength band being observed. Even though shiny gold
is a good VUV and soft x-ray absorber, having a shiny gold on the backside of the same
foil is bad, as this is an IR mirror!

Figure 8: Heating of a masked 6x6 foil in air caused by a 100 watt heat lamp, 20 cm away from the mask, is
easily seen by the Amber IR Video camera. The IR intensity profile on a line across the middle of the image,
is graphically displayed near the bottom of the image. The temperature near the edge of each pixel is
clamped by the thermal inertia of the thick copper mask.

SUMMARY
Testing of prototype infrared bolometers is in progress at NIFS in Japan, and
preliminary indications are that there are no intrinsic problems to fielding such devices on
the next generation of large fusion devices. At the cost of - 20x reduction in useful
sensitivity (relative to standard metal foil bolometers), the IR imaging bolometer will

407
eliminate all wiring harnesses inside the vacuum vessel, provide hundreds to thousands of
channels (again, trading off sensitivity, spatial resolution, # of viewing positions) at a
much lower cost per channel «$lk). Furthermore, it will be immune to magnetic pickup,
be compatible with steady-state data requirements, and be compatible with both high
vacuum and high nuclear radiation environments. This assumes that the sensitive optical
detector is shielded from magnetic and nuclear radiation fields. The transport optics will
require metal mirrors, but they will not directly view the plasma. The penetrations through
the ITER blanket will need to be of order -1 cm, expanding quickly to - 30 cm diameter
for the wide-angle "pinhole camera". A 20-meter stand-off distance to the IR video
camera is assumed. Tangential views obtained with a bolometer head followed
immediately by metal turning mirrors, may prove to be the most useful for real-time
plasma position control during long-pulse operation. Unfortunately, we see no convenient
way to position this type of system on the inner wall of ITER, although it may also be
useful in a divertor port.

REFERENCES
1 G. A. Wurden, B. J. Peterson, Shigeru Sudo, Design of an imaging bolometer system for the large helical
device, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (I) 766 (1997).
2 P. E. Stott, Bolometry, pg. 187-195 in: Diagnosticsfor Fusion Reactor Conditions, Vol I, Proceedings of
the IntI. School of Plasma Physics, Varenna (1982).
3 D. V. Orlinskij, G. Magyar, Plasma diagnostics on large tokamaks, Nuclear Fusion, 28 (4), 611 (1988).
4 M. A. Ochando, Bolometry, in: Diagnostics for Contemporary Fusion Experiments ISPP-9 Varenna, Italy,
P. E. Stott, et al. ed., Bologna (1991).
5 K. F. Mast and H. Krause, Bolometric diagnostics in JET, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 56 (5), 969 (1985)
6 R. Reichle, J. C. Fuchs, et al., Bolometer for ITER, pg. 559-570, in: Diagnostics for Experimental
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et al., ed., Plenum Press, New York, 1996.
7 O. Motojima et aI., Fusion Engineering Design, 20 (1993).
8 TFR Group (presented by A. L. Pecquet), Bolometric techniques on TFR 600, J. of Nuc. Materials,
93&94,377 (1980).
9 J. C. Ingraham and G. Miller, Infrared calorimeter for time-resolved plasma energy flux measurement, Rev.
Sci. Instrum., 54 (6), 673 (1983).
10 G. A. Wurden, A rad-hard, steady-state, digital imaging bolometer system for ITER, pg. 603-606, in:
Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott et al., ed., Plenum Press, New
York,1996.
11 K. Nishimura, et al., Fusion Technology, 17, pg. 86 (1990).
12 V. Mukhovatov, et al., ITER Diagnostics, pg. 65-68, ITER Documentation Series No. 33, IAEA, Vienna,
(1991).

408
OVERVIEW OF FUSION PRODUCT DIAGNOSTICS FOR ITER

L. C. Johnson/ Cris W. Barnes,2 K. Ebisawa, I A. V. Krasilnikov,3

F. B. Marcus,4 T. Nishitani,5 G. J. Sadler,4 C. 1. Walker,6 and the
ITER Joint Central Team and Home Teams

lITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, CA, USA

2Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
3TRINITI, Troitsk, Moscow region, Russia
4JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK
5Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Naka, Ibaraki-ken, Japan
6ITER Joint Central Team, Garching, Germany

INTRODUCTION

In order for ITER to meet its operational and programmatic goals, it will be necessary
to measure a wide range of plasma parameters. 1-3 Some of the required parameters - e.g.,
neutron yield, fusion power and power density, ion temperature profile in the core plasma,
and characteristics of confined and escaping alpha particle populations - are best measured
by fusion product diagnostic techniques. To make these measurements, ITER will have
dedicated diagnostic systems,4 including radial and vertical neutron cameras, neutron and
gamma-ray spectrometers, internal and external fission chambers, a neutron activation
system, and diagnostics for confined and escaping alpha particles. Engineering integration
of many of these systems is in progress,5-11 and other systems are undcr investigation.
This paper summarizes the present state of design of fusion product diagnostic
systems for ITER and discusses expected measurement capability. Dctails are given in
other papers in these proceedings.

MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS AND SYSTEMS

An extensive list of plasma parameters required for ITER, together with target
measurement accuracies and resolutions, has been presented. 2,3 Measurement specifications
for parameters associated with fusion reactions are shown in Table 1. Most of the listed
parameters can be measured by fusion product diagnostic techniques, and nine systems
based on these techniques are currently included in the ITER EDA Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) in the fusion product diagnostic group, as shown in Table 2. The table
also lists the parameters for which each system can provide measurements and indicates the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 409
Home Team primarily responsible for leading the system definition and design activity.
For some systems, other Home Teams provide support for the lead party.
Note that there is not a one-to-one correspondence b~tween systems and parameters.
This is generally true for all ITER diagnostic systems. For some of the parameters, more
than one system is needed to fulfill measurement requirements. In some cases,
requirements can not yet be met.

Table 1. Target measurement specifications for parameters related to fusion products.

Parameter Parameter Spatial Time Accuracy

range resolution resolution
l. Total neutron source strength 10 14_10 21 n S·l integral 1 ms 10%
2. Neutron/a; source profile 10 14-4xl018 S·l m·3 30cm 1 ms 10%
3. Fusion power ~2GW integral I ms 10%
4. Fusion power density ~IOMWm·3 30cm I ms 10%
S. Ion temperature profile 0.2-S0 keV 30cm 100 ms 10%
6. n-/nn in plasma core 0.1-3 30 cm 100 ms 20%
7. Confined a; energy spectrum 0.1-3.5 MeV 30cm lOOms 20%
8. Confined IX density profile 1016_2x1017 m·3 30cm 100 ms 20%
9. Escaping IX flux (steady state) ~2MWm·2 30cm lOOms loolo
10. Escaping IX flux (transients) ~20MWm·2 10 ms 30%
II. Neutron fluence on first wall 0-3 MWam·2 -10 locations lOs 10%

Table 2. Fusion product diagnostic systems for ITER.

WBS# Name of system Parameters l Lead party Support party

S.S.B.Ol Radial Neutron Camera 1,2,3,4,11 EU, JCT
S.S.B.02 Vertical Neutron Camera 1,2,3,4,11 US, JCT
S.S.B.03 Microfission Chambers2 1,3,11 JA
S.S.B.04 Neutron Flux Monitors 1,3,11 US
S.S.B.05 Radial Neutron Spectrometer 5 EU RF
S.S.B.07 Gamma-ray Spectrometers 2,8 RF
5.S.B.08 Neutron Activation System 1,3,11 US EU,RF
S.S.B.09 Lost Alpha Detectors2 9,10 US
5.5.B.I0 Knock-on Tail Neutron Spectrometel 7,8 US
lparameter numbers refer to item numbers in Table 1.
2Requires new concept development.

Most of the fusion product diagnostic systems presently planned for ITER are based
upon methods commonly used in contemporary large tokamaks. However, the systems
must be tailored to a much more severe nuclear environment than that encountered in
present-day experiments. Although central fusion power densities in ITER will be
comparable to those observed in high power D-T operation on JET 12 and TFTR,13 neutron
flux on the first wall will be ten times higher, fusion power will be 100 times higher, and the
neutron yield per pulse will be more than 105 times as large. Design of the fusion product
diagnostic systems must not only account for the higher fluxes and fluences but also adjust

410
to constraints imposed by the attendant massive radiation shielding. For example, radiation
shielding around the flight tubes for systems which require line-of-sight diagnostic access to
the plasma must be sufficient not only to prevent unacceptable heating of the
superconducting magnetic field coils but also to limit nuclear activation of other
components inside the bioshield. In addition, the aspect ratio of the vacuum vessel port
nozzles and their extension ducts to the cryostat boundary will restrict the angular field of
view of neutron cameras and spectrometers. This affects the accuracy of the fusion power
calibration as well as the achievable resolution of spatial profile measurements. The thick
blanket and vacuum vessel also complicate the design of material activation systems and
limit the applicability of conventional calibration techniques for neutron source strength
monitors. These issues will be addressed below in discussions of individual systems.

NEUTRON CAMERAS

Neutron cameras for ITER are intended to fulfill a number of measurement

requirements. In an ideal implementation, at least two fan-shaped arrays of sight lines view
the entire plasma, and absolutely calibrated detectors measure the uncollided flux and
spectrum of neutrons emitted along those sight lines. Summation of the chordal signals
from either array, together with knowledge of the plasma position, gives the global neutron
source strength, hence the total fusion power. This provides a secondary standard for
calibration of other neutron flux and fusion power monitors. Combining data from all the
measurements allows tomographic reconstruction of the spatial distribution of neutron
emissivity, nDnr<crv>, which determines the alpha particle source profile and fusion power
density and constrains inferred values of fuel concentrations and effective ion temperature.
Analysis of high-resolution neutron spectra provides chord-averaged ion temperature
profiles in an ignited plasma.
As mentioned above, however, the ITER environment imposes limitations which
prevent us from achieving an ideal configuration. In particular, only two arrays can be
installed, and neither array can view the entire plasma. The neutron cameras are patterned
after systems used on JET 8 and TFTR.13 The principal challenges in implementing the
cameras on ITER are (a) the design of satisfactory interfaces with the blanket, backplate,
vacuum vesscl, cryostat, and bioshield; (b) the selection of detector/collimator combinations
which enable coverage of a very wide range of neutron fluxes with adequate accuracy and
energy resolution; and (c) the development of suitable calibration methods.
Interfaces between the neutron cameras and major tokamak components must provide
unencumbered diagnostic access to the neutron emitting region of the plasma while
preserving the heat load handling capability of the first wall, the radiation shielding
properties of the blanket, backplate, vacuum vessel, and bioshield, and the tritium
containment characteristics of the vacuum vessel and cryostat. Figure I shows an exploded
view of the present configuration of the Radial Neutron Camera9 and illustrates design
approaches for resolving interface issues. The arrangement provides three separate
collimated flight tubes and detector housings for each poloidal angle, thus offering a variety
of choices of collimator/detector combinations. A massive diagnostic shield plug in the
vacuum vessel port, with an integrated first wall and shield blanket, surrounds the sight
lines and reduces neutron streaming. A re-entrant cryostat door allows the collimator
assembly to extend inward from the biological shield while remaining outside the secondary
vacuum volume of the nozzle extension. Additional shielding blocks in the secondary
containment volume surround the neutron beams emerging from the diagnostic shield plug
and prevent unacceptable heating of the superconducting coils and unnecessary nuclear
activation of neighboring components.

411
 Collimator
and Detector
Assembly
Auxiliary
Shielding
Blocks

Re-entrant Beam Dumps

Cryostat and Auxiliary
Door Shielding

Figure 1. Exploded isometric view of the Radial Neutron Camera.

Design of the Vertical Neutron Camera is particularly challenging because of difficult

interfaces with the blanket and backplate at the top port and with the cryostat lid. Unlike
the situation at equatorial ports, ITER will not be equipped with large-diameter secondary
vacuum extensions between the top port nozzles and the cryostat boundary. Shielding
around flight tubes for the vertical camera must be either inside the primary vacuum region
of the port or inside the cryostat vacuum. In addition, the width and length of the viewing
slot through the blanket and backplate will be restricted, although precise limits have not
yet been established, and the design must accommodate relative displacements between the
upper port nozzle and the cryostat lid.
Figure 2 shows the present arrangement of the Vertical Neutron Camera. In this
configuration, the front collimators are integrated into the design of the vacuum vessel port
plug in order to make maximum use of the permissible aperture through the blanket and
backplate and to maintain system alignment during thermal and operational excursions of
the nozzle position. As a result, the diameters of the front collimators can not be changed
after initial installation. In order to span the required range of flux with fixed front
collimators, multiple detectors with different sensitivities will sample each sight line, as was
the case in the TFTR neutron camera. 13 The detectors and rear collimators are in the space
between the cryostat lid and the top bioshield. Additional shielding on the cryostat lid and
around the detectors and rear collimators is not shown in the figure. A passive auxiliary
shielding assembly encloses the sight lines inside the cryostat between the primary vacuum
boundary and the cryostat lid. The height and angular position of this assembly can be
adjusted from outside the cryostat vacuum space in order to account for displacement of
the upper support structure under vacuum and static weight loads. Except for the support
frame, the entire assembly can be installed and removed through a standard port in the
cryostat lid.
Figure 3 shows expected line-integral power density profiles for the present designs
of both neutron cameras. The profiles were computed from a simple model which
approximates the magnetic flux surfaces with concentric ellipses. Two cases are shown,
corresponding to a flat emissivity profile and one more peaked on axis. The dashed-line

412
portions of the curves will not be observable because of limitations on the angular fields of
view. Clearly, analysis of data from the neutron cameras will be subject to errors arising
from the inability to observe the entire emission profiles. Measurements with the vertical
camera, extending almost to the outer edge of the plasma, should be useful in constraining
the profiles in the unobserved areas. The situation may be further ameliorated by invoking
other information (e.g., knowledge of the position of the separatrix), but some errors will
persist. The problem will be most severe for detectors which require corrections to the raw
data because of their inability to completely distinguish uncollided neutrons from the
background of gammas and scattered neutrons. A proper estimate of the expected errors
under various operational conditions has not yet been made.

Detectors --,,-___, \I \\",....,

Rear
Collimators
Cryostat
Vacuum
Boundary

Auxiliary
Shielding
Primary
Shielding
and Front
Collimators
Vacuum
Vessel

Blanket and
Backplate
Interface

Figure 2. Isometric view of the Vertical Neutron Camera. For clarity, shielding on top of the cryostat lid
and surrounding detectors and rear collimators is not shown.

NEUTRON SPECTROMETERS

The Radial Neutron Spectrometer is an adjunct to the Radial Neutron Camera,

namely, a set of high resolution neutron spectrometers fitted to some of the camera flight
tubes. In order to measure ion temperatures from the Doppler width of the 14.1 MeV
emission over a reasonable fraction of the required parameter range, an energy resolution of
less than 3% is needed. Among systems which may have sufficient resolution are natural
diamond detectors l4 and various types of proton recoil and time-of-flight spectrometers. 15
Some of the spectrometers are quite bulky and not suitable for deployment around ITER
except in small numbers. It is therefore not feasible to install enough large, high resolution

413
spectrometers to measure the ion temperature profile with 30 cm spatial resolution. The
natural diamond detectors are very compact and may serve as general purpose
spectrometers in conjunction with flux detectors in the neutron cameras.

12

>-
I-
Vertical View

U5 10
Z
W
o
a: 8 Radial View
w
~N
O~6
a..~
--l~ Inside
~~ ,
4
I
(!) I
"",I
w
I- ~ ,, :/
,,
/1
Z 1/
\, •
t.U 2
J
""
\
Z
:::::i
t,'\ /,1
"':-..
0
\" ;..;,
/7
/1

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40

ANGLE FROM MIDPLANE (deg)

Figure 3. Computed line-integral power density profiles for the Radial Neutron Camera (right) and the
Vertical Neutron Camera (left). The thick lines correspond to a flat emissivity profile, and the thin lines
represent a profile more peaked on axis. The dashed portions of the profiles will not be observable because of
limitations on angular fields of view.

Gamma-ray spcctrometers 16 may be installed on some of the flight tubes of the Radial
Neutron Camera. The purpose is to detect and analyze high energy gamma rays produced
by fusion reactions and by interactions of fast ions with impurities such as Be. In order for
the technique to be successful, the spectrometers must be able to distinguish the fusion
gammas from a large background of prompt gammas produced in the first wall and blanket.
The measurement capability of such spectrometers in the ITER environment is under
study.

FISSION DETECTORS

The Neutron Flux Monitor System5,7 will provide time-resolved measurements of

neutron sourcc strength. The proposed system for ITER will consist of a set of
conventional 235U fission chambers, similar to those used on JET, JT-60U, and TFTR.
Each counter will be housed inside a moderator, to give flat energy response, and will be
shielded against gamma rays.
As indicated in Table I, the system is required to have a dynamic range of seven
orders of magnitude with I ms time resolution and absolute accuracy of 10%. Since no
single detector can satisfy these requirements, counters containing different amounts of
fissionable material, and therefore having different sensitivities, will be chosen in order to
span the necessary parameter range. The sensitivity may also be varied by locating some
detectors near the plasma, e.g., in the pre-shield of the Radial Neutron Camera, while others

414
will be situated in shielded locations outside the vacuum vessel. One complete set of
detectors will consist of six fission chambers, with effective sensitivities decreasing in
factors of no more than 25 to allow adequate overlap of linear operational ranges. This
overlap is essential so that the six detectors of a set may be cross calibrated to one
another. 18 In addition, "blank" proportional counters, containing no fissionable material but
otherwise identical to the fission chambers, will be used to identify and correct for spurious
signals generated by noise, etc. At least two complete sets of detectors will be needed to
provide redundancy and protect against single-point failures.
The shielding effects of the blanket and vacuum vessel will make in situ calibration of
flux monitors more difficult in ITER than in present large tokamaks. An important design
goal is to situate the most sensitive detectors such that (a) they are close enough to the
plasma so that they may be directly calibrated and (b) they view enough of the plasma
volume so that their sensitivity is not strongly dependent on plasma position or shape.
The calibration source will be a neutron generator mounted on an articulated arm attached to
the standard remote handling transport system inside the vacuum vessel. Therefore, the
most sensitive fission chambers and all machine components that affect their detection
efficiency must be fully installed before the transporter is removed. Several possible
detector locations are under study.7
The least sensitive detectors will be designed for operation in count rate mode during
ignited D-T conditions. Instrumentation for all the fission chambers will operate in
different electronic modes (count, Campbell, current) to extend the dynamic ranges of
individual detectors and to allow temporal resolution of 1 ms. Provisions will be made for
periodic insertion or permanent installation of standard calibration sources near the fission
chambers to verify long term stability of the detectors and electronics.

Microfission
o
co@)
Chambers

Diagnostic
Con d u i t _--I-H---...., o
Figure 4. Possible locations of a pair of microfission chambers. The figure shows a portion ofIhe backplate
on Ihe inboard side ofIhe plasma. Signal cables are routed Ihrough a diagnostic conduit integrated into Ihe
backplate.

A set of Microfission ChamberslO will augment the Neutron Flux Monitor System.
These are small fission chambers, similar to those used for flux measurements inside fission
power reactors. They will be installed in poloidal arrays at two toroidal locations inside the
ITER vacuum vessel. Figure 4 shows possible locations for a pair of detectors on a portion

415
of the backplate on the inboard side of the plasma. One detector is positioned behind a
blanket module, and the other is in the gap between adjacent modules. Signal cables for the
detectors are routed through diagnostic conduits integrated into the backplate.
Microfission chambers can use either 235U or 238U for the fissionable material,
although they will differ in detector sensitivity, spectral response, and burn-up
characteristics. The counters appear to be insensitive to gamma radiation and magnetic field
effects. Extensive two-dimensional Monte Carlo calculations show that the detection
efficiency is only modestly dependent on changes in plasma position and shape, and these
profile effects may be further reduced by combining signals from opposite detectors in a
poloidal array. The toroidal field of view will be limited for detectors located in the gap
between modules, but in situ calibration should be possible.

NEUTRON ACTIVATION SYSTEM

A traditional and fundamental technique for determining neutron fluence is the

measurement of radioactivity induced in some materials by neutron interactions. If the
mean-free-paths of activating neutrons and decay radiation in the material are large
compared with the sample size, the process is intrinsically linear and may be applied over a
range of many orders of magnitude in neutron flux. Activation cross sections are accurately
characterized for a number of materials whose nuclear and physical properties make them
suitable for dosimetry. By choosing materials with reactions such as (n,p) , (n,a), and
(n,2n), which usually require a minimum or threshold energy, thermal neutrons may be
rejected and some degree of energy discrimination is possible. The method is insensitive to
gamma flux at the sampling station, and decay radiation measuring equipment and analysis
software are well developed. The principal problem in applying the technique to the
measurement of neutron yield in fusion plasmas is in establishing the relationship between
the plasma neutron source strength and the flux and spectrum at the sample irradiation
station. This usually requires detailed Monte Carlo neutron transport calculations, and the
resulting uncertainties depend critically upon the types and amounts of materials separating
the exposed sample from the plasma and on the accuracy of the geometrical modeling of
those materials in the vicinity ofthe sample.
The Neutron Activation System6,7 for ITER will be similar to those used successfully
on JET and TFTR. Encapsulated foils will be transferred pneumatically to an array of
irradiation stations, deployed poloidally at two toroidal locations. After irradiation for
about 100 s, the samples will be retrieved to remote counting stations, where gamma rays
from the induced radioactivity will be measured.
Because of the high neutron and heat fluxes on the first wall and the long pulse lengths
expected in ITER, special care will be required in the design of irradiation stations and re-
entrant transfer tubes and in the handling of the extremely radioactive exposed samples.
The samples should have wide-angle views of the neutron emitting region of the plasma
with as little intervening material as possible, but the irradiation stations and foil capsules
must be protected from excessive nuclear heating, and there can be no sharp bends in the
transfer tubes. It does not appear to be feasible to embed the irradiation stations in the
removable blanket modules. The present design approach is to locate irradiation stations in
some of the permanent filler modules and view the plasma through the natural gaps between
neighboring removable blanket modules. Routing of transfer tubes will make use of
standard diagnostic conduits in the blanket backplate. Uncertainties in measurements of
neutron yield arising from transport calculations can not be evaluated until the irradiation
stations are designed in detail, but it is unlikely that the activation system for ITER can
achieve the degree of accuracy demonstrated on JET and TFTR because of the less
favorable local geometry.

416
CALIBRATION OF NEUTRON SYSTEMS

Calibration methods for neutron systems on ITER will be similar to those used on
JET!? and TFTR.!8 A variety of techniques will be utilized, including in situ calibration of
flux monitors and ncutron cameras with a neutron generator, activation measurements
coupled with ncutron transport calculations, and laboratory calibration of individual
detectors. As discussed above, the thick blanket and vacuum vessel will impose limitations
on some of the traditional methods. A comprehensive calibration program, which uses the
advantages of some of the techniques to offset the limitations of othcrs, is under
development. !9

ALPHA PARTICLES

A consideration of alpha particle physics issues in ITER indicates the need for
measurements of alpha heat losses, alpha instabilities, confined alphas, and lost alphas and
suggests measurement requirements and possible techniques. 2o The alpha birth profile
should be well characterized by the neutron diagnostic systems. Under the assumption of
classical confinement, this and other basic plasma parameters may be used to calculate the
alpha heating profile, the confined alpha density and energy spectrum, and losses to the
walls. Alpha heat losses and instabilities manifest themselves indirectly by giving rise to
local hot spots on the first wall, observable with infrared cameras and thermocouples, and
to plasma fluctuations, observable by magnetic loops, reflectometry, etc. A new detector
using thin foil Faraday collectors to measure escaping alphas is being tested on JET 2! and
may be suitable for installation on ITER. The direct measurement of confined alphas would
be of great interest, but the present status of confined alpha diagnostics only allows a
discussion of possiblc candidates and requires further R&D. Among the candidate
techniques for monitoring the steady state alpha population are measurements of neutron
and triton knock-on tails?2 Measurements of the redistribution of alphas due to MHD
events might be performed in the range r/a>OA - 0.5 through the use of neutral particle
analyzers (NPA) with a helium diagnostic beam (200-400 keY, ~3 MW)23 or by means of
Pellet Charge Exchange (PCX),24 but such systems are not presently planned for ITER.

CONCLUSIONS

The fusion product diagnostic systems required for the ITER device have been
idcntified, and the principal characteristics of most of them have been established.
Engineering of a numbcr of thc systems is well advanced, and solutions to many of the
integration problems have been found. It appears that target measurement requirements for
fusion power and emission profile can be met. The ion temperature profile can be
measured, but it will be difficult to satisfy requirements on spatial resolution and parametcr
range. Methods for measuring properties of confmed alpha particles are under study, but
no technique is yet available that can satisfy requirements.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This report was prepared as an account of work performed under the Agreement
among the European Atomic Energy community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Co-operation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International

417
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement') under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

REFERENCES

1. 1(. M. Young, A. E. Costley, T. Matoba, D. Orlinski, and P. E. Stott, The ITER diagnostic
programme, in: Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G.
Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
2. A. E. Costley, R. Bartiromo, L. de Kock et al., Requirements for ITER diagnostics, in: Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds.,
Plenum Press, New York (1996).
3. V. S. Mukhovatov, R. Bartiromo, D. Boucher etaI., Role and requirements for plasma measurements
on ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
4. L. C. Johnson, C. W. Bames, A. Krasilnikov et al., Neutron diagnostics for ITER, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
68:569 (1997).
5. C. W. Bames and A. L. Roquemore, Neutron source strength monitors for ITER, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
68:573 (1997).
6. C. W. Bames, M. J. Loughlin, and T. Nishitani, Neutron activation for ITER, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
68:577 (1997).
7. C. W. Bames, D. L. Jassby, G. LeMunyan, A. L. Roquemore, and C. Walker, Design considerations
for neutron activation and neutron source strength monitors for ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
8. F. B. Marcus, O. N. Jarvis, M. Loughlin et al., A neutron camera for ITER, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68:514
(1997).
9. F. B. Marcus, J. M. Adams, P. Batistoni et al., A radial neutron camera design for ITER with integral
shielding, These Proceedings (1997).
10. T. Nishitani, 1(. Ebisawa, L. C. Johnson et al., In-vessel neutron monitor using micro fission chambers
for ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
II. C. I. Walker, T. Ando, A. E. Costley et al., Diagnostic access for ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
12. The JET Team, Fusion energy production from deuterium-tritium plasma in the JET tokamak, Nuclear
Fusion 32:187 (1992).
13. L. C. Johnson, C. W. Bames, R. E. Bell et al., Fusion product measurements in D-T plasmas in
TFTR, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G. Gorini,
and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
14. A. V. Krasilnikov, E. A. Azizov, A. L. Roquemore et al., TFTR natural diamond detectors based D-T
neutron spectrometry system Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68:553 (1997).
15. T. Elevant et al., The role of neutron spectrometers for ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
16. V. G. Kiptily, I. A. Polunovskii, V. O. Naidenov et al., ITER gamma diagnostics: 2-D neutron and
gamma camera, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G.
Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
17. O. N. Jarvis et al., Use of activation techniques at JET for the measurement of neutron yields from
deuterium plasmas, Fusion Technology 20:265 (1991) and references therein.
18. L. C. Johnson, C. W. Bames, H. H. Duong et al., Cross calibration of neutron detectors for deuterium-
tritium operation in TFTR, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66:894 (1995) and references therein.
19. G. J. Sadler, 1. M. Adams, C. Bames et al., Calibration issues for neutron diagnostics, These
Proceedings (1997).
20. S. 1. Zweben, S. Putvinski, M. P. Petrov et aI., Alpha-physics and measurement requirements for
ITER, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G. Gorini,
and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
21. M. J. Loughlin, F. E. Cecil, M. Hone et aI., evaluation ofITER compatible thin foil Faraday collector
as a lost alpha particle diagnostic for high yield dot plasmas, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68:361 (1997).
22. R. K. Fisher, C. W. Barnes, A. Gondhalekar et aI., ITER Alpha particle diagnostics using knock-on ion
tails, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P. E. Stott, G. Gorini, and
E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
23. M. P. Petrov and R. K. Fisher, Charge exchange (C-X) diagnostics offast confmed alphas: present
situation and prospects for ITER, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors, P. E. Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
24. S. S. Medley et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67:3122 (1996).

418
A RADIAL NEUTRON CAMERA DESIGN FOR ITER WITH INTEGRAL
SHIELDING

F B Marcus, J M Adams 1, P Batistoni2, D S BondI ,T Elevant 3 ,

N Hawkes 1, G Janeschitz4, 0 N Jarvis, L Johnson5, L de Kock4,
M Loughlin, M Rapisarda2, G Sadler, P Stott, N Watkins 1

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon. OX14 3EA, United Kingdom

lAEA Technology, Harwell, Abingdon, UK
2ENEA Frascati, Italy
3Royal Inst of Tech, Stockholm, Sweden
4ITER, Garching, Germany
5ITER, San Diego, USA

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents the reference design of the radially viewing horizontal neutron
profile monitor for ITER. It incorporates integral neutron shielding, and with full machine
integration, should provide control and plasma diagnostic information based on the deduced
neutron emission profile. Information can be obtained on total neutron emission (fuel bum-
up rate), alpha-particle birth profile, plasma position and the time dependent effects of
plasma instabilities such as sawteeth.
Previous papers on initial designs have been presented (Marcus et aI., 1995,1997),
which had been constrained by the cryostat and bio-shield boundaries to have separate pre-
shield and collimation shielding. This design permitted some neutron scattering inside the
bio-shield region, although at levels which would have been acceptable from the point of
view of induced coil heating (Marcus et aI., 1997). In this paper, the design has been
evolved to include a re-entrant cryostat and integral diagnostic shielding, which greatly
reduces neutron scattering outside the diagnostic. This has been accomplished by
lengthening the collimator channels which are imbedded in a long re-entrant shield plug,
and replacing rotating collimator adjustment with parallel collimators with different sized
inserts to adjust the neutron flux. The camera detectors are placed outside the cryostat and
bio-shield, allowing relatively easy access. The neutron fluxes at the detectors are expected
to be about the same as in the JET neutron profile monitor, as discussed below.
The modular concept of camera design is retained, allowing changes in detector
systems and collimation geometries up to the time of final construction for ITER. The
reference design currently proposed has fixed collimation on each channel, with inserts to

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 419
adjust the neutron flux. Options involving adjustable collimation are also under
consideration.

RECENT OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE FROM JET D-T EXPERIMENTS

The JET Neutron Emission Profile Monitor (Upgrade) (Marcus et aI., 1997) has
been used during the initial "DTEl" experiments with deuterium-tritium (DT) fuelling in
JET, and is providing a demonstration of the collimation geometry, detector response, and
analysis techniques suitable for the ITER camera. Two other camera systems have also
been used in DT experiments: the first version of the JET Profile Monitor (Adams et aI.,
1993) during the PTE experiments and the neutron camera on TFTR (Roquemore et aI.,
1990).
Neutron emission from recent experiments with DT in JET has been measured with
cylindrically shaped solid organic scintillators (Bicron type BC418) with a small diameter
(15 mm) and thickness (10 mm), and compared with NE213 detectors. The advantage of
the Bicron detectors, when used in conjunction with discriminators that detect recoil
protons with energies of about 9 MeV or greater, is that gamma rays are not recorded as
they cannot deposit enough energy in the small detector volume. Count rates in the MHz
range are acceptable. The geometry used during high power DT experiments has 10 mm
diameter collimation for all channels in both the vertical and horizontal camera. In the
horizontal camera, the front and rear collimator channels are both 250 mm long. The
maximum separation of the channels occurs in the edge channels of the viewing fan, with
the entrance to the front collimator and the exit to the rear collimator separated by 1.466 m.
On the camera midplane, the separation is 1.390 m.
Fig. 1 shows the measurements and deduced results obtained from the neutron
profile monitor during DT operation. The diverted, ELMy H-mode plasma is heated by up
to 10.7 MW of tritium beams, producing near steady conditions with ion and electron
temperatures of a few keV. Three of the channels from the horizontal camera are shown,
centrally viewing channel #4, and intermediate position viewing channels #7 and #8, out of
the 10 channels total. The count rates on the central channel reach about 2xl05/s at a fusion
power level of about 2.5 MW, and the detectors and electronics should comfortably
function at an order of magnitude higher rates. The time variation in the central channel is
different than in the intermediate channels, and is not linearly proportional to the global
neutron emission. The data from both cameras are analysed with a program which
determines a least squares fit to the emissivity function, and contours of constant neutron
emissivity are plotted between a major radius through the maximum emissivity of 2m to 4m
versus time. The oscillations in central (predominantly beam-thermal) neutron emission are
due to variations in the beam power and to core sawteeth. The integral of the emissivity is
then plotted on the same scale as the global neutron emissivity deduced from fission
chamber measurements. The agreement of the time-dependent variations is excellent.

THE REFERENCE DESIGN

The machine integration aspects of the reference design for the horizontal neutron
camera are shown in Fig. 2. A monolithic structure contains a fan of 18 sets of 3 flight
tubes with different collimator inserts, each backed by a detector module and a neutron

420
 ~~§~N~e~u:::tr~on emissivity contours

~C.~~
~
Q)

o
-
.....

Fig. I. Tritiwn beam heating power, central ion and electron temperature, horizontal neutron camera line
integral measurements for channels 4,7,8, contours of constant neutron emissivity versus major radius, and
fission chamber global neutron rates compared to the integral of the emissivity profiles.

Biological
Shield

Cryostat

Detector
~--t- Modules
Backplate

Shield Plug
with Viewing
Slot through
Blanket
Three Arrays
of Collimated
Hight Tubes

Fig. 2. Machine integration aspects of the reference design for the radial neutron camera.

421
beam dump imbedded in the auxiliary shielding. The neutron flight tube channels are sized
and placed so as to enable a minimisation of the width of the slot in the blanket. The
structure mounts on the bio-shield, with the exit ends of the collimators flush with the
outside of the bio-shield. The plasma facing side of the structure nests into are-entrant
cryostat flange surrounded by auxiliary shielding blocks, with shielding inside the cryostat
nozzle. That shielding structure, in turn, mates to a shield plug with a viewing slot through
the main neutron blanket. Appropriate gaps are designed in to allow for relative movement
of the various components. The arrangement is designed with the re-entrant part of the
cryostat flange as narrow as possible, consistent with shielding requirements, in order to
minimise the weight of the cryostat flange and the weight of the cantilevered portion of the
collimator structure. Other diagnostic systems are integrated into the same port. This
arrangement greatly reduces neutron levels outside the diagnostic.

Collimator and Viewing Geometry

Fig. 3 shows the fan geometry of the 18x3 viewing channels that have fan angles of
21.3° upwards (on the plasma side) and 20.0° downwards, with the focal point at major
radius R and vertical height Z (R,Z) = (14.160 m, 1.590 m). The plasma axis is at (8.140 m,
1.440 m), so the sight-lines above the plasma axis now cover a vertical height (at the major
radius of the plasma axis) of 2.347 m, i.e. about half of the distance of 4.381 m from the
plasma axis to the separatrix surface, which should enclose much of the neutron emission
(depending on plasma profiles). This is less favourable than with the JET situation, where
the (vertically) lowest channel (in the plasma region) of the horizontal camera effectively
views outside the neutron emitting region. Channels which view regions further out would
therefore be highly desirable in either the horizontal or vertical neutron camera. The current
viewing extent of the collimator fan is determined by the ITER standard size of the blanket
opening on the plasma side, and by the ITER standard cryostat flange opening at the rear.
Non-standard flanges openings and flanges are not allowed.
Fig. 4 shows a top view of the collimators with the three channels which are present
at any given fan angle. The focal point of these collimators in this plane is R=11.100 m,
with an angular separation of 0°, +1.4 0, -1.4 0 , to fit through the slot in the blanket. Each
flight tube has an inner diameter of 50 mm, allowing inserted collimators with inner
diameters up to 40 mm. The detector assemblies themselves mate into the rear of the
collimator assembly, and are backed by polythene beam dumps imbedded in the rear
auxiliary shielding. There are two thin steel vacuum boundaries, the first an extension of
the vacuum vessel, the second an extension of the re-entrant part of the cryostat, with 5 mm
thickness.
The 18 channel spacing corresponds to slightly better than a 7% resolution in radius.
The improved resolution compared to the 10 channels per camera of TFTR or JET, made
possible due to the larger system size, is highly desirable, especially if there are strong
emissivity gradients.
On the midplane, the viewing cone from a collimator of 10 mm (and 20 mm,
40 mm) diameter for both front and rear has its apex halfway down the 3.700 m length at
major radius 18.391 m, and a full opening angle of 0.31 0 (0.62°,1.24°). The total opening
of this cone at the focal point R=14.160 m is 23 mm (46 mm, 92 mm), at the shield plug
slot R=11.100 is 39 mm (78 mm, 156 mm) compared to a slot width of 180 mm, and at the
plasma axis R=8.140 m is 55 mm (110 mm, 220 mm), or about 1183 (1/41, 1120) of the
viewing height in the plasma covered by the 18 channels. The 40 mm maximum diameter

422
 Auxiliary
Shielding
Collimated
~ Flight Tubes

Shield Plug .........~~==:~t,..,.

with Viewing -;---->0...-
Slot through
Blanket

oI 5m
I

Fig. 3. A side view of the collimator viewing geometry showing 18 collimator groups in a fan configuration.

Collimator
Assembly

Diagnostic
Shield
Plug

oI Sm
I

Fig. 4. A top view of the collimator viewing geometry showing 3 flight tubes at a constant vertical fan angle,
with the possibility of different collimation inserts.

423
collimator therefore fits within the blanket slot opening, and makes the width of the cone
nearly equal to the separation between channels at the plasma centre.

Neutron Flux and Rate Detectors

An initial collimator and detector design is based on the JET camera, with apertures
of 10 mm and 21 mm. For ITER, we choose the collimator diameter sizes of 10,20 and a
third size which could be as large as 40 mm, to be able to allow for the fluxes expected in
either d-d or d-t operation, for low intensity in peripheral channels, or for large aperture
detectors for maximum count rates. The 10 and 20 mm apertures are suitable for the types
of detectors used on JET as shown in Fig. 5, with 25 mm diameter NE213 detectors for 2.5
MeV and low rate 14 MeV neutron operation, and 15 mm diameter Bicron detectors,
suitable for high rate 14 MeV operation. The collimator length is chosen to be 3.700 m to
reduce the flux to the detectors. It is assumed that ITER will have a d-d phase. The
variation in neutron rate (4th power of aperture diameter) is 1:16:256 (compared to a
typical ratio of 88 between 50-50 d-t and equivalent 100% d-d plasmas.
The use of the largest allowable collimator with a high count rate detector such as
those used on TFTR (Roquemore et al., 1997) would allow the observation of details of
MHD fluctuations. However, the neutron flux is so large, 256:1, compared to that of the
10 mm collimator, that there is a real danger that gamma production and neutron scattering
between adjacent detector boxes would swamp the signals on the detectors with a lower
flux. When using massive scintillators in current mode to observe fluctuations, those
camera channels would no longer function usefully as a flux monitor for neutrons, since we
could no longer distinguish between gammas and neutrons. Detailed neutronics scattering
calculations of the lack of interference between the three sets of detectors at high yields will
be required to demonstrate that the full size apertures can justifiably be used in conjunction
with smaller apertures. Similarly, calculations are required to determine the best relative
placement of the three apertures, especially whether the smallest aperture should be in the
middle or in an edge channel. An adjustable collimator option (see below) may need to be
developed.
The line integrated neutron emissivity from a 1.5 GW ITER plasma at a detector
viewing the plasma axis along a horizontal sight-line is 2.4x1O 18 neutrons/m 2 s of 14.1
MeV neutrons, based on a simple model (Adams et al., 1991). (The line-integral emissivity
deduced (Johnson et aI., 1995) for the horizontal camera was about the same for a standard
plasma profile, and could double with different assumptions.) ITER also allows for up to
20% power excursions. For a 10 mm diameter, 3.7 m long collimator, the maximum flux on
a centrally viewing detector is l.1x1O 12 neutrons/m 2s (1.8x1O 13 neutrons/m 2s for a 40 mm
collimator). An efficiency of 1.5 % for typical discriminator bias settings of a 10 mm
diameter, 10 mm thick active area Bicron detector would lead to a count rate of about 1.3
MHz, compatible with the operating range of the fast organic sc intillators being used on
JET. For edge channels (especially), background scattering needs to be calculated and
subtracted, and it sets a lower limit to the measurements near the plasma edge of about 1%
of the peak emission in DT, or higher in DD.

424
 12 mm mild steel

mild steel removable 15mm " x 10mm thick BC 418 plastic .--1 mm copper
alignment disc scintillator set in perspex lightguide e;;;;;~t::::=-2mm radiometal
2mmcopper
500 nc 22Na source
1mm~-metal
25mm" x 10mm thick NE213 liquid
scintillator with BA1 encapsulation
0.5mm thick cylindrical ~-metal shield

mild steel detector

direct base plate with
line-of-sight insulated connectors
through - -
main insulator
collimators structure plate and
structural components
2mm
C I(TI) i._,OUT : radiometal
s ':beam •
10x10x15 i_-_~!ti_~~l

~
cut through lower structure
of mild steel detector box
1mm thick cylindrical
II-metal shield

I"'" I"'"
O-ring seal

I'""" I'""" I"'" I

angle of inclination channel dependant o 20 40 60 80 100
Scale mm

Fig. 5. Detector system for the JET neutron profile monitor, comprising a 25 mrn diameter NE213 detector
and a 15 mm diameter Bicron detector.

Neutron
Camera

Alternate
Large
Beams Spectrometer

Fig. 6. Large spectrometer design integration - time-of-flight neutron spectrometer.

425
NEUTRONICS

A neutronics assessment of the radial neutron camera has been made (Shatalov et
aI., 1997). ITER Port #16 (now #9) containing the radial neutron camera and toroidal
interferometer systems was analysed using the MCNP-4A code. The key findings are that
the heat deposition and other radiation effects in the TF coil are well below the permissible
level and that the interference between the two systems in the port is very low. The
shielding in general is very effective. For the neutron emitting model of the plasma used in
the study, the full energy neutron flux reached very low levels in the edge channels, a few
percent of the central channels.

NEUTRON SPECTROMETERS

The various options for spectrometers were discussed previously (Marcus et aI.,
1997), with details in the referred papers in that article, and these options are still viable for
the present design. For example, the third flight tube of each group, instead of a large
diameter opening, could be adapted to each hold a compact spectrometer of various types
such as scintillators, diamond, scintillating fibre, and silicon diodes.
It is also possible to incorporate larger spectrometers. There is space behind the rear
auxiliary shielding, which can be used for a few of these larger spectrometers as shown in
Fig. 6, with the space envelope for a time-of-flight (TOF) neutron spectrometer. The
spectrometer can be moved in to just behind the auxiliary shielding, and removed to make
way for maintenance or for other spectrometers. The 3 m TOF neutron spectrometer shown
in Fig. 6 allows the measurement in thermal plasmas of ion temperatures greater than 7 keV
in DD plasmas and with minor modifications, greater than 9 keY in DT plasmas. A 4 m
TOF would allow DT temperatures down to 5 keY to be determined. Fig. 6 also shows the
space requirement for such larger spectrometers. At present, large spectrometers have more
operating experience and significant advantages over more compact spectrometers, and
probably a few large spectrometers will be required.

"ADJUSTABLE" DESIGN OPTION FOR COLLIMATORS

From a historical perspective, the original design of the camera with a front and rear
rotatable collimator solved the problem of adjustable collimation. Its problems were that
there were a large number of mechanical systems to rotate the collimators, and that neutron
streaming occurred through the large pre-shield opening towards the bio-shield. The
reference design solves this problem by having a re-entrant cryostat wall filled with
shielding that contains flight tubes with inserts to define the collimation, which leaves no
flexibility for easy adjustment. It was necessary that the modules be lengthened to reduce
the size of the opening angle of the sight line, so that the sight line fits through openings in
the blanket. There is no way of adjusting the neutron flux throughput on individual
channels, or indeed of shutting off the flux altogether on some channels to reduce neutron
streaming into the detector area. The idea of using inserts only allows changes over
maintenance periods, whereas it would be desirable to change the collimation in front of a
detector between shots or even during a shot.

426
 The "adjustable" option uses the philosophy from the original design to allow for
altering the flux reaching the detector system. The actual design depends on how much
space is available around each channel at different positions, and whether or not the number
of channels needs to be reduced. The same access requirements and integral shielding size
are maintained as in the reference design. One detector per module instead of two as in the
previous design would allow smaller diameter modules, and the modules could be
lengthened to reduce the size of the opening angle so that the sight line fits through
openings in the blanket.
There is a limit on the minimum size of the rotatable collimator. If the diameter of
the rotatable collimator is compact to fit each channel, for example 8 cm in diameter,
containing holes of, say, 2.5, 1.0, and O. (blank) cm diameter, then the holes might provide
streaming paths in the unused channels for neutrons, even if the entrance is blocked off.
Careful evaluation is required.
The idea that each channel might have only a single compact rotatable collimator
just in front of the detector and a fixed front collimator based on inserts in the flight tube
was rejected, because the dynamic range is too limited. In this case, the flux on the rear
aperture remains unchanged, and the total neutron throughput scales as the square of the
diameter of the rear aperture. If the detector (for example a diamond detector) is smaller
than the aperture, the count rate of the detector is almost independent of the size of the final
collimator.

"COMPACT" OPTION FOR ADJUSTABLE COLLIMATORS

Another option for the design for a radial neutron camera was considered, which
was very similar to the existing horizontal neutron profile monitor at JET. After the pre-
shield, it has two massive, rotatable collimator cylinders with 10 mm and 25 mm holes at
right angles, followed by a detector housing block inside the cryostat and bio-shield. The
detectors have been moved inward to allow a wider plasma coverage. This option has the
apparent virtue that it is compact and fits inside the cryostat, where it does not perturb the
cryostat or the bio-shield. This option was not retained for further study, after a number of
problems were identified. These problems were as follows:
It is very important to have flexibility for using a whole range of neutron detectors,
and that we need to have access to the collimation and detector system. Massive
monolithic collimators would lead to a total lack of flexibility for instrumentation and
throughput adjustment. Having detectors inside the bio-shield is unacceptable, since they
will need periodic replacement due to radiation degradation, and the massive magnetic
shielding could cause problems with magnetic forces and tokamak field perturbation.
Signal transmission from the detectors is also a major problem, especially for NE213 with
PSD detection. Hundreds of very high quality and large diameter cables may be required
for the various neutron diagnostics. The design complicates the installation of large
spectrometers (Time-of-flight, MPR, etc) located behind the detector block, since the
required space may not be available. The production of gamma rays in the block and the
magnetic shield may be a serious problem that has to be considered once the magnetic
shield has been specified.
It is also unacceptable to consider a system where the front and rear collimators are
mechanically separate. Each channel needs to be in a mechanically rigid cylinder
containing all systems.

427
CONCLUSIONS

A reference design has been determined for ITER of a radially viewing neutron
profile monitor, which is constructed with integral neutron shielding which greatly reduces
stray neutron fluxes. This design is fully consistent with the overall ITER requirements
including standard flange sizes and blanket interfaces, but as a result the zone of the plasma
viewed is reduced compared to the previous design. Viewing of the plasma outer half by
additional channels or by a vertical camera would be highly desirable. The ra dia I
camera is highly flexible, allowing modification of collimator geometries with inserts and
different detector systems. Instrumental flexibility would be improved further if the
collimation on each channel were adjustable by means other than inserts. Two collimator
design options have been considered: the "adjustable" collimator option was kept for future
consideration, since it would only involve a modification to the shield block holding the
collimators in the reference design; the "compact" option was rejected, which which be a
major modification of the reference design, and which has major problems of accessibility.
With the insert system and multiple collimators in the reference design, a large range of
neutron fluxes can be measured by a variety of flux detectors and spectrometers,
compatible with those being tested in existing experiments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the contributions to configuration control, design and

CATIA drawing by Carl Lippert at the ITER San Diego Site, and to profile monitor data
interpretation codes by S Conroy.

REFERENCES
I.M. Adams et aI., 1991, Neutron diagnostics for NET, AEA Technology 411/90.2/FU-UK, Harwell, UK.
L.C. Johnson, 1995, "Study of generic access for neutron cameras in ITER", Report
ITERIUS/95/PH-07-13.

F.B. Marcus et ai, 1995, "A Neutron Camera for ITER: Conceptual Design," Diagnosticsfor
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, Edited by P. Stott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni,
Plenum Press, New York, 1996, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Diagnostics for
ITER, Varenna, Italy
F.B. Marcus et aI., 1997, "A Neutron Camera for ITER", Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68, No. I, pp. 514-519
A.L. Roquemore et aI., 1997, "Recent Expansion of the TFTR multichannel neutron collimator", Rev.
Sci.lnstrum. 68, No. I, pp 544-547.
G.E. Shatalov et aI., 1997, ''Neutronic Calculations," in Diagnostic Design Work Performed under
Contract with Ministry of the Russian Federation on Atomic Energy (#09-97), Report for 2nd
Quarter 1997, Moscow.

428
ROLE OF NEUTRON SPECTROMETERS FOR ITER

T. Elevant'* and 1. Scheffel"

+JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 3EA, U.K.,

*Alfven Laboratory, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden,
EURATOMlNFR Fusion Association.

ABSTRACT

Conditions for retrieval of ion temperature profiles through measurement and

evaluation of neutron energy spectra emitted in ITER-like fusion plasmas are discussed.
Spectra from deuterium- and deuterium-tritium plasmas heated by 100 MW, I MeV neutral
deuterium beams, and ignited H-mode plasmas are simulated by means of a Monte-Carlo
Fokker-Planck code. Regions are defined where information on ion temperature clearly is
preserved. The correction from line-of-sight integrated measurement to peak temperature is
found to be 4-10% for deuterium plasmas of all temperatures and for deuterium-tritium
plasmas of temperatures below approximately 5 keV. For higher temperatures the
correction equals 10-30% depending on the density and temperature profiles. Ion
temperatures can be determined with an accuracy better than 10% in this region only if
profile data is made available.
Several spectrometers have been proposed. Operating ranges in ion temperature and
beam power, spatial- and temporal resolution, space requirements and life expectancy are
compared with ITER measurement requirements. Necessary R&D work is also discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

For evaluation of energy and particle transport in magnetic fusion experiments,

information on ion temperature profiles, Ti(r) are used as input data. Measurements of ion
temperature profile will also be used for optimisation of burn in ITER I plasmas. For
Maxwellian plasmas the ion temperature will cause a Doppler broadening of the Gaussian
shaped neutron energy peak2 • A direct method for evaluation of ion temperatures is based
on accurate measurements of the width of this peak using neutron spectrometers3 .
However, using deuterium beams for heating deuterium (DD)- or deuterium-tritium (DT)-
plasmas will generate reactions between beam- and thermal ions. This will cause a

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott etal., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 429
deviation from Gaussian shaped spectrum; thus more complex analysis and better statistics
will be required to evaluate ion temperatures.
Radiation constraints inside the ITER cryostat restrict the neutron flux in various
positions around ITER. Spectrometers located in or behind the horizontal neutron camera4
planned for ITER are thus exposed to a well defined maximum neutron flux. Taking the
sensitivity of the specific spectrometer and data collection time into account give a measure
of the spectrometer statistics obtainable for a given fusion reaction rate. Apart from the
statistics, the accuracy in the evaluated ion temperature depends on the spectrometer
energy resolution and its accuracy, the width of the measured spectrum, fraction of events
from thermal reactions, and accuracy in the number of background events including non-
thermal reactions. Thus, selecting spectrometer(s) matching ITER measurement
requirements is a multi-parameter choice that depends on priorities given.
In an attempt to enlighten the complex situation, Ti-operating ranges deduced for
various spectrometers, located in or behind the ITER horizontal neutron camera, are here
compared with ITER measurement requirements 5• The required accuracy, spatial and time
resolution, are briefly described in section 2. A 3-D Monte-Carlo neutron kinematics code 6
used for calculation of neutron energy spectra during Maxwellian and non-Maxwellian
conditions is described in section 3. Data from standard operating scenarios in ITER? are
used. The geometry is given by radiation constraints and standard ITER port components8 .
Calculated energy spectra from neutral beam injection (NBI) heated- and Maxwellian
plasmas are presented in section 4. In section 5 statistics and background requirements are
discussed and the proposed spectrometer candidates described. Spectrometer operating
ranges during ITER NBI-heating scenarios with increased Ti and fuel density are also
shown. The R&D status and suggested work is briefly discussed. Spectrometer selection
will be influenced by the individual merits to match the physical, technical and economical
priorities given as discussed in the summary and conClusions.

2. ITER MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for ITER measurements have previously been identified; ion

temperatures from 0.5 to 50 keY have to be measured 5• Restriction in port dimensions
means that low ion temperatures outside r = 0.75a have to be measured by non-nuclear
methods. Reference density and temperature profiles for desi~ of diagnostics are given
b/ neCr)=ne CO)[1-Cr/a)2] a, (a "" 0.5) and Ti(r)=TiCO)[1-(rla)2] ,(P "" 1.0). The horizontal
camera with the opening in the first wall, pre-shield and collimated cones-of-sight is shown
in fig. 1. Radiation constraints restrict the pre-shield opening to 13·23 cm2 . Avoiding any
intersection between the collimated cones-of-sight and the pre-shield and allowing for
thermal movements yields a collimator cross-section area of 3· 3 cm2 . This corresponds to a
viewed plasma cross-section area of 16·16 cm2 at the magnetic axis.
The ion temperature gradients? may be as large as 10 ke V1m. Having a line-of-sight
width equal to the required spatial resolution ono cm with T j ranging from 10 to 30 keY is
thus inconsistent with an accuracy of 10% required in Ti measurement 5. A line width of 5
cm is therefore also considered. The requirements considered on Ti measurements using
neutron spectroscopy are: Ti ranging from 3 to 50 keV, accuracy I1T/Ti < 10%, time
resolution M = JOO ms, spatial coverage r :::; 0.75a, spatial resolution from shielding
constraints I1r = 16 cm and spatial resolution from T; gradient I1r = 5 cm.
Although the assumed profiles and adopted measurement requirements may have to
be revised they serve as a basis for providing an overview of the operating range of the
spectrometers in ITER and the relative merits of the instruments will remain valid.

430
 Preshield Array of compact spectrometers
max..13cm h x 23cm w diamond diodes and/or
scintillating fibres

Size of PR and
~ Microch.-PR

SizeofMPR
,-----,,,,
ofT-O-F

Fig.l Side view of neutron horizontal camera and spectrometer location is shown. Maximum aperture in the
precollimator is \3 em high and 23 cm wide corresponding to a collimator dimensions of 3·3 cm 2 and a
viewed plasma cross-section area (at R=Ro) of 16·16 cm2• Measures are given in cm.

3_ CODE FOR CALCULATION OF NEUTRON ENERGY SPECTRA

There are four basic heating scenarios during which neutron diagnostics may be used:
purely ohmic, ignited, NBI- and radio frequency heating. In the first two scenarios reacting
ions have approximately Maxwellian distribution functions. Beam injection physics is
classical in the sense that Fokker-Planck models are consistent with measurements of fast
beam ion slowing down in the background plasma. RF -heating deposition and effect on
velocity distribution is more complex. In this study we calculate neutron energy spectra
emitted from Maxwellian and NBI-heated plasmas.
The tool used is a 3-D Monte-Carlo neutron kinematics code, NSPEC 6 • The plasma
is specified by its dimensions, physical parameters, reacting species and type of heating.
The magnetic flux geometry is modelled using the geometric centre Ro, inner boundary
Ron;", outer boundary Rmax , plasma height above magnetic axis Zax;s, the Shafranov shift ~,
the elongation K, as well as the toroidal current Ip and toroidal magnetic field B",. The
model computes approximate flux surfaces, which are labelled monotonically (going
outwards) in the range 0 ~ 1. Thus plasma parameters are calculated at each position
where a L.O.S intersects a magnetic flux surface. Parameter used unless otherwise stated
are: Ro = 8.06 m, a = 2.94 m, Ip = 24 MA, B", = 5.7 T, K = 1.7 and Te""T;.
Along the specified L.O.S. through the plasma a discrete number (typically 9-19) of
volumes are defined with their circular cross-sections defined by the length and diameter of
the neutron collimator. Within each of these sub-volumes, the fusion reactivity of typically
10 5 events are computed. Only those neutrons that fall into the collimator are accounted
for, rendering the calculations highly efficient. Fusion cross-sections used are those of
BoschlO. The Fokker-Planck distribution for beam-heated plasmas is computed in ref. II.
Neutron energy spectra for NBI-heated ITER plasmas are calculated using L.O.S.
passing through the magnetic axis. The details of the semi-tangential beam geometry are
given in ref. 12. The neutral beam deposition is assumed to have an exponential profile
with H(O) = 2.5 (see fig.2). This is an overestimate of the deposition in the plasma centre.
The ratio of neutron fluxes from thermonuclear and beam-plasma reactions obey
approximately the scaling <I>p/<I>bp ex: n2 T j I p- I H"l, where n is the plasma density, T the
temperature, P the beam power and H the (central value of) normalised beam deposition

431
profile. Simulations6 suggest a 3.0,----------------,
temperature dependence TTJ where 0.5
s 11 S 1.0. At the high beam energies 2.5

considered (low DT fusion reactivity) 2.0

the dependence may be even stronger. :[
Thus, the neutron flux scaling is :I: 1.5
favourable for diagnosing hot and
1.0e-
dense fusion plasmas.
.'
0.5 •.•... ".

"';
~

Fig 2. The neutral beam deposition profile

~
~~~2-~3~~4,-~5-~6~~7--8~~9
denoted H(2.5) is shown.
LOS position

Neutron energy spectra for NBI-heated ITER plasmas are calculated using L.O.S.
passing through the magnetic axis. The details of the semi-tangential beam geometry are
given in ref. 12. The neutral beam deposition is assumed to have an exponential profile
with H(O) = 2.5 (see fig.2). This is an overestimate of the deposition in the plasma centre.
The ratio of neutron fluxes from thermonuclear and beam-plasma reactions obey
approximately the scaling <l>p/<l>bp oc n2 T/ p,l H"I, where n is the plasma density, T the
temperature, P the beam power and H the (central value of) normalised beam deposition
profile. Simulations6 suggest a temperature dependence TTJ where 0.5 S 11 S 1.0. At the high
beam energies considered (low DT fusion reactivity) the dependence may be even stronger.
Thus, the neutron flux scaling is favourable for diagnosing hot and dense fusion plasmas.

4. INFORMATION PRESERVED IN ENERGY SPECTRA

Calculations of neutron energy spectra are performed with deuterium NBI-power up

to 100 MW and DD- and DT- plasmas. In the following results from heating H-mode
scenarios with rapidly increasing temperatures and slowly increasing density rise are
presented. It is concluded in ref. 13 that analysis with better than 30% accuracy in reaction
fractional contributions can be obtained provided the thermal reaction fraction is at least
70% of total. In the following we require minimum 80% thermal reactions.

4.1 Deuterium NBI-heated Plasmas

Neutron energy spectra from 100 MW of 1 MeV deuterium NBI-heated DD-plasmas

are calculated. Fig.3a shows a spectrum from a plasma with the central T j = 10 keY and
central nD = 5'10 19 m· 3 and fig. 3b shows a spectrum with the corresponding parameters
equal to 15 keY and 7'10 19 m,3. The thermal fractional contribution is approximately 68%
and 90% of total contribution in the thermal peak area and the peak width correction for the
integrated measurements along the L.O.S. is equal to 4% and 7% for the two cases.
Applying the scaling laws and the required thermal fractional contribution to be larger than
80%, interpolation suggests that a range for evaluation of T j in deuterium NBI-heated
plasmas is to be found above approximately 12 keY. The relatively small correction also
suggests that central Tj can be evaluated from a single L.O.S. measurement.
Neutron energy spectra from 100 MW of 1 MeV deuterium NBI-heated DT-plasmas
are shown in figA. The ion temperature is 5.0 and 7.5 keY and electron density equal to
0045'10 20 and 6.0'1020 m') respectively. In the low temperature case the fractional

432
 8x 1()4 2.5x10'

2.0x10'
6x 1()4

~ ~ 1.5x10'
~ Thermal ~ Thermal
~ 4x1()4 reactions
~ /reactions
~
0 5 1.0xlO'
U U

2x 1()4
5.0xl0'
•~
Non thermal
) ,... _.. _..._.~c1ions ,,!
0
-2000 -1000
•
2000
0
-2000 -1000 0 1000
•
2000
aE(keV)

Fig.3 Calculated neutron energy spectra from a reference H-mode scenario with 100 MW, ) MeV deuterium
NBI-heated DO-plasmas are shown. In tig.3a) is the central T; = 10 keY, central nd = 5'10 19 m-] and the
resulting thermal reaction fraction in peak area equal to 70%. The corresponding numbers in fig. 3b) are Ti =
)5 keY, nd = 7'10 19 m-3 and 90%.

contribution from thermal reactions is 80% of the number of events in the peak area and
73% of total number of counts. In the high temperature case the corresponding numbers are
93% and 96% respectively_ This demonstrates the feasibility to evaluate ion temperatures
during high power NBI-heating provided T j exceeds approximately 6 keV_
4x 10' 2.0xl0'

3x10' 1.5x 10'

I
iii 2x 105
~
~
~ 1.0xlO'
§
0 5
u u

1 X 105 5x 105

reactions
~ ./
0 ~ 0
-2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 -2000 -1000 2000
"E(keV)

Fig.4 Calculated neutron energy spectra from a reference NBI-heating scenario with )00 MW, ) MeV
deuterium NBI-heated DT-plasmas are shown. In fig.4a) is the central T; = 5 keY, central n, = 4.5') 0 19 m'- J
and the resulting thermal reaction fraction in peak area equal to 76%. The corresponding numbers in fig. 4b)
are Ti = 7.5 keY, n, = 6'10 19 m-' and 90%.

4.2 Maxwellian deuterium-tritium plasmas

The feasibility to evaluate ion temperature from neutron energy spectra in

Maxwellian DD_13 and DT-plasmas3 has previously been demonstrated. For a single L.O.S.
the applied correction is 5-10% for DD-plasmas and low temperature DT-plasmas. For DT-
plasmas of high temperature, i.e. T j > 6 keY, the correction is 10-30% and depends on
temperature and density profiles. Unless profile information is obtained the accuracy will
be of thc same order_ However, using an array of spectrometers will provide the ion

433
temperature profile shape and thereby improve the accuracy in Ti measurement to '" 10%.
The correction was shown to be relatively insensitive to broad variations in magnetic flux
surface profile shapes.

5. NEUTRON SPECTROMETERS

Although information on Ti may be preserved in the energy spectrum it is not always

readily retrievable. The flux at the spectrometer position, spectrometer sensitivity and
energy resolution must be consistent with the statistics required to measure the spectrum
shape with necessary accuracy, spatial and temporal resolution. Fulfilling the ITER
measurement requirements this forms an operating range in Ti for each spectrometer.

5.1 Statistics and Resolution

For an ideal and well defined case where the ion distribution is Maxwellian and the
spectrometer resolution function is Gaussian shaped the accuracy in ion tem~erature
measurements can be expressed in terms of spectrum- and spectrometer parameters 4:

L'1T;lTi=2{ [l+R2/W2]2 [1/(2 Ns)os+IL'1NBIINsf+(R2/W2)2 (L'1R1R)2 } 1I2 (I)

Ns is here the number of useful counts, L'1NB the uncertainty in background counts below
peak, W (ex Ti 1I2) the actual width of the neutron spectrum, R the instrumental resolution
and L'1R its accuracy. Calibrating the instrument using a neutron generator providing a
Gaussian energy distribution with L'1En '" 50 keV [FWHM] known to I % accuracy and a
spectrum containing 6'104 events will bring down L'1R1R to I %. Furthermore, by reducing
the uncertainty in background counts through good statistics eq. (I) gives the minimum
required number of counts in the thermal peak as a function of ion temperature.

5.2 Spectrometer Proposed

Several neutron spectrometers have been proposed for measurements of Ti in ITER.

Principal reaction and measurement, physical weight and size of the spectrometers are
shown in Table I. Some details are presented elsewhere3 and only a brief description is
given here. For DD-plasmas, only a time-of-flight (ToF) spectrometer similar to the one
used at JET for several years l5 has been proposed. Seven spectrometers for analysis ofDT-
plasmas have been proposed. For all but the diamond diode is the well characterised (n,p)
elastic scattering process utilised. For the proton-recoil (PR) variants the proton energy is
measured. In the case of the scintillating fibre spectrometer the proton range in the fibres is
measured and the corresponding proton energy evaluated. For the proton-recoil-time-of-
flight (PR-ToF) also the flight-time for the scattered neutron is measured. In the case of the
pure ToF spectrometer only the neutron flight-time is measured. For the diamond diode is
the total energy of the charge particle products from the intrinsic reaction measured.
Some advantages like the small size of Diamond Diodes and Scintillating Fibers are
obvious and enable these to be used in the collimators of the horizontal neutron camera. As
many as 40 spectrometers could be used yielding good profile coverage. Furthermore, a
figure of merit related to the radiation damage is given. Of importance is the number of
spectra that can be produced between replacement of any vital component. The MPR-,
Scintillating Fibre-, the PR- and the two ToF- spectrometers all have expected life times of
more than 5000 full power (1.5 GWand 1000s duration) discharges.

434
Table 1. Spectrometer candidates
Spectrometer Principal Weight Width x Height Radiation damage Xl
type reaction and x Length No. of 0) Replacement
measurement discharges of

DO-operation:
Time-of-Flight, (n,P)el. < 300 kg I x I x 2 m' 1106 Scintillators
(ToF)15 n-ToF

DT-operation:
Compact spectrometers with detectors in neutron beam
Diamond Diode J2C(n,uo)9 Be , < I kg '" I cm' 500 Diodes
16.1 7
Uo+ 9Be energy
Scintillating (n,p)eI . < I kg ",2cm 3 105 Fibers
Fibre '" p-range
Large spectrometers with scintillators outside neutron beam
Time-of-Flight, (n,p)d . < 300 kg Ix I x3m J 3105 Foil
(ToF) 14 n-ToF
19,20 3
Magnetic (n,p), dispersive 21 tons 3xlx2m 7'l04 Foil
proton recoil,(MPR) p-detection
Medium sized spectrometers with Si-diodes offneutron beam
Proton Recoil, (n,p )'1. < 200 kg 0.5 x 0.5 x 2 m' 104 Diodes
(PR) 21 p-energy
3
Proton Recoil, (n,p )'1. < 400 kg 2x2xlm 103 Diodes
Time-of-Flight, p-energy and
(PR-ToF) 22 .23,24 n-ToF
Microch.
25.26
(n,P),b < 600 kg 0.5 x 0.5 x 2 m
3 10) Diodes
Proton Recoil (PR) p-energy
Xl Fluence 15 cm from neutron beam is 3'10" fluence in beam. Ol Assuming 1.5 GW and 1000 s.

5.3 T j Operating Ranges for Spectrometers

Efficiencies, energy resolutions

and T j operating ranges for DD- and
DT-spectrometers are shown in fig.5.
T, (koV)
Considered are two different plasma
cross-section areas, 5·5 and 16·16 cm2 Noulron flux
nlcm2s
n" (lo-'9jrrr'

corresponding to collimator cross- 25

section areas of 1·1 and 3·3 cm2
respectively, see section 2. 20 3-10 7

Furthermore, following the plasma

parameter evolution for a NBI-heating 15 10 7

scenario, densities and corresponding So 1()II 5

neutron fluxes for a 3·3 cm2 collimator 10 Thermal
roaction
are indicated. Count-rates are also fmcOOn
100 4, 10' 4.5
shown for each spectrometer and small

collimator used. >10¥

The DD-ToF spectrometer o

proposed for ITER is a modified Fig.5 DD-Time-of-Flight spectrometer maximum Tj
version of the one used at JET. It can operating range is shown for two collimator dimensions
operate above approximately 12 keY, corresponding to 5·5 and 16·16 cm 2 plasma cross-section
as seen in fig. Sa, limited by the large area respectively. Also shown are the maximum
amount of neutrons from beam-thermal countrates.

435
reactions below this temperature. Only 7% energy resolution seems necessary. The
spectrometer will deliver central ion temperatures with a time resolution of 50 ms.
The operating ranges for the seven proposed spectrometers to be used for DT-
operation are shown in fig . 5b. The Microch.-PR and PR-ToF spectrometers have
essentially the same basic specifications and are shown in the same column. Efficiency and
energy resolution (in FWHM) for each spectrometer are given. The maximum count-rate
over the operating range is shown within squares. Due to its high efficiency combined with
the good energy resolution the ToF spectrometer can operate at temperatures as low as 6
keY. The Scintillator Fibre-, MPR- and PR-spectrometers are useful above approximately
9-10 keY and the Diamond Diode, the Microch.-PR and PR-ToF above approximately 17
ke V. Below 6 ke V does the large fraction of non-thermal reactions prevent any spectra to
be evaluated during NBI-heating. No spectrometer has the capability to measure spectra
during ohmic heating (Ti ranging from 4 to 5 keY) fulfilling the measurement
requirements. However, relaxing on the time resolution to 1 s makes the ToF spectrometer
useful also for ohmic heated plasmas.

Compact Large Medium sized

spectrometers spectrometers spectrometers
Diamond Scintillating T·O·F MPA PA Microch. PA
diode fibres PA-TOF
E" = 10-5 cm2 2, 10- 2 3. 10" 7. 1O-S B. 1O.... 11r5 ~ Neutron n(O)
EIE = 2% S% 2.3% 2.S% 2.1% 2.S% flux xllr"m-3
T,(keV)
(nlcm 2·s)

5x~t
SxS
cm2 cm 2

2, 10' 2, 109 13.0

cis _ , "'. Jr-~

16x16 3, 108
16x16 6.0
1S cm 2
0>
.£ cm2 >10Y a5Y
.,
<ii
J:;
<IY 16x16 2' 1oa 5.0
10 cm 2
><
:>
<C >10Y 16x16 >10Y
cm 2 lOOMW.MeV.Oo
././ ./ SOMW.MeV.OO 4.S
5 ././././././././././././././././././././././././././././././././././
Q Thermal reaction fraction 100 small

o • Assuming 500. ' .5GW dlscha'ljeS per year

Fig.6 Maximum T; operating ranges are shown for proposed DT·spectrometers. Collimator dimensions
corresponding to 5·5 and 16·16 cm 2 plasma cross-section area respectively are considered. Also shown are
the maximum countrates and the expected life length in years (y) between replacement of vital components
assuming 500 discharges per year generating 1.5 GW each.

S.4. R&D Status and Needs

The spectrometers are in different development stages with the Diamond Diode-,
MPR-, PR-, PR-ToF and Microch.-PR spectrometers developed into prototypes that have
been tested, either at a neutron generator or at a Tokamak. This is also the case for the DD-
ToF spectrometer that has been in operation at JET for several years. The Scintillator Fibre

436
spectrometer is on the other hand in an early stage of development where a conceptual
design has been carried out but no prototype has been constructed. To explore the potential
of this small and efficient spectrometer it is proposed that a prototype also of this will be
constructed and tested with respect to energy resolution, efficiency and separation of
neutron from gamma events also at high count-rate.
In the case of Diamond Diode, development of high count-rate (> I MHz) electronics
for pulse high analysis is needed. Also radiation resistance, annealing methods and an
increase of the relatively low efficiency (10-5 cm2) need to be investigated.
Neutron transport calculations have been performed for the DT-ToF spectrometer l4
to an extent where further information only can be obtained through test of a prototype.
Due to its large size this is particularly justified if measurement in the low temperature
region is a prime and other smaller and simpler methods can not be extended to this region.
For the PR spectrometers, only adjustments to conditions expected in ITER will be needed
and no particular R&D is foreseen 27.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A 3D Monte-Carlo neutron kinematics code is used for calculation of neutron energy

spectra during high beam power NBI-heating. Matching the ITER measurement
requirements the results show that information on Ti is preserved in the neutron energy
spectra even with 100 MW, I MeV of deuterium beams injected into DD-plasmas with Ti
> 12 keY and DT-plasmas with Ti > 7 keY. Central Ti can be evaluated from one L.O.S.
measurement for DD-plasmas and Ti < 5 keY in DT-plasmas while multi-L.O.S.
measurements are needed to determine Ti > 5 keY in DT-plasmas.
To perform measurements of ion temperature profiles, several spectrometers have
been proposed. For DD-plasmas there is only one spectrometer candidate, ToF. No further
R&D is needed. For DT-plasmas there are seven different spectrometers proposed with
different features. Depending on the physical-, technical- and economical priorities given,
different spectrometers would be preferred as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Most suitable spectrometer

Priority issues Most suitable spectrometer
Physical
Low T j range (T j < 9 keY) ToF
Good profile cover Diamond Diode
Good spatial resolution (5·5 cm 2) Scintillating Fibres
High count-rate MPR

Technical
Small size and weight Diamond Diode
Long life time Scintillating Fibres

Economical
Low cost PR

The need for R&D work is obvious for the small spectrometers to be fully investigated and
tested. A prototype of the Scintillating Fibre spectrometer needs to be designed,
constructed and tested. For Diamond Diode there is a need to develop MHz electronics for
analysis of pulse amplitudes. Furthermore, radiation damage and annealing properties need
to be studied and the efficiency needs improvement.

437
REFERENCES

I. Tombaechi, J.R. Gilleland, Yu.A. Sokolov, R. Tosci and the ITER team, ITER conceptual design,
Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 31.No.6 (1991). ITER Joint Central Team, Parameters of the ITER EDA design,
Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 35 (1993) B23.
2. Brysk, Fusion neutron energies and spectra, Plasma Physics. Vol. IS, (1973),611-617.
3. Elevant, et.al., Ion Temperature profile Measurements by means of Neutron Spectroscopy. Diagnostics
for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors. P.E. Stott et.al., Plenum Press, New York, 1996.
4. Marcus, et.al., A neutron camera for ITER: conceptual design, Diagnostics for Experimental
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors. P.E. Stott et.al., Plenum Press, New York, 1996.
5. Minutes of 1st Meeting, Physics Expert Group on Diagnostics. July 18-22, 1994; ITER Joint Work Site,
San Diego, USA. SCX MI 94-08-03 Fl.
6. Scheffel, Neutron spectra from beam-heated fusion plasmas, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 224 (1984) 519-531.
7. ITER-EDA-JCT, ITER information, July 1995, S 55 RE I 95-07-11 Fl.
8. Private communication Dr.s. L. Johnsson and C. Walker, ITER-JCT, San Diego and Garching, June
1997.
9. Mukhovatov, H. Hopman, S. Yamamoto, K. M. Young, P. Stott et.al., ITER Diagnostics, ITER
Documentation series, No. 33, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1990.
10. Bosch, Review of data and formulas for fusion cross-sections, Report IPP I1252, Max-Planck Institut fUr
Plasmaphysik, Garching bei Munchen 1990.
II. Scheffel, Solution to the Fokker-Planck Equation for High-Energy Ions, Nucl. Fusion 27(1987) 1173.
12. Hemsworth et.al., ITER neutral beam injector design, Sixteenth IAEA Fusion Energy Coriference, IAEA-
CN-64/FP-18, Montreal, Canada (1996).
13. Olsson et. aI., Analysis of neutron energy spectra from neutral beam heated plasmas in the JET tokamak,
Plasma Phys. and Controlled Fusion 35, (1993) 179.
14. Elevant et.a\., On ion temperature profile measurements in ITER by means of neutron spectroscopy, to
appear in Fusion Technology (1997).
15. Elevant et.al., The new JET 2.5-MeV neutron time-of-flight spectrometer, Review of Scientific
Instruments, Vol. 63, No. \0 (Part II), October (1992).
16. F. Borchelt et. aI., First measurements with a diamond microstrip detector, Nucl. Instr. and Meth., A 354
(1995) 318-327 and A. V. Krasilnikov, Diamond detector based DT neutron spectrometer for ITER,
Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors. P.E. Stott et.a\., Plenum Press, New York,
1996.
17. A. V. Krasilnikov, Natural diamond neutron spectrometer, Workshop on Diagnostics for experimental
fosion reactors, Varenna, italy, September 4-11, (1997).
18. Elevant et. aI., Scintillating Fibre Neutron Spectrometer, Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors. P.E. Stott et.a\., Plenum Press, New York, 1996.
19. J. Kallne and H. Enge, Magnetic Proton recoil spectrometer for fusion plasma neutrons. Nucl. Instr. and
Meth. A311 (1992) 595.
20.J. Kallne et.al., Neutron spectrometry for ITER, Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion
Reactors. P.E. Stott et.a\., Plenum Press, New York, 1996.
21. N. Hawkes, Harwell Laboratories, U.K. Private communication, June 1995.
22. G. Grosshog et.al., The use of the neutron-proton scattering reaction for D-T fusion spectrometry, Nucl.
Instr. Meth., A249 (1986), 468.
23. K. Drozdowicz, M. Hoek and D. Aronsson, Energy calibration of neutron detectors for neutron
spectrometer TANSY, Nucl.Instr. andMeth., A306(1991), 315.
24. M. Hoek, N. S. Garis, G. Grosshog, Simulation of the neutron and proton transport in the 14 MeV
neutron time-of-flight spectrometer TANSY, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A322, 248 (1992).
25. T. Iguchi et.al., Conceptual design of neutron diagnostic systems for fusion experimental reactor, Fusion
Engineering and Design 28 (1995) 689.
26. T. Nishitani et.a\., Design of radial neutron spectrometer array for the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (I), January (1997).
27. N. Hawkes, Harwell Laboratories, U.K. Private communication, June 1997.

438
NATURAL DlAMOND NEUTRON SPECTROMETER

Anatoli V. Krasilnikov

Troitsk Institute for Innovating and Fusion Research

142092 TRINITI, Troitsk, Moscow region, Russia

INTRODUCTION

The fundamental importance of neutron diagnostic for determination and control

major parameters of plasma ion component on future fusion reactor are well known. Two-
dimensional multi-chord neutron flux measurements on International Thermonuclear Ex-
perimental Reactor ITER will give an information for deuterium - tritium (DT) plasma igni-
tion, burn and fueling control, disruption avoidance and instabilities study. Multi-cone of
views neutron spectrometry will give an information about deuterium, tritium and u-
particles birth energy distribution functions on different magnetic surfaces of reactor's
plasma during ignition and burning. This information will be very important for plasma
burning optimization and studies of high energy ions transport mechanisms. Tangential neu-
tron spectrometry could provide information about core plasma rotation velocity and aver-
aged tangential deuteron and triton velocities during asymmetric neutral beam injection
(NSI) or ion cyclotron range of frequency (ICRF) heating. The multi-cone of view systems
of compact detectors are preferable for spectrometry and flux measurements on plasma
fusion reactor.
Here, I focus on the results of application of developed in Russia natural diamond
detector (NDD)1.2 based neutron spectrometers (DNS)3.4 in experiments on modern large
tokamaks and most intensive deuterium - tritium (DT) neutron sources. These results dem-
onstrate the potential ofNDD application for Dr neutron spectrometry and flux monitoring
in tokamak - reactor, and in particular as was discussed previously4 in ITER perpendicular
neutron cameras5•6 and tangential neutron collimator.

NATURAL DlAMOND DETECTOR PROPERTIES AND PRINCIPLE OF

OPERATION.

Natural Diamond Detector is one of the best choice for DT neutron spectrometry
and flux measurements due to number ofit's outstanding properties4
NDD is the metal-insulator-metal system, where metal is deposited contact (in our
case Au or Ti/Pt/Au) and insulator is pure selected natural diamond of group IIa. The
mechanism of detection is based on collection of charge carriers which are created by the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 439
interaction of the radiation with diamond. Charge produced w'ithin the sensitive volume of a
diamond detector is collected by means of an external applied electric field. Any radiation
generating charge carries in NDD can be detected. This includes UV, X-rays, y-rays, high
energy particles such as a-particles, electrons, atoms, neutrons and others. In the case of full
charge collection the amplitude of detector electrical signal is proportional to kinetic energy
of ionizing charged particle and detector operate as spectrometer.
The possibility of using NDD for DT neutron spectrometry and flux monitoring bases
on the shape ofNDD pulse height spectrum in DT neutron flux ' .4,7.8 shown on Fig 1.

2.5 103

2 103

~ 1.5 103
c
:::I
0
0 103

5 102

0 10°
0 10° 2 103 4 103 6 103 8 103 1 104
Energy [keV]

Figure 1. Total NDD pulse height spectrum in 14.1 MeV neutron flux ofFNS.

This pulse height spectrum is defining by high energy charged particles (a, 9Be and
12C) created inside diamond by nuclear reaction and neutron elastic and inelastic scattering.
Measured pulse height spectra are in an excellent agreement with results of their calculations
made using double differential cross sections for reactions taking place under DT neutrons
interaction with diamond 3,4 The 12C(n,aoYBe reaction is responsible for the useful for spec-
trometry En- 5 7 Me V peak in the NDD pulse height spectrum. The absence of contribution
from the other nuclear reaction in the pulse height spectrum around the 12C(n,ao)"Be peak,
namely in the range E",[}-9B, ± 2 MeV, makes NDD very useful for DT neutron spectrum
measurements of hot (up to ion temperatures - 50 keV) burning plasma3,4
A high band gap, resistivity and break down resistance, large saturation velocity, and
mean free drift time (10-15 ns)9 are very important properties of pure group IIa natural
diamond 10.11 as materials for radiation detectors. NDDs have very high radiation resistance
(maximum acceptable fluence about 5xl0 14 n/cm2)12 and can operate as spectrometer in
temperature range 100 - 600 K. High radiation resistance of diamond is a very important
property for it's application for neutron measurements. Study of NDD radiation resistance
in the fluxes of 14 MeV neutrons is in progress now. We have not seen any degradation of
NDD energy resolution when last received fluence of 14 MeV neutrons equal to 6xl0 12
n/cm 2 The radiation resistance ofNDD to gammas should be essentially higher then to fast
neutrons. This is important for it's possible application as the gamma flux monitor.
A charge collection distance is an extremely important characteristic of spectrometric
detector material. It is equal to a product of charge carriers saturation velocity and mean
free drift time and represents the distance inside detector sensitive element material passing
which the number of charge carriers decreases e times. The large enough charge collection

440
distance of the best (from group lIa) natural diamond crystals makes it possible to create on
their base detectors for high resolution particle spectrometry. Best detectors produced from
artiticial diamonds (chemical vapour deposition (CVD) or DC arc jet)13 have essentially
lower charge collection distance and so can't be used for spectrometry.

RESULTS OF NDD APPLICATIONS.

Three NODs have been successfully used for OT neutron spectrum measurements
on SNEG-13' (Russia), FNG7 (Italy), FNS 8 (Japan) and ppPL'SI4 (USA) neutron generators
and tokamaks TFTR I4 . 17 and JT_60U 18 One NOD was successfully used for energetic
charge exchange atoms spectrometry on TFTR. Four detectors are using now on JET for
DT neutron spectrometry and two on TORE-SUPRA for unconfined charged particles
spectrometry. Some results of these applications will be present in this review.
Six NODs shown 2-3% energy resolution (FWHM) in these experiments.
NOD with dimensions: area - 16 mm 2, thickness 0.2 mm and area of thin (50 nm)
L!old contacts - 9 mm 2 has sensitivities:
- - 5 x 10.4 counts/(n/cm2) total for OT neutrons;
- 10.5 counts/(n/cm 2 ) due to 12C(n,Ct.o)9Be reaction for OT neutrons;
- 10·-' counts/(n/cm2) for DO neutrons;
- 10·-' counts/(y/cm2) for l37Cs and 60Co gammas.
Pulse height spectrum of NOD irradiated by 2.5 MeV neutrons ofFNG, l37 Cs (0.66
\IeV) and 60 CO (125 MeV) gamma sources 7 shown on Fig.2

105 2.45 MeV

104 / neutrons
'"
~
:::l
103 +
o
U
102

10 1

o
510 950
52
Energy (keV)

Fi::urc 2. NOD pulse height spectrum in fluxes of2.5 MeV neutrons, 13JCs and 60Co gammas.

Measurements on DT Neutron Sources

Application of NODs with energy resolution equal 2-3 % for OT neutron spectrome-
tryon neutron sources SNEG-13 3, FNG7 and FNS 8 gave possibility to measure detail neu-
tron energy distribution in positions placed around tritium target at angles 0, 95, 100 and
160 degrees with respect to deuterium beam direction. The comparison of measured on F\,S
neutron spectra (parts of NDD pulse height spectra under 12C(n,Ct.o)9Be peak) with results of

441
calculations shown in Fig.3 The peak position for 95° is show in Fig.3.b by arrow. The
energy scale there corresponds to the sum of the kinetic energy of the charged products
created inside NDO by OT neutrons. Due to high (1.95%) energy resolution of used NOD it
was possible to measure not only the broadening (like in experiments on SNEG-13 and
FNG) ofOT neutron spectra for 0° and 160°, but also the shape of distribution .

.......
~ a
3
~ 0.3 2

..
>-
·iii
..5i
.5
0.2

c
o
.:: 0.1
:l
GI
Z

1212.51313.51414.51515.516
Neutron Energy [MeV]

2.5 103
b
2 103 -
2

..
III
C
:l
1.5 103
0
0
1 103

5 102

0 10°
6 103 7 103 8 103 9 103
Energy [keY]
Figure J. The calculated FNS DT neutron energy spectra (in arbitrary units - A.U.) - a. and
measured NDD pulse height spectra - b for points located 20 ern from the target at I - 160°.
2 - 100", 3 - 95°, and 4 - 0° with respect to 350 keY deuteron beam.

High energy resolution of used in these experiments NDD gave possibility to detect
the difference between perpendicular (95°) neutron spectra for the cases of deuteron ener-
gies equal to 200 and 380 keY. This difference is determined by deuteron scattering inside
titanium target before it slowing down to energy 110 keY - peak energy of OT reaction
cross section The restored from these measurements mean projected angle of angle distri-
bution of participating in nuclear reactions deuterons equal to ± 7° and is in a good agree-
ment with calculated using TRIM code value _ ± 5°

442
OT Neutron Spectrometry and Flux Monitoring on TFTR and JT-60U

Three DNS have been used for DT neutron spectrometry and flux monitoring during
NBI and ICRF heating deuterium-tritium experiments on TFTR. During these studies, up to
six NBI sources were aimed in the counter-direction and up to six in co-direction, with total
power of 36 MW of 105 keY DT injection. Up to 3 MW of ICRF power at 30 MHz was
injected with wave phasing 60° (counter), 1800 (n), and 3000 (co with respect to plasma
current) during ICRF heating at fundamental triton cyclotron frequency. The high (up to
3* 10lX n/s) yield of 14 MeV neutrons during TFTR experiments has made it possible to use
neutron spectrometry to study the ion energy distributions under reactor-like conditions.
The small size of NDD housing (- 1 cm3) allowed the detectors to be inserted into the
TFTR multichannel neutron collimator and fusion gamma shield without interfering with
other detectors operating there. The first detector (NDDl) was placed inside a center chan-
nel of the TFTR vertical neutron collimator (see Fig.4) to provide a view perpendicular to
the plasma current axis A second detector (NDD2) was placed inside TFTR fusion gamma
shield as shown on Fig.s and measured neutrons with emission angles in the range of 110 -
1800 with respect to plasma current. The third detector (NDD3) was placed inside a small
specially designed shield in the TFTR test cell (see Fig.5) and provide measurements of
neutrons having angles of emission of 60 - 1200 with respect to plasma current. The sensi-
tivities of the detectors and the speed of the signal processing electronics drive the location
and shielding required for each detector14

Figure ~. Vertical viewing location in TFTR Figure 5. NDD positions inside fusion gamma
Multichannel Neutron Collimator shielding (NDD2), in compact shielding enclosure
(NDD3), and in open space (NDD3) in test cell

For a Maxwellian DT plasma with ion temperature T in the range 30-50 keY the
FWHM ofDT neutron energy distribution is given by
LlE n "" 180 'll'T efT (where LlE n and Tefrin ke V 15 ) ( 1)
The ion component in TFTR contains both thermal and hot beam ions. Energetic ions
also appear during ICRF heating. The emitted neutrons result from three channels: beam-
plasma (55-75%), beam-beam (0-20%) and thermal neutrons (10-30%). The anisotropy of
TFTR hot ions produces the anisotropy of DT neutron energy distribution. Examples pulse
height spectra accumulated by perpendicular and tangential DNS during 1.5 seconds of 3

443
 300

200

, .. 0

700

600

$00

.00

250
300

200

100

$0 100 1$0 200 250 lOO

Channel

Fil!Urc 6. Pulse height spectra accumulated during 1.5 seconds of balanced 18 MW

deuterium NBI by perpendicular a) and tangential b) DNSs

TFTR shots with balanced deuterium NBI (18 MW) into deuterium-tritium plasma are
shown in Fig. 6. Stored in plasma energy, electron density, ion and electron temperatures
during these experiments reach 2-3 MJ, 4.5xlOt3 cm·3, 20-30 and 5-7 keY correspondingly
Dynamics of tangential and perpendicular DT neutron spectra broadening (FWHM) meas-
ured in these experiments with pure deuterium and pure tritium injection are shown in Fig.7.
NST code and semi-analytical model were created l5 for calculation DT neutron
spectra in all detector positions for anisotropic plasma of TFTR. For the case of TFTR
experiments with pure deuterium and pure tritium injection semi-analytical model gives l7 for

1.4

1.3 X

A
1.2 ~
::E JI II
~
1.1 ]I

1
• • •
0.9
0.8
I/)
~ en I') I/) I/)
N
N
N ,.; ~
I')
,.;
Time. s
Figure 7. Perpendicular (A,.) and tangential (x,.) DT neutron spectra broadening
during pure deuterium (. , • ) and pure tritium (X , A ) balanced injection on TFTR.

broadening of tangential and perpendicular neutron spectra from one side and corresponding
averaged energies of beam ions and plasma temperatures from another side next relations.
FWHM: I.d= 180 * (0.2*(4*<EII,d> + 3*Ti)tI5 (2)
444
 FWHMi i.1 = 180 * (0.2*(6*<EII,t> + 2*T;»O/5 (3)
FWHML.J= 180 * (0.2*(2*<E1,d>+3*T;)t/5 (4)
FWHMu = 180 * (0.2*(3*< E1,t > + 2*T;»0/5 (5)
In experiments shown in Fig.7 during pure tritium injection FWHM of measured
perpendicular and tangential neutron spectra are equal to 1.22 and 1.33 MeV, that in accor-
dance with (5) and (3) for T; = 30 keY gives <E1,t> = 57 keY and <E: i.t> = 35 keY. During
similar shots with pure deuterium injection FWHM of tangential and perpendicular neutron
spectra are equal to 1.13 and 1.03 MeV, that in accordance with (2) and (4) for T; = 20 keY
gives <E ..1> = 34 keY and <E1,d> = 52 keY.
Measurements of tangential neutron spectra during pure co (5 sources of total power
- 10 MW) and pure counter (4 sources, - 7 MW) deuterium beam injection into deuterium-
tritium plasma have been done in experiments with flow shear (shots 103260-103280). Peak
of tangential neutron energy distribution moves on 0.44 MeV down to low energies during
co injection and on 0.43 MeV up to high energies during counter injection (see Fig.8). Ac-
curacy of these measurements is ± 60 keY.

60r----------------------,

50

40
III

§30
o
u
20

10

1Il
(I'j
~ Sl
........
(") CW)
~
__
...-Ie
v~

Energy, MeV
'III;f'
g
u:i ~

Fi/,,'Ilrc 8. Tangential DT neutron energy distribution during co (I). balanced (2) and
counter (3) deuterium injection into TFTR DT plasma. Spectra (1) and (2) shift on 40
and 20 counts for better view. Arrows show energy distributions peaks positions.

Taking into account that energies of beam deuterons are essentially higher than en-
ergies of plasma tritons we can write next equation for relation between averaged deuteron
tangential velocity and energy of neutron spectrum peak 17 :
En = 14.1 + 0.56* Ed + 2. 13*cos8 "Ed (where all E in MeV) (6)
Averaged deuteron tangential energies estimated using equation (6) from presented
in Fig.8 neutron spectra are 43 keY and 41 keY for co and counter injection. These values
are in a good agreement with averaged deuteron tangential energy received from measure-
ments of neutron spectra broadening during balanced deuteron injection.
The system of three DNSs was used to study the dynamics of DT neutron distribu-
tion functions and fluxes during TFTR fundamental tritium ICRF heating experiments. Dur-
ing these experiments plasmas with major radius 277 cm and minor radius 96 cm were
heated during 1 second (from 2.1 s to 3.1 s) by 17 MW NBI and during 0.8 second (from
2.3 s to 3.1 s) with up to 3 MW ICRF heating at a frequency of30 MHz with wave phasing
60° (counter), 180° (1t), and 3000 (co with respect to plasma current). The resonance region
for the first harmonic of tritons was in the range of major radius 221-249 cm depending
upon k - tangential wavenumber and VII - tangential component of triton velocity. The

445
 dynamics of tangential and perpendicular effective ion temperatures were measured during
these experiments l6 . The effect of beam penetration changing due to electron density in-
crease during NBI was noticed by DNSS 16 . The triton slowing down time was estimated l6
from the decrease of tangential effective temperature after deuterium and tritium beams
were turned off. The derived value of about 100 ms is in reasonable agreement with calcula-
tions Measurements made by perpendicular DNS demonstrate that the highest heating of
tritons occurred in experiments with low triton concentration l6
During experiments with ICRF heating resonant tritons increase not only perpen-
dicular but also tangential velocity. Additional triton tangential velocities were directed
along or opposite plasma current in accordance with sign and value of lql. Tangential DNS
measured corresponding shifts of tangential neutron energy distribution peak positions pre-
sented in Fig. 9. During the first half of the heating time the measured shift corresponded to
averaged triton tangential velocities of ± 107 cmls and during second half to ± 7xl06 cmls.
The decrease in the averaged triton tangential velocities can be explained by the increase of
plasma density during NBI.
Some resonant counter-moving tritons with energy higher than 150 keV can be lost
during TFTR off-axis triton ICRF heating 16 . The influence of the triton first orbit losses on
the [CRF heating efficiency is shown in Fig. 10. NBI in these experiments was pure deute-
rium. Tritium was injected into plasma by gas puffing. Both tangential and perpendicular
effective ion temperature measured by corresponding DNSs are higher for the case of ICRF
heating with 11: phasing and power 1.2 MW than ICRF heating with counter phasing and
power 1.5 \1W.

14.24 44
;:- I

!:II 14.21
~[J
42
,...
2114.17 40 J
Vo)
!
~ 14.14
. 1
::;38
5 ...-36
5 14.1

~
i
~
~14.07 1 I- 34
:n
~14.03
1 T
..C NBI+ICRH
32
1 1
14 30
2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 -0.2 0.2 0.6 1.4
Time (sec) leRH Power (MW)

Fi!(urc 9. Peak energy of tangential neutrons Figure 10. Perpendicular (curve 1) and tangential
energy distribution during tritium ICRF heating (curve 2) effective ion temperature of plasma with
experiments with counter (curve 1) and co few % of tritium due to gas puffing during
(curve 2) wa\'c phasing. 16.8 MW deuterium NBI and ICRF heating with
1t (1.2 MW) and counter (1.5 MW) waye phasing

In parallel with spectrometric channels NDD's electrical pulses which had an ampli-
tude corresponding to energy 1.5 MeV and higher were sent to counters. This provides
parallel NDD application for DT neutron flux monitoring with sensitivity of the order 2xlO-I
counts/n/cm2 . Dynamics of neutron fluxes measured by NDD in experiments with almost
balanced 17 MW NBI of six deuterium sources and one tritium source injected in co (shots
93332 and 93335) and counter (shots 93336 and 93337) directions and 2 MW ICRF heating
with co (shots 93335 and 93336) and counter (shots 93332 and 93337) wave phasing
shown in Fig.ll.

446
 1110 11

I
•
••
,
t I

•• 1

"
0
1.0
.0

U
C
••
•t 10

• 10

0
2.0 2.5 1.1 1.5
'l'l • • • a.co ••• ,

Fi:.,'Urc 11. Dynamics of DT neutron fluxes measured by NDD during shots "ith balanced 17 MW NBI with
six dcuterium and one tritium sources and 2 MW ICRF heating. The tritium was injected in co (curve I and
2) and counter (cun'e 3 and 4) directions. ICRF wave has co (curve 1 and 3) and counter (cun'e 2 and -l)
phasing.

NDD application for DT neutron spectrometry during experiments on JT -60U gave

possibility to measure tS the averaged energy of tritons appearing inside plasma with energy I
MeV due to nuclear reaction during and after high power deuterium NBI. Averaged triton
energy was measured as 410 keV during beam injection and 250 keV 200 ms after beam
was turned off. The triton slowing down time was estimated from this measurements as 400
ms. Dynamic of parts ofNDD pulse height spectra corresponding to DT and DD neutrons
gave information about dynamics of their fluxes after beam was turned off.

R&D DEMANDED FOR DNS APPLICATION ON ITER

To meet ITER requirements to neutron spectrometry time resolution DNS should

operate at count rate 106 counts/so Development ofNDDs with useful for DT neutron spec-
trometry sensitivity -3*10-5 counts/n/cm2 and fast NDD optimized electronics are necessary.
In discussed here experiments we used fastest standard spectroscopy amplifiers
(ORTEC-673 and CANBERRA-2024) which could provide spectrometry at input count
rate up to 3 X 10 5 counts/so Output count rate in this case are not higher then 1.2 x 10 5
counts/so (l\TDD itself can successfully operate at count rates up to 108 counts/s). Our stud-
iess shown that energy resolution of combined system based on NDD and a 0.25~ls shaping
time amplifier changes from 1.95% to 3.58% due to pileup effect when input amplifier count
rate changes from 104 to 3.8x105 counts/so Special development of a fast pulse signal proc-
essor 19 will provide DNS successful operation at count rate 106 counts/s in ITER conditions.
NDD radiation resistance will provide it operation during 500 full power ITER DT
shots. The development and studies of the different annealing procedures for NDD could
essentially increase it's operation time.

447
CONCLUSION

DNSs have been successfully used for DT neutron spectrometry and flux monitoring
on neutron generators, in TFTR DT and JT-60U triton burn-up experiments. On TFTR
DNSs provide measurements of the effective ion temperatures, averaged tangential and
perpendicular beam ion energies, triton slowing down time and averaged tangential velocity
of resonant tritons during co and counter wave phasing ICRF heating. Spectrometry and
nux monitoring made on TFTR by DNSs shown the decrease of effective temperatures and
DT neutron fluxes during ICRF heating with counter triton NBI and counter wave phasing.
The excellent energy resolution, high radiation resistance, and very small size make
NDDs one of the best choices for creation ITER multichord neutron spectrometer on the
base of vertical and horizontal neutron cameras and tangential neutron collimator in the case
of it' s approval and design. DNS could provide measurement ofITER core plasma ion tem-
perature with a relative arrow of 10%, a time resolution 0.1-1 s, and spatial resolution ~ 30
cm. These measurements will be very important for burn optimization, determination of a-
particles birth energy and spatial distributions, transport study. Tangential DNS channel can
be used for measurements of plasma rotation velocity and averaged tangential triton and
deuteron velocities during additional heating.
In parallel with spectrometry NDDs will provide multichord DT neutron flux moni-
toring and core (r<213*a) emission profile measurements with time resolution 1 ms, spatial
resolution ~ 30 em, and accuracy 10%. This measurements will be very useful for burn and
fueling control, disruption avoidance, and instabilities study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to Drs. E.AAzizov, V.S.Khrunov, KM.Young, AL.Roquemore,

L.CJohnson, RYBudny, N.N.Gorelenkov, MPillon, MAngelone, T.Nishitani, Mlsobe,
JKaneko, F.Maekawafor participating in original works cited in this revue.

REFERENCES

E.A.Konorova, S.F.Kozlov, SOy. Phys. Semiconductors 4, 1600 (1971).

2. AE.Luchanskii, S.S.Martynov, VS.Khrunov, VACheklaev, SOy. Atomic Energy 63,639 (1987)
3. A.V.Krasilnikov, SOy. Voprosi Atomnoy Nauki i Tehniki, 1,36 (1995).
4 A.VKrasilnikov in "Diagnostics for ITER" P.E.Stott, ctal. Editors, p.435, Plenum Press, New York and
London (1995).
5. L.CJohnson et al. Overview of fusion product diagnostic, These Proceedings (1997).
6. F.B.Marcus et al. A radial neutron camcra design for ITER, These Proceedings (1997).
7. M.Pillon, MAngelone, A V Krasilnikov, Nucl. Instrum. Methods n, 10 I, 473 (1995).
8. AV.Krasilnikov, M.Isobe, J.Kaneko, etal. Rev.ScUnstrum. n.8 (1997).
') E.AKonorova, S.F.Kozlov, V.S.Vavilov, SOy. Phys. Solid State 8, 1 (1966).
10. V.S.Vavilov, Phys. Sf. Solidi (aj 31,11 (1975).
1 I. ilw Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond, J.E.Field Editor, Academic Press, London (1993).
12. S.F.Kozlov, RStuck, M.Hage-Ali, P.Siffert, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-22, 160 (1975).
13 L.S.Pan, S.Han, D.RKania, M.APlano, M.I.Landstrass, S.Zhao, M.Kagan, 3rd Int. Symp. on Diamond
Materials (Honolulu Hawaii, May 16-21) p.735 (1993).
14. AVKrasilnikov, E.AAzizov, AL.Roquemore, et al. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (I) 553 (1997).
15. A V Krasilnikov, N.N.Gorelenkov, RVBudny, L.C.Johnson, and AL.Roquemore in Control/ed Fusion
and Plasma Physics (Proc. of 23th EPS Conference, Kiev, 1996).
16. A VKrasilnikov, AL.Roquemore, N.N.Gorelenkov, RBudny, in Proceedings of
"Sixteenth IAT'.I1 Fusion Energy Conference" Montreal, 7-11 October 1996.
17. AVKrasilnikov, AL.Roquemore, to be published in Plasma Physics Reports 1 (1998)
18. M.Isobe, T.Nishitani, AVKrasilnikov, etal. Fusion Engineering & Design 34-35, p.573 (1997).
19. SV.Dudin, OVIgnatyev, and AD.Pulin, Nucl. Instrum. Methods A, 352, 610 (1995).

448
MPR NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY AT JET AND
ITS NEXT STEP IMPLICATIONS

1 Kallne, E Traneus and the NPF team'

Department of Neutron Research

Uppsala University
S-7S1 21 Uppsala, Sweden

INTRODUCTION

The first MPR (magnetic proton recoil) spectrometer for fusion neutron measurements has
been constructed and recently installed in a diagnostic system at the Joint European Torus
(JET) of EURATOM. The MPR on JET experiment l has been in production operation since
December 1996 and is used to measure the neutron emission from plasmas of both pure deu-
terium (D) and mixed deuterium-tritium (DT). The objectives are to perform plasma diagnostic
studies and to exploit the unique characteristics of the new technique to push back the observa-
tional limits of fusion neutron spectrometry. At the same time, it is important to acquire operat-
ing experience and to check the diagnostic performance as projected from instrumental specifi-
cations against the results obtained. The latter is motivated by the need for input to the ongoing
work on the new generation neutron diagnostics for the next step fusion experiments entailing
burning plasmas with high neutron f1uxes 2 . In this perspective, the MPR on JET experiment,
which will be discussed here, represents neutron spectrometry under flux conditions approach-
ing those of pre-ignition plasmas. As the MPR method can be used with enhanced performance
also at the highest fluxes foreseen for burning tokamak plasmas 3,4, the results are relevant for
the diagnostic planning for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER).
The MPR technique is based on the conversion of neutrons to same energy (recoil)
protons S,6. This is done in a thin CH2-foil placed at the end of a neutron collimator viewing
the plasma. The target acts as a recoil proton source that is imaged onto the focal plane of a
magnetic spectrograph. The image is spatially dispersed according to proton momentum and
the momentum distribution of such images is in turn a reflection of the incoming neutron
energy distribution. The relationship between the neutron spectrum and the focal plane proton
distribution (measured) is defined by a well known instrumental response function which
includes the spectrometer ion optics.
The ion optics was designed to give a small first order image in momentum as this is an
inescapable contribution to the energy resolution, ~E/En. Moreover, ther are the higher order
aberration terms connected with the use of a large target area (AT) and solid angle recoil
aperture (11 A ). These add to ~E/En but they are not determinable with same certainty as that of
the first order term so they are kept relatively small by design. The neutron (flux) detection
efficiency (£) increases proportionally with AT and 11A so they are optimized within the limit set

* L Ballabio, S Conroy, J Frenje, G Ericsson, P Prandoni, M Tardocchi, PU Renberg, and G Gorini.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott etal., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 449
by the finite 6EIE-value. The performance of the MPR spectrometer is represented by the
combination of £ and 6E/E n (say £=5.10- 5 cm 2 for 6E/E n=2.5 % or £=2.10- 4 cm2 for
6E/E n=1O %) with respect to time (£ value) and energy resolution; the requirement on energy
resolution is set relative to the thermal Doppler broadening in the neutron spectrum where, for
instance, Ti=4 keY gives a Doppler broadening of 6EoIE=2.5 % (FWHM). This is referred to
as the basic diagnostic resolving power of the instrument. It applies to observations of the
principal component of the neutron emission while the weak components require high
sensitivity which comes from the combination of resolving power and good control of
extraneous radiation. The MPR instrument possesses both these properties.
During the first half year of operation, sufficient neutron flux has been received from
JET (up to F n=5·108 n/s) to make the MPR pass the 100 kHz count rate level, a new record for
neutron spectrometry. This means that plasma phenomena, manifested in the neutron emission
spectrum, can be studied at the time resolution level of a few tens of milliseconds. Extrapolated
to ignited plasmas, the MPR method would afford count rates up to the IO-MHz level with
corresponding enhancement in resolving power. Moreover, it has been possible to observe
minority components of the neutron emission thus testing the handling of background at very
low signal/noise (SIN) values. In addition, the ab initio calibration of the MPR has been used for
the first absolute measurement of the fusion neutron spectrum.
This paper discusses the development of fusion neutron spectroscopy, the principles of
the MPR on JET experiment, the outcome of the plan to install the MPR diagnostic as a turn-
key-ready instrument and some examples of results that illustrate attainments as compared to
aims and envisions. The empirical knowledge acquired will be pointed out for some projected
roles that neutron diagnostics can or will play in the next step fusion experiments. The next step
involve new high power fusion test reactors (e.g., ITER) to conduct experiments with no less
aim than the first controlled thermonuclear ignition of matter.

NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY DEVELOPMENTS

The first important fusion neutron spectrometry measurement dates back some 40 years when a
cloud chamber was used on the ZETA device'. The results disappointingly disproved the hope
that the neutron production observed was of thermonuclear origin. The neutron spectrum of
thermonuclear d+d---+ 3He+n reactions in a tokamak were measured in 1982 with a 3He ion
chamber; the count rate was a modest few Hz as limited by low neutron flux 8 . The same type of
detector was later used on JET which produced sufficient flux to surpass the count rate
capability limit (C nCAP=102 Hz) of this instrument. Yet low, this count rate was sufficient to
show, for instance, a higher than expected fuel depletion 9 . Later, a time-of-flight spectrometer
was used to raise the count rate capability into the kHz range making it possible to study, for
instance, the relative thermonuclear to fast ion reactions, the latter being connected with strong
neutral beam injection (NBI) or RF-heating lO • It is interesting to note that the presence of non-
thermonuclear reactions is no longer seen as the research failure it was seen as in 1958, but is
even considered a legitimate quantity to measure.
As tokamaks are entering DT plasma routine operation, the neutron flux is increased a
factor of 104 relative to D-plasmas. This new situation is now being exploited with the MPR
spectrometer as illustrated in the passing of the lOO-kHz count rate limit which is still below its
capability of CncAp:a1 0 MHz. Although the capability is fully tested first in post-JET ignition
experiments, making fluxes in the 1011 n/s·cm 2 range available for neutron spectroscopy, the
MPR will bring neutron spectrometry into the category of the routine diagnostics already now.
Coupled with the raised count rate is the capability of the new instrument to obtain data
of high calibration accuracy. The thus raised quality of the experimental data means that the
requirements on the theoretical description of the fusion neutron production have risen, too.
Formulas relating the Doppler width (FWHM) of the spectrum (i.e., the second mo-
ment), as well as the amplitUde, to the ion temperature were derived in the 60's 11. The under-
lying dd and dt reaction cross sections, which are needed to describe the neutron spectra, have
been improved successively so that they are now at the few percent level in the aspects relevant
for fusion applications 12. With the advent of the new measurements, it is necessary to know the

450
shape of the neutron energy distribution, due to thermal ion reaction, over several orders of
magnitude, both with regard to amplitude and absolute energy. This means that a relativistic
formalism has to be used to calculate fusion reactivities and neutron emissivities. Such results
have recently been presented relating plasma conditions to measured neutron parameters such
as the spectral moments l3 .
Besides the principal neutron emission, there are several low amplitude contributions
that can be used for plasma diagnostic purposes. One such example is the so called a-particle
knock-on signature (Sa(En». This arises due to head on collisions between a:s of the slowing
down population and fuel ions of the bulk plasma (d or t). The resulting fast d and t ion popu-
lations have recently been calculated taking full account of the nuclear and the Coulomb
scattering amplitudes as well as their interference terms resulting in an accurate determination
of Sa(En) and its plasma parameter dependencies; contrary to initial estimates, the nuclear
contribution is not insignificant l4 .
The instrumental development in fusion neutron spectrometry has up till now been
done through adaptation of techniques already existing in other fields of nuclear physics. It
seems that this will continue while the dedicated main development area will concern the inter-
facing of the neutron spectrometers in view of two principal aspects. One is that the perfor-
mance of the spectrometers will depend on how well one can handle the effects of the tokamak
environment so that they do not curtail the inherent instrumental sensitivity and precision. The
other is that the highest performance is obtained for maximum neutron flux which generally
complicates the interfacing having an impact on diagnostic design as well on that of the ma-
chine. For instance, with regard to the magnetic interference between the machine and the MPR,
i.e., a 'magnetic stealth' technique would need to be developed in the sense that the diagnostic
does not 'see' the machine and also that it is 'invisible' to the machine. The diagnostic perfor-
mance of neutron spectrometry can only be maintained at their theoretical limits provided the
interfacing can be handled instrumentally and technologically. The theoretical limits will be
verified empirically by the MPR experiment at JET that has now begun.
The proton detector is one part of the MPR system that presents scope for a new devel-
opment. This is likely to be driven from within the fusion research field as the application is
unique with regard to the radiation to be detected and rejected, The problem has already been
formulated and a first study suggested that a factor of 20 improvement can obtained by choice
of scintillator material lS . The objective of the detector R&D work should be to eliminate detec-
tor limitations on MPR measurements altogether. The performance of the 14-MeV MPR proto-
type spectrometer now at JET is within a factor of about 3 of the conceivable upper limit; a
dedicated design for 2.5-MeV neutrons has yet to be done. Other known spectrometer types
have theoretical efficiency limits of £» 10- 4 but with compromised performance in other
essential respects, such as count rate capability, so that the diagnostic resolving power of the
MPR is unmatched for plasmas producing neutron fluxes in the high range of 109 n/s·cm 2 .

PRINCIPLES OF THE MPR TECHNIQUE

The MPR technique (Fig. l)can be seen as involving three main functional steps. The first step
is the neutron-to-proton conversion which is facilitated by the neutron collimator (C), the target
(T) where the neutron produce proton recoils and the recoil acceptance aperture (A). These are
defined by their; solid angles (Oe, 0,., and OA); the maximum angle deviation from the central
axis (Se, ST and SA,) and the related lateral deviations are noted as x and y; the target is also
defined by its thickness, tT, and area At. The second step is provided by the magnet with its
beam optics which produces an image of the target on to the magnet focal plane (X'F and y'F)
with a magnification of 0.6 and 3.2, respectively; one image is produced for each value of
proton momentum. The third function is provided by the focal plane detector which records
the xT-distribution of recoils.
The MPR energy resolution is defined by three main factors: Kinematic broadening
because of the angular dependence Er=En·cos(Sn+Sr) for angles within the range limited by Se
and SA; the proton energy loss difference in the target being proportional to tT; the ion optics

451
contribution being proportional to gM·xdl +r(8 R,8 T )] where gM is the magnet magnification
and r represents the aberration terms.
The flux detection efficiency (E) increases proportionally with nT, n A and tT" and
depends also on the magnet transmission factor TM. The count rate is obtained as Cn=e·F n
where Fnocnc·nd·nr<cr·v> is dependent on an instrumental parameter (nc>, and the plasma
parameters of ion densities and reactivity. The measured recoil spatial distribution on the focal
plane is a convolution of the instrumental response function, including both the broadening
and imaging aspects mentioned above, and the incoming neutron spectrum.

Figure 1. Sketch of the MPR spectrometer showing the neutron collimator (C). the target (T) and the
proton aperture (A); dispersed recoil proton 9=00 orbits of low, central and high momentum
(p_. Po and p+); the focal plane and detector location.

A unique feature of the MPR technique compared to other recoil techniques is that the
recoil energy is nearly the same as the neutron energy (forward scattering). This benefits the
discrimination against extraneous neutrons and minimizes the kinematics broadening effects.
Another unique feature is the energy measurement which is performed passively while the only
active detector element used refers to the counting of protons. In this way, the control of the
background interference in the measurement and the instrumental calibration are both rate
independent. The rate independence is crucial for the reliability of the determination of the
instrumental specifications .
A consequence of the MPR properties is that the instrumental specifications can all be
determined with certainty within assigned errors. They are based on calculations but with
empirical input in the crucial aspects. This also means that it is easy to establish the theoretical
specification limits of the MPR and thus to define the performance limits. For instance, given a
required resolution of dEIE=2.5 %, the solid angles can not exceed about 35 msr (all three
being the same) and the target thickness must not exceed 10 mg/cm2 . As mentioned, the present
14-MeV MPR spectrometer is close to the specification limit for this type of instrument. A 2.5-
MeV version for studies of the d+d-7 3He+n means other specifications and design criteria. The
detector used on the present spectrometer is a plastic scintillator hodoscope. This serves the
purpose for the JET experiments but is not an optimized focal plane detector for the MPR as it
is desirable to improve both the background immunity and spatial definition for use in future
measurements where the statistical sensitivity is expected to be I to 2 orders of magnitude
higher. Both the detector and the 2.5-MeV spectrometer design are R&D tasks for the future.

PERFORMANCE OF MPR AT JET

The MPR instrument built has the (maximum) solid angles np=53 msr and n t=33 msr which
together with AT defines the maximum £-value. The collimator solid angle is n c =6 msr as
limited by interface restrictions. This means that the count rate for given neutron brightness for
a homogenous plasma source is a factor of 3 lower than the value for an ideal MPR. For a

452
discharge of 2.4 MW fusion power, the MPR recorded a count rate of 120 kHz at a resolution
of about 4 % (FWHM); at 2.5 %, which is another resolution setting used, the count rate would
have been about 50 kHz.
The calibration accuracy of the MPR can be described by noting the following. With
regard to efficiency E, the error is at the few percent level. With regard to channel variations
along the focal plane, the recorded data suggest differences from expectations at the same level.
No corrections to the ab initio specifications are made. With regard to the energy calibration,
the accuracy expressed in terms of ability to predict the spatial distribution on the focal plane
for a given energy distribution of the neutron source is determined to be SE n/E n=2·IQ-3 The
calibration stability is estimated to be at the 10- 4 level or better. All calibrations, as the
determination of operating settings of the MPR, are done in the laboratory before installation.
Only charged particles are used in these preparations and neutrons are only used to examine
the sensitivity of the focal plane detector to background. The MPR spectrometer is designed to
be a tum-key-ready device and this has essentially proven to be true by the JET installation.
The sensitivity of the instrument with regard to its ability to detect and measure weak
spectral components in the neutron emissions can be illustrated by indicating two quantities.
With a count rate of 105 nls, the statistical sensitivity level is at about :E=Imax/1min> I 0 4 (as repre-
sented by spectral intensity ratios), and a signallbackground(noise) ratio at the level of SIN> 105 .

JET MEASUREMENTS

The MPR experiment at JET has so far (August 1997) included measurement of 14-MeV
neutrons from D plasmas and from some DT plasmas. The D plasmas could be observed in the
case the primary neutron production rate was in the range Yn=1 to 5 times 10 16 nls where the
latter number represents a JET record. The observed count rate of the triton bumup neutron
(TBN) emission reached only 100 Hz or less so that statistics was acquired by accumulating
data for successive discharges of similar characteristics all with NBI heating where the beam
ions are involved in most of the neutron producing reactions. The DT plasmas could be
observed in the neutron production range 10 16 to 8'10 17 nls where the latter value refers to the
JET record corresponding to a fusion power value of 2.4 MW. These plasmas range from those
being only ohmically heated to those with NBI and RF heating, or, both. Spectra were acquired
with an intrinsic time resolution of 10 ms corresponding to the scaler read-out frequency.
Besides the logic data containing the spectral information of the measurement, analog pulse
height information was also acquired for the purposes of monitoring the detector performance
and setting the electronics working points (e.g., discriminator levels). The analog information
was also used for making background assessments.

2500

Measurement
2000
"2'"
::s

! 1500

"
:E ••
1000
'"
E o
",. •o.
o

....,
I.Ll
500

0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,2 1,4 1,6
Pulse height [RelativeI

Figure 2_ Pulse height spectrum recorded with one scintillator channel of the MPR hodoscope; the data
from three JET discharges were added to improve statistics.

453
 An example of a pulse height spectrum recorded for a DT discharge is shown in Fig. 2.
The recoil protons give a pulse height distribution of the shape expected from photon statistics
(==8 %, FWHM) and the scintillators' longitudinal response variation (the slope); all scintiIIators
are 100 mm long and the center ones are 2.8 mm thick and 8 mm wide. Some recoils give
fractional energy deposition in the scintillators resulting in a flat low energy distribution
extending to 0 pulse height. The background radiation is responsible for the rest of the spec-
trum which can be explained as due to neutron leakage through the shielding, y:s from local
neutron capture leading to y~e conversion in the scintiIIators or the surrounding material; both
electron sources cause detector background. The discriminator level is typically set at 70 % of
the signal peak which cuts out ==10 % of the recoil count rate and leaves a background admix-
ture of ==0.9 %; these values are known with sufficient accuracy so that the correction applied
introduces an error of less than I % including drifts; this correction is count rate independent.

EXAMPLES OF PLASMA RESULTS

The MPR spectrometer provides data on the neutron emission spectrum based on abso-
lute calibration which is illustrated with measurement on ohmic DT discharges at JET (Fig. 3).
These discharges can be assumed to produce neutrons under thermal ion reaction conditions so
the emission spectrum is accurately known from reaction kinematics and the Doppler broaden-
ing (given by Tj) but no Doppler shift (e.g., no rotation). This neutron source function distri-
bution has been calculated13 and was convoluted with the known MPR response function at
given magnetic field setting as a parameter (known to within 10-5 ). The result of the predicted
neutron energy distribution is shown in Fig. 3 compared with the observation; Ti was used as a
free fitting parameter with Ti= 1.4 ke V found to give the best fit together with a position shift
adjustment amounting +0.4 channels (equal to 3 mm on the focal plane or +30 keY in energy).
This is consistent with MPR ab initio calibration having an error of ±3 mm (corresponding to
6E/E==2'1O-3 ) as limited by survey uncertainties. The adjusted calibration error is 6E/E=2'10- 4
(statistics limited) so the limit for absolute neutron energy determinations is, e.g., ±4 kmls in
terms of toroidal rotation assuming the ohmic JET plasmas are not rotating; no additional
experimental uncertainty is expected at this level.

300 1000

..
.c .c
~ 200
UI
c
---ec:n
(.)
100

:::J :::J
0 100 0 10
0 0
0
0 200 400 0 10 20 30 40

Distance (mm) Channel number

Figure 3. The spectrum for neutron emission for ohmic JET discharges measured with the MPR spec-
trometer as function focal plane position (left) and channel number. The curve shown is calculated based on
folding the adjusted (see the text) with the Gaussian neutron distribution for Tj=1.4 keY (best fit value).

The close agreement obtained between the calculated spectrum and data for the thermal
plasma condition case affirms the response function determination for the MPR. Therefore, the
instrumental resolution can reliably be subtracted from the measured spectral broadening (e.g.,
the FWHM value) should one wish to deduce Ti for the plasma this way being the conventional
one. This can be done even if 6E/E is not negligibly small compared to 6EoIE but instead
6E/E can be chosen so that the statistical uncertainty in the Tj determination is minimized, i.e.,
6E.IE",,6E olE. One should also note that the shape of the response function is verified to be
correct over several orders of magnitude in intensity which is an important basis for a number
of new diagnostic tasks to be performed with the MPR.

454
 The maximum count rate recorded with the MPR so far at JET is 120 kHz. It was
reached for a DT discharge (#41760) with a 2 s sharp NBI pulse at 10 MW and Ed=80 keY
combined with an RF pulse with a slow up/down ramp with a flat top at 4 MW. An example of
the spectra recorded each 10 ms is shown in Fig. 4. Examples of the time dependent
information collected are also shown in the form of the measured number of counts per time
bin, and the extracted mean value of the peak position, X(t), and RMS-width ~X(t). The
statistics is sufficient to follow the time evolution of the plasma expressed in these parameters
over a dynamic range of about 5 and with the shown intrinsic time binning of 20 ms .
In these raw data are embedded, for instance, the plasma rotation in K. For this particu-
lar discharge, the measurement suggests a maximum Doppler shift in the neutron emission of
'" I 00 ke V. During the NBI a shift can arise both due to passing ion reactions and rotation but

G100 10 2
'---
rn
E-<
Z
::> 10
0
u 50

1
0
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400 500
POSITION (MM) MaW V2.14

10 2

10

-1
10
-2
10
280
ss
e 270
z
o
E
<FJ 260
o
Il.

250
50

40

30

60 62 64
TIME (SEC) MaW V2.14

Figure 4. Examples of results from the MPR spectrometer in high count rate operation for JET DT dis-
charge (#41760) from the top are: Neutron spectrum in terms offocal plane distribution recorded during IO
ms; time traces with 20 ms time binning for the count rate, the position and the width of the d+t~a+n peak.

4SS
only the latter when beam ion reactions are absent. It can be noted that the data suggest some
rather fast changes in toroidal rotation during the RF heating at the 0, I s time scale; the maxi-
mum Doppler shift observed during this discharge corresponds to a core rotation of 200 kmls.
The results on the peak width show that this parameter decreases monotonically from a
high level at the beginning of the NBI pulse and continues so until it approaches the value of
the instrumental resolution dX1 =26 mm. It is interesting to note that the results on the width
suggest oscillations during certain time periods, e.g., the RF ramp-up phase, and that there may
be concurrent changes in X(t). If and how they are correlated remains to be studied.
D-plasmas produce a minority component of 14-MeV triton burn-up neutrons (TBN)
whose spectrum has been cleanly measured with the MPR for the first time. The intensity is
reduced a factor of 100 relative to the dd neutron rate and about a factor 104 for same
condition neutron production in DT plasmas. The observation of the TBN is thus a test of the
spectrometer sensitivity. In order to get sufficient statistics for time variation observations some
15 discharges were added. Examples of measured spectra with 500 ms time bins are shown in
Fig. 5 (for transient plasma conditions of the leading and trailing regions of the NBI pulse)
while some of the time dependent information obtained is also illustrated in terms of the
measured number of TBN counts per time bin and the energy distribution width, C(t) and
dX(t). It can be noted that the variation in dX(t) can be connected with the fact that the TBN
production is due to reactions between bulk deuterons and fast tritons of the slowing down
population where the population is lacking low and high energy components, respectively. in
the leading and trailing regions lS .
Another objective will be to use the high sensitivity of the MPR to measure weak spec-
tral components, especially, in the tail regions. Such observations are within reach as the count
rate approaches the 100 kHz range. An example of such observations is shown in Fig. 6 which
concerns an RF heated discharge. The main spectral component is simply fitted with a Gaussian
which gives a reasonable account of the data but for the high and low energy tail regions. On
the high energy side, an apparently exponential tail that breaks off from the Gaussian where the
amplitude has fallen by almost a factor of 103 which is also near the statistical sensitivity limit in
this measurement. On the low energy side, there is a flat level at 10-2 of the peak amplitude
which is not a reflection of the neutron spectrum but extraneous effects which must be treated
before this low energy region can provide information; there is a suggestion of such
information at the foot of the peak. The data obtained so far suggest that the production of fast
ion tails when RF power is injected into the plasma can be studied with the MPR. One issue to
address in these studies is response of the plasma to the RF power injection in terms of heating
and fast ion production as detectable in the Doppler broadening (Ti) and 'anomalous' tails of
the neutron emission, the latter measuring tail to main component amplitudes.

lWbJ [lJ -
80
0.5-1.0 s 1.0-1.5 s

II
s::
~400
s::
6 200
600

5c;J D -
..d 40 I +
U I U
:; 0 0
5.5-6.0 s
&80 ~200 +
+
:; 150
40 I I 'I :g 100 • •••••••••
~
50
•
00 200 400 0 200 400 0 200 400 600
Distance along hodoscope [mm]
52 54 56 58 60
Time [s]
Figure 5. The triton burn up neutron (TBN) spectrum measured with the MPR during JET D-plasma opera-
tion with pulsed NBI heating in 0.5 s time bins from the beginning of the pulse and at the end (left panel).
Time traces of the number of counts (per 0.2 s) and the width (per 0.5 s) of the TBN peak (right panel).

456
OPERATING EXPERIENCE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ITER

The MPR diagnostic was fully calibrated and system tested before being transported in
parts to JET. At JET, the system was assembled, interfaced (physically and in terms of cable
connections) and commissioned over a 3 months' time period; it uses its own local data acquisi-
tion and control system so the interface to the JET CODAS system is minimal. An important
feature of the MPR system is a pulse testing and monitoring system so that working points for
the PM tube gains and discriminator levels can be set while possible drifts, cable noise pickup
and other perturbations can be monitored. While all hardware is as originally installed (apart
from electronics which has been gradually complemented), the procedures have developed with
operating experience over time. Especially, the use of the momentum analyzed proton recoils
from discharges was hard to predict but has turned out to be more useful than anticipated. The
installation and initial operating experience of the MPR on JET suggest that diagnostics based
on this technique can be delivered for turn-key-ready operation.

1 0- 1 L.L--'-L..J...--'-lLL~L-L..L.J-L.J.....J-L.L-1-'--.lL.L-'---'---1.-'---'---1.-'---'-
o 100 200 300 400 500 600
Position [mm]
Figure 6. Measured spectrum of the neutron emission for JET DT discharge with RF injection (#41735);
the results are presented as counts per channel as function of focal plane position. The curve is a Gaussian fit
to the main component and the lines are guides for the eye.

What concerns the ability to clarify uncertainties about features in the data whether they
are due, for instance, to malfunctioning hard ware, statistical fluctuations in the data intermittent
noise interference, it has been found to be absolutely essential that the energy determination is
separate from the means used to discriminate background and noise from the genuine signal
pulses. From this experience we tend to draw the conclusion that neutron diagnostics based on
techniques that do not allow clear separation of energy determination and background separa-
tion (including noise rejection) will have an exceedingly hard time to establish working points,
let alone verifying that they are not subject to off-drifts. The latter presents itself as an even
greater challenge if some of the neutron measurement functions have an intrinsic rate depen-
dence. Most alternative techniques that have been proposed for use in fusion neutron spec-
trometry (as motivated, for instance, by increasing the efficiency) suffer from the mentioned
problems; in fact, these problems are known to have afflicted existing neutron diagnostics, too.

CONCLUSION

This paper has reported on progress on neutron spectrometer diagnostics on D and DT fusion
plasmas in tokamaks. The magnetic proton recoil (MPR) spectrometer was described and its use
in the MPR on JET experiment from which results were reported on the first high performance
neutron diagnostic studies of fusion plasmas. It has been proven that the experiment could
quickly be put into productive operation. This should be considered in view of the importance
of demonstrating 'turn-key-ready' start-up operation for diagnostic equipment of potential use

457
on ignition experiments as this has been a declared requirement, for instance, for ITER. The
MPR on JET experiment was also installed with an ab initio absolute calibration which has
been verified to be correct within specified uncertainty limits. Moreover, the instrumental
stability allowed the establishment of an adjusted calibration to an accuracy of AE/E=2·1O- 4
permitting plasma toroidal rotation measurements down to the ±2 krols level (assuming that the
ohmic plasmas at JET are rotation free to the same level); this demonstrates neutron
spectrometry as a rotation diagnostic to be comparable to x-ray spectroscopy as conventionally
used. A record count rate of 120 kHz has been attained demonstrating the first use of neutrons
spectrometry as a time resolving plasma diagnostic. The high sensitivity of the MPR
spectrometer has been demonstrated in the first clear recording the triton bumup neutron spec-
trum whose amplitude is down by four orders of magnitude relative to the emission in similar
DT discharges. In the continued JET campaign on DT plasma operation it is expected even
higher neutron fluxes will be produced so that the performance limits can be further tested. As
statistics is the limitation for many of the envisaged diagnostics tasks of the MPR and its use for
plasma physics studies, the coming years can be expected to be fruitful in three respects: To
prove diagnostic principles; contribute new diagnostic information to the JET experimental
program; potentially gaining new insight into the physics of extreme sates of matter. From the
point of view of the planning of the next step neutron diagnostics, the continued MPR on JET
experiment will provide information on the theoretical limits of neutron spectrometry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work was performed under the auspices of Association NFR (Sweden) of EURATOM in collaboration
with Association ENEA-CNR (Milano. Italy). It has been financially supported by the Swedish Research
Councils NFR. FRN and NUTEK; EURATOM; JET. We are grateful for stipends from The G Gustafsson
foundation (SC and LB) and for travel grant from the Swedish institute (IF). We gratefully acknowledge
significant personal contributions: Prof. H Enge on spectrometer design work; S Hultqvist and B Trostell of
our home team on the instrument; G Leman of NFR for administration and liaison with EURATOM and
JET; S Scott. N Hammond and J Bird of the JET team for engineering the experimental interface to the
tokamak; John Reid and his crew for assembly and the installation at JET.

REFERENCES

J KaJlne and G Leman. 'Neutron spectrometer for high power DT plasmas; proposal for instaJlation and
measurements at JET'. Uppsala University Neutron Physics Report. UU-NF 93/#1. March 1993.
2 L Johnson. 'Overview offusion product diagnostics'. This proceedings.
2. J.Kallne et al. "Neutron Spectrometry for ITER". in Proc. of Workshop on Diagnostics for Exp.
Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors (Varenna. 1995). Plenum Pub!. Compo New York (1996). p.397.
4 J Kallne. Comments on Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion. 12(1989)235
5 J Kallne and H Enge. Nuc!. Instr. Meth. A311(1992)595
6 G Ericsson et al. "The MPR neutron spectrometer project". in Proc. on Workshop on Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors. Plenum Publishing Company. New York (1996). p.413.
7 BRose. AE Taylor and E Wood. Nature 181(1958)1630.
8 W Fisher. SH Chen. D Gwin and R Parker. Phys Rev A 28(1983)3121
9 ON Jarvis. G Gorini, J Kallne, J Merlo. G Sadler and P van Belle. Rev. Sci. Instr. 57(1986)1717 and
ON Jarvis. Plasma Physic. Contrl Fusion 36(1994)209. and ON Jarvis. In proc. of Int. School of
Plasma Physics. Varenna 1991 (ISBN 88-7794-043-3), p. 555
10 T Elevant et al. Rev Sci. Instr. 63(1992)4586
II G.Lehner. F.Pohl. Zeit. Phys. 207(1967) 83.
12. H.S.Bosch, G.M.Hale. Nuc!. Fusion 32(1992) 611.
13 L Ballabio. G Gorini, and J KiiJlne. 'Relativistic calculation of fuison product spectra for thermonuclear
plasmas'. Uppsala Univ. Neutron Physics Rep .• UU-NF 97#4 (July 97) ISSN 1401-6269. subm. to
Phys. Rev. E.
14 L Ballabio. G Gorini and J Kiillne, 'The a-particle knock-on signature in the neutron emission of DT
plasmas. Phys. Rev E 55(1997)3358.
15 J Frenje. S Conroy. G Ericsson. J Kallne, P-U Renberg. and E Traneus. Nucl. Inslr. Melh. A376(1996)462.

458
HIGH PRECISION CALIBRATION OF
NEUTRON SPECTROMETER DETECTORS WITH (X-PARTICLES

P. Prandoni!, L. Ballabio, S. Conroy, G. Ericsson,

1. Frenje, 1. Kallne, M. Tardocchi, E. Traneus

Department of Neutron Research, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden* and

! INFM and Department of Physics, University of Milan, Milan, Italy·

INTRODUCTION
A neutron spectrometer for the diagnosis of tokamak plasmas has been built and is now
operating at the Joint European Torus (JET). The instrument is of a new type being based/on
the magnetic proton recoil (MPR) technique. As has been described earlier! it makes use of a
CH2 target in the collimated neutron flux from the plasma where some neutrons collide with
protons transferring approximately all kinetic energy so that there is a nearly one-to-one
correspondence between neutron and proton recoil energy. The protons that pass within a
physical aperture are deflected in the magnet, imaged onto the focal plane according to their
momentum and recorded by a I-D position sensitive detector (hodoscope).
The position determination is an essential aspect of the MPR spectrometer because it is
closely related to the protons' energy. The MPR instrument is also equipped with a target wheel
where 4 targets of different thickness are mounted together with a 24fAm source. The former
provides different combinations of energy resolution and n~p conversion efficiencies, while
the latter is used in general for the MPR calibrations and testing of the hodoscope. The
geometrical properties of the MPR hodoscope were studied in a dedicated experiment based on
a scan with a well collimated (X-source. This paper describes the (X-scan study aimed specifically
at determining the geometrical tolerances of the detector as compared to design values, namely,
the position of the individual scintillators. The experimental set up used together with the results
obtained in this test are presented and discussed. Special consideration is given to the
applicability of the method for calibration of future focal plane detectors where the detector
tolerance should be pushed by at least a factor compared to the present MPR prototype
spectrometer requiring corresponding testing facilities.

THE DETECTOR

The MPR hodoscope is composed of 37 plastic scintillators which each is connected

through a light guide to a PM tube. The scintillators are of three different sizes for detecting
ions of low, medium or high energy; normally, they span the energy range of the focal plane
band width (±20%) normally centred around Eo = 14 MeV. The dimensions are (width x
thickness) 20x2, 8x2.8 and 20x3.8 mm 2 respectively, all of length 100 mm.2 To avoid light
cross talk between adjacent scintillators, they were wrapped with 10 ~m thick aluminum foils
which leaves 14-MeV proton recoils practically unaffected. However, this is not the case for the
5.5-MeV (X-particles used for the testing as we shall discuss later. The scintillators are positioned
with gaps of ~G=O.5 mm. This means that the overall detector efficiency is reduced by a few
percent (escape factor) which is accounted for in the detector response function.3 Another

• Part of the collaboration between the Association NFR-EURATOM, Sweden, and the Association
ENEAICNR(Mi!ano)-EURATOM, Italy.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thennonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plemun Press, New York, 1998 459
consequence of the gap is that the channel position can vary slightly across the hodoscope, the
upper limit being of ±0.25 rom. In order to evaluate the actual scintillators' positions, and the
gaps between them, the present a-particle test was performed as described in the next section.

EXPERllWENTALSETUP

The experimental set-up of the a-test is schematically shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a

collimated a-source which was used to irradiate the detector hodoscope at well determined
positions. The source was placed in a holder very near the hodoscope surface, the typical
clearance being 2 to 4 mm. Moreover it could be moved across the hodoscope (the x-direction
in Fig. 1) with high accuracy. The translation was provided by a stepping motor which turned a
screw through a threaded hole in the a-source holder; the motion was 1.988 ,"un/step over the
length of 250 mm. The holder moved on guide rails to keep it securely positioned in the y-z
plane. The stepping motor and the guide rails were placed in a rigid frame which was secured to
the detector and aligned to desired accuracy. The source assembly could be moved to different
x-position to cover the entire hodoscope. The whole set-up was evacuated in order to avoid
having the a's pass through air and the beam definition degraded.
The source was 241Am whose main a-emission has an energy of Ea =5.5 MeV. These a's
have a range of 4 cm in air which made it necessary to use evacuated test conditions. The range
in Al is 25 J.1m which is only 2.5 times the foil thickness so that range effects cannot be ignored.
The scanning process, as well as the data collection, was under full automatic computer
control. Data consist of histograms for each channel as a function of source position (x).

Stepping
Motor

Rail
\Electrical
feed-trough
Connector

Vacuum
Source ..- Casket
Assembly
Changeable
Attachment I '(em,..~" ,,'%'
tPump
Scintillators + ( PM-tube r-
Connection

Figure 1. Schematics of the experimental set-up showing the stepping motor, the guide rail, the source assembly
and the scintillators all enclosed in a vacuum casket with pump connection and electrical feed-through connectors.
The guide rail system could be set to cover different parts of the hodoscope.

DATA AND RESULTS

Two series of measurements were performed. First, the hodoscope was scanned in steps of
0.5 mm in the regions with wide scintillators and in step of 0.1 rom in the region with narrow
scintillators. The larger step length was chosen in order to decrease the measurement time.
Second, the gap regions between the wide scintillators were studied in detail using 25 steps of
0.1 mm as a complement to the full scan. The acquisition time was fixed and chosen so as to
obtain N=104 counts giving a statistical counting error of ±1 %.

460
 The data were recorded in the form of histograms and reduced to make them suitable for
analysis. The first step was the subtraction of background which generally meant a correction
of 2-6 % of the total counts depending on the dimension of the scintillator.
Several approaches were used to analyse the data; the most direct one was to determine the
scintillator positions and the gap sizes from the half maximum height (HMH) points in the
recorded x-scan histograms which gave information on the edges of each channel in the
recorded histograms. Two adjacent scintillators with no gap in between would, when the source
is positioned over the gap, record the same number of events in both scintillators equalling one
half of the events produced by the source. Generally, we define XA and XB as the HMH positions
of two adjacent channels in a histogram. The difference, SG = (XA-XB), is a direct measure of the
width of the gap. The center position of the gap is XG=(XA+XB)/2 and this together with SG was
determined for all scintillator pairs of the hodoscope. Each pair was identified by the highest
channel number in the pair with XG-value of gap #1 the zero reference point.

2.5
! I I

2
!! !
E 1.5
.s(!) !
!! !
>..J' 1 f-! ! !!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! H!! !
0.5 !!! ! ! ! !! !! !
!
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Gap Number
Figure 2. Summary of results on gap sizes for all channels. The error bars shown represent the estimation of
typical errors.

Fig. 2 shows the SG values as a function of the gap number. Several of the data points
exceed the designed value of 0.5 mm and a few are even larger than 1 mm thus apparently
exceeding the physical bound. The observed XG-values, however, are not only showing the
physical gap size, but are also sensitive to a-absorption in the foil which can show local differ-
ences. The error bars represent an estimation of the errors induced by this kind of analysis. Fig.
3a shows the gap positions XG as a function of the design position XD ; a linear fit of data was
also done giving a slope of 0.99961. This means that the real position of the gaps, and there-
fore the position of the scintillators, is very close to those of the design. Differences between the
fitted line and the data points are not appreciable on this plot.

0.6 rrT'TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT"""""'TT'T'TT'T'T'l

•
400 0.4

.sE • •
••••
• • ••
......
0.2
E 300
.s -(!) 0
X •• •• ••
• •••
x(!)200 '[ -02
C. . • •
100
(a)
-0.4 • (b)
o~~ww~~~~~~~~~ -0. 6 ~LLl..J...L.U.-l...U..w....1.l..J..l..J.Il..LW...LLLi..Ll...LL.LULJ

o 100 200 300 400 500 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Xo [mm) Gap Number
Figure 3. The measured gap positions (XG) for the hodoscope channels plotted versus the theoretical positions
according to design (X o ); the line shown is a linear fit (a). Results on the gap position showing the difference
between measured (Xo) and projected (XFiJ as a function of the gap number (b).

461
 Fig. 3b shows the difference between XG and the fitted line as a function of the gap
number. One observes that all points are within a deviation interval of ±O.6 mm. This, in tum,
provides evidence that the construction of the MPR hodoscope is faithful to the design to within
set construction and assembling tolerances. The cases with apparent deviations is ascribed to a-
particle foil absorption as foil wrinkles could be seen to concur with such measurement
deviations.

IMPLICATION FOR NEXT STEP NEUTRON SPECTROMETER

The nominal precision in the a-scan of the detector of the MPR focal plane hodoscope is
about 2 l1m which corresponds to an accuracy of llEfE<7·1 0-6 which is compatible with the aim
of attaining an overall accuracy of 10-5. This aim could be reached in neutron spectrometry
measurements of ignited plasmas where the statistics of the measurements would be sufficiently
good so as not to be a limitation at the 10-5 accuracy level. The observation in this experiment
that the foil effects interfere with the detector characterisation would be eliminated by
considering the a-particle testing already in the design of future high precision measurements.
Indeed, this would removed the foil effects as an error source, which is the dominant one in the
present exercise mainly representing a test of the calibration principle.

CONCLUSION

The detector system of the MPR neutron spectrometer was studied with the use of a
collimated a-beam from an 241Am source. The results provide information on the separations
between the scintillators (gaps) and their location. These show that the mechanical properties of
the MPR hodoscope can be characterised with the help of a-particle measurements. Specifically
the obtained results confirmed that the hodoscope construction held the tolerances of the
design values. Some of the determined gaps appeared to exceed the expected upper limit value
of 0.5 rom width. This is ascribed to the presence of local effects due to irregularities in the Al-
foil wrapping. This problem will not affect the use of the MPR spectrometer for 14-MeV recoil
protons but would have some effect on 2.5-MeV protons. Finally the effectiveness of the used
method of analysis was assessed giving an estimate characterisation accuracy of the MPR
hodoscope corresponding to about 10 microns and compatible with the aim of reaching better
than 10- 5 in the neutron energy determination; this is the requirement set even for the most
demanding diagnostic applications of the MPR spectrometer as projected for the use on ITER.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was performed under the auspices of the NFR association of EURATOM; it was
financially supported by the Swedish Natural Science Research Council (NFR), and the
ERASMUS student exchange of EU (for PP), and the staff mobility program of EU (for JK).

REFERENCES

1. J. Kallne and H. Enge, Magnetic proton recoil spectrometer for fusion plasma neutrons,
Nucl. Inst. and Methods A311(1992), and O. Ericsson, L. Ballabio, S. Conroy, J. Frenje, O.
Oorini, J. Klillne, P-U. Renberg, M. Tardocchi, E. Traneus, The MPR neutron spectrometer
project in: International Workshop on Diagnostics of ITER, Plenum press, Varenna
(1995).
2. J. Frenje, S. Conroy, O. Ericsson, J. Kanne, P-U. Renberg, Design of the MPRfocal plane
detector, Uppsala University Neutron Physics Report UU-NF 94/#11.
3. S. Conroy, L. Ballabio, O. Ericsson, O. Oorini, J. Frenje, 1. Klillne, E. Ramst:rOm, P-U.
Renberg, M. Tardocchi, E. Traneus. Simulation of the MPR spectrometer performance,
Uppsala University Neutron Physics Report UU-NF 951#15.

462
FUEL DENSITY MEASUREMENT IN BURNING PLASMAS
USING NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY

G Gorinil ,L Ballabio, J Klillne, S Conroy, J Frenje, G Ericsson,

P Prandoni, M Tardocchi and E Traneus

Department of Neutron Research, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

lINFM, Department of Physics, University of Milan, Milan, Italy and
Istituto di Fisica del Plasma, CNR, Milan, Italy

INTRODUCTION

The use of neutron spectrometry as a density diagnostic was first proposed in 1990 [1]
and has been the objective for a preliminary assessment [2]. A major concern for this diag-
nostic is the presence of wall emission (WE) neutrons in the measured spectrum causing a
background to the plasma emission (PE) signal. An initial study of the WE component was
performed with the aim to identify which neutron scatterings and reactions dominate the
WE spectrum and which changes can occur in magnitude and shape due which causes (for
instance, and especially, in the plasma conditions) [3]. We have now performed neutron
transport calculations with the MCNP code [4] in a model representing the latest ITER ge-
ometry and a plasma facing wall of composite multiple-nuclide material and multi-layered
structure. The results are used here to predict the signal and background intensities, as well
as the signal-to-noise ratio (SIN) that can be expected in a proposed fuel ion density diag-
nostic based on neutron spectrometry for ITER. The predictions are based on the use of
neutron spectrometers of the magnetic proton recoil type (MPR) a prototype for which is in
use in the JET tritium phase operation.
As the signal intensity as well as the SIN ratio is important for obtaining optimum
diagnostic quality, a tangential sight line is significantly better than a radial one. It is true
that a tangential sight line is more difficult to accommodate because of anticipated port
space limitations on ITER. It is also a concern that the MPR is a rather large installation as
far as diagnostics go. On the other hand, the MPR fuel density diagnostic is rather small
compared to the NBI-systems that are planned for ITER. The NBI systems do use
tangential beam lines and share other interface problems with MPR such as those
concerning effects from the magnetic stray fields from the machine, and, conversely, effects
on the plasma field. These problems seem to have been solved for the NBI-systems and
they should be solvable for an MPR diagnostic. This will be the subject of future studies.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 463
This paper is focused on the more principle question of the effect of the WE background on
the diagnostic quality of the fuel density determination.

DIAGNOSTIC PRINCIPLE AND SIGNAL STRENGTH

The diagnostic basis of the measurement is given in Ref [2] and can be summarized as
follows. The neutron spectrum from a DT plasma consists of the two peaks, one at 2.5 Me V
due to d+d~3He+n (1) and another at 14 MeV due to d+t~a+n (2) besides a distribution
at En<9.4 MeV due to t+t~a+n+n (see Fig. 1). The diagnostic basis is the peak intensities
II and 12, and the peak widths r l and r2. For the reference case of a thermal plasma, the
peaks are of Gaussian shape and their widths are directly related to the (same) ion tempera-
ture Ti. The intensities are products of a density factor (nd 2/2 or nd·nt) and the core reactivi-
ties (Pdd(Ti) or Pdt(Ti» besides the effective plasma volume seen by the spectrometer neu-
tron collimator (being proportional to the chord length A) and a proportionality constant:
11= OSnd2·PMAI·CI (1)
12 =nd· nrPtt' A2, C2 (2)
The fuel densities derive from
nd = (2II/Pdd AICI)I12 (3a)
nt/nd;: r = O.5-(I2/IIHptt/PddHA2/AIHC2/CI) (3b)
nt=r·nd (3c)
The intensity 12 is measured directly while the measurement of II includes a back-
ground contribution that must be subtracted from the spectral data I(En). The background is
given by an amplitude factor BI (representing the region around En=2.5 MeV) and a shape
factor fB(E n). The In(En) spectrum consists of signal neutrons (II) and background neutrons
(BI) besides contributions from 13 (belonging to the 1+t reaction). The ratios IrI2:I3 are a
function of temperature as given by the reactivities. A summary of the quantities of Eq. 3 is
given in Table 1 which also specifies their role in the determination of the densities.

Fig. 1 The neutron emission from a DT plasma at Ti=20 keV showing three separate contribution. (\) The
2.S-MeV peak due to dd-reactions; (2) The 14-MeV peak due to dt reactions; (3) The distribution (kinematic
phase space) due to tt-reactions.

464
 Table 1. Parameter summary

PARAMETER INFORMATION SOURCE AND USE.

12 measured
r2 measured and used to dlltermine Ti
II derived from the measured spectrum I(En)
rl (i) determined based on r2(Ti) and used for data reduction
(ii) measured and used to determine Ti (applicable if r«I)
BI measured
fB(En) obtained from computation and cross checks
Al from external information source (neutron camera)
A2 as AI; Al'=A2
CI given by geom. dimensions and spectrometer efficiency (e])
C2 given by geom. dimensions and spectrometer efficiency (e2)

The feasibility of this diagnostic is connected with the possibility of obtaining tolerably
small background and sufficiently high signal intensity 11. The latter determines the statisti-
cal uncertainty and is proportional to the fusion power (Pf). At peak power level
(P ~AX= 1.5 GW, corresponding to a total dt neutron yield of YnMAX=6·1020 nls), the max-
imum 2.5- and 14-MeV neutron fluxes would be FI MAX ",,4.4·10 8 n/cm2 s and
F2MAX"" 1.4· 10 10 n/cm2s, respectively. These fluxes are estimated at the spectrometer tar-
gets, assumed to be located at 10 cm and 150 cm distance from the collimator exit with the
2.5-MeV spectrometer being closest to the collimator. The collimator is assumed to be of
cylindrical shape (aperture Ac=1O cm2, length Ic=70 cm) viewing the plasma tangentially
from a location at the biological shield wall (R=20 m). Interface restrictions may require a
smaller collimator solid angle with proportionally lower neutron fluxes (see Discussion).
The reference plasma conditions of Ti=20 keY and nt/nd=1 are used in this estimate. As a
reference model for the plasma emissivity geometry we take a toroidal volume (major ra-
dius Rm=Ro=813.7 cm and horizontal minor radius am=178.9 cm) with elliptical cross sec-
tion (elongation K=1.5) and uniform emissivity. The model radius values represent w=0.6
where w=am!a and a is plasma radius (a=298.1 cm); this width corresponds to the case of a
predicted broad profile for an ignited ITER plasma. At the maximum neutron fluxes, the
signal count rates in the two spectrometers (assumed to have flux efficiencies of £1=3.10- 5
and £z=5·10- 5 cm2) would be CIMAX~1O kHz and C2MAX",,0.7 MHz, respectively. These
values pertain to instruments of the MPR type similar to the prototype in use at JET [5].
The statistics in 11 is sufficient to obtain results at the 10 % accuracy level (not counting
background subtraction effects) with a time resolution of dt=100 ms assuming the neutron
flux from plasma burning at the power levels of PpO.1 PfMAX. If the plasma changes pro-
file, this can have a noticeable effect on the signal as it varies roughly as l oc w- 312 and can be
significantly higher for peaked profiles.

WALL EMISSION BACKGROUND

The background BI is dominated by scattered (energy degraded) neutrons from the dt-
reaction. It has three major components, namely, WE, in-scattering in the neutron collima-

465
tor and window scattering by the windows in the neutron flight path between the plasmas
and the spectrometer converter foil. Our estimates suggest that WE dominates by an order
of magnitude assuming the window to be 5 mm steel and having a suitably formed view-
ing/collimator channel. Therefore, the WE-level is the factor that checks the feasibility of
this diagnostic with respect to the issue of background. Hence, only results with respect to
the WE part are presented here. Although the tt-reaction can also interfere with the mea-
surement ofI 1, its relationship to the dt and dd reactions is known appearing as a smooth
background under the dd peak. Finally, there can be effects on the diagnostic from the am-
bient radiation level around the detector. It is estimated, based on the prototype design cal-
culations for the JET experiment, that this can be kept at a level that gives a count rate that
is insignificant relative to WE (see below).

Table 2. ITER wall dimensions and composition used for the MCNP model.

Outboard radius of layer [em] Material ReI. atomic composition [%]

1111.S Be Be(100)
1112.S Cu+SS 1+H20 Cu(S3), Fe(3), Cr(O.S), Ni(O.6), H(S), 0(4)
1114.S SS+H20 Fe(53), Cr(14), Ni(ll), H(15), O(S)
1137.3 SS+H20 Fe(37), Cr(10), Ni(S), H(30), 0(15)
1155.3 Void -
1 SS316L

The WE background has been calculated with a model of the ITER plasma facing wall
consisting of layers of composite materials as shown in Table 2; the relative nuclide abun-
dance of each layer is also given. The viewing geometry and the WE source spot on the
wall are indicated in Fig. 2. This together with the reference plasma geometry described
above provided input to the neutron transport calculations with the MCNP code and the
prediction of the WE spectrum that the spectrometer records. The signal spectrum (Le., the
dt and dd peaks) was calculated assuming a thermal ion velocity distribution and isotropic
emissivity from the plasma volume intersected by the viewing cone defined by the neutron
collimator. The 3-body kinematical phase space distribution of tt neutrons was calculated in
the same way. The latter contribution is in effect part of the background for r-values around
1 or smaller. The results are presented in the form of spectra as they would be recorded by
the spectrometer, namely, with the instrumental response function (resolution) incorporated
by means of smoothing of the WE and plasma emission (signal) spectra; the latter incorpo-
rate the thermal Doppler broadening given by Ti.
The results of the calculations for the reference case are shown in Fig. 3a. This is the
spectrum the spectrometer would record if set to place the dd peak in the center. The signal
(Iz), the background (B2) and the tt component are shown individually as well as all super-
imposed (total). We find that the sib ratio is about 112.5 (using peak value). It is estimated
that this model calculation should be within about 10 % of a full 3D model including more
tokamak details (e.g., diagnostic apertures and the divertor region). The present results are
in line with those of previous calculations taking into account differences in input condi-
tions. It is believed that the result is a fair basis for judging the feasibility of this diagnostic
for the ITER conditions as of present.
The sib will vary depending on the r-value. If the r-value is decreased from r=l (the
case shown in Fig. 3a), the sib-ratio will closely vary as lIr as the tt-contribution is vanish-

466
 Fig. 2 The model used for the MCNP neutron transport calculations to mimic the conditions of
ITER. Shown is the top view cross section in the equatorial plane; the cross section of the torus is elliptical
and has the same elongation as the plasma neutron source. The neutron collimator of the spectrometer is
located at the apex of the tangential viewing cone (dashed lines) at a distance of about R = 20 m.

- - -WE 120 ---WE

'2 -·-·-dd ----odd
:is -.... ---- tt .-------- tt
]1200 --total --total
c:
'"
o
~

100
40 ----
/

0-' .~. - - - -- - - - - . - ::-- .... o ---... ---..JtI'"=--•. n--.......----.. --.. -----.."- :.....::.-------... _-
/

2 2.5 E [MeV) 3 2 2.5 E [MeV] 3

n n

Fig. 3 (a) Simulated ITER neutron spectrum recorded by a tangentially viewing neutron spectrometer for
reference plasma conditions (see text). A time resolution of ~t=IOO ms and pr=pcMAX are assumed giving
about 1,000 signal counts. The spectrum has been convoluted with the instrumental function of the
spectrometer assumed to be of Gaussian shape (FWHM=10 %). The binwidth is 30 keY. The density ratio is
nt/nd=l.(b) Same as Fig. 3 but assuming that the viewing region consists only of water.

ing. For instance. the case r=O.l gives s/b",5/1. If r is increased to above r=1. the sib will
have the same lIr dependence with regard to the WE background but the tt-contribution
will come into play further lowering the sib value. For the extreme case r=1O we predict
slb<1/30. These results suggest that the dd peak can be used as a diagnostic basis for r-val-
ues below an upper limit (~2 for the reference case). For 1'>2 the statistical requirements
become more severe and would certainly imply long integration times. For 1'» 1 it is
possible to use the tt-component as the diagnostic base. This is a potential that would be
best exploited with the spectrometer set to measure in the energy range 4-8 MeV where the
sib for this reaction would be highest. This possibility will not be considered here.
The WE spectrum was calculated for a few different cases of wall compositions
namely. the reference case (Table 2) besides the cases with either Be+Cu or H20 removed.

467
The results show that the Be+Cu layers act in the same way as the bulk of the wall material,
i.e., the WE spectrum does not change when it is removed. This can be understood as the
neutronics properties of Cu are quite similar to those of the bulk and the amount of Be is
relatively small to have any quantitative impact although its neutronics features are differ-
ent. Removing H20 has a detectable impact on the WE spectrum, especially for low ener-
gies, showing the effectiveness of hydrogen as a neutron moderator. A high water content
in the wall reduces the WE background as illustrated by the calculations assuming that the
view spot of the wall is all water (Fig. 3b). This increases the sib-ratio by a factor 2.5 (to
slb=1Il) and gives a much gentler background slope around the 2.5-MeV peak. This result
is interesting as it puts the issue of a 'viewing dump' in a new perspective. In contrast, the
WE background is not sensitive to the width of the plasma profile but the sib ratio will vary
because of the w-dependence in s. It is also very insensitive to other plasma changes [3].

ERROR EFFECTS DUE TO THE BACKGROUND

The effect of background on the statistical uncertainties in the determination of II has

been studied by statistical analysis of simulated neutron energy spectra. The results ob-
tained, for the reference case (Fig. 3a) and using 1}=1000 counts, show a statistical error of
.MIIII=6 %. The background free case is of course smaller .MIIII=3.2 %, so the increase is
a factor of 1.9 when the sib-ratio is 112.5. If the sib ratio goes down by a factor of two, the
error is increased by a factor of 1.37 (to 8.2 %). If the sib ratio is increased, using the case
of water enhanced viewing dump (Fig. 3b), the sib-ratio is 1 and the error is reduced by a
factor of 1.27 (to 6.0 %). The error in I I enters with full weight into the determination of nt
and nJnd, and half weight into nd (Eq. 3).
Another error effect due to background occurs if the shape fb(E n) of B I deviates from
the one used in the fitting. We have reason to assume that this shape is a quantity character-
ized by great inertia towards change. Therefore, any deviation is most likely to be of a sys-
tematic nature. Previous studies [3] have shown that the calculated fb(E n) responds very lit-
tle or not at all to changes in input conditions, such as plasma conditions, which can occur
fast and uncontrolled. With regard to the correctness of the initial fb(E n) function used, this
would be based on predictions which can be verified empirically with neutron scattering
measurements simulating the diagnostic situation or crucial elements thereof. Moreover, the
fb function would be verified through its use in the data reduction analysis and corrected
based on the goodness of fit attained. Similarly, as the data base of the diagnostic measure-
ments builds up to very high statistics, one can analyze the acquired fitting experience and
ascribe a lack of fit to a deviation between assumed and actual fb(E n) shape. The acquired
fitting experience is thus a base for verification and corrections of fb. The main effect of an
error in the shape function is therefore a systematic one and it should be possible to reduce
this error well below the 10 % level.

DISCUSSION

It must be pointed out that neutron spectrometry can measure the individualnct and nt
densities as well as their ratio. In fact, the statistical accuracy is better for absolute density
measurements than for their ratio. The availability of two independent fuel density signals

468
makes this measurement more robust for control applications. The use of the measurement
for control application should be tested on the basis of simulations of envisaged plasma
scenarios in ITER requiring the intervention of the control system. In this way the ability of
the measurement in detecting variations in the control signals at the 5% accuracy level can
be assessed.
The use of this diagnostic for control applications depends on the online availability of
other plasma diagnostic information for the elaboration of the measured data. The neutron
emissivity profile (in terms of its moments: horizontal position, horizontal width, and elon-
gation) is the most important information needed. It is therefore important to design a neu-
tron camera system equipped with detectors offering the best performance in terms of accu-
racy and stability. Ion temperature information is also needed for the elaboration of the data
but this will be provided by the spectrometry measurement itself. A high dt countrate is es-
sential for this purpose.
The instrument to be used in this diagnostic is a double neutron spectrometer of the
MPR type. A prototype is in use at JET [5]. The performance specifications needed for the
density diagnostic are essentially the same as those of the prototype spectrometer. The main
modifications refer to the spectrometer for the dd neutrons which is a scaled down version
of the prototype with increased energy bite (±30 % instead of ±20 %); it would normally be
run at an energy resolution setting of ~EIE=1O %. The JET experiment will test the
diagnostic in most respects for the ITER application but for the fact that the magnetic stray
fields will be an order of magnitude higher at ITER. The operation and the acceptability of
magnetic instruments like MPR spectrometers is an important issue for ITER and an
interesting technological topic for further study of principle solutions and their practicality.
Interface issues are the ultimate factor determining the feasibility of the measurements.
Here we only point out that the tangential sight line required for the measurement would be
similar to one for a NBI installation. Other interface issues would also be similar to those of
NBI including magnetic interference effects between the machine and the diagnostic. It is
therefore possible that interface solutions common to the NBI system and the tangential
neutron spectrometer will be found.
There is no alternative to a tangential view for the measurement. A radial view would
give a sib ratio that is worse by a factor of 3 compared to the reference case with a tangen-
tial view which is unacceptable. A vertical view would be intermediate between a tangential
and a radial view in terms of sib ratio. However the penetration through the blanket would
probably have to be narrow and would represent a limiting factor on the signal intensity.
Assuming a tangential view can be accomodated, there would still be engineering re-
strictions on the size of the aperture through the blanket. For instance, if the allowed aper-
ture diameter is reduced to 20 cm, the dt and dd countrates are reduced by a factor of 2.5
and 10, respectively, relative to the values given before. This means the dd countrate would
be C I MAX", 1.5 kHz which falls somewhat short of the target measurement requirements in
terms of time resolution. A diameter of 30 cm would improve the performance of the
spectrometer by a factor >2 as measured in terms of the dd and dt signal countrates.
The space resolution of the measurement is limited by the fact that the measurement is
line integrated; its resolution depends on the effective width of the emissivity profile inter-
cepted alon& the viewing line more than on the aperture of the viewing line itself. In the
case of a tangential view the dependence of the resolution on the profile width is weaker
that for a radial view. Another comment is that the measurement is intrinsically coupled to

469
the plasma volume where the fusion reactions occur, which is where the fuel densities need
to be controlled. Therefore, the space resolution is not a serious reason preventing this mea-
surement from being used for tokamak control functions.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the findings of the earlier study [2] that fuel densities can be
measured with a tangential neutron spectrometer for burning plasma conditions with typical
values for statistical and systematic errors of ±10 %. The systematic error is lower (±5 %)
for the density ratio mainly because it does not depend on knowledge on the plasma chord
length A (Eq. 3 and Table 1). One may note though, that input information is essential for
extracting nd and nt. and it is important that this can be provided by the neutron camera for
the wide profiles now predicted for ITER operation. As a reference for the performance as-
sessment the case of balanced fuel densities (nt/nd=r) has been used here. In general, there
is nothing preventing this density diagnostic being used for plasma conditions of low den-
sities r<1 down to the r<<1 values of D plasmas with only traces of tritium. In principle, it
can also be used for conditions of r» 1 should it be of interest to operate in tritium plasmas
(using the tt-component as indicated above). For r>2 the measurement is still possible but
rather long sampling times are required to achieve a 10% statistical accuracy. The ultimate
feasibility check is believed to be the interface in two respects: (1) the accommodation of a
tangential sight line, possibly connected with a water enhanced viewing dump; (2) the
accommodation of the magnetic material of the MPR neutron spectrometers on ITER
requiring a stealth technique to make the instrument invisible to the plasma magnetic field
and the protection against the influence of the stray field on the diagnostic.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper has been prepared as an account of work assigned to the European Home
Team under Task Agreement number G 55 TD 06 within the Agreement among the
European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation in
the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy
Agency (lAEA).

REFERENCES

1. J. Kanne, Neutron diagnostics for burning DT plasmas of ITER/JET, Uppsala University Report
UU-NF 9111, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden (1991).
2. 1. Kanne, P. Batistoni and G. Gorini, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 62:2871 (1991).
3. P Antozzi et aI, Nucl. lnstrum. Meth. A368:457 (1996).
4. Documentation for CCC-200AIMCNP Code Package, NEA Data Bank, Gif-sur-Yvette, France (1991).
5. 1. Kanne, E.Traneus and the NPF Team, Neutron Spectrometry in JET and Next Step Implications, these
Proceedings.

470
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE NEUTRON ENERGY SPECTROMETER,
COTETRA (COUNTER TELESCOPE WITH THICK RADIATOR)

M. Osakabel, M. Sasaol, M. Isobel, S. Itoh2, T. Iida3,

A.L. Roquemore\ L.c. Johnson 5

lNational Institute for Fusion Science, Toki, Gifu-509-52, Japan

2Dept. of Nuclear Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-01, Japan
3Dept. of Nuclear Engineering, Osaka University, Suita 560, Japan
4Princeton Plasma Physics Lab., Princeton, N.J., USA
5ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, CA, USA

INTRODUCTION

A new type of neutron spectrometer, named COTETRA (counter telescope with

thick radiator), had been developed, and used to measure the 14MeV neutron energy
spectra on the DT experiment of TFTR. It showed the energy resolution of about 9.5%
on the laboratory test[l], but the peak width of the energy spectrum from a NBI heated
plasma of TFTR was 23%, wider than the expectation (11 % )[2].
Following problems have been pointed out as causes of the resolution degradation,
a) fluctuation of the DC levels of signal lines,
b) degradation of the photomultiplier tube (PMT) gain due to high counting rates,
c) change ofthe PMT gain due to the stray magnetic field.
d) the effect of the back foil of the Llli-scintillator
e) proton scattering on the side wall of the holder
The fluctuation of DC levels was monitored simultaneously during the shot, and it
was found to be negligibly small. In the present paper, the results of the PMT
improvement and the evaluation of the effects d) and e) are reported.

MAGNETIC·FIELD RESISTIVE PMT AND ACTIVE DIVIDERS

The COTETRA is a ~E-E type proton recoil telescope and uses a relatively thick
plastic scintillator as a radiator. The light output from the Llli detector is detected by two
PMT's at the side, and that from E detector is also received by a PMT. The energy of the
incoming neutron is obtained by the sum of the three PMT outputs. Original version of
COTETRA uses HAMAMATSU R372-02, which has high counting rate capability with
excellent linearity.
During TFTR discharges, the degradation of PMT gain due to the effect of magnetic
field and the saturation of PMT was observed. To overcome this defect, a magnetic-field

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 471
 resistive PMT, HAMAMATSU R2490-07 was tested. An active divider[3,4] was
developed for this PMT to avoid the saturation.
Figure 1 shows the electronic circuit of the devider. The divider current was driven by
seven pairs of inverted darlington transistors at the last seven stage, and each dynode
voltage was kept by reference resistors (R3). When the high voltage of -2kV was applied
to the divider without any light source, the current of 3.63mA was supplied.

R5 R5 R5
Kathode
Rl Rl Rl Rl R2 Cl C3 C5
~I R4 Rl Rl Rl Rl Cl C2 C4 c6~1~-+T==iO

~~I'\U-If+j
R6 II ~700pF

-HV
Fig.l Schematic drawing of the electronic circuit for the active divider. The character R and C express
resistors and capacitors, respectively. The value of each resistors and capacitors are; Rl (33kW),
R2 (34kW), R3 (lMW), R4 (84kW), R5 (50W), R6 (3.9kW), R7 (lOkW), Cl (O.OlmF),
C2 (O.022mF), C3 (O.047mF), C4 (O.1mF), C5 (O.22mF), and C6 (O.47mF).

a) Passive Divider b) Active Divider

10 • 10 • --<>-15:1110 1
···.·-3.(b:l0'
-o-6.0l!.IO'
_1.2.l10-
---6- 2.4JllO~
10 •

1
10 '

3000 3500 4000

(channel) Imannd)

Fig.2 Pulse height spectra of NE102A for 0- T neutrons.

a) Spectra obtained by a passive divider. (b) Spectra obtained by the active divider of Fig. 1.

Using OKTAVIAN D-T neutron generator at Osaka University, the perfonnance of

this active divider was tested and compared with the nonnal (passive) resistive chain
divider, which is available from HAMAMATSU Photonics. Fig. 2(a) shows the pulse
height spectrum (PHS) of NEl02A plastic scintillator bombarded with D-T neutrons,
using a passive divider, and Fig.2(b) shows that obtained by an active divider. The
counting rate of the detector was measured when it was low, and those for higher cps
were estimated by comparing the D-beam current at the T -target of OKTAVIAN. As the
counting rate of the detector increases, the edge position of the PHS is decreasing from
=1500 channel to =300 channel in the case of the passive divider as shown in Fig.2(a).
On the other hand, those of the active divider stay at =1000 channel up to 6xlQ5 cps and
the deterioration of edge position is small even for the case of 2.4x 1Q6 cps. This shows
the effectiveness of the active divider for the use of high counting rate environment. The
neutron spectrum from the DT generator (OKTAVIAN) measured with these new PMT's
and deviders are shown in Fig3. The peak shows an asymmetric shape with a tail on the
low energy side. The FWHM estimated from the high energy side is 15% , larger than
the that of the original COTETRA with R237-0l. The larger value of FWHM is due to
the poorer linearity of the new magnetic resistive PMT.

472
 (a) (b)
"00 ......_ .....:-O-'l'""T....,....T""'T....,....T""'T""T""T""'T""T"".,....,""1

'000 Pull Po •.
., .4" MeV Pc.k Pel ••
FWHM
= 2.2McV (151Jl.) _14.1MeV
" I'WHM
'00 ..z.IMeV(ZO",)

..
s..

..... 50
.
•"
""
Oo~----;"-··-·~··~··-·"~·~·L---.r~~~
EoerlY [MeV) EnerlY [MeV)

Fig.3 The 14 MeV neutron spectrum of COTETRA with R2490·07, and active deviders of
Fig.!, from the D·T generator (a), and from the NBI·heated DT plasma (b).

The new set of PMT's were used on a series of TFfR-DT experiments of 1995.
In Fig. 3(b) is shown the neutron spectrum from a NBI-heated DT plasma The FWHM
of 2.8 MeV can be explained by the expected Doppler broadening of beam-plasma
interaction and the peak shape in Fig. 3(a).

BACK FOIL AND SIDE WALL EFFECTS ON THE LOW ENERGY TAIL

In an ideal case, 14MeV neutron events form a straight line on a 2-dimensional map
of ~E-E pulse height. However, in the case of Fig. 3, events of proton energy deposit
in the E-detector higher than 8.8 MeV show a different slope from those ofE:S; 8.8 MeV,
and the latter form the tail on the low energy side. The peak shape which was composed
with events of E ;:: 8.8 Me V is symmetric, as shown in Fig. 4.
Possible cause of the tail is effect of the back foil thickness of m scintillator, or
the proton scattering on the side wall of the holder cylinder of Llli- detector. The effect of
the foil thickness on the peak shape was tested with the DT generator, as shown in Fig.
5. The difference between the spectrum without the backfoil (open circles) and that with it
(open squares) is small.
A new holder has been designed so as to diminish the proton scattering effect and
tested on TFTR. The DT neutron spectrum measured with this new holder is shown in
Fig.6. The spectrum is symmetric and the FWHM is 2.4 MeV, which is consistent with
the expected Doppler broadening.

1000

0 with AI·back foil on 6. E-detector

0
•
8.. without AI-back foil on 6. E-detector
~
::l
without AI-back foil on 6. E-deteclOr
0
000 (E>8.8MeV)
~
~
C
"> 400

'a" 200

~::l
0
fA,
Z 20
0 10
EnerlY {MeV]

Fig.4 COTETRA neutron spectra with diffemct back foil thickness, and without it measured with a DT
generator.

473
 = 2.4JMeV

10 15 20
Energy [Me Vj

Fig.4 D-T neutron spectrum from the NBI-heated DT, with new aE detector holder.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Several problems, such as the counting capability of PMT, Magnetic field effects,
proton scattering on the sideholder, of COTETRA have been solved. The peak: shape of
14 MeV neutrons from TFfR is symmetric, and consistent to the theoretical prediction
and the laboratory test. Present version of COTETRA has an intrinsic resolution of 17 %,
which is mostly detennined by the PMT linearity. By improving the circumstance against
magnetic stray field, the resolution less than 8% can be expected. Although this detector
has worse energy resolution resolution than a diamond detector, it can be considered to
be an economical, radiation resistive detector for a profile measurement on ITER.
Authors wish to thank: all the stuff of TFfR for encouragement, and for their help
and adequate suggestion on the TFfR experiment, specially to Dr. K. M. Young and Dr.
D Johnson. We also wish to Dr. N.Sasao at Kyoto Univ. and Dr. G.A.Wurden at LANL
for their useful suggestions on the active divider, and to Prof. T.lguchi and Dr. J.
Kawarabayashi and the stuff of the OKTAVIAN for their help at the test of the dividers.

REFERENCES

[1] M.Osakabe, et. aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 920 (1995)
[I] M.Osakabe, et. aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 920 (1995)
[3] G.A. Wurden et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (1995), 901
[4] Y.Takeuchi, Mas. Thesis, Kyoto Univ. (1996)

474
EXPERIMENTAL ESTIMATION OF THRESHOLD PROPERTIES OF THE
BUBBLE CHAMBER FOR KNOCK-ON NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS

V.A. Agureev/ V.P. Romanikhin, I V.G. Rumyantsev/

G.N. Cheryomukhin,1 S.V. Trusillo,1 V.S. Zaveryaev2

IRussian Federal Nuclear Centre - All-Russia Research Institute of

Experimental Physics, 607190 Sarov
2RNC "Kurchatov Institute" - Nuclear Fusion Institute, 123182 Moscow

INTRODUCTION

The problem of the high energy DT neutron spectrum tail measurement has been
already discussed l ,8. The importance of this problem for ITER plasma diagnostics caused us
to search for an effective threshold detector capable of coping with this problem. The
fundamental difficulty of this task lies in the necessity to detect a weak knock-on neutron
flux close to the extremely high peak of thermonuclear DT neutrons.
Earlier we proposed a special bubble chamber2,6 having the adjustable energy threshold
level E T . The threshold has been predicted theoreticaul, and its value can be easily
controlled with the main parameters of a bubble chamber such as a temperature and a lower
pressure.
The detector energy threshold steepness defines the extent to which DT neutrons
detection may be suppressed. It is the reason why the detector threshold properties should
be well known. In this paper we present the main results of experimental investigation of
bubble chamber threshold properties.

EXPERIMENTAL

To get a trustworthy answer on whether a bubble chamber-based detector can be

applied for the knock-on neutron measurement it was decided to estimate the DT neutron
detection efficiency if the energy threshold is 14 MeV or over. DT neutrons were generated
with a pulse neutron source based on the plasma focus device7 . To achieve reliable results
there were produced about 100 neutron pulses with the duration of 40 ns and the output
from 107 to 1011 nJpulse.
Since both DT and DD neutron sources were available, the next ratio could be
measured rather accurately

Diagnostics for Experiml!1,ltal Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plelllun Press, New York, 1998 475
where R and s are relative and absolute detection efficiencies, ET is the threshold energy.
In fact the rate of increase in the working liquid optical density was measured instead of
the absolute detection efficiency because they are proportional. All the measurements were
carried out using a bubble chamber previously designed for neutron imaging of plasma focus
devices7 The chamber had a temperature stabilizing system and a fast valve to release a
pressure inside the chamber; its working liquid was Freon-12 (CF2CIz).
Unfortunately, the bubble chamber construction did not allow for the precise setting of
the lower pressure defining the energy threshold level, therefore to control it the following
was used:
1. Adjustment of the initial pressure levels PI and P2 which corresponded to two
different periods of the release valve opening;
2. Adjustment of the gas volume dM released during the valve opening.
Several series of measurements with different variants of energy threshold control
allowed the results to be compared, and hence provided reliability of measurements. In
order to use these parameters practically one has to study first how the energy level depends
on them.
First of all a theoretical relationship between the relative detection efficiency and the
threshold levels R(ET) was calculated within 2.5 - 14 MeV. It was done based on recoil
nuclei spectra3 , energy losses of the recoil nuclei in the bubble chamber working liquid4 , and
the bubble growth rate as a function of the temperature and the pressures. This theoretical
relationship R(ET) is shown by the solid line in Figs. 1 and 2.
Further the bubble chamber was irradiated with a pulse DD neutron flux. Adjusting a
control parameter, we achieved the zero rate of the optical density increase. It meant that the
energy threshold was 2.45 MeV.
Leaving the energy threshold unchanged, the bubble chamber was irradiated with a
pulse DT neutron flux, and the optical density increase rate was measured. Then the control
parameter was changed and the optical density increase rate was measured again. In such a
way the relative detection efficiency R of the bubble chamber was obtained.

2.45 14
2

1.5

-------------------------------1------
I
1

0.5

o I
-----~-------------------- -----

o 5 10 15
ETI MeV
Figure 1. Theoretically calculated relative efficiency R(ET) with experimental points.

476
 2.45 14
0.1~------~--~----~------~'-~

0.05

o~ __ ____ ________ ________

~ ~ ~ ~~~

o 5 10 15

Figure 1. Theoretically calculated relative efficiency R(Er) with experimental points taken close to 14 MeV.

Making the same procedure for other control parameters, we found all the functions
PI(R), P 2 (R) and dM(R) versus the detection efficiency R down to R < 10.2 In order to
derive the information about the energy thresholds out of these functions, the experimental
points were marked on the mentioned theoretical function R(Er). Applying the function as a
scale we could get the series of energy threshold values. The series was treated with a Least
Squares Technique and smooth functions PI(Er), P2(Er) and dM(Er) were obtained. Such a
method provided a way of setting the energy threshold of the bubble chamber with a
standard deviation less than 0.6 MeV.
To evaluate the suppression degree ofDT neutrons, the detection threshold levels were
set in the range from 15 to 18 MeV. After that the relative detection efficiency R was
measured with the maximal neutron flux and the utmost value of sensitivity. The latter was
set in such a way that it was possible to measure the rate of the optical density increase
caused by only one bubble.

DISCUSSION

No DT neutron signal has been detected starting with the energy threshold greater than
16.5 MeV, which corresponds to the relative detection efficiency R less than 10-7 This result
has been obtained with the neutron flux density up to 1O IS /cm 2 s, which is six orders higher
than the DT neutron flux density inside ITER neutron cameras 6
It is known that the knock-on neutron spectrum extends to 205 MeV and its intensity
is five orders less than that of thermonuclear neutrons6 In the range from 16.5 to 20.5 MeV
the average calculated efficiency is about 10-3 if the threshold level equals 16.5 MeV, which
provides the bubble density in the chamber to be close to 100/cm2 s. This is quiet sufficient
for successful detection of knock-on neutrons on ITER using the bubble chamber designed
according to the proposal 6.

477
REFERENCES

1. RK Fisher, et al., Nucl. Fusion 34, 1291 (1994).

2. V.A. Agureev and S.V. Trusillo, Proc.Int. Workshop on Diag./or ITER, Varenna, Italy, 1995.
3. A.M. Baldin, et al., Nuclear Reactions Kinematics, Gosizdat, Moscow, 1959 (in Russian).
4. M.S. Nemets, The Heavy Ions Ranges, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1984 (in Russian).
5. Y.A. Alexandrov, et al., Bubble Chambers, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana (1967).
6. RK Fisher, S.V. Trusillo, V.S. Zaveriaev, Rev. Sci. Instr. 68 (1997) 1103.
7. S. V. Trusillo, et al., JET Lett. 33 (1981) 148 (in Russian).
8. R.K. Fisher, et al, Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Reactors, ed. by P.E. Scott et al.,
Plenum Press, New York (1996).

478
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR NEUTRON ACTIVATION AND
NEUTRON SOURCE STRENGTH MONITORS FOR ITER

Cris W. Barnes

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos, NM USA 87545

D. L. Jassby, G. LeMunyan, A. L. Roquemore

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

Princeton, NJ USA 08543

Chris Walker

ITER Joint Central Team, Garching Joint Work Site

Garching, Germany

INTRODUCTION
The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor' will require highly accurate
measurements of fusion power production in time, space, and energy. Spectrometers in the
neutron camera could do it all, but experience has taught us that multiple methods with
redundancy and complementary uncertainties are needed. Previously, conceptual designs
have been presented for time-integrated neutron activation2 and time-dependent neutron
source strength monitors3 , both of which will be important parts of the integrated suite of
neutron diagnostics for this purpose: The primary goals of the neutron activation system
are: to maintain a robust relative measure of fusion energy production with stability and
wide dynamic range; to enable an accurate absolute calibration of fusion power using
neutronic techniques as successfully demonstrated on JET and TFTR6 •7 ; and to provide a
flexible system for materials testing. The greatest difficulty is that the irradiation locations
need to be close to plasma with a wide field of view. The routing of the pneumatic system
is difficult because of minimum radius of curvature requirements and because of the
careful need for containment of the tritium and activated air. The neutron source strength
system needs to provide real-time source strength vs time with -1 ms resolution and wide
dynamic range in a robust and reliable manner with the capability to be absolutely

Diagnosticsfor Experimental Thennonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., P1emun Press, New York, 1998 479
calibrated by in-situ neutron sources as done on TFTR8 , IT-60U", and JET'". In this paper a
more detailed look at the expected neutron flux field around ITER is folded into a more
complete design of the fission chamber system. Overall issues of neutron calibration for
ITER will be presented elsewhere".

Neutron Activation

Irradiation End Location

The locations of the neutron activation irradiation ends are a critical choice in creating
a working, maintainable system that can be accurately calibrated using neutronics
modeling of the local geometry. In the previous Phase II design2 a location in the front
surface of the blanket/shield module (BSM) was desired. However, pneumatic access to
any such location through the BSM would be very difficult, and the resulting "unique"
BSMs were rejected because of the heavy requirements on remote handling and installation
procedures that made special modules extremely undesirable. As the design of the BSMs
continues to evolve, the need for "toroidal filler modules" to plug gaps between BSMs
from the curvature of the torus has been recognized. Placing neutron activation irradiation
ends in such special toroidal filler modules at the intersection of four BSMs should allow
remotely maintainable units with a good view of the neutrons from the plasma.
The primary design concern for the neutron activation system is achieving the
necessary wide angle of view of the neutron emitting region. If the field of view to a
significant number of neutrons is cut by the edge of a BSM, then the geometry of the
activation location relative to that edge becomes the dominant effect in the neutronics
uncertainty. This was the case on TFTR where the location of the RF limiter relative to the
re-entrant irradiation end determined the toroidal cut-off of the field of view and created a
5% uncertainty.' The field of view should clearly include the center of the plasma and out
to approximately the half-radius, and also a considerable distance toroidally. If one wants
to see ±1.4 m at 2.8 m distance one needs an angular field of view of 26°. If the activation
location is set back a distance d from a gap of radius 10 cm with corner of radius e the
viewing angle is min(atan(lO/(d-e»,atan«IO+e)/d». For e-7.S mm, d must be less than
29 mm to achieve this 26° angular field of view; for e-lO mm then d must be less than
32 Mm. This simple calculation says the activation location needs to be within 2-3 em of
the front face of the BSM.
Figure 1 is a scale drawing of a typical proposed irradiation end in a toroidal filler
module. An actual Catia CAD working model of the BSMs was used as the source. One
nice aspect of this drawing is that the rounded corners of blanket are significant and give a
better field of view than the above calculation would imply. As in the previous Phase II
design, the pneumatic transport for ITER will be 1.1 em inner diameter tubes carrying
1 em diameter capsules. A coaxial design at the irradiation end as used on TFTR with a
2 em outer diameter allows the return air to be transmitted to the inner tube. Figure 2
shows a close-up of the irradiation end. While the inside of the irradiation end does not
need to be in vacuum, a secondary vacuum seal and tritium containment is needed further
down the pneumatic system (see the next section).

480
 IRRADIATION LOCATION

Capsule

.r""w._,...-" .....

r"'./ Irr;diation End

Blanket Shield .-,./
Module /"'"

/' PLASMA

/
i 2em

_/ Figure 2: Close-up view of neutron activation

Figure 1: Schematic of a Neutron Activation capsule inside of irradiation end. The capsule
Irradiation Location in a Toroidal Filler Module. A self-plugs the return air hole at the end, providing
tube of radius-of-curvature greater than 10 em is a pressure change signal used to determine arrival
drawn going into the backplate diagnostic conduit. of the capsule.

A critical issue will be heating of irradiation end components and cooling. The
nuclear heating into the toroidal filler module region has been analyzed. 12 Nuclear heating
will be 10 W/cm3 in this region and the plasma heating probably only 10%-20% of that.
The inner wall of the irradiation end is made quite thin for low total nuclear heating.
Thick connecting "fins" from the inside tube to the outside transfer heat; the outer tube is
then mounted to the BSM for thermal contact. There exist "lucky" and "unlucky" BSMs
depending on whether the neighboring BSM also needs to be removed during remote
handling because of the system of keys. The irradiation ends would be attached to
"unlucky" BSMs to provide thermal contact. Then during remote handling procedures the
neighboring BSM will have to be removed anyway, allowing access to the toroidal filler
modules with irradiation ends. There is still some worry about the nuclear heating 6f the
capsule itself which will be in poor thermal contact with anything. Presently we do not
plan to have any significant flow of pneumatic gas past the capsule; on the contrary, we
hope to use plugging of the channel by the capsule and resulting pressure changes as a
robust radiation-insensitive monitor of capsule arrival at the irradiation end. We still may
be able to use polyethylene since it may not get too hot. Any capsule components will need
to be made of low activation material. The tube itself could be 316 SS or Inconel or
Tungsten or even possibly copper; eventually the relative thermal coefficients of expansion
will need to be considered in a detailed design.
Which exact filler modules are to be used needs to await the final design of the BSMs.
The poloidal angles of the four irradiation locations at each of two toroidal angles would
be driven by the sensitivity issues raised in Ref. 2. The toroidal angles will be chosen
within constraints of use of the backplate diagnostic conduits by other systems and routing
concerns (see next section).
Routing of Pneumatic System
We have considered whether the system should be hydraulic (using water to push the
capsules) rather than pneumatic. Water does gives one better thermal conduction. But air
moves the capsules much faster, can operate at lower pressure, and is easier to "airlock" to

481
provide secondary vacuum and tritium containment. Our actual preference is to use helium
which has good heat transfer, reduced problems on the vacuum if the system fails, low
activation, and good availability in the ITER plant
The critical issue in routing the pneumatic system is the minimum radius of curvature
allowed and available. Consider a capsule of diameter d and length I in a hose of inner
diameter d+£. Choose a radius of curvature R such that the hose just touches the ends of
the capsule. For £/d-1O% one can support about a 10 cm radius of curvature for a 1 cm
capsule. (This translates to minimum 10 inch radius of curvature for 1 inch capsules in 1-
1/8" 1.0. tubes on TFfR, which agrees with experience.) Thus our pneumatic routing
scheme will be plausible as long as we can negotiate any necessary turns with greater than
10 cm radius of curvature.
The initial problem is getting out of the irradiation end in the toroidal filler modules.
On Figure 1 is illustrated a path with the minimum radius of curvature defined above. The
irradiation end will be centered over a feature in the backplate known as the backplate
diagnostic socket (see paper by C. Walker in these proceedings for figure and details'\
The tube can then curve into the backplate wiring conduit 13 (actually a conduit in the BSM)
and following its routing. This backplate wiring conduit was initially designed for
electrical diagnostics (such as magnetics) and is also used by the bolometer system. Thus
our principle is to use features already existing in the backplate, and then don't be affected
by small changes in its design.
The route can get out of the wiring conduit at water manifolds either at the top or
midplane of the machine. Figure 3 shows the present backplate design, both in cross-
section and 3-D view, illustrating that there is plenty of room to pass the 1 cm tubes
through. An extra pipe can be placed through the double wall construction for the
pneumatic tubes. If we have 20 rom diameter pipes (12 rom ID) then we can have two of
them (transfer and return air) in a 50 rom diameter sheath; it could probably be even
smaller.
At least 2 toroidal locations are desired to have poloidal arrays of irradiation ends for
redundant backup. We propose to put this system in toroidally at locations of the so-called
"in-situ welds of multi-sectors"; that is, sector joints that are welded together in the pit
rather than welded before being lowered into place. Electrical diagnostics should not be on

SlC"OII . .. & ~-
I,: ;'':':4!!: /; ~~.:::.:;,.. I:!~:,~!~j ,
lee, 'f f tit '

Figure 3: Views of backplate near vertical pipe

assemblies showing where activation system
pneumatic routing exits from primary vacuum
vessel.

482
this critical path of the construction, but our pneumatic system can be. Eight out of the 20
sector welds are like this. We could conceptually use any pair of in-situ weld sectors and
collect the tubes toroidally in the Heat Transfer System (HTS) Vault and thence to
Diagnostic Hall (on south side). Sectors 13 and 17 on the south side are our initial
preferred choice.
Routing of the pneumatic system into either the HTS vault or the neutral beam
injection (NBI) vault provides a location for airlocks and secondary tritium containment.
The need for two different toroidal locations implies they (probably) both cannot use NBI
vault and also be at in-situ welds, besides which the NBI vault only applies to routing out
near the midplane which is problematic for inboard locations. Hence the primary design
route is along vertical water manifolds to the HTS vaults. Once into the vertical pipe
extensions our pneumatic tubes can follow the same routing as the water pipes'4, using
their primary and secondary containment.
Once the tubes penetrate into the HTS vault the problems of providing secondary
containment and removing activated air from inside the pneumatic tubes must be solved.
Figure 4 is a schematic of the pneumatic system. Capsules are routed to and from loaders,
drop outs, and counting systems in the Neutron Activation Laboratory in the Diagnostic
Hall to a special room with a "carousel" multiple-in I multiple-out queuing device. The
carousel room in the tokamak building would be "off-limits" usually, but the analysis room
in the diagnostic hall probably only needs partitions to provide controlled access and
distance from the counting stations. All the lines from the carousel to the tokamak go
through a single penetration into the HTS vault, and are then routed toroidally'S, all using
insulated (Plastic) piping to prevent shorting sectors. The radiation dose inside the HTS
vault should not be any greater than the TFTR Test Cell itself, and this non-metal piping
will not fail from radiation damage. Inside the HTS vault are located "shoebox-size"
airlock devices which provide primary containment and ability to purge the air lines. We

SECONDARY HEAT TRANSFER DIAGNOSTICS HALL

VACUUM SYSTEM VAULT
"Shoebox' Airfock

Carousel Room Counting Room

r----T--- Loader
r-----r __ L_,
,,
I I
I I
I •••••••••••
I
I
,, ,,
r.:,_=-=_=-=_::-_::-_:-:-_--'_,
,, ,,
PurgE!! Exhausts
''
, ~!
-61 -6-1'
,,,
,
Irradiation
o,, 0 '
'
,,
,,
,
Location L ____ ...! _____ _
:0,
1____ ,

Capsule Tube ,
o
Supply Air He Supply
Valve DropOut,

Figure 4: Generalized layout of pneumatic system from counting room to carousel to one irradiation
location illustrating tritium containment and activated air control. The "shoebox" airlocks feature two valves
each with three positions: open, closed with air holes, and fully closed and sealed. Activated air is purged
via exhausts in the Heat Transfer System vault.

483
thus plan to vent the activated air in the pneumatic system into the HTS vault.
There are other options available for variations of the pneumatic routing if necessary.
There are "HTS upper and lower communication shafts" or "pipe chases" which run
between the upper and lower HTS vaults (to allow twice the volume in loss-of-coolant
accident). These provide communication between top and bottom cooling systems.
Cooling water from the "outer blanket limiter" (outboard below midplane port) and from
the divertor go down to the lower HTS vault, but the piping at the midplane goes to the
pipe chases and then down (or for the neutron activation system up to connect to pipes at
top). A possible alternative location for the airlock shoeboxes would be on the walls of the
pipe chase at the cryo(pump) handling level or diagnostic level and thence out. Exact
details can be worked out during construction as long as the concepts are sound and space
for the airlock shoeboxes is available.
An issue recognized during the conceptual design was how to measure the presence of
capsules in the pneumatic system in a way that could withstand the radiation and heat of
the environment Operation of the pneumatic system on TFfR has led us to recognize that
pressure changes occur when the capsules reach the irradiation ends and "stopper" the flow
of gas. This method can provide a very robust measurement technique for arrival and
departure timing and determination of the presence of the capsule at the irradiation end.
More usual electrical and optical techniques can be used at the airlocks and in the HTS
vault and beyond where the environment is not as intense.
A similar system needing pneumatic access to the inboard side is the pellet injection
system. However, that system uses a s1naller pipe, probably needs a much larger radius of
curvature, and only needs one or two specific routings and cannot be generalized to
multiple poloidal locations. Its primary vacuum seal must be pulled out to the pellet
injection cask. and not just its secondary seal. Thus the pellet system is more difficult and
not as general, and cannot be used as a template for the neutron activation system.
Key Outstanding Issues
Before fmal design and construction of the neutron activation system, there are still
several outstanding projects that must be addressed.
1. The basic design must be modeled in the MCNP neutronics code and its sensitivity to
location determined. The field of view and its uncertainties must be carefully
considered.
2. A thermal model should be developed to confirm that sufficient heat transfer to the
BSMs and the toroidal filler module itself and their cooling is achieved so that no
active cooling of the irradiation end is needed.
3. Each irradiation location will need to have its pneumatic system routed through the
final backplate design. No "jogs" or bends of small radius of curvature can be allowed,
and there may need to be a special circumstance or two.
4. In particular, it is not clear from present drawings whether irradiation ends on the
outboard lower side can be routed past the midplane ports to be collected in the upper
vertical pipe assembly. A special routing out at the midplane ports and up through the
pipe chases may be necessary.
5. Neutron Activation Laboratory space for both the analysis I counting room and for the
carousel needs to be allocated by Naka Joint Work Site team in the Diagnostics
building.

484
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Figure S: Summary of expected neutron fluxes at full power (typically 1 MW/m' at wall) at different
distances from the ITER plasma.

Neutron Source Strength Monitors

Location of Detectors in Neutron Field

Further detailed design of the neutron source strength monitor system has required
some estimate of the local neutron flux within the bioshield of ITER. Figure 5 summarizes
a variety'··'7 of MCNP neutronics calculations done for ITER. There is an outstanding
question of whether there is more than 1 order of magnitude drop in (total) neutron flux
from outside of the vacuum vessel to the bioshield and whether the source strength
monitors will need to be placed behind toroidal field coils to get more shielding. However,
we believe that we will not need the shielding of the TF coils and can use a limiter (remote
handling) port shield plug instead.
As argued previously3, 7 orders of magnitude detector efficiency dynamic range is
needed in the system with a factor of no more than 25 between sensitivity of detectors, and
hence 6 detectors in a complete set. We need three different locations because we cannot
get the needed dynamic range of detectors in one physical location. One detector (the most
sensitive) must go "close" to the plasma to allow in-situ calibration. As long as a detector
responds to neutrons from at least one toroidal field "bay" or more (and is not effectively
collimated to significantly less than one bay) the calibrations of that detector should be
meaningfully related to the total plasma volume emission. We plan to place two 200mm x
50mm fission chamber detectors in the neutron collimator pre-shield 18 following lines of a

485
 ITER NEUTRON FLUX MONITORS

BLANKET I SHIELDING
IolOOOlE

CALIBRATION (HECTOR
ti~~iR~~~~IOM TO BE

Figu~ 6: Elevation view of remote handling port depicting locations of one set of neutron source strength
monitors. Module A contains 2 fission chambers for DD operation and is re-en1r8Dt into the primary vacuum
weld block. Module B contains 3 fission chambers for DT operation and is re-en1r8Dt into the cryostat
vacuum boundary. A calibration detector located near the plasma is the sixth fission chamber in the sel

bolometer channel also to be placed there. We may also try to use one of the micro-fission
detector l7 locations at the back of the blanket shield module (BSM). Our "calibration
detectors" are thus not in "limiterlRemote handling" (RH) ports and they can be calibrated
by a source held in-situ by standard RH equipment. No special track inside the vessel
would be needed_ Three detectors (the least sensitive for DT operation) can go into a
module "topologically outside the interspace vacuum" (see Module B in Figure 6) on a
coverplate of the secondary vacuum wall in a re-entrant configuration. They are thus
outside of any vacuum (but inside bioshield). A variation of sensitivity of a factor of
25x25 can be achieved between these three detectors by changes in fissionable mass.
Commercially available fission detectors with up to 10 grams now exist.

This leaves two detectors (the middle range of sensitivity, for ohmic and/or DD
operation) which must go into a different module (Module A of Figure 6) with less
shielding in front of it than the least sensitive ones in the module B outside the interspace
vacuum. The module of two detectors of intermediate sensitivity would need to be in the
interspace vacuum, just outside the primary vacuum shield block. The need for three
locations (most sensitive, least sensitive, and middle sensitivity) is dictated by the desire to
use count mode over the entire dynamic operating range of ITER and by the requirement
to use machine shielding (and distance) to provide some of the dynamic range. The least
sensitive and middle sensitive modules can hopefully be part of the plug assembly for the
limiter/RH ports.

486
 Two similar sets of six detectors are then required at two different toroidal locations.
In addition to basic redundancy, two arrays of monitors are needed to: control for local
changes in shielding and hence detector efficiency over time; control for local noise
sources like RF interference; and control for localized neutron production from runaway
electrons or disruptions.

Details of Fission Chambers in Modules

Each detector is inserted into a double-walled stainless steel module box with
hydrogenous material for moderation (polyethylene, about 8 cm thick between the walls),
attached to the lid of the module for easy removal by remote handling. The stainless steel
provides fireproofing as well as radio frequency shielding. The modules need not be
vacuum tight. From each module, through a vacuum penetration in the cryostat, runs a
single 10-em diameter electrical conduit containing the electrical connections. No
electronics are needed in the detector modules, because modern fission chambers operate
with low-capacitance, low-leakage cables many hundreds of feet long. 19 The electronics
can be outside the reactor hall in the diagnostics building. In each module there will be one
"blank" or fissionable-material-free detector to help identify noise issues. In general, the
renormalization (radioactive) sources can just be built-in to the modules, and not have to
have any technique to insert or remove them. They provide a constant background of a
low counting rate that can be subtracted from the signals. However, each detector may
require its own source because of the wide variation in sensitivity of detectors in a module.

Module Name Detector Mass (g) Maximum Source Efficiency

Strength (n/sec) (counts!
neutron)
Cal NE-l 10 4.0e14 2.5e-10
A NE-2 10 1.3e16 8e-12
A NE-3 5 2.6e16 4e-12
B NE-4 6 6.6e17 1.5e-13
B NE-5 0.25 1.6e19 6e-15
B NE-6 0.01 4.0e20 2.5e-16

Table 1: Representative set of 6 detectors for the ITER Neutron Source Strength Monitors.

Table 1 shows a representative set of six detectors for the neutron source strength
monitor array. The maximum source strength is that which provides lOO-kHz count rate at
the detector. The lOO-kHz count rate is chosen as a rate where pileup and dead time
effects are small and easily accounted for. This set will measure a range of source strength
all in counting mode from 4x 10'" n/sec to below 1014 n/sec with lower counting rates in
NE-l. Following Figure 5 the flux is assumed to decrease by a factor of 30 between the
calibration detector location and Module A, and by another factor of 30 between Module A
and Module B. The actual detector array for ITER will be different, depending on final
design and exact location and neutronics analysis. This table does reflect how the design
conditions can be met
In practice the efficiencies of some detectors may have to be adjusted in the field to
achieve the required ranges of sensitivity. Such adjustments are readily made with thin
sleeves of cadmium, which has an exceptionally high absorption cross section for very
slow (<0.4 e V) neutrons. The detector efficiency can be reduced as required by wrapping
the detector body in a cadmium sleeve of appropriate thickness. With the expected degree

487
 of neutron thermalization in the modules, a factor of 2 reduction in efficiency is achieved
with 0.5 mm of cadmium.
It will be important also to have time-dependent monitors of the DT neutron emission
rather than just the total emission, for initial triton bumup work but more importantly for
trace-tritium shots and tracking tritium clean-up in DD shots. Possible threshold detectors
for this purpose are radium-based fission chambers, silicon surface barrier diode detectors,
scintillating fiber detectors, and natural diamond detectors. Additional types of threshold
detectors are presently under development. 2o The fission threshold of 226Ra at 3.0 MeV
makes a radium-based fission detector all but impervious to D-D neutrons that have
nominally 2.5 MeV. (One would still detect the extremity of the D-D tail in the case of
beam-target reactions.) Such a detector could in principle measure only the D-T neutrons
in a mixed DD-DT flux. However, the fission cross section Of =0.02 bam at 14 MeV2' is
very small (more than 5000 times smaller than the thermal cross section for 23'U), so that a
large mass or huge neutron flux is needed for adequate sensitivity. Because 226Ra is an
intense alpha emitter (half-life = 1620 yr), the noise discrimination problems would be
much more severe than with uranium-based detectors. Alpha pileup is also a serious issue.
A study at ORNL concluded that it is not practical to put more than 10 mg of radium in a
single detector, both because of alpha pileup and because of safety problems in fabrication.
However, several radium-based detectors could be used in parallel for increased sensitivity.
A O.I-g radium detector array at the location of Module A would require a neutron source
strength of 2xlO'9 n/s (56 MW fusion power) to generate a minimal count rate of 500 cIs.
That means that the detector would be useful only when the D-T neutron flux is so large
that there is no need to discriminate against D-D neutrons. Silicon surface barrier diodes22
are sensitive to neutrons with En>4 MeV and generally use a system threshold set at
5.5 MeV. The efficiency to neutron detection is typically 0.001 counts per unit flux. At
the front of module A this would enable useful operation with a D-T source strength of
5xlO'6 to 5xlO 18 n/s which is ideal for trace-tritium operation in ITER. One would like a
factor of 10-100 higher sensitivity for D-D triton bumup which would imply a location
near the close-in calibration detectors. SBDs have a lifetime of about 10'2 n/cm2; at the
cryostat wall with a neutron flux of 10' n/cm2/s they would only last 10 full-powered 1000-
sec long discharges. Such detectors would still provide valuable information on ITER
during the period prior to full-power operation; they could be installed in the source
strength monitor module boxes and sacrificed when full-power tritium operation begins.
Scintillating fiber detectors 23 use a directional array of fibers and pulse-height analysis to
reject Compton recoils from gamma interactions and low-energy proton recoils from DD
neutron interactions. They have been successfully used for triton bumup and 14-MeV
neutron dectection with better efficiency and time response than silicon diodes. Diamond
detectors'" are also radiation resistant; in addition to use in the neutron cameras they might
be useful as DT source strength monitors.
Key Outstanding Issues
1. Different neutronics calculations of the ITER environment 16 have reached conclusions
about the drop off in neutron flux to the bioshield that differ by a couple orders of
magnitude. This difference needs to be resolved to better determine the location of the
source strength monitors. Also, the effect on the neutron flux of the shield plug in the
limiter port needs to be ascertained.
2. The exact location of the calibration detectors needs to be negotiated.
3. The selection of complementary energy-sensitive (DT only) flux monitors needs to also
be made.

488
Acknowledgments
We thank Ken Young (PPPL) for support and encouragement for this design work.
The ITER Neutron Working Group has been a source of ideas and comments for our
efforts. This report has been prepared as an account of work assigned to the United States
Home Team under Task Agreement number G55 TO 09 with the Agreement among the
European Atomic Energy Community, the Govemment of Japan, the Government of the
Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America on Cooperation
in the Engineering Design Activities for the International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor (ITER EDA Agreement) under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy
Agency (lAEA). This work was supported by DOE Contracts No. W-7405-ENG-36 and
DE-AC02-76-CH03073.

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measurements at Joint European Torus," Fusion Technology 15 (1989) 1420.
• Cris W. Bames, A. R. Larson, and A. L. Roquemore, "Calculations of neutron activation response for the
Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor, and absolute calibrations of neutron yield," Fusion Technology 30 (1996)
63.
7 L. C. Johnson et al., "Cross-calibration of neutron detectors for deuterium-tritium operation in TFTR,"

Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 66 (1995) 894.

• H. W. Hendel et al., "In situ calibration of TFTR neutron detectors," Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 61 (1990) 1900.
• T. Nishitani et al., "Absolute calibration of the IT-60U neutron monitors using a ""Cf neutron source,"
Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 63 (1992) 5270.
to B. J. Laundy and O. N. Jarvis, "Numerical study of the calibration factors for the neutron counters iI1 use
at the Joint European Torus," Fusion Technology 24 (1993) 150.
II G. Sadler et aI., "Calibration issues for neutron diagnostics on ITER," these proceedings.

12 V. Kbripunov, technical memo lOoMS NO:NA NAG-13-11-30-% .

.. Chris Walker, "Diagnostics access for ITER," these proceedings.

,. Yuri Utin, private communication (June, 1997). Refer to ITER Catia CAD model 10.0001.0002 and
.0003 for view of vertical route to HTS vault.
IS See Catia CAD Model 26.0009.0001. recent 10 loops option of the upper HTS vault.

,. T. Nishitani et al .• "Design of radial neutron spectrometer array for the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor," Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68 (1997) 565. V. S. Zaveriaev, G. E. Shatalov, and N. N.
Vasiliev, "Fmal Report for 1996," S 55 RI 1 %-07-03 F 1. H. lida and R. Santoro, private communication
of I-D calculation, June, 1997.
17 T. Nishitani et al., "In-vessel neutron monitor using micro fission chambers for ITER," these

proceedings.
,. F. B. Marcus et al., "A radial neutron camera design for ITER with integral shielding," these
proceedings.
,. For example, from Gamma-Metrics, 5788 Pacific Center Blvd., San Diego, CA 92121.
,. B. Esposito, private communication of paper" Application of micro strip gas chambers (MSGC) as
neutron detectors in controlled thermonuclear fusion experiments," presented at 7th Pisa Meeting on
Advanced Detectors on May 25-31, 1997.
21 Babcnko, et al., SOli. J. Nuc/. Phys 7 (1%8) 186.

22 E. Ruskov et al., "Measurement of 14 MeV neutrons at TFTR with Si-Diode Detectors," Rev. Sci.
Instrum. 66 (1995) 910.

489
" W. C. Sailor et al., "Conceptual design for a scintillating fiber neutron detector for fusion reactor plasma
diagnostics," Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (1995) 898; G. A. Wurden el ul., "Scintillating-fiber 14 MeV neutron
detector on TFfR during DT operation," Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (1995) 901.
,. A. V. Krasilnikov et al., "TFfR natural diamond detectors based D-T neutron spectrometry system," Rev.
Sci. Instrum. 68 (1997) 553; A. V. Krasilnikov et ul., "Fusion Neutronic Source deuterium-tritium neutron-
spectrum measurements using natural diamond detectors," Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (1997) 1720.

490
IN-VESSEL NEUTRON MONITOR
USING MICRO FISSION CHAMBERS FOR ITER

Takeo Nishitani, Katsuyuki Ebisawat , Larry C. Johnson t, Chris Walker t ,

Yoshio Kita# and Satoshi Kasai

Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Naka-machi, Naka-gun,

!baraki 311-01, JAPAN
tITER Joint Central Team, San Diego, CA 92037, USA
tITER Joint Central Team, Garching, GERMANY
1T0shiba Corporation, Fuchu, Tokyo 183, JAPAN

INTRODUCTION

The measurement of the absolute neutron source strength is very important for
controlling the fusion power in a fusion experimental reactor such as ITER. In present large
tokamaks such as JET1, TFfR2 or JT-60U3, the neutron source strength measurement has
been carried out using 235U or 238U fission chambers installed outside the vacuum vessel.
Detection efficiencies of those detectors are easily affected by surrounding equipment such
as other diagnostics or heating systems. ITER has a thick blanket and vacuum vessel, so
that detectors outside the vacuum vessel can not measure the neutron source strength with
sufficient accuracy without cross-calibration to more sensitive detectors. We are designing
micro fission chambers, which are pencil size gas counters with fissile material inside, to be
installed in the vacuum vessel as neutron flux monitors for ITER4-6. By installing the
detectors at several poloidal angles, this neutron monitor may remove or reduce the error of
the neutron source strength caused by changes of the plasma position and/or neutron source
profile. This paper provides the conceptual feasibility for this neutron monitor system.

ITER REQUIREMENTS FOR NEUTRON MONITOR

The neutron monitors have important functions in providing measurements for

machine protection and plasma control, and they are also needed for performance
evaluation and optimization, and physics understanding. The primary function is
measurement of the total neutron source strength, hence the fusion power. Table 1 specifies
parameter ranges, temporal resolutions, and measurement accuracy. The neutron monitors
have to have wide dynamic range and fast response. From the technical point of view, it
should be robust in the ITER environment such as radiation, electro-magnetic noises, and

Diagnostics/or Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et af., Plenum Ptess, New York, 1998 491
mechanical vibrations, and it should not be sensitive to gammas. The detection efficiency
should be stable over the ITER operation life, and should be calibrated easily. In ITER,
conventional neutron monitors installed outside the vacuum vessel and in-vessel neutron
monitor using micro fission chamber are proposed for the neutron source strength
measurement. Neutron cameras7 with their neutron source profile measurement are also
available. However, they need Abel inversion or tomography techniques to get the neutron
source profile.

Table 1. Requirement for neutron monitor.

Parameter Parameter range Spatial resolution Time resolution Accuracy

Neutron source strength 10K 102 1 n s-l integral 1 ms 10 %
Fusion power ~GW integral 1 ms 10%

DETECTOR DESIGN

Micro Fission Chamber

A micro fission chamber is a pencil-size gas counter with fissile material inside,
which was developed as an in-core monitor for fission reactors. Figure 1 shows the
schematics of the typical micro fission chamber with wide dynamic range which is
commercially available. In this detector, about 12 mg of U02 is coated on the cylindrical
electrode and 14.6 atm of Ar + 5% N2 gas is filled between the electrodes. The micro
fission chamber can be operated with pulse counting mode at low neutron flux,
Campbelling (mean square voltage) mode8 at medium flux and current mode at high flux.
Combination of those operational modes may provide a wide dynamic range of 10 10 with
the temporal resolution of 1 ms from a single detector, which satisfies the ITER
requirement. The most popular candidates of the fissile material in the micro fission
chamber are 235U and 238U, the former has a large fission cross-section for thermal
neutrons and the later has fission events only for fast neutrons higher than -0.8 MeV. The
signal is transferred by a MI (mineral insulated) cable, so that we can install micro fission
chambers inside the vacuum vessel in the same manner as magnetic probes. The operational
temperature can not be higher than 300°C, so that cooling of the detector is necessary due to
the nuclear heating inside the vacuum vessel.

:;
200mm

:
Cathode Fissile material Ionizing gas(Ar + 5%N 2)
I

!S?l~ ~i
Electric insulator Anode Housing Electric insulator MI Cable
Figure 1. Schematics of typical micro fission chamber. Fissile material such as 235U is coated on the
cylindrical electrode. Ionizing gas of AI + 5% N2 (14.6 atrn) is filled between the electrodes.

492
Installation Position

In ITER CDA(Conceptual Design Activity), we has a plan to install micro fission

chambers just under the first wall. However, this would be rather difficult due to the
intensive nuclear heating larger than 10 W/cc and the burn-up of the fissile material
resulting in a short life time of the detector. A neutronics calculations using the two
dimensional neutron transport code DOT 3.5 was used to fined suitable positions around the
shielding blanket and to determine the kind of fissile material. The model includes the first
wall, shielding blanket with gap between adjacent modules, back plate of blankets and
vacuum vessel. Figure 2 shows the distributions of neutron and gamma flux, and the nuclear
heating rate for stainless steel along the radial direction in the shielding blanket. From an
engineering point of view, installation of a detector inside the shielding blanket is rather
difficult due to the extremely tight space among the cooling pipes. A possible candidate for
the installation position is in the gap between adjacent blanket modules and behind the
blanket on the back plate. Figure 3 shows the neutron and gamma spectra for those two
positions. The neutron flux in the gap is about 10 times larger than that behind the blanket.
On the other hand, the gamma flux in the gap is only three times larger.

Blanket ;>B%Ck pl<lj!l

10 15
"" 100 Z
C
--+-- 14 MeY neutron
.- 10 14 Total neutron
_.)Eo ••
0
~
10 CD
in ~-.--Total Gamma Sl)
~

'}J 10 13
I
E
C,) 1 CD
Sl)
.......... !::!'.
10 12
><
:J
:J
CO
LL 10 11 0.1 . -

10
- . _ •• Nuclear Heating
~
10 0.01 ~
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from 1st wall (cm)
Figure 2. Distributions of neutron and gamma flux, and the nuclear heating rate for stainless steel along the
radial direction in the shielding blanket.

>< -+- Behind blanket

~ 10
9
r::
~ 108
.c
c.. 105 106 107
Neutron energy (eY) Photon energy (eY)

Figure 3. (a)Neutron and (b)gamma spectra in the gap between the adjacent blanket modules and behind the
blanket on the back plate.

493
 Total neutron and gamma flux, and expected fission reaction rates of 235U and 238U
micro fission chambers with 10 mg uranium in the ITER 1.5 GW operation are listed in
Table 2. In order to get wide dynamic range, the fission reaction rate should be as high as
the operation limit in the maximum power operation of ITER. Maximum fission reaction
rate of this chamber is 1010 s-l for the Campbelling mode. The 235U chamber can be
positioned both the behind blanket and in the gap. The 238U chamber can only be used in
the gap.

Table 2. Fission reaction rates in 235U and 238U micro fission chambers.

Position Total neutron flux Total gamma flux Fission reaction Fission reaction Nucl. heating
{cm-2 s-l} {cm-2 s-l} rate 235U {s-l} rate 238U {s-l} {w/cc}
Behind blanket 9.0x 1011 1.2 x 1012 9.9 x 108 2.3x 106 -0.05
In gaQs 9.7x 10 12 3.5 x 1012 2.3 x 109 1.3 x 107 -0.5

Life Time

The change of the detection efficiency due to the burn-up of the fissile material is a
worry. 235U is burned up mainly due to the fission reactions, because the thermal neutron
flux is relatively small, and the fission cross-section is larger than the capture cross-section
even in the low energy region. The change of the detection efficiency is only 0.1 % and 0.2
% behind blankets and in the gap, respectively, for the ITER life time of 1.5 GW·year. Thus
we can use 235U chambers without replacement in the ITER life time.
Burn-up of 238U is more complicated. 238U will be burned up mainly by the neutron
capture reaction in the thermal energy range, but the capture reaction will produce 239pu via
following chain;

238U + n ~ 239U +y
239U ~ 239Np+ ~
239Np ~ 239pu + ~ . (1)

The detection efficiency of the 238U chamber may increase due to 239Pu which has large
fission cross-section for thermal neutrons. We calculated the fission reaction rate of 238U
chamber for the neutron spectrum in the gaps of adjacent blankets. After the 1.5 GW·year
operation the burn-up of 238U is only 0.2 %, however, the detection efficiency will increase
50 % due to 239pu. The change is too large to use 238U chamber as a stable neutron
monitor in ITER.

Gamma-ray Effect

This micro fission chamber can be operated in the pulse counting, Campbelling and
current modes. We evaluated the noises from gammas for those three operational modes. In
the pulse counting mode, the current pulse generated by the fission fragments or gamma
reaction in the ionizing gas is measured. The fission reaction gives -100 Me V to the
ionizing gas, while on the other hand deposited gamma energy is less than 10 MeV (see

494
Fig.3b). So we can eliminate the gamma pulses by conventional pulse discrimination
technique.
The Campbelling mode sensitivity is given from the following formula,

Irms 2 =N q2 Jf2(oo) B(oo) dool1r (2)

where N is the fission reaction rate, q is electric charge generated by the fission, f(oo) is the
frequency spectrum of the detector output, and B(oo) is the filter function of the amplifier.
The gamma sensitivity in Campbelling mode is 7.7 x 10-29 A21H:zJ(RJh) for those chambers.
The expected Campbell currents due to neutrons and gammas are listed in Table 3, where
gamma dose rates are converted from the gamma spectra shown in Fig.3b. Thus the we can
neglect gamma effects in Campbelling mode. Also we calculated the outputs in the current
mode as shown in Table 3. The gamma sensitivity in current mode is 2.2 x 10- 12 N(RJh).
Current mode can not used due to gamma noises.

Table 3. Outputs from neutrons and gammas in Campbelling and current modes.

Detectornocation Gamma dose rate Campbelling mode (A2IHz) Current mode (A)
(RIh) Neutrons Gammas Neutrons Gammas

235U behind blanket 3.5 x 106 2.3 x 10- 17 2.7 x 10-22 2.6 x 10-4 8.0 x 10-6
235U in gaps 8.6x 106 5.3 x 10- 17 6.6 x 10-22 6.0 x 10-4 1.9 x 10-5

Dynamic Range

Wide dynamic range of 107 in single fission chamber has been demonstrated in the
JT -60U neutron monitor3 using both pulse counting and Campbelling modes, which meets
the ITER requirement for the neutron monitor. The linearity was calibrated using a fission
reactor with output power range of 107 before installation on JT-60U. We confirmed two
decades of overlap in pulse counting and Campbelling modes. From this experience, the
expected dynamic range of a micro fission chamber with 10 mg 235U is shown in Figure 4.
Thus this system can cover the 107 dynamic range of ITER operation.

10 13 1014 1015 10 16 10 17 10 18 10 8 10 9 10 10
Fusion Power (W)
Neutron Source
Strength (S-l)

Operation Range IPulse count mode I

(behind Blankets) I Campbelling mode I
Operation Range IPulse count mode I
(in Gap) r Campbelling mode I

Figure 4. Operation range of 235U micro fission chambers behind blanket and in the gap of adjacent
blankets.

495
Magnetic Field Effect

The effect of the strong magnetic field on the fission chamber is another problem. In
the fission chamber, we measure the electron induce current from ionization by fission
fragments. So we calculated the electron drift orbit in the magnetic field. The electron drift
velocity u is represented by

(3)

where /le is the electron mobility, v is the collision frequency of the electron to neutral
atoms, and (()c is the electron cyclotron frequency in the magnetic field B. If we assume E =
(Ex, 0, 0) and B = (0, 0, Bz), then the components of the velocity are

_ ( J.1e Ex J.1e Ex (()c 0) (4)

u - 1 + (()2/v2 ' 1 + (()2/v2 v'

The angle between u and E, the Lorentz angle a, is represented by tan a =(()c/v. In the case
of the micro fission chamber with 1 atm Argon gas, are applied voltage of 100 V across
0.25 mm electrode gap, in a magnetic field of 5.7 T, the Lorentz angle is evaluated to be tan
a '" 0.1. Thus the magnetic effect on the electron drift velocity is negligible.

EFFECTS OF PLASMA POSITION AND NEUTRON SOURCE PROFILE

The detection efficiency of a neutron detector inside the vacuum vessel is affected
by changes of plasma position and the neutron source profile. However, there is a
possibility of removing or reducing these effects by installing the detectors at several
poloidal angles. We investigated the responses of the micro fission chambers by a neutron
Monte Carlo calculation using the MCNP version 4A code9 . An 18 degree sector of the first
wall, shielding blanket, blanket back plate and vacuum vessel is modeled by a simple torus
with elliptic cross-section as shown in Figure 5. The divertor cassettes, ports and coils are
not included. Only one poloidal gap between adjacent blankets is modeled. We use the
neutron cross-section set based on JENDL 3.210. The neutron source is a toroidally
symmetric source with 14 MeV monoenergetic energy. The source has a poloidal
distribution as follows:

(5)

where Rp is the major radius, ap is the minor radius, Zp is the vertical shift of the plasma
center, K is the ellipticity, and m is the power of the parabolic profile. The angular emission
is isotropic. The reference parameters are Rp =8.14 m, ap = 2.3 m, Zp = 1.4 m, k = 1.6 and
=
m 0.8. In this case, the neutron source peaking factor is represented by

(6)

where Sn(o) and <Sn> are the central and volume averaged neutron emissivity, respectively.

496
 ~.~s:;;:~,--::::tI Micro fission chamber

Vacuum
Veasel

Shielding
Backplate
...---""-"'-'-""""-- Micro
Rsslon
Chombe

Be SS+H20 SS H20
Cu+SS

Detail

Figure 5. Model for a neutron Monte Carlo calculation. An 18 degree sector of the first wall, shielding
blanket, blanket back plate and vacuum vessel is modeled by a simple torus with elliptic cross-section.

We calculated the detection efficiencies of the 235U micro fission chambers at four
typical poloidal positions in the gap as shown in Figure 5. We have not obtained sufficient
statistics for those positions behind the blanket. Figure 6 shows the plasma position
dependence of the detection efficiencies. For the horizontal shift of plasma position in the
range ± 50 cm, the detection efficiency of the bottom detector is almost constant. The
efficiency of the outside detector increases only 1.5 % with 50 cm increase in horizontal
plasma position, while that of the inside one decreases 12 % and the top detector's
efficiency decreases 3%. For a vertical shift of the plasma position in the range ± 50 cm,
detection efficiencies of inside and outside detectors are almost constant. The efficiency of
the top detector increases 8 % with a 50 cm increase in vertical plasma position, while that
of the bottom one decreases 18 %.

N'S
(a) o (b) --Bottom
o --Top .,....
_····Outside
--Inside ---u>- 5 -····Inside
--Outside

~.- -.- .--'.•~"~~:. -.

- ····Bottom c:
(J)
' (3

:mc:
o
4
""-'-' "«.-.-~
.-"-' ~
n(J)
Q) 3
7.8 8 8.2 8.4 8.S 8.8 0 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.S 1.8 2
Rp (m) Zp (m)
Figure 6. Plasma position dependence of the detection efficiencies; (a) is for a horizontal shift and (b) is for a
vertical shift.

497
 Figure 7 shows the neutron source proflle dependence of the detection efficiencies.
Detection efficiencies of both inside and outside detectors increase 10 % with the increase
in the peaking factor of the neutron source proflle from 1.8 to 3. However, the efficiencies
of the top and bottom detectors are less sensitive to the peaking factor. The inside and
outside detectors are so close to the plasma that they are easily affected by the plasma
position and/or neutron source proflle. There is a possibility of reducing those effects by
combining the outputs of detectors. For example, the average of the top and bottom detector
signals derived only ± 2 % from the neutron source strength for both changes is plasma
position and profiles.

6
~

6'"
:s
>-
0 5
I::
CD
·0
~ 4
I::
0
n
CD
1i) 3
0 ,1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Peaking factor
Figure 7. Neutron source peaking factor dependence of the detection efficiencies.

CALmRATION

Absolutely calibrating the source strength monitors is their most critical issue. In
present tokamaks, neutron monitors are calibrated by moving a neutron source such as
252Cf radioactive source or a DT neutron generator. In ITER, an in-situ calibration by
moving a DT neutron generator remotely inside the vacuum vessel should be performed.
Figure 8 shows the detection efficiency (of the outside detector) for the point source on the
plasma axis at R = 8.14 m plotted against the toroidal angle of the source. A DT neutron
generator with emission rate of -10 10 neutronsls to get sufficient counting rate during the
in-situ calibration. Such an intense neutron generator which is movable by the remote
handling apparatus should be developed.

10" ......---rT-,-.~T"T~-r-r""'~-,-.~. .
>- Outside detector

u::::~
1::.5
00
.~ ~ 10 -12 ---..>--___----~
Q;~
o
10 -13 L..L.~--'--''_'__'_'_~~L..L._'_'__'_'-'-'_'

o 2 4 6 8 10
Toroidal angle (deg.)

Figure 8. Detection efficiency of outside detector for a point source on the plasma axis at R = 8.14 m plotted
against the toroidal angle of the source.

498
ARRANGEMENT ON ITER
Figure 9 shows the proposed arrangement of micro fission chambers on ITER. Ten
pairs of 235U chambers are installed at 10 poloidallocations. One chamber is behind the
blanket and another is in the gap of adjacent blankets in each poloidal location. Another
chamber is installed in the divertor cassette just under the dome. MI cables of chambers are
wired via generic diagnostics conduit.

f.'\ Position for

~ 2 Micro Fission Chambers
(shielded & unshielded)
......~--',;,- Blanket
/\''tlt---',;,-- Blanket Back Plate

also 2 Micro Fission

Chambers mounted
on Diagnostic Port
Diagnostic Block
(Port 15)

+ r - - - Vacuum Vessel

Cables

Blanket back plate

Mi r fi i

Figure 9. Arrangement of micro fission chambers on ITER.

499
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors appreciate Dr. S. Sato and Dr. H. Iida for their support on the neutronics
calculations. We appreciate Dr. S. Yamamoto for his pioneer work on the micro fission
chambers in ITER CDA. We thanks Drs. Cris W. Barnes and G.A. Wurden for comments
and suggestions. This report has been prepared as an account of work assigned to the
Japanese Home Team under Task Agreement number S 55 TD 02 FJ within the Agreement
among the European Atomic Energy Community, the Government of Japan, the
Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of
America on Cooperation in the Engineering Design Activities for the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ("ITER EDA Agreement") under the auspices of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

REFERENCES

1. O.N. Jarvis, G. Sadler, P. van Bell and T. Elevant, In-vessel calibration of the JET neutron monitors using
a 252Cf neutron source: Difficulties experienced, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61: 3172 (1990).
2. H.W. Hendel, R.W. Palladino, Cris W. Barnes, et aI., In situ calibration ofTFrR neutron detectors, Rev.
Sci. Instrum. 61: 1900 (1990).
3. T. Nishitani, H. Takeuchi, T. Kondoh, et aI., Absolute calibration of the JT-60U neutron monitors using a
252Cf neutron source, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63: 5270 (1992).
4. V. Mukhovatov, H. Hopman, S. Yamamoto, et aI., in: ITER Diagnostics, ITER Documantation Series,
No.33, IAEA, Vienna (1991).
5. T. Iguchi, J. Kaneko, M. Nakazawa, T. Matoba, T. Nishitani and S. Yamamoto, Conceptional design of
neutron diagnostics system for fusion experimental reactor, Fusion Eng. Design 28: 689 (1995).
6. T. Nishitani, K. Ebisawa, T. Iguchi and T. Matoba, Design of ITER neutron yield monitor using
microfission chambers, Fusion Eng. Design 34-35: 567 (1997).
7. F.B. Marcus, J.M. Adams, P. Batistoni, et aI., A neutron camera for ITER: Conceptual design, in:
Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactor, P.E. Stott, G. Gorini and E. Sindoni
ed., Plenum Press, New York (1996).
8. Y. Endo, T. Ito and E. Seki, A counting-Campbelling neutron measurement system and its experimental
results by test reactor, IEEE Trans. Nuc!. Sci. NS-29: 714 (1982).
9. LANL Group X-6, MCNP-a general Monte Carlo code for neutron and photon transport version 3A,
Report LA-7396-M, Rev.2, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos (1986).
10. T. Nakagawa, K. Shibata, S. Chiba, et aI., Japanese evaluated nuclear data library version 3 revision-2:
JENDL-3.2, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 32: 1259(1995).

500
CALIBRATION ISSUES FOR NEUTRON DIAGNOSTICS

G. J. Sadler, J. M. AdamsI, C. W. Barnes2, P. Batistoni3, D. BondI,

N. Hawkes\ 0 .N. Jarvis, L C. Johnsons, F. B. Marcus, M. Loughlin,
A L Roquemore 4, P. van Belle, N. Watkins 1

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon. OX14 3EA, UK

1 AEA Technology, Harwell, Abingdon, UK
2 Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
3 ENEA, Frascati (Roma), Italy
4 PPPL, P.O. Box 451, Princeton, N.J. 08543, USA
5 ITER, San Diego, USA

1. INTRODUCfION

The performance of diagnostic systems are limited by their weakest constituents,

including their calibration issues. Neutron diagnostics are notorious for problems encountered
while determining their absolute calibrations, due mainly to the nature of the neutron transport
problem. Although neutrons penetrate large amounts of material and are difficult to shield
against, they lose essential information (energy and direction) whilst interacting with shielding
materials or other machine components. Detectors, fully characterized in the laboratory,
respond only to the local neutron field, which is determined by radiation transport in the
tokamak and the diagnostic itself. In general, detectors will not distinguish between virgin
(unscattered) neutrons coming directly from the plasma and neutrons that have undergone
scattering events, although some discrimination is possible if energy-sensitive detectors are
used. In order to facilitate the determination of an accurate and precise calibration, the
diagnostic design should be such as to minimize the scattered neutron flux. In addition, the
largest possible fraction of the neutron emitting volume has to be viewed so as to avoid errors
caused by profile and collimation effects, which is best achieved by choosing a location as close
to the plasma as possible. The general issue of obtaining accurate calibrations for the neutron
diagnostics on present-day tokamaks were discussed at a specialist meeting in 19891•
ITER will use a comprehensive set of neutron diagnostics2 - comprising radial and
vertical neutron cameras, neutron spectrometers, a neutron activation system and internal and
external fission chambers - to provide accurate measurements of fusion power and power
densities as a function of time. The calibration of such an important diagnostic system merits
careful consideration. Some thoughts have already been given to this subject during the

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 501
conceptual design phase in relation to the time-integrated neutron activation3 and time-
dependent neutron yield monitors4• However, no overall calIbration strategy bas been worked
out so far.
This paper represents a first attempt to address this vital issue. Experience gained from
present large tokamaks (JET, TFrR and JT60U) and proposals for ITER are reviewed. The
need to use a 14-MeV neutron generator as opposed to radioactive sources for in-situ
calIbration of D-T diagnostics will be stressed. It is clear that the overall absolute
determination of fusion power will have to rely on a combination of nuclear measuring
techniques, for which the provision of accurate and independent calIbrations will constitute an
ongoing process as ITER moves from one phase of operation to the next.

2. ITER REQUIREMENTS

The complexity of the calibration issue can be appreciated from a brief consideration of
the range of ITER machine operations during which neutron diagnostics are required: starting
with hydrogen (H) plasmas, pure deuterium (D) and trace tritium (D(T» will next be employed
before moving on to 50:50 deuterium-tritium (D-T) plasmas. Hydrogen plasmas will generate
a small neutron yield due to the natural abundance of D in H and the usual photo-neutron
contribution is expected. It will be important to have absolutely calibrated 14-MeV neutron
monitors even during the D-D phase to study triton burn-up. The same monitors cannot not be
used during the D-T phase as the 14-MeV neutron yield will then be more than 4 orders of
magnitude higher. Calibration for the D-T phase probably presents the least difficulty.
The use of different fuels causes large variation in neutron yield and important changes
in neutron energy spectra, as does the employment of different plasma heating techniques.
Ideally, the instantaneous neutron yield diagnostic would be designed to have:
• a linear response to neutron yield over some seven orders of magnitude,
• no sensitivity to the neutron energy spectrum,
• no sensitivity to neutron emission position, shape, profile, and anisotropy,
• no sensitivity to gamma-rays,
• long-term intrinsic stability,
• no sensitivity to changes to the machine structure.
It may seem over-ambitious to specify all these mctors but it should be borne in mind that if the
main diagnostic is lacking in a particular attribute then it implies the need for a subsidiary
diagnostic which does not. Our present understanding is to meet the mission of ITER the
calibration issue alone implies the need for an activation system, a profile monitor and neutron
spectrometers to complement the neutron yield monitors.

3. METHODS USED ON PRESENT DAY MACHINES

Greatest emphasis will be placed in this article on experience obtained from JET since
the material from this machine is most readily available to the authors, although it should be
remarked that the exchange of information between the main fusion laboratories has always
been excellent so that the experimental techniques have been developed in common; the main
procedural differences can often be related to differences in construction of the different
tokamaks and in their perceived missions.

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3.1 JET
At JET, the instantaneous neutron yield is monitored with three sets of fission
chambers arranged around the machine, each set comprising a 23SU chamber and a 238U
chamber to provide the required dynamic range. These chambers are operated in pulse-
counting and current modes. The fission chambers are checked against each other on a
discharge by discharge basis and an alarm is raised if the response of one of the detectors
deviates by more than a preset value (-6%) from their average. Apart from being triggered
occasionally by photo-neutrons, it allows early detection of drifts (not observed at JET, so fur)
and changes to the disposition of equipment around the machine which influence the detector
calibration (this inevitably happens during long shut-downs).
The absolute calibration of JET neutron yield monitors was first obtained in 1984,
following the example ofTFfR, from an extensive series ofmeasurementsS where the response
of the fission chambers to a 2S2Cf radioisotope source was mapped as a function of source
location inside the vacuum vessel. At the same time, the insensitivity of the measurement to
the neutron energy spectrum was demonstrated using additional sources (Am-Be and a pulsed
14 MeV neutron generator). The overall accuracy of the calibration was determined to be
± 10%. The cahbration was checked at various occasions using the same 2S2Cf source but
never repeated in its entirety due to access limitations.
Later, foil activation measurements (see below) were used to derive the absolute
calibration with an improved accuracy of around ± 7% 6. Unfortunately, as time passed more
and more bulky and heavy equipment was installed inside and outside the main access ports
near to the fission chambers, inhibiting neutrons scattering from the access port windows from
reaching the fission chambers but not affecting those arriving at the fission chambers after
penetrating the concrete-filled mechanical shell. Consequently the fission chamber response
changed considerably over the first 7 years of operation. It also transpired that their response
had become dependent on the source energy spectrum7 so the use of 2S2Cfwas renounced and,
in the absence of convenient D-D and D-T generators, in-vessel calibrations were abandoned
altogether. The causes of the neutron energy dependence and the associated changes in
calibrations were investigated in a series of neutron transport simulations8 •

3.1.1 The activation method

At JET, the preferred method of calibrating the neutron yield monitors involves
determining the induced activation of small samples of carefully selected materials exposed to
the neutron field close to the vacuum vessel. Although a total of 8 irradiation stations were
originally provided, the most accurate results were obtained with the two irradiation stations
mounted inside the vacuum vessel (the others are outside but close to the vacuum vessel wall).
The neutron transport calculations, required to relate the measured activation to the source,
are most reliably performed for the inside locations. The resulting calibration is insensitive to
hardware outside the vacuum vessel but it does depend on the position of the plasma within the
vessel and it is only weakly dependent on internal machine components. Transport calculations
are performed with two codes based on contrasting methods: FURNACE9, a ray tracing code
using double differential albedos, and the standard 3D Monte Carlo Code, MCNP. After
extended investigations and iterations, agreement between the two codes was achieved and
accuracies of ±7% obtained6 • The inside of the machine has subsequently been changed by the
installation of a divertor, the up-down symmetry of plasma position in the vacuum vessel has
been lost and only one of the previous two inside irradiation ends is now available. The
computer model<> have been updated and the profile monitor is needed to measure the up-shift
(-30 cm) in the plasma position. The present (DTE1) calibration from the neutron activation
system provides an accuracy - ± 10%.

503
 The choice of material for irradiation and the operational aspects of the activation
technique are standard practice and will not be elaborated here, other than to note that a very
considerable dynamic range is readily achievable. The induced activity can usually be
determined to an accuracy of about 3%, comparable with the uncertainty in activation cross-
sections for dosimetry standard materials. The greatest uncertainty derives from the neutron
transport calculations. Of special relevance for JET (but possibly not for ITER) is the use of
delayed neutron counting using thorium or uranium samples for D-D discharges and silicon for
D-T discharges (or for triton bum-up measurements in D-D discharges) because their
associated decay half-lives are suitable for repeated use of the same samples in successive
discharges. The delayed neutron measurement technique was cahbrated very accurately at a
research (fission) reactor installation. The silicon activation cross-sections are not well known
so this material had to be cross-calibrated against dosimetry standard materials.
3.1.2 The neutron profile monitor
The new, upgraded, neutron profile monitor presently in use at JET is very similar to
the one under design for ITER. It consists of two fan-shaped arrays ("cameras"), one viewing
the plasma radially and the other viewing the plasma vertically. Absolute calibrations are
provided for the two cameras, as described below.
First, a short description of the neutron detection system used in the profile monitor is
presented. The JET neutron detectors operate in the pulse height mode and are energy
sensitive. The photo-multiplier pulses are amplified in a fast linear amplifier after having
traveled over 60-m-Iong cables between the torus hall and the signal processing cubicles. For
the BC418 scintillators used for operation in D-T, the amplified pulses are fed to a fan-out
unit, from which five of the outputs are fed to pulse height discriminator units - 4 for
measuring neutrons, the fifth for checking long term stability from in-built radioactive sources.
A sixth output is fed to a 'charge' integrating preamplifier followed by a pulse shaping
amplifier, so that fully shaped pulses can be presented to the input of an multi-channel analyzer
(after having passed through a linear gate). Pulse height spectra can thus be accumulated in
order to determine end-points and thresholds by gating the linear gate with the outputs from
the various pulse height discriminators. Pulses from the NE213 detectors (used for D-D and
trace tritium plasmas) can be treated in a similar way with the difference that we have to
consider 2 branches: a D-D branch and a D-T branch. Fortunately, each branch is handled by
one single, double-width, NIM pulse shape discriminator unit providing properly shaped
output pulses for neutrons and gamma-rays already suitable for multi-channel analysis.
Setting up the low-energy branch of the NE213 detectors using the 1275-keV y-rays
from the in-built 22Na sources posed few difficulties. Initially, the same procedure was used in
setting up of the NE213 high energy (D-T) branch but, due to the large extrapolations
involved, significant energy discrimination variations resulted and the measured profiles were
not smooth. A subsequent attempt, using an Am/Be neutron source, proved very helpful while
setting up the n/y discrimination for the low energy branch but was of no assistance for the
high energy branch due to the lack of neutrons with energies above 9 MeV.
Real progress was made with both types of 14-MeV neutron detector when a D-T
generator was borrowed from PPPL. As the output of the generator (-1-2 107n/s) was too low
to be of use when placed at the focal point of the camera, the rear camera shields were
removed and all detectors units irradiated simultaneously from a short distance. Spectra for all
detectors of a given type from one camera at a time were obtained in parallel by multiplexing
the shaped pulses to a fast ADC of a Canberra PC-based multi-channel analyzer. Proceeding
this way allowed statistically meaningful data to be obtained on an hourly basis for all detectors
simultaneously. The high voltages and discriminator thresholds were adjusted until 'identical'
spectra were observed. Only approximate settings could be obtained by proceeding as
described above due to neutron scattering in the rather bulky components of the detector box.

504
 The final adjustments were made using dedicated plasma discharges containing some
trace tritium at the beginning of the DTE1 campaign. ELMy H-mode plasma discharges
yielding relatively flat neutron profiles were used so as to obtain acceptable statistics in the
wing channels within a single discharge. The relative efficiencies for all channels lie within less
than 5% of the mean value.
Applying absolute, solid-angle-corrected detector efficiencies should lead to an
absolutely calibrated system. However, a thorough accelerator characterization of the BC418
scintillator-detector units, as required here, has yet to be undertaken and the light output
functions used for the NE213 detectors had to be utilized. A concern here is the inherent non-
linearity of light output functions coupled with the fuct that the experimentaJIy determined
NE213 light response functions do not agree well with published data.
Finally, corrections for back-scattering from the vacuum vessel wall regions viewed by
the camera, attenuation, in-scatter and out-scatter all have to be made. The absolute magnitude
of the backscatter correction is only weakly channel dependent. For D-T neutrons, the
fractional backscatter contribution to the line-of-sight data is -10% for a wing channel
whereas, for D-D neutrons, this correction is -10% for a central channel, despite the order of
magnitude higher unscattered fluxes in central channels. Corrections for attenuation and
scattering of neutrons directed towards the detectors, as determined by Monte Carlo
calculations, are typically about 30% for D-T neutrons and 50% for D-D neutrons.
Our first D-T results are encouraging as the instantaneous 14-MeV neutron yields from
the profile monitor agree to within 8 % with those obtained using silicon diodes calibrated
using the activation system (when the discharges are analyzed using both camera
simultaneously). However, the imbalance of -12% between vertical and horizontal camera
remains a concern. The calibration provided by the horizontal camera on its own is preferred
because of the fortunate circumstance of the radial position of the focus of the fun-shaped
arrangement of the lines-of-sight being almost exactly twice the radius of the major plasma
axis. This means that the line-of-sight density of the viewing arrangement on the inboard side
of the machine is significantly lower than on the outboard side. The good match between the
radial dependence of the line-of-sight density and radial dependence of toroidal volume means
that the radial-viewing neutron camera is, in principle, able to measure accurately the total
volume integrated neutron emission strength without recourse to information regarding the
spatial distribution of the neutron source profile along the camera's lines-of-sight (Le.
information from the vertical camera is not required). A weighted summation of the Iines-of-
sight data can therefore be used for deducing the total neutron yields. The viewing extent of
the horizontal camera is such that at maximum an error of 5% is introduced for extreme,
almost unrealistic, profiles. Unfortunately the location of the focus of the radial camera
proposed for ITER does not have the property described here and information on the spatial
distribution along the lines-of-sight (from a vertical camera and/or model calculations) will be
required in order to deduce the total neutron yield.

3.2 TFTR
The early D-D neutron production measurements with fission chambers at TFTR relied
on direct calibrations performed in-situ with radioisotope sources, as at JET. The sensitivity of
the TFTR fission chamber responses to source energy spectra is less than at JET since the
TFTR support structure is considerably less massive. Nevertheless, in later work particular
emphasis was laid on the use of neutron generators as these possess the great advantage of
providing the correct neutron source energy spectrum. Despite careful characterization of the
directional emission from the D-D generator, only moderately accurate results (> 15%) were
obtained from the first attempt 10. Calibration for D-T operation involved a D-T neutron
generator; however, such key issues as the number of spatial points that were necessary and

505
the effects of anisotropic sources were addressed with ~2a sourcesll • Activation techniques
were used to determine the output of the D-T neutron generator used for in-situ calibrations;
the 27A1(n,ai"Na reaction was chosen and a NIST-traceable gamma-ray source was used for
calibrating the efficiency of the HPGe detectors.
In order to cover the required range of neutron intensities from TFrR, a variety of
neutron detectors with differing sensitivities was employed. The absolute calibrations using
portable neutron sources were performed for the highest sensitivity detectors; transfer of the
calibrations to the low-sensitivity detectors used at high fusion powers required considerable
care to deal with issues of non-linearity and detector drift over time. With proper attention to
detail and the demonstrated stability of key detectors, the uncertainties from this process were
reduced to a few percent at most l 2,-13.
The use of the neutron activation technique for cahbrating the fission chambers was
given lower priority at TFfR than at JET and, indeed, as at JET, some initial inconsistencies
were experienced while employing an irradiation position outside the vacuum vessel of the
tokamak. Subsequent work with an irradiation position well inside the vessel led to reliable
results being obtained. The internal consistency of the activation technique was demonstrated
using materials with a range of threshold energies, those with low reaction thresholds being
most sensitive to details of the neutronics modeling.
The TFfR neutron profile monitor provides only a vertical view through the plasma,
considered sufficient as the flux surfaces are nearly circular (there being no divertor). The
radiation detectors in the collimated sight-lines were cahbrated14 using neutron sources
positioned inside the tokamak. A special feature of TFrR is the possibility of translating the
plasma column radially through substantial distances without substantially altering the
discharge characteristics; this was used1S to test the relative efficiencies of the different
collimation channels and to determine experimentally the magnitude of the backscatter
corrections.
The fission chamber calibrations obtained from (i) activation measurements performed
on high yield discharges coupled with neutron transport calculations 16, (ii) extrapolations using
the absolute efficiencies of the most sensitive detectors determined with in-situ neutron
generators 17, (iii) the profile monitor18 and also (iv) from a "wide-angle collimated view" of a
NE213 liquid scintillator spectrometer19, were all very similar. The final "official" TFrR D-T
fusion powers were derived from an independent-uncertainty-weighted average20 of all these
±
methods, giving a 1 s.d. uncertainty of 7%.

3.3 JT60U
The cahbration of the fission chambers at JT60U was first derived from an extensive
and carefully planned calibration21 in which an in-situ 252a neutron source was moved to 92
different toroidal locations using a purpose-built automated source carrier. Spectrum effects
were examined using MCNP neutron transport calculations, showing no difference within
statistical errors in the detection efficiency for ~2Cf or D-D neutrons. After integrating over
the plasma volume, a final error bar of about ± 10% was deduced.
JT60U, as at TFfR, suffered problems with a "noisy" detector which created a problem
during their calibration studies which was overcome by careful analysis. The need for
redundant and complementary systems is emphasized by such experiences.
Calibrations of the fission chambers using foil activation measurements coupled with
neutron transport calculations have recently been performed22, providing an overall accuracy of
± 15-20% for D-D discharges, in good agreement with the in-situ source calibrations. The
estimated error for 14 MeV neutron measurements (for triton burn-up studies since it is not
proposed to employ tritium fueling) is - ± 20%.

506
4. ITER

4.1 Yield monitors

The US proposal for instantaneous neutron yield monitoring is to provide two arrays of
6 neutron detectors operating in the count rate mode with varying sensitivities (defined by the
mass of 23SU in the fission chambers, location and extent of shielding) to measure over 7 orders
of magnitude in neutron intensity. These detectors are to be located at two positions within the
remote handling ports: two detectors will be embedded in the inboard shielding block in a
chamber re-entrant into the primary vacuum (but actually in the bioshield) to measure primarily
D-D and trace tritium yields while three less sensitive detectors devoted to D-T plasmas will be
located in a re-entrant chamber at the outside wall of the cryostat vacuum (but actually at
atmospheric pressure). This system will be duplicated in a second RH port for redundancy as
well as to provide discrimination against local events such as photo-neutrons from runaway
electrons and RF pickup. For calibration purposes, a sixth detector per array, will be located
up against, and possibly embedded in the inner shield waillblanket module of the vessel. These
detectors will be considered "sacrificial" as no provisions will be made for maintenance unless
there is a major vessel reconfiguration. Their primary function is to fucilitate calibration using
an "in-vessel" neutron source. They will be placed close to the plasma to provide the widest
possible solid angle of view so that the calibration source best represents a plasma. The
remaining detectors can be cross-calibrated to this detector using the plasma as a neutron
source. One criticism of this proposal is the inconvenience of merging the count-rate signals
provided by 6 detectors of differing sensitivities and limited ranges when, by using them in
current mode, fur fewer detectors are required. However, current and CampbeJling modes
have been observed to exhibit non-linearities on TFfR. Thus, a conservative approach would
be to use count-mode over the entire dynamic range, backed by the other electronic modes for
operational simplicity and to achieve better time resolution.

4.2 Proposed neutron yield monitor calibration techniques for ITER

The calibration issue for ITER has already been considered briefl~ and is elaborated
below.

4.2.1 In-situ calibration using in vessel neutron generators

Performing this task is evidently a non-trivial problem, since a very strong source of
neutrons is required. A serious limitation is the fuct that any extensive in-situ calibration can
only be performed before start-up and/or during major interventions before the machine
becomes radio-active; thereafter, the use of a neutron generator requires remote handling
access and will occur infrequently. Only the most sensitive of the neutron yield monitors and
the most sensitive detectors in the profile monitor can be calibrated in this manner. Because
conventional neutron generators are bulky, a non-negligible fraction of the emitted neutrons
interact with components of the generator itself, leading to spectrum degradation and
anisotropic emission. The main source of error thus lies with the characterization of the
neutron output of the generator. Careful monitoring with activation foils as demonstrated at
TFfR and JET provides a measure of the neutron emission strength from the generator. The
directionality of the neutrons emission and the energy spectrum, which also may be a
directional property, need to be established.
The U.S. and Japanese proposals are that ITER should be provided with a robust, high-
intensity D-T neutron generator capable of operation at the end of a remote handling arm
inside the torus. The optimum generator would have an isotropic neutron output of over 1010
neutrons/s with a "fusion" (-14-MeV) energy and the capability of accurate "associated
particle" detection (that is ability to measure 100% of the charged fusion products in some

507
known solid angle) for direct absolute calibration of the emission strength. A comparable
scheme (without the remote handling involvement) using a small Van de Graaff generator was
briefly considered for JET but was rejected as being too complicated. The Inertial Electrostatic
Confinement devices that are currently under development would be far more practicable.

4.2.2 Calibration using a pneumatic transport activation system

This is the preferred method in use at JET, where all other techniques are relegated to a
supporting role. Its advantages are clear: it is intrinsically linear and can therefore be used for
detecting possible non-linearities in neutron yield monitor responses. It is also stable in time,
provided the necessary care is taken to maintain the calibration of the decay radiation detectors
with standard radio-isotope sources. Reactor dosimetry materials, i.e. well chosen materials
with evaluated cross sections yields, should be employed. Suitably high threshold reactions add
energy discrimination, thereby reducing the importance of low energy, scattered neutrons. Its
main weakness lies in the essential neutron transport calculations that involve a detailed
modeling of the machine, especially the region close to the irradiation ends. The closer the
irradiation station is to the plasma, the less difficult and time consuming is the modeling. At
JET and TFI'R, the irradiation ends protruding into the main vacuum vessel proved the most
useful and are used to inter-calibrate supplementary ex-vessel stations.
At ITER, the irradiation stations would have to be protected from excessive heat flux
and cannot be located too close to the first wall. Establishing a precise location is fraught with
difficulty. Confidence in the transport calculations can be gained by using activation materials
offering a range of threshold energies.
As a learning exercise at TFTR, a foil placed in an irradiation end was activated using
an in-situ neutron source. Agreement between predicted and measured activities was obtained
to about ± 20% accuracy, the limitation being the low strength of the source. On ITER, even
with the planned source strength of 1010 neutrons/s, it is not clear that this direct in-situ
approach would be possible due to the low of sensitivity of foils, even those with high cross-
sections such as copper. Alternatively, a small well-characterized scintillator/photomultiplier
tube could be placed in the irradiation end during the calibration period. This might even have
the sensitivity to provide a full line-of-sight cahbration of the irradiation end as a well-
characterized generator is moved through a full transit around the vessel, thus providing a
meaningful benchmark for the neutronics codes.
A variant of the activation technique would be to replace the pneumatic transport of
small solid samples by the use of a fluid flow loop, where the active material is either the fluid
itself or dispersed within it. This type of activation system has been used in fission reactor
applications but has not yet been employed at a fusion device. It may have advantages for
ITER and should be elaborated further. The calibration of such a system would be performed
in a manner comparable to that for the pneumatic transfer system.
Instead of measuring the induced activation in a flowing fluid, it would be feasible
simply to measure the temperature rise of the fluid due to nuclear heating between entry and
exit from the machine as this should be related linearly to the fusion power production.
However, it would be necessary for the pipework to be thermally insulated from the machine
components, otherwise the calculation of temperature rise would have to include a
consideration of the effects of all cooling systems, cryogenic as well as main coolant flows.
Also, the full calculation would involve a careful assessment of deep penetration of neutrons
and gamma-rays to all regions crossed by the pipework. To provide an accurate independent
calibration this measuring system would be very difficult and the temporal response would be
very poor. It has recently been suggested24 that the temperature rise in the main coolant could
also be used as a measure of the fusion power production. The task of providing an
independent absolute calibration would be daunting indeed, due to the need to compute the
nuclear heating in all machine components traversed by the pipework (no longer thermally

508
insulated). The accuracy of such a calibration could never be competitive with that provided by
activation techniques using high threshold reactions.

4.2.3 Profile monitors

A diagnostic comprising a pair of properly designed neutron profile monitors offering
orthogonal full coverage views across the ITER plasma would provide a wealth of important
information concerning plasma performance. The degree of compromise needed to achieve a
practicable solution will be discussed elsewhere. We address here only the issue of providing
an absolute calibration for the detectors. There are two alternative approaches that can be
followed, although perhaps both should be pursued:
(i) In-situ calibration of cameras with generators:
The disadvantages of using neutron generators inside a tokamak were considered above,
although for calibrating the profile monitor some of the constraints may be relaxed.
Specifically, the neutron generator does not have to be exceptionally strong since the detectors
view mostly uncollided neutrons and the angular emission is not an issue provided the foil for
the activation calibration is placed at the same orientation as the collimated sight-line. This
approach was used successfully at TFfR 25 •
(ii) Calibration of the profile monitor from first principles:
As explained earlier, the practice at JET is to determine the detector using a first principles
approach. The detectors are characterized at an accelerator laboratory, which actually means
determining their light responses as a function of energy of incident monoenergetic neutrons.
(Light response functions are available in the literature but are specific to the type of detector
and, we suspect, production batch). A series of neutron transport calculations are then
performed to determine the effective solid angles of the collimators, any attenuation and in-
scattering effects and, separately, the neutron back-scattering from the vacuum vessel wall that
intercepts the Iines-of-sight.
The main problem with the JET D-D neutron detectors has always been the need to
discriminate gamma-rays from neutrons, an essential requirement since the lines-of-sight
unavoidably intercept the vacuum vessel walls and supporting structures. This is achieved
through pulse-shape analysis, a conventional but inconvenient procedure. The pulse-shape
discrimination electronics need careful setting up and are not very stable. Accordingly,
gamma-ray spectra from in-built sources are acquired between discharges for monitoring
purposes. This is not sufficient, however, and a new system is currently being assembled that
will permit Am-Be neutron sources to be moved into position behind each detector in tum,
also between discharges. For D-T measurements, on the other hand, it is possible to reduce
the detection of gamma-rays to a negligible level by good detector design. Nevertheless,
determining the neutron energy discrimination level remains a problem. Accordingly, it is
strongly recommended for ITER that a set of small (switchable) 2.5 and 14-MeV neutron
generators be installed behind each detector for between-discharge monitoring.

5. CONCLUSIONS

In order to fulfill the parameter ranges, target measurements resolutions and accuracies
as laid down by ITER 26 , particular attention has to be given to calibrating the neutron
diagnostics. This could be the largest source of error in the total fusion power and power
density measurements. Previous experience from present-day large tokamaks dictates that
several different methods should be used. The use of a neutron generator for direct calibration
of the total yield monitors and of profile monitor detectors is practical only before start-up and
on the rare occasion of a major intervention. An activation system for routine calibration
checks of the yield monitors is strongly recommended; apart from yielding an independent

509
cahbration, it is the only way of proving the linearity and stability of the various systems. In
addition, a neutron profile monitor is required for neutron emissivity measurements and this
can be cahbrated (from first principles, if necessary) and should constitute a second
independent calibration method available at all times. Experience with existing large machines
indicates that the activation method is more accurate than the first-principles calibration of the
profile monitor but the problems anticipated for ITER could result in this situation becoming
reversed .

1 J.D.Strachan et ai, Neutron calibration techniques for tokilmak results, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 61: 3501 (1990).
2 L.C. Johnson, Cris W. Barnes, A Krasilnikov et al., Neutron diagnostics for ITER,
Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68: 569 (1997) and L.C. Johnson et a~ in these proceedings.
3 Cris W. Barnes, MJ. Loughlin, and Tateo Nishitani, Neutron activation for ITER,
Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 68: 5TI(I997).
4 Cris W. Barnes and A. L. Roquemore, Neutroo source strength monitors for ITER,
Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68: 573 (1997).
s O.N. Jarvis et al., Calibration of the neutron yield detectors onJET, JET Report JET-IR(84)02 and
O.NJarvis et al., Further calibrations of the time resolved neutron yield monitor, JET Report JET-IR(8S)06.
6 O.N. Jarvis et al., Use of activation techniques for the measurement of neutron yields from deuterium
plasmas at the Joint European Tokamak, Fusion Technology 20: 265 (1991).
7 O.N.Jarvis, G.Sadler, P.van Belle and T.Elevant, In-vessel calibration olthe JET neutron monitors using
a 252Clneutron source: difficulties experienced, Rev. Sci.ll/Strum~ 61: 3172 (1990).
8 BJ. Laundy and O.N. Jarvis, Numerical study of the calibration factors for the neutron counters at the Joint
European Torus, Fusion Technology, 24: 150 (1993).
9 K.A Verschuur, Neutronic calculations for JET, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation Report
ECN-C-96-053 (1996).
10 E.B. Nieschmidt et al., Effects of neutron energy spectrum on the efficiency calibration of epithermal
neutron detectors, Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 56: 1084 (1985).
11 H.W.Hendel, R.W. Palladino, Cris W. Barnes etaL, In situ calibration ofTFTR neutron detectors,
Rev. Sci.lnstr., 61: 1900 (1990).
12 Cris W. Barnes, M.G. Be\1, H.W. Hendel et al., Absolute calibration of neutron detection systems 011 TFTR
and accurate comparison of source strength measurements to transport simulations,
Rev. Sci.lnstr., 61: 3151 (1990).
13 Cris W. Barnes, H H. Duong. D. L. Jassby et al., DT neutron measurements and experience on TFTR in:
Diognostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P.E. Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds.,
Plenum Press, New York, (1996), 379-383.
14 J.D.Strachan, Cris W. Barnes, M. Diesso et al., Absolute calibration of TFTR helium proportional
counters, Rev. Sci. Instr., 66: 1247 (1995).
IS I.D.Strachan, AL.Roquemore, M.Diesso, S.L.Liew and J.Roberts, Influence of neutron scattering on
measured TFTR neutron profiles, 7thEPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Heating,
Amsterdllm, June 1990. Europhys. Can/. Abstracts 14B, part IV, 1548.
l6Cris W. Barnes, A. R. Larson et al., Calculations of neutron activation response for the Tokamak Fusion
Test Reactor and absolute calibrations of neutron yield, Fusion Technology, 30: 63 (1996).
17 D. L. Iassby, eris W. Barnes and L. C. Johnson el al., Absolute calibration of Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor
neutron detectors for D-T plasma operation, Rev. Sci. /nstr., 66: 891 (1995).
18 L.C. Johnson, Validation ofspatiol profile measurements ofneutroo emission in TFTR plasmas,
Rev. Sci.lnstr., 63: 4517 (1992).
19 Cris W.Barnes and I.D.Strachan, Calibration of the TFTR neutron spectrometers,
Rev. Sci.lnstr., 61: 2383 (1990).
20 L. C. Johnson, Cris W. Barnes, H. H. Duong el aL, Cross-calibration of neutron detectors for deuterium-
tritium operation in TFTR, Rev. Sci. /nstr., 66: 894 (1995).
21T. Nishitani, H. Takeuchi, T. Kondoh et al., Absolute calibration of the IT-60U neutron monitor using a
252Cfneutron source, Rev. Sci.lnstr., 63:5270 (1992).
22 M. Hoek, T. Nishitani and Y. Ikeda, Neutron yield met.lSUTements by use offoil activation atIT-60U, Rev.
Sci. Instrum. 66: 88S (1995).
23 L.C. Johnson et al., in ITER Diagnostic Review; Neutron Systems, March 3-7 1997.
24 J.Wesley, Fusion power measurement by cooling water calorimetry, ITER Document: S19 RI 8 97-07-10 Fl
2S AL. Roquemore, T.C. Chouinard, M. Diesso et aL, TFTR multichannel neutron collimator,
Rev. Sci.lnstrum. 61: 3163 (1990).
26 AE. Costley et al., Requirements for ITER, in Diagnostics for Experimental ThermorIuclear Fusion
Reactors, P.E. Stott, G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York, (1996), 23-37 and
V.S. Mukhovatov et al., Role and Requirement for Plasma Measurements on ITER, in these proceedings.

510
GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY IN ITER:
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

V.G.Kiptilyl, T.Kondoh2, V.O.Naidenov 1,

I.A.Polunovski 1, Yu.V.Tuboltsev 1, I.N.Chugunov 1, A.E.Shevelev l

lA.F.loffe Physical Technical Institute

194021 St.Petersburg, Russia
2Japan Atomic Energy research Institute
Naka-machi, Naka-gun, lbaraki-ken, 311-01, Japan

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents the result of conceptual design of Gamma Ray Spectrometry system,
integrated in the ITER Neutron Camera, to provide plasma diagnostic information, based on
measurements of line-integral gamma-ray emissivity and deduced yield profile. Information can
be obtained on alpha-particle birth profile and the profile of confined particles, impurity density
in plasma core, as well as different effects of plasma instabilities such as sawteeth and TAE
modes. Design of the system presented here is based on the Radial Neutron Cameral. It is
assumed that for Vertical Camera the system will have the similar construction and capabilities.
Besides of the conceptual design, this paper presents the outline of diagnostic R&D works
that required to fulfill this design phase. A prototype of GAMMACELL spectrometer is
manufactured and tested. Neutron sensitivity of BaF2 scintillator which used in the
spectrometer is examined and neutron shield testing is performed at neutron generator. Cross
sections of some diagnostic nuclear reactions are measured, and special nuclear database is
developed. A new diagnostic approach to measure escaping alphas is developed.

BASIS OF ITER GAMMA DIAGNOSTICS

Gamma-ray spectrometry in ITER is based on registration and analysis of radiation from

nuclei excited in reactions that can take place during plasma discharge. There are three type of
nuclear reactions that may be noted for diagnostics: reactions between fuel nuclei, interaction
between fast charged particles and plasma impurities, and reactions with specially doped
impurities. Some of the nuclear reactions are given in Table 1. It is supposed that gamma-ray

Diagno3tica for Experimental Thermonuclear Fwion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott lit at, Plenum Press, New Yark, 1998 511
measurements will be perfonned during both Zero Activation and High Activation phases of the
ITER operation.
Gamma-ray emissivity of fusion plasma is defined by a value of the reaction rate

R(r) = nl(r) n2(r) (cry) ,

1+~h2
where (crv) is rate parameter averaged over the Maxwellian distribution of fusion particles;
n 1 ,n2 are the densities of reacted ions and 012 is Kronecker's symbol. In the case of fast ion
reactions the rate is expressed as

where Fj(E,r) is the fast ion distribution function; nt(r) is a density of the impurity target.

Table 1. Main diagnostic reactions and associated gamma ra~s (energ~ in MeV)
FUSIQN REACTIQNS BACKQROUND REACTIONS "PELLET' REACTIONS
3 5.5 9 9 1.7, 2.4, 3.05, 4.7 7LI(p,p
· , y)7L I· 0.478
O(p,y) He Be(p,p'y) Be
4 20 9 10 5.1,6.7, 7.5, 7.8 7. 8 17.6
T(p,y) He Be(p,y) B L1(p,y) Be
4 24 9 6 . 3.56 2.4, 4.44, 5.02
O(d,y) He Be(p,lXj') L1 llB(p,p'Y) liB
5 l7 9 10 2.8, 2.15 11 12 4.44, 11.7
O(t,Y) He Be(d,ny) B B(p,y) C
3 5. 17 9 10 3.4 19 16 6.1,6.9, 7.1
O( He,Y) L1 Be(d,py) Be F(p,ay) 0
9 3 11 7.3,4.44 10 13 3.1, 3.7, 3.9
Be( He,py) B B(a,py) C
9 3 li 6.3-6.9, 4.3
Be( He,ny) C
9 12 4.44
Be(a,nl~ C

A spectrometer, placed in a collimator views a plasma volume along the line of sight. The

f
gamma-ray count rate can be written as

P =k(Ey) e(Ey) R Q dVLOS,

where k(Ey) is a gamma-ray attenuation factor in the LOS, e(Ey) the detector efficiency; Q
the detector solid angle, V LOS the plasma volume viewed by the spectrometer. A temporal
resolution of the spectrometer, that is, an expected time of measurement at the required
accuracy /) and the background count-rate B , is calculated by means the expression

The Gamma Ray Spectrometry system is installed in the Radial (Vertical) Neutron Camera
that consists of fan-shaped array of flight tubes, viewing the ITER plasma through slots in the
blanket/shield, intersecting at a common aperture defined by a specialized shielding plug in a
midplane/vertical port, and penetrating the vacuum vessel, cryostat, and biological shield
through stainless steel windows. A set of gamma detectors are chosen to provide the required
range of sensitivity, and temporal and spectral resolution.

512
FUNCTIONS

The Gamma Ray Spectrometry system in coupling with the neutron cameras has important
functions in providing measurements included in ITER diagnostic categories (i), (ii) and (iii)
given in Design Description Document2. Plasma parameters for which the gamma spectrometry
may provide measurements are given in Table 2.
The primary functions are measurement of the dt alpha particles. Sum of the chordal 17-
MeV signals, together with knowledge of the plasma configuration, gives the fusion power in
plasma core. Combined with data from the vertical and radial cameras, these measurements
allow tomographic reconstruction of the spatial distribution of fusion reaction rate, nonr(av),
which determines the alpha-particle source profile and fusion power density. Signals from
4.44-MeV gamma rays, created when fast alphas react with the main plasma impurity ions
beryllium allows to determine the 2-MeV alpha-particle distribution 3, using additional data
from the impurity monitor and x-ray crystal spectrometers. In the case of knowledge of the
alpha-particle distribution the system yields the beryllium concentration in plasma core.
Signals from the D(t,y)5He, T(p,y)4He, D(d,y)4He capture reactions can provide
information on fuel density; especially high gamma-ray yield is expected in the case of beam-
fuel reactions. Because of the known functional dependence of the reaction cross sections on
temperature, knowledge ofTi gives ratios nH/nD and no/nr in plasma core.

Table 2. System Functions

Category &
Measurement Plasma Parameters
(i)#9 m=2 MHD Modes, Sawteeth
(i)#l1 no/nr in Plasma Core
(ii)#27 Fishbones, TAE Modes
(ii)#30 Confined Alpha-Particles (in Plasma Core)
(ii)#31 Escaping Alphas
(ii)#32 Impurity Density (Be in Plasma Core)
(li)#44 nH/no in Plasma Core
(ili)#49 MHD Activity in Plasma Core

In Zero Activation Phase (He. H plasma) and in d-d plasma of High Activation Phase
measurements of time-dependent gamma-ray emissivity profile of plasma core allow to
determine the fast ion distribution function or ion tennaIization. localization of fast ions and a
response to plasma instabilities ( sawteeth, TAE modes)4,5.

DESIGN DESCRIPTION

Geometry of System.

The design for Gamma-ray Spectrometry system based upon the horizontally viewing
Neutron Cameral designed by EC team and spectrometers developed in A.F.Ioffe Physical
Technical Institute. Gamma detector modules are connected with neutron ones outside the
ITER biological shield and have the same fan-shaped viewing geometry. Each module contains
special pair of sight-lines with adjustable collimation, allowing to change the detector for
gamma-ray spectrometry over a wide operating range and different tasks. The system measure
line-integral gamma-ray emissivity along chords, viewing inwardly through both midplane and

513
vertical ports, and spanning central part of the plasma cross section. The gamma detectors are
housed in an auxiliary shielded enclosure outside the biological shield, and additional shielding
along and between flight tubes provides necessary collimation.
The modular system, where neutron and gamma detector sub-system has its own
precision machined collimator, allows individual units to be maintained or altered as necessary.
A module consists of a cylindrical plug 0.4 m in diameter and 3.5 m length containing
collimators and detectors. Each module has neutron and gamma detector housings separated by
a beam dump module with 3 cm diameter aperture for the gamma-ray measurements. The
suggested 10 sightlines cover - 50% of total vertical plasma height and this satisfies the 30 cm
spatial resolution requirement.
For the gamma spectrometry the collimator module has two additional apertures of 4.5 cm
and I cm diameters with 6LiH plugs for neutron flux attenuation. The optimal total size of the
plugs is 80 cm (can be extended up to 140 cm) that sufficiently to reduce flux for a 1.5 GW
plasma. The internal diameter of each collimator can be remotely set to 1.0 cm or 4.5 cm, to be
able to adjust for the fluxes expected in either d-d or d-t operation, or for low intensity in
peripheral channels.
The gamma viewing cone from the aperture of 4.5 cm (1 cm) diameter has a full opening
angle of 1.43 0 (0.57 0 ), the same as in the Radial Neutron Camera. The opening of viewing
cone is 29 cm (12 cm) at the plasma axis.
The line integrated gamma-ray emissivity from a reference 1.5 GW ITER plasma at the
detector viewing along a horizontal sight-line would lead to a count rate of about 2 MHz. In the
collimator with 80 cm 6LiH plug, the neutron intensity at the detector is - 2 104 n/s, while the
14.I-MeV neutron flux to first wall is - 10 14 n/cm2/s. This neutron flux generates - 5 103 cps
in the detector.

Individual Collimator and Detector Module.

In an individual module, the front and rear collimators consist of two cylinders, 36 cm
outer diameter (allowing for wall and bearing thickness) and 40 cm in length. Each cylinder
has two additional holes drilled on a circle of diameter 18 cm: hole of 4.5 cm diameter with
6LiH plugs and hole (rotated 1800 from the first one) of 1 cm diameter. The collimators are
individually rotatable to bring the appropriate collimators in line with the detectors, allowing
adjustments for all phases of operation. The intermediate flight tube assembly stops most of
the neutrons that do not enter the rear collimator hole and reduces the radiation outside the
bioshield. An additional bioshield extension is required to reduce the effect of neutron
streaming through the various apertures of the system.
Cross sectional views of a collimator/detector module are shown in Fig. I.

Gamma-ray Spectrometers.

Two types of detectors have been suggested for measurement of gamma-ray energy
spectra. The GAMMACEU spectrometer6 is developed by the RF Home Team. It intends for
all phases of ITER operation. Other one is a conventional high purity germanium detector with
best resolution which is suggested to use during Zero Activation Phases only. The
GAMMA CELL spectrometer consists of nine optically independent scintillation detectors
(42x42x142 mm) assembled in a single housing; the general assembling draft of it is shown in
Fig. 2. The spectrometer will be located inside of the collimator in such a manner that
investigated gamma radiation impinges only on central section of array. All the detectors are
included in a summarizing circuit which yields full energy of gamma ray, falling on a central

514
 v
FronI Collimator OwrsizeFllght Rear Collimator BeamOump Gamma De_
(rolatlonal) TIbe (rolatlonal) Module
.... j~~~~ .....
H

40 em 120 em 40 em 40 em 60 em so em
v v v
Holes 014.5 and 1 an dia
plugged by 6UH
(rotational)

H
H Beam spot in moda of
gamma-maasuramants

Figure 1. A Collimator and gamma detector module, integrated in the Radial Neutron Camera.

or
oIhar option

Figure 2. A gamma detector array in the collimator module.

SIS
crystal. Before the central crystal, it is supposed to establish one more detector (passive-active
gamma-ray filter) with the sizes 60x60x40 mm, which must functionate as an absorber of low
energetic gamma radiation and, simultaneously, as a rejecter of scattered radiation. This
ensemble of detectors allows to reduce considerably the background load to the basic
spectrometer.
Pilot version of the data acquisition and processing system allows to accumulate gamma
spectra at count-rate more than 1 MHz. Required time for processing of a single event is equal
to 150 ns. The ~ystem is manufactured as two unit in CAMAC standard.

DIAGNOSTIC REACTION RATES

Most part of nuclear reactions presented in Tab. 1 are examined for feasibility using in the
ITER plasma diagnostics. Geometry of gamma-ray measurements outlined here is used for the
calculations.
Results of estimations for fast proton nuclear reactions at resonance energies are given
below in Table 3. Measurements of these diagnostic reactions can provide information on
distribution function and a response to plasma instabilities in Low Activation Phase of the ITER
operation. The 9Be(p,ay)6Li reaction is very promising with the HPGe spectrometer to study
the distribution anisotropy during ICRF heating.

Table 3. Calculation results for Low Activation Phase (He, H)

Resonance Energy, Gamma-Ray Energy, Reaction Rate 1, Count Rate,
MeV MeV cm-\-l cps
9 10
Be(p,y) B
0.139 5.13 3104 103
0.938 6.71 3104 103
0.992 7.48 2.8 105 810 3
1.083 6.84 3.0*104 103
1.290 7.75 1.4 105 410 3
9 6
Be(p,ay) Li
2.57 3.57 1.2 107
I All calculations were perfonned at fast ion density equal to \09 cm- 3 key-I

At steady state plasma in the High Activation Phase the radiative capture reactions
D(t,y)5He, T(p,y)4He and D( d,y)4He would be very useful to measure the value of fuel density
ratio, but only first one can be measured in ITER with sufficient temporal resolution - 0.5 ms
and accuracy 10% . Other two reactions can be measured with the temporal resolution - 200 ms
and - 25 s, correspondingly, with accuracy 20%. Nevertheless these reactions can provide
information during NBI heating, if the LOS of detectors cross the beam.
Study of the confined alpha-particles can be carried out by means of the 9Be(a,ny)12C
reaction3 . Information on profile of 2-MeV alphas in steady state plasma is deduced from 4.44-
MeV gamma-rays with temporal resolution - 2 ms at the 2% Be density and the 10% accuracy.

516
A contribution of background reaction lZC(n,n'y)12C that occur in plasma at the carbon density
- 0.2 % is less then 10% of the true signal. The same contribution, arisen from 4.44-MeV wall
emissivity will be observed in the case if the 5 g of total carbon mass is in the detector LOS.
New diagnostic reaction lOB(a,py)12C that induces the 3.09, 3.68, 3.85-MeV gamma-
rays would be very prospective for alpha-particle diagnostics 6 . However, a special pellet
injector is required to bring in the additional impurity in plasma. Other problem is a high
background radiation in the energy range 3 - 4 MeV that predicted by neutronic calculations.
This reaction may be very promised for alpha-particle diagnostics in future d 3 He fusion
reactors.

CRITICAL DESIGN ISSUES

The main drawback for all diagnostics that designed for ITER, including the system
presented here, is a very high neutron and gamma-ray background during ignition. As to
gamma-ray spectrum measurements, optimization of the shield and detector system
improvement are needed to reach of it feasibility and the best results for peak to background
ratio and counting rate.
A wide and useful experience of gamma spectrometry is accumulated at the JET4,7 and
JT -60U5,8 for fast ion study at ICRF and NBI heating of d-d and He-H plasma. These results
allow to hope in feasibility and reliability of the gamma-diagnostics of fusion plasma.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

GAMMA CELL Spectrometer

A prototype of diagnostic gamma spectrometer for ITER is developed. The pilot detector
is produced and tested using accelerator. Results of the examination and parameters projected
for advanced data acquisition system of the spectrometer are given in Table 4. The goal of the
activity is to reach a high efficient registration of gamma rays with energies up to 30 MeV at
high counting rate, and to provide the best peak-to-background ratio.

Table 4. Test results and projected parameters of the spectrometer

GAMMA CELL Parameters Achieved Projected
Energy range 0.4- !OMeV 1- 30 MeV
Energy resolution @ 0.662 MeV 27% 15%
@ 4.44 MeV 15% 5-7%
Efficiency @ 4.44 MeV 53% 60%
Counting rate not examined >2MHz

Neutron Sensitivity of the BaF2 Scintillator

The BaF2 crystal, used in the spectrometer has been examined on sensitivity to 2.8-MeV
and 14.8-MeV neutrons. The measurements have been performed using a calibrated neutron
generator. The neutron yield was controlled with an accuracy - 3%. The spectra induced by
the neutrons are obtained and sensitivity of the scintillator is evaluated.

517
Neutron Shield

To suppress neutron flux in the collimator a shielding plug is developed on the base of
6LiH powder. Tree samples of the plug with dimensions D30xL300 mm have been
manufactured. The reducing factors of the plugs are measured using the neutron generator with
2.8-MeVand 14.8-MeV beams. These results have been used for conceptual design of the
system.

Diagnostic Nuclear Reactions & Database

Gamma-ray spectra and cross sections of diagnostic reactions 9Be(a,ny)12C,

IOB(a,py)13C, 9Be(p,ay)6Li, 19F(p,ay) 160 have been measured at accelerators. These data
were utilized for the reaction rate estimations. In result of the analysis of experimental and
evaluated nuclear reaction data the diagnostic database FUSION has been developed.

Escaping Alpha-particle Technique

To provide information on escaping alpha-particles an approach is developed based on the

using investigated reaction 10B(a,py) 13c. Intensity of lost alphas is deduced from gamma-ray
emission from lOB targets mounted on first wall in detector LOS. A result of preliminary
estimation for diagnostic escaping alphas is given in Tables 5. It is suggested that lOB targets
have the dimentions - 20 cm in diameter and 20 - 30 11m thickness.

Table 5.
Steady state: < 2MW/m2 Transients: < 20 MWI m2
Alpha-particle Temporal Res. Count Rate, cps, Temporal Res. Count Rate, cps,
Energy Range, @ 20% accuracy, and BIP ratio @ 10% accuracy, and BIP ratio
MeV ms ms

> 1.2 > 200 2*104 (> 30) >7 2*105 (>3)

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents a conceptual design for gamma-ray measurements in ITER. The
design is based on the construction of the Radial Neutron Camera. Gamma-ray detectors are
incorporated behind the neutron detectors. The system can provide plasma diagnostic
information on alpha particles and fast ions, the response to MHD instabilities and time-
averaged fuel density ratios. Moreover, it could be used at the beginning of Low Activation
phase of the ITER operation. A set of R&D works are carried out for successful fulfillment of
the conceptual design. Implementation of the results in large operated tokamaks JT-60U, JET,
D-IIID is needed for further development of the ITER Gamma Spectrometry system.

REFERENCES

1. F.B.Marcus, I.M.Adams, P.Batistoni, T.Elevant, O.NJarvis, L.CJohnson, L.de Kock, GJ.Sadler and
P.E.Stott. A neutron camera for ITER: conceptual design, in: Diagnostics for Experimental

518
 Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P.E.Stott, G.Gorini, E.Sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York
and London (1996).
2. K.M.Young, A.E.Costley, T.Matoba, D.Orlinski, P.E.Stott. The ITER diagnostic programme, ibidem
3. V.G.Kiptily. Capabilities of gamma spectroscopy for fast alpha-particle diagnostics, Fusion Tech.
18:454 (1990).
4. G.J.Sadler, S.W.Conroy, O.NJarvis, P.van Belle, J.M.Adams, M.A.Hone, Fusion Tech. 18:5 (1990).
5. H.Kimura, M.Saigusa, S.Moriyama, T.Kondoh, Y.Neyatani, T.Ozeki, T.Nishitani, Y.Kusama, T.Fujii,
M.Sato, M.Nemoto, K.Tobita, C.Z.Cheng, Excitation of high n toroidicity-induced Alfven eigenmodes
and associated plasma dinamical behaviour in the JT-60U ICRF experiments, Phys. Lett. A199:86
( 1995).
6. V.G.Kiptily, I.A.Polunovskii, I.N.Chugunov, V.S.Zaveriaev, S.V.Popovichev, A.V.Kbramenkov,
S.N.Abramovich, A.G.Zvenigorodskii, M.V.Savin, ITER gamma diagnostics: 2-D neutron and gamma
camera, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, P.E.Stott, G.Gorini,
E.sindoni, eds., Plenum Press, New York and London (1996).
7. O.NJarvis, J.M.Adams, P.J.A.Howarth, F.B.Marcus, E.Rigni, G.J.Sadler, D.F.H.Start, P.van Belle,
C.Warrick, N.Watkins, Gamma-ray emission profile measurements from JET ICRF-heated discharges,
Preprint JET-P(95)53.
8. T.Kondoh, H.Kimura, Y.Kusama, A.Morioka, S.Moriyama, M.Sigusa, K.Nagashima, R.Yoshino,
H.Harano, Gamma-ray measurements in JT-60U ICRF heated plasma, J. Plasma Phys. Fusion Res.
72:1397 (/996).

519
DATA BASE FOR ENSURING THE WORKS ON GAMMA-DIAGNOSTICS OF
TOKAMAK PLASMA

V.G.Kiptily, I S.M.Taova,2 A.G.Zvenigorodskii 2

Iphysics and Technology Institute by A.F.Ioffe - FTI

2All-Russia Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics - VNIIEF

INTRODUCTION
The determination of ion temperature and the investigation of fast charged fusion
products behaviour represent the significant task of hot thermonuclear plasma diagnostics.
Among various methods proposed by now and suitable for different temperature intervals,
considerable role is played by nuclear-physics methods. The last are based on various types of
interaction between plasma ions and fast nuclear particles, produced as the result of
thermonuclear fusion, with specially admixture additives with further registration of secondary
products of this interactions.
There were proposed various approaches to the problem of hot plasma behaviour study
by nuclear-physics methods, from which there should be set off the following ones:

Activation methods

These methods are based on the reactions between charged particles and specially
chosen admixtures. Owing to their high sensitivity and efficiency the given methods can be
used in the most interesting temperature interval - from I to 10 ke V 111. In this case it is possible
to place a thick target just on the first wall of reactor chamber and to register the events of
charged particles yield from the region of plasma confinement.

Spectrometry of high-energy y-quanta

The possibility of hot plasma diagnostics with the aid of resonance (z,y ) reactions
between the confined fast ions (H, D, T, He-3, a) and light admixtures which are present in
plasma or artificially introduced to it, was considered in detail in papers 12, 3/. Thus, in case of
a-particles, most suitable for diagnostic purposes are D, 6Li, 7Li (a,y)-reactions, in which narrow
resonances are observed.
The method which take advantage of the Doppler gamma-spectra shape for the obtain
of information on the function on particles distribution in plasma, opens fresh opportunities for
the investigation of fast ions and, specifically, thermonuclear a-particles. In case of DT plasma
9Be(a, ny) 12 C and 10B(a, py)13C reactions are most effective for this purpose. The application of
these reactions for TOKAMAK plasma diagnostics is described in more detail in papers 13,4/.

Neutron diagnostics of TOKAMAK plasma

Neutron spectroscopy was used at the dawn of thermonuclear researches as a method

for measuring ion temperature in deuterium- deuterium or deuterium-tritium plasma. There
were analyzed the neutrons from the following reactions:

2H(d,n)3 + 3.269MeV,
3H(d,n)4 + 17.589MeV,

as well as the neutrons from the "on flight" reactions.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott etal., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 521
 In tenns of the three approaches specified, there was fonnulated the list of reactions (see
table 1), the data on which present particular interest for the activities on hot plasma
diagnostics, using nuclear-physics methods.

Table 1 List <if reactions included into the FUSION data base
Reaction type ReactiOn Energy range, Data type PossibTe
energy, MeV usage
MeV
I-H-2(p;y)2-He-3 5.494 0.024-22.6 sig y-diagnostics
I-H-:l(d,y)2-He-4 23.847 0.026-18.92 Sig y- dIagnostIcs
I-H-:l(d,n):l-He-3 3.26~ U.OU5-:lU.U sIg,dif n- dIagnostics
1-H-2(d,p)1-H-3 4.U33 0.UU5-14.U sig,dif ch. part.-diagn
1-H-3(p,y)2-He-4 19,814 0.1-17.8 siJ1; y- dIagnOstics
1-H-3(d,y)2-He-5 16.696 0.042-5.0 sIg,res y- diagnostics
I-H-3(d,n)2-He-4 17.5lS~ 0.005-19.0 sig,dif n- dIagnostICS
1-H-3(t,2n)2-He-4 11.332 U.UI-4.0 sig n- dIagnOStiCs
2-He~(d,y)3-LI-5 16.387 0.048-16.8 SIJ1; y- diaJ1;nostics
2-He-3(d,p)2-He-4 18.352 0.01-20.0 siJ1;,dif ch. part.-diagn.
:l-He-4(d,y)3-LH> lAD U.I-12.0 stg;res Y- diagnostIcs
2-He-4(t,y)3-LI-7 2A6lS 0.UI-1.51 Sig y- diagnostics
2-He-](t,y)4-Be-7 1.588 0.86-23.83 siJ1; y- diagnostics
3-Li-6(p,y)4-Be-7 5.606 0.157-1.174 sig y- diagnostics
3-LH>(a,y):l-B-lU 4.460 0.4-1.7 sig, res y- dIagnOstics
4-He-~(p,y)5-H-lU 6.586 U.IU:l-1.194 sig, res y- diagnostics
4- Be-~(p,ay)3-Li-6 2.126-Elev 0.UZlS-l1.5lS slg,dif, dop y- diagnostIcs
j-Be-2t<!.y)5-H-ll 1U15 0.5-11.~ SIg y- diagnostics
4-Be-9(a,ny)6-C-12 4.439-E1ev 1.9-6.5 slg,dop y- diagnostics
5-B-1O(a,py)6-C-13 4.063-Elev 1.25-4.25 slg,dif, dop y- diagnostics
:l-B-lO (p, y)b-C-ll 8.691 0.1-12.0 siJ1; y- diagnostICS
5-B-11 (p, y)6-C-l:l D.957 0.16-30 sig y- diagnostics

sig - integral cross-section; dif - differential cross-section;

res - resonance parameters; dop - y-quantum spectra with account of Doppler broadening.

DESCRIPTION OF FUSION DATA BASE

To create the Fusion data base there was chosen the relation data base management
system (DBMS) Ms Access, which stores and extracts the data in accord with the established
between them connections defined by the user. Ms Access functions within the Windows
frames and, having a graphical interface, uses the advantages of the graphical environment in
the full scale and presents visual access to data.
The Fusion data base ensures the execution of the following procedures:
• arrangement of the required information search for the given reaction definition;
• calculations of the values of integral, differential and resonance cross-sections in the
given energy range;
• output of the table of y-lines characteristics for residual nuclei;
• output of the values of reaction rates;
• output of graphical presentation of the desired data to a screen;
• viewing the tables for the given reaction on the display screen;
• output of selected in the course of visual scan data to one or another medium (disk,
print);
• output of the level schemes for the given nuclide;
• possibility of adding data to the base;
• possibility of getting reference for the data considered.
In the Fusion program the dialogue with the user is implemented through the use of
window mode of infonnation display. The input of initial values is perfonned immediately in
the dialogue window. Bibliographical and other reference data are presented in the fonn of a
table. The calculation data can be presented in the fonn of a separate value, table and chart.

522
Provision is made for the modes of editing table data and chart, for their output to print. The
table data can be recorded on the external file in ASCII format and used for further
calculations.
There are three main processing modes in data base Fusion:
Search data - search and extraction of data on the given reaction name.
Edit data - editing of the values introduced immediately in he tables
themselves.
Add data - introduction of new values into the basic tables with the use of
manual input and from file data input modes.

Mode of data searching

To operate in the mode "Search data" it is necessary to specify the required reaction.
For this purpose the user is to select from a set of data types the required ones. The modes of
data processing, accessible for the reaction chosen, will be specified in the dialogue window.

Mode of data editing

This mode makes it possible to correct the data just in the tables themselves. One can
remove the data in the records, add some new data, destroy the entire records.

Mode of data adding

The process of adding new data to the base is an automatically operated process. There
are several modes of adding in the data base: data replacing, data adding and input of new data.
To enter data templates are used.

CONCLUSION

The fusion data base gives the user wide possibilities for obtaining exhaustive data on
the reactions, described in the papers related to hot plasma diagnostics. The availability of
amicable interface makes the process of communication with the data base convenient and
pleasant.
The growing necessity in information systems of this type provides for further
development of the Fusion data base. Not only periodic replenishment of data base with new
information, but the creation of additional modes connected with the processing of the existing
ones, are expected. The possibility of coupling with the program modules of Dynamic Linking
Libraries (DLL) allows to perform sufficiently complicated mathematical processing of data
within the frames of the Fusion system itself. The usage of such procedures will ensure a
powerful instrument, assisting in the solution of many science - research and practical tasks in
the sphere of thermonuclear synthesis.

REFERENCES

1. Young F.e., Golden J. and Kapetanakos G.A., Diagnostics for intense pulsed ion beams.
Rev.Sci. Instr., v.48, n4, (1977), pp.432-443.
2. Cecil F.E., Zweben S.J., Medley S.S., A method for determining fast alpha particle
confinement in TOKAMAK plasmas using resonant nuclear reactions., Nuc!. Inst. and Meth.,
A245(1986) pp.547-552.
3. Kiptily V.G., Fusion Technology, v.18, N 4 (1990), p.583, v.22, N4 (1992) p.454.
4. Kiptily V.G. et.al, ITER gamma-diagnostics: 2D neutron and gamma camera "Diagnostics
for experimental thermonuclear fusion reactors, Edited by P.E.Stott, Plenum Press, New York
and London, pp.463-466.

523
DEVELOPMENT OF A THIN-FOIL FARADAY COLLECTOR
ARRAY AS A LOST ALPHA PARTICLE DIAGNOSTIC FOR HIGH
YIELD D-T FUSION PLASMAS
F.E. Cecill, J. C. Barbour2, P. v.Belle3 , D. Darrow4 , M. Hone3 , O.N.
Jarvil, S . Kern\ M. Loughlin3, S.S. Medley4, A Nowak l, AL.
Roquemore4, G. Sadler3 , Y. Takimoto l

lColorado School o/Mines, Golden CO 80401, USA; 2Sandia National

Laboratory, Albuquerque NM, 87131, USA; 3JET Joint Undertaking,
Abingdon OX14 3EA, UK; 4Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory,
Princeton NJ 08540, USA.

INTRODUCTION

Conventional charged particle detectors, such as surface barrier Silicon detectors or

scintillation detectors suffer from the inability to operate effectively at high temperatures
and high background radiation fields. Alternatively, a stack of parallel thin metallic foils,
electrically insulated from one another and connected to separate ammeters may serve as a
charged particle spectrometer capable of operating under fairly extreme conditions of
temperature (very low temperatures as well as high temperatures) and background
radiation. Such devices may therefore be utilized on tokamaks such as JET or ITER as first
wall lost alpha particle diagnostics. We have been examining this new concept in charged
particle spectrometry by i) accelerator based testing of various designs to evaluate energy
resolution and ii) installation of prototype devices at JET and TFTR to evaluate the
radiation and temperature insensitivities and to insure that the electro-mechanical noise
levels in the measured currents are well below the expected signal levels of lost alpha
particles.

ACCELERATOR BASED TESTING

Our first accelerator based tests of this concept were carried out at the Univ. of
Birmingham, V.K.[I]. More recently we have tested several device designs using He+ and
He++ beams with energies from 1 to 7 MeV from the tandem Van de Graff accelerator at
Sandia National Laboratory. V. S.A. The tests consisted of bombarding the detectors with
monoenergetic beams while measuring the current in each foil. One detector consisted of
four foils of 2.5 !-tm thick Ni separated by 2 mm thick ceramic rings. This detector was
assembled from components fabricated at JET and is identical to the the detectors installed
in JET for the 1995 and 1997 run periods described below. The results of this test are
shown in Figure 1 where the fraction of the total beam current in each of the four foils is
plotted veritcally for He++ beams from 1 to 6 MeV

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 525
 JET Detector He++
1.5

0.5

o
-0.5

-1

Blergy (MeV)

foil number
6 4

Figure 1. Fraction of total a-particle bombarding current in each foil for a-particle energies from I to 6
MeV. The negative current fractions in certain foils are the result of secondary electrons emitted from
adjacent foils. The positive current fractions in the front foils at the higher energy a-particles are due to
secondary electrons emitted from the front foils as the a-particles pass through these foils. The influence of
the secondary electrons was partially reduced when tbe detector was placed in an external magnetic field

Six foil AI/CH2 Detector

Energy (MeV)

Foil number
7.5

Figure 2. Measured current fractions in each foil during the bombardment of the Aluminum/polyethylene
detector with a-particles with energies from 1.0 to 7.5 MeV. We are able to distinguish between beams of,
for example, 7.0 and 7.5 MeV indicating an energy resolution better than 7%. The current fractions in the
front foil which are in excess of unity at the lowest energies are due to the emission of secondary electrons
from the front face of this foil in addition to all of the a-particles stopping in this foil. The negative current
fractions which were apparent the the four foil Ni detector in Figure I are effectively suppressed by the
insulating polythelene layers between the conducting AI foils. The positive current fractions in the first foil
at the higher energies are due to the emission of the secondary electrons from the front foil as the alpha
particles pass through this foil. An insulating layer in front of the first foil would suppress this positive
current.

526
 X10 1f1
3 5urfa~~-Barr1er Heut Det'5. ef;DT-5.15e-14. Vld=1.4ge+18

N
e 2
11
t
/
S
e 1
c

0
0 ~ 10
DNF-ION-TRD-21 Raw Data
'"
V
0
1
t
s

-4
0 5 10
Tillie (Seconds)

Figure 3. Comparison of neutron yield during TFfR dot shot No. 76748 (top) and digitized current from
foil immediately outside TFfR vacuum vessel (bottom).

A second detector which was tested consisted of a sandwich of 6 foils of 6 J.U1l

thick Al each separated from one another by 1 ~m of polyethelene. Although this particular
design is not capable of operating at high temperatures due to the low melting point of the
insulating polyethelene layers, the design was included in the present study by virute of the
ready availablilty of the materials. The results are shown in Figure 2.

PROTOTYPE TESTING AT TFTR AND JET

Prototype devices were installed at JET and TFTR to evaluate the radiation and
temperature insensitivities and the electro-mechanical noise levels in the measured currents.
These noise levels are to be compared to an expected current of alpha particles due to
classical first orbit losses on TFTR or JET during high yield dot plasmas of about 1
~Alcm2[1]. At TFTR a device was mounted immediately outside the tokamak vacuum
vessel during the 1994 run period to measure the response during moderately high yield dot
plasmas. The response during the highest yield shot of this period is shown in Figure 3. A
signal of 2 V would have corresponded to an alpha particle current of about 100 nAlcm2
and thus the noise level during the plasma production was much less than that due to the
expected alpha particle flux.
On JET, detectors similar to the one discussed above were installed for the 1995 and
1997 run periods. The results from the 1995 run period are described elsewhere[2]. For the
present run period, two detectors are installed slightly below the torus midplane and a few
cm beyond the last closed flux surface. These detectros were monitored during a few low
level dod plasma pulses near the start of this run period. The noise levels in all observed

527
plasma pulses corresponded to a current of about 10 nNcm2 . We expect to monitor these
detectors during the continuing d-t experiments in 1997 and through the next series of d-t
experiments presently expected in 1999.
This work is supported in part by the u.s. Dept. of Energy Office of Fusion Energy
Sciences

REFERENCES

1. F.E. Cecil, P. van Belle, O.N. Jarvis and GJ. Sadler, "Development ofa thin foil Faraday
collector as a lost alpha particle diagnostic for high yield d-t tokamak fusion plasmas. Proc,
21 st European Physical Society Conf. on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics
(Montpelier) European Conf. Abstracts, 18B (1994) 1340.
2. M.J. Loughlin, F.E. Cecil, M.Hone, O.N. Jarvis,S. Medley and L. Roquemore,G.J.
Sadler, P. Van Belle, G. Whitfield, "Evaluation of ITER compatible thin foil Faraday
collector as a lost alpha particle diagnostic for high yield d-t tokamak plasmas. Reviews of
Scientific Instruments, 68,(1997) 361

528
MAGNETIC DIAGNOSTICS FOR ITER

L. de Kock I, S. Bender2, A. Costley3, J. Leuer4, PJ. McCarthy5, F.C. Morabit06,

A. Portone7, I. Senda8, 1. ShojiS, R. Snider4, C. WalkerI

I ITER Joint Central Team, Garching

2 Efremov Institute, St. Petersburg, RF
3 ITER Joint Central Team, San Diego
4 GA, San Diego, USA
5 University College, Cork, Ireland
6 CREATE, Napoli, Italy
7 ITER Joint Central Team, Naka
8 JAERI, Naka, Japan

INTRODUCTION

The measurement and the control of the plasma boundary is one of the fundamental aspects
of a magnetically confined plasma. Traditionally, inductive magnetic measurements have been used
for discharges of limited duration. For ITER with its projected pulse duration in excess of 1000s
with a possible extension to steady state, classical integrators exhibit unacceptable drifts caused by
small thermo-electric voltages and the operational amplifier offset current resulting in an erroneous
boundary identification by tens of cm. Long term drift compensation schemes have recently been
developed based on the intermittent obselVation of a dummy channel with the same integrator.
These schemes have the potential to reduce the drift to < 1 cm for a 1000 s pulse. Therefore the
magnetic diagnostic in ITER is based on inductive measurements with voltage loops, saddle loops
and pick up coils.
The magnetic diagnostic must produce the input measurements for the PF control system
and for operation and interpretation. The required accuracy of the reconstruction for both control
and physics interpretation is 2 em and is related to the power scrape-off thickness of 1-2 cm. For
the PF control system, average quantities such as plasma current and average position of the current
channel are required during the start-up, and the size of 6 gaps between the plasma and the
separatrix during the flat top. For diagnostic purposes the entire boundary and internal profile
information will be available for interpretation of other diagnostic measurements and analysis of the
plasma-wall interaction.
The location of the plasma boundary can be derived only from numerical calculations.
Several methods are available and all of them are well developed. In ideal conditions the
reconstruction can be as accurate as 2 cm, which is the target for ITER.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reacton 2

Edited by Stott etal., Plenum Press, New York, 1995 529
MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS

The physics and technical requirements originate from the role of the magnetic
measurements in establishing and controlling the plasma configuration. This requires both accuracy
and reliability. Once the plasma is established the magnetic configuration is required for evaluation
of diagnostics and physics. MIlD mode analysis from locked modes to very fast fluctuations give
essential information for judging stability.

For PF Control

The most important application of the diagnostic is its input to the current and shape
control. The target accuracy of 2 em for diagnostic use exceeds the required accuracy for control.
Also, the time resolution is an order of magnitude better. There are several candidate reconstruction
codes to provide the input parameters, which are basically a subset of the overall equilibrium. For
following the development of small bore plasmas and movements during disruptive events it is
useful to have the opportunity to construct the average properties of the plasma from the moments
of the current distribution. MIlD mode analysis will provide the means for disruption evasion. A
very important aspect of the control application is that it must be reliable and robust. For the
purpose of recovery from unwanted situations or to start protective or evasive action this
diagnostic must remain operational far outside the nominal scenarios.

For Evaluation and Optimisation

The full MHD equilibrium reconstruction will form the basis of the diagnostic and physics
interpretation. The plasma boundary shows the degree of plasma wall contact and the matching of
the divertor configuration to the dome and target plates. From the equilibrium reconstruction the
internal parameters ~p and Ii can also be obtained. MHD fluctuations in the range from DC,
corresponding to locked modes, to 200 kHz, corresponding to fast TAE modes, can be detected. In
addition the magnetic diagnostic should have the capability to measure the static error field
generated by asymmetries in the TF and PF coil sets, iflarge enough.
The Shafranov integrals are obtained as part of the measurement of the diamagnetism from
which the energy content is obtained. The energy content can also be obtained from the magnetic
reconstruction as ~.
For equilibrium measurements, the plasma should be followed on a <100 ms time scale,
smaller than the LIR times of the conducting shells, requiring compensation of eddy currents.
From the technical side, the sensitivity (lfthe coils and loops must be determined in relation
to the input circuits and the bit resolution of the data acquisition system. Further requirements
originate from the ITER environment: vacuum, temperature, radiation, remote replacement and
reliability .

PROPOSED SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

The sensors, voltage and saddle loops, pi<:k up coils, diamagnetic and Rogowski loops are
supported from the structural elements of the ITER machine. The accuracy of the mounting directly
reflects on the absolute accuracy of the plasma boundary. Effects of thermal expansion can be taken
into account, but mechanical deformations during the pulse are difficult to compensate for.

Equilibrium

The main set of sensors for the calculation of the boundary is located on the plasma side of
the back plate and on the sides of the instrumented divertor cassettes. The locations of the

530
 o PICK UP COILS

@ VOL rACE LOOPS

Nor SHOWN : SADDLE LOOPS

Figure 1. The locations of the flux and field measurements OD the iJ\ller wall of the vessel and OD the plasma side of
the back plate are indicated by OpeD circles and small boxes respectively (size DOt to scale). The flux measurements are
a mixture of voltage loops (full flux measurements) and saddle loops (differeDlial flux measurements). The poloidal field
measurements OD the vessel wall are a mixture of taDgentiai and DOrmai field measurements; OD the back plate there are
tangential equilibrium and h.f. coils at an locations. Distribution to be optimised.

531
 CONDUIT~~_ __
FORWIRIN'G

-----
-----

Figure 2: Location of the coils on the plasma side of the back plate. The coils are in the shadow of the shield module
to reduce the radiation flux. The keys, electrically insulated, compensate the twisting moments on the shield modules.

equilibrium pick up coils, the voltage loops are given in Figure 1. The set of saddle loops giving
intermediate flux values e.g. in the port areas, are not shown.
On the back plate there are 19 flux measurements of which 13 are voltage loops and 12 saddle
loops. There are 18 tangential coils for poloidal field measurements and in the divertor cassette there
are 11 coils. The voltage loops together with the resistivity of the back plate will give the poloidal
distribution of axisymmetric currents in the back plate. The details of the mounting of the coils
behind the shield modules in a removable socket is shown in Figure 2. This set is not magnetically
shielded and has a response time limited by the construction of the pick up coils. For the
equilibrium coils the limit is 10 kHz caused by the short circuit of the sheath of the MI cable. For
the high frquency coils the limit is caused by the presence of the conducting structural materials,
and the limit is 200 kHz. There is no major eddy current correction necessary if only the back plate
and divertor sets are used. The sets have a 5-fold toroidal symmetry with 4 sets at 90°.
The sensors on the vessel wall have a supporting role. The 14 voltage loops give the poloidal
distribution of the vessel current. 12 sets of tangential and normal pick coils are located in the lower
part of the vessel where space is available. The flux and field measurements in this area can be used
for finding the configuration around the X-point from a local field expansion method. These sets are
well shielded from radiation and therefore a two-fold toroidal symmetry will be sufficient for
redundancy.

Rogowski Loops

Four continuous Rogowski loops are planned outside the vessel. They will measure the total
current and need correction with the back plate and vessel current as will be available from the
voltage loops. This gives a back up for the basic plasma current measurement by the summation of

532
the 18 poloidal field measurements on the back plate and one under the dome of the (livertor
cassette.

Diamagnetism

The diamagnetic loops will be mounted 00 the inner wall of the vessel. The response will be
slowed down by the presence of the back plate, which is electrically connected to the divertor
cassette forming a poloidal shell. This requires a major correction with the LIR time constant of this
structure if a 10 ms response time is required. The reference toroidal flux will be provided by a large
pick up coil near the outer equator. The compensation of erroneous pick up has to be prepared in
the initial operation stages by measuring the mutuill inductance between the diamagnetic loop and
the various coils and the plasma current loop.

Halo Currents

Each shield module has two earth straps. In principle there is space to mount a local
Rogowski coil on the back plate connection avoiding an extra connector. This allows the
measurement of the toroidal and poloidal extent of the halo currents limited only by the practicality
of the number of coils required.
A supporting measurement is proposed on the earth straps between the lower edge of the
back plate and the divertor cassette. This method will miss the fraction of the current flowing
directly into the vessel wall, but will show the toroidal distribution.

MHDmodes

The system of coils and loops provides also the means to measure the MIlD mode activity
from DC, i.e. locked modes, to 200 kHz, fluctuations and TAE-modes. Locked modes are measured
by poloidally extended saddle loops with a fixed spatial Fourier analysis with m=I,2,3 and n=l, low
frequency oscillations by the equilibrium coils «10 kHz) and the highest frequencies (> 10 kHz) by
special high frequency coils. The high frequency coil is shown in figure 2. It is placed in the gap
between the back plate and the module just in the shadow of the shield module. The poloidal and
toroidal extent of the coils is such that sufficient mode analysis capability (m::>9 and n::>S) is
offered. It is the intention to use the fluctuation measurement system as a monitor of dangerous
MIlD activity.

DETAILED DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Inductive magnetic measurement system have been successfully used since magnetic fusion
started in the 50's. The underlying physics and the mathematical techniques are fully developed and
validated. From this vast experience we treat here a limited number of aspects which are important
or essential in the context of ITER.

Reconstruction: Accuracy and Optimisation

The factors that affect the lowest detectable signal are: the effective area of the coils and
loops, the gain of the front end integrator or amplifier related to the bit resolution of the analogue to
digital conversion, the expected noise and uncompensated drift (off-set) of the input circuit, and
finally the interference. Examination of these factors suggests that the plasma current can be
measured at 1% accuracy from 1 MA and used for control at 0.1 MA albeit at reduced accuracy.
The equilibrium reconstruction reaches its full potential at 2.5 MA with its accuracy impaired by
the small size of the plasma Qarge extrapolation).

533
 SaparaIIIx dspIacall8lis IIlId 1h8 I8COI1SIrucUon rasuIs
v.1Ih probe signal 2% wille noise In SOB, 311 =-11.2
0.15
i -o-GAPl
E i -lll-GAP2
...
VI 0.10 .............t............_. . . i. . . -<>- GAP3 ............
& i i .............. GAP4
• !: !: ---GAPS
"'iii
.l!
0.05 t......................~:.............. GAP6
.
.........__

! i:. Filed markers are

raconsI~icnl88Ults
!. ! :
~ 0.00
'0
.!I
c
~
J.... • ••• M • • • • • • • ~r . . . . . . . . . . . !. . . . . . . . . . . .!. . . . . . . . ._.
: : :
i5

-0.10
iii
0 4 6 8 10

T
Figure J: The evolution of the separatrix displacements ancI the reconstruction result with 2% white noise in probe
signals (fnim [2)).

The reconstruction methods used for investigating the proposed ITER magnetic diagnostic
are: EFIT (US), a filament method (RF and JA), a Local Field Expansion method (RF), and
statistical methods such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Function Parameterization (FP)
(EU). The numerical codes are used to test the accuracy of the reconstruction under imposed
statistical errors on the simulated measurements, to study the weight of the contributions of
individual sensors to arrive at an optimised set, and to assess the influence of eddy currents.
Tests on the previous configuration [II have shown that under 2%statistical errors the gap
measurements are accurate to ±2 cm rms. There is no reason to believe that the present proposed
set will be different. Two preliminary results ofreconstructions using the proposed arrangements
have become available.
The first is a steady state calculation using the ANN and FP methods [2]. Only the sets on
the back plate and in the divertor have been used, thus no major eddy current effect needs to be
included (but can, if required). The imposed errors cover a range of 0.2 to 1.0 % of the average
poloidal field. As an example we quote here some results of the calculation with 1% error (10 mT).
For the flux differences the error level of the field is used which leads to 500 mVs flux error using
the average area of the differential flux loop area of 50 m2. With these values reconstruction errors of
the outer equatorial gap of 12 mm and of the top gap of 23 mm have been obtained. Further details
can be found in [2].
The second study uses a current filament method which follows dynamically the plasma
shape and position. Coupled with this model is I fmite element description of the eddy currents in
the axisymmetric conducting shells formed by the back plate and the vessel. The main use of this
code is for the study of the PF control action [3]. For this second study results are only available
which use the complete set of sensors i.e. inclusive of those on the vessel wall. This introduces
some large eddy current effects into the reconstruction. The study of the response to a decrease of
~=O.2 for all 6 gaps shows that eddy currents can efficiently be corrected using the model (see next
section). In this study the imposed errors are different. On the input 2% white noise is used on the
time derivative and the resulting gap deviations are <1 cm. For this case the plasma current and the
PF currents area assumed to have no errors (Figure 3). If we allow a 1% error on the plasma current
and O.l% on the PF currents with 2% white noise on the measurements, as used before, the gap
deviation increases to -2 cm. This result is shown in Figure 4. The noise has a large effect on the

534
 Separatrix displacemenls and the reconstrucl"" resuls wHh probe signal 2% white noise,
1% 1.._. measuremenl noise aI1d 0.1 % I""" measurement noise In SOB, liP .,.-0.2
0, 15 ,.....,..,...,.---:r-.,....,~~-.--,.-,.,...,.---,-~~-,-~,.-,-,

-o-GAPl
I
..~
-!l!-GAP2
-<r-GAP3
0.10
til ---i>-- GAP4
II> ........-GAP5
£;
1ii -..-GAP6
x 0.05
·c ···Aliiidmai'k.iS·iii.····
!01 I8COnst~uction results
0-
Il>
(/)
'0 0.00
~
II>
E
II>
:iI
15.
.!1!
0

-0.10
a 2 6 8 10

TINE (sec)

Figure 4: The evolution of the separntrix displacements and the reconstruction result with 2% white noise in probe
signals, 1% white noise on the plasma current and 1).1% on the PF currents (from [2)).

reconstruction and indicates that plasma current ilnd the currents in the PF coils must essentially be
noise free. For these cases the eddy current cor;ection is incorporated and the full bore plasma is
under feedback control.
Optimisation studies have not been completed on the new set. The procedure is to switch
off the contribution of each individual probe with imposed noise present and record the changes in
accuracy. If the deletion of a sensor causes large increases one must consider increasing the local
sensor density. When this test is done one needs to keep in mind that different plasma shapes have
to be treated e.g. small initial limiter plasma, large limiter plasma, limiter plasma in the upper part of
the vessel, divertor plasma, etc. One also needs 10 consider different reconstruction methods: EFIT,
filament codes, Local Field Expansions and statistical methods (ANN and FP).

Eddy Currents

No major eddy current corrections, due to axi-symmetric currents in the back plate and
vessel are necessary to the measurements on the back plate and the divertor when they are used for
equilibrium reconstruction. However, during start up and plasma movements, concentrated current
channels will occur near the lower part of the back plate (divertor gap). These can affect the plasma
current integral and the accuracy of the reconstruction in this area. The time scale of these eddy
currents is 1~O's of msec. The contributions can only be quantified by numerical calculations and
corrected. Examples of a major eddy current correction are shown in Figure 5 where a small initial
plasma has been examined during the current rise with substantial currents in the vessel and back
plate structure. These contributions can be removed to a high accuracy by invoking the finite
element eddy current model as in [3] bringing the reconstruction accuracy back to the required
specification. In a similar way rapid movements caused by a drop in ~p of 0.2 of the full bore
divertor plasma have been investigated with the PF feedback switched on. As an example the effect
on the outer divertor leg gap is shown in Figure 6. Compensation for eddy currents leads to an
improvement from 2 cm to 1 cm error, the original accuracy. The response of the other gaps with
various noise contributions are shown in Figures 3 and 4. Once the relation between the eddy
current channels and the correction has been established one can also use the measured back plate
currents for a direct on-line correction to the field measured by the pick up coils.

535
 ......1lNItien • the ............. ~1I"'-41U. : AId... PaslUan
F1Kctn,lnIdlon It thI 1Im1t..- p.... ,,-2MA-4MA : "wUCliI p.. Ulon
'.80 ,.-'X:"T".....~'"""~.,-,~~,-.-.,........., 1.70 ,.-~---,--.-~.-,--~.,-,~~..----.-----.--,
i-&-~um -0- EqUilibrium
_ RecoostrucliOl"1 witl Eddy
9.70 ••••••••••••• ;...... •..... ;......- Rtconstrud<n"'" Eddy
1: i : ~~tru~m vd'IoutEddy 1: 1.65 """-"--------------- ......,0,- RecaistNdioo without Eddy"

I
"
J
] •. SO

.~
1O
.. .."
---r----------i ---.
o
g
1.55

j •.30
~ 1.501---------;---------+--=""'-;--------------j-----""'..J
I •. 20
'!I
~ 1.'6 f-------------+-------------~--------------->--------------~
9.10
10
" " 1. 18 20

TIME In Scenalto (Me) TIME in Scenario (sec)

Figure 5: The radial and vertical position of the plasma current centre in the reconstruction of the limiter plasma_

The voltage loops on the back plate are not sensitive to the local eddy currents in the shielding
modules, but the poloidal coils will pick up the stray fields of the modules and the penetrations_
The estimated time scale is several IO's of ms and therefore not visible in the reference [3]. Further
work is underway to assess this contribution.

High Frequency Fluctuation Measurements

Two factors determine the ability to measure the high frequency fluctuation field: the
limitations due to the coil construction and the penetration of the fields to the location where the
coil is. The coil consists of a ceramic body with 2 layers of ceramic coated wire. Provisional
calculations on the frequency response suggest a roll-of frequency at 200 kHz as the required
specification. The penetration is through the poloidal gap of 2 cm between the shield modules as
shown in Figure 7. However this gap is blocked by the keys between the shield modules to
compensate the moments occurring during disruptions. These form a wave guide in cut-off. The

Reconstruction 01 gap-l displacement: Beta-p drop by 0.2 at EOB

0.01 ,.....,...~~-.-~~.-,-~~~,.,..~~-,-~~.,......,

0.00

--fr- Reconstruction with Eddy

- . - Reconstruction without Eddy

-0.03

-0.04 L.-~~J-~~'---'-~~~'----'-~~-.L~~-'-----'

o 2 3 4 5

TIME (sac)

Figure 6: The displacement of the separatrix at the gap 1 ( at the inner divertor leg) in the drop of the poloidal beta by
0.2 at EOB plasma.

536
 •

.=: I

t
.-D
~-~

'I ,,0

Figure 7: Front view of the blanket modules with the diagnostic socket and the coils. The poloidal gap between the
modules and the vertical limitations by the keys is clearly ,isible. The dimensions of the wave guide in cut-<>ff are
given on the right hand side.

wave guide dimensions are 2x790 mm 2 and 190 mm deep. The cut-off frequency is approximately
38 MHz. At the frequencies of interest, <500 kHz, the attenuation becomes frequency independent,
given by exp(-7tX/a)z 0.47, where x is the depth and a the height.
At very low frequencies the capacitive short (formed by the electrical insulator of the key)
in the wall of the wave guide in cut-off will open up and allow the equilibrium field to reach the
poloidal field pick up coil without attenuation.

Measurement Noise

The most dominant direct cause of the noise is the movement of the plasma boundary.
For the local loop voltage VI we can write:

V1 = -21rd'¥~t = -2Jr( a'I'/~> (it. V)'¥)

showing that there is a contribution of the change in flux and a change due to the movement u of the
boundary. Any change in the integrated loop voltage leads to a gap variation.
The measurements in [5] show clearly that the flux and field derivatives have a white noise
character. This means that the gap noise has a I/ffrequency dependence. As a working hypothesis
we take the reference of 2 mm gap noise at I Hz.
From earlier numerical experiments it is known that the average rms accuracy of the
reconstruction shows a behaviour like in Figure g. The general opinion is that we have a 2% error on
the input measurements which leads to a 2 em rms error on the gap values. Obviously this is an
extra noise that is not correlated with the autonomous noise on boundary fluctuations and much
larger, but it is the gap that is fed into the controller. Every new time point is therefore subjected to
this noise and the controller is continuously working to adjust the boundary to this stochastically
wrong value.

537
 average rms bmmdary error
in em (approximate scale)

o
imposed rms error
in%

Figure 8: BoundaIy error versus imp:>sed nns error on simulated measurements

If we do a completely new reconstruction for each time point and there is large statistical error
which causes the gap values to fluctuate, we have three remedies:
a) We take an average of each sample at intervals of 2 ms and do a running average over 10-20 ms or
even lOOms.
b) We take an approach as with EFIT as used for control [6]. This means that we keep the current
density profile constant for a longer time, say 100 ms, thus restricting the amount offluctuations.
c) Use ANN or FP which do not have this problem.

Radiation Effects

The allowable radiation induced conductivity (RIC) in the standard equilibrium coil is 10-6
S/m. On the vessel wall all sensors are well shielded and RIC is many orders of magnitude below the
limit. The coils on the back plate are close to the gap between shield modules and scattered radiation
can reach the coils. With the common materials the coils will operate at the given limit. With the
choice of high purity alumina as insulator in the Mineral Insulated (MI) cable the limit can be
improved by a factor 100. Permanent damage effects to insulators have not been observed up to 3
dpa in the common candidate insulators. Since the shielding factor for the coils on the back plate is
around 10, the most exposed coils will survive the lifetime ofITER.
The nuclear heating of the coils and loops on the back plate is considerable. The design aims
at cooling by conduction to the back plate. No detailed calculations have been carried out, but
explorative calculations have shown that conductive cooling should be possible for coils in the
proposed location (see Figure 2).

Steady State Considerations

The steady state conditions during the flat top suggest a direct measurement of the magnetic
field or a measurement of the location of the boundary- by non-magnetic means. An example of the
first category is the Hall probe, well shielded from radiation, and of the second category the
reflectometer. In the latter case only a full bore plasma can be measured, smaller bore plasmas as
occur during start up can only be measured by magnetic means. An attractive method proposed
independently by Hara and Woolley [7] combines a classical pick up coil and a jxB method to

538
measure the steady state component. This method is investigated further in the Japanese HT [7]. In
ITER some of these techniques will be used to gain ex:perience and to have the possibility to detect
drifts of the inductive system.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The new design of the blanket/shield structure and the back plate give the opportunity to
obtain the magnetic equilibrium without being magnetically shielded by eddy currents. Additionally
the fast fluctuations can be measured through the poloidal gap between the modules only attenuated
by transmission through a wave guide in cut-off, which is frequency independent. Only the sensors
on the back plate are subjected to considerable radiation levels, but this is just below the damage
levels for the full life time of ITER. Further design must resolve the conduction cooling of these
coils and loops. Confirmation of the number and locations of the sensors through a formal
optimisation is still outstanding.
The study of the noise on the measurements has just started and the first results are
available [2,3], The largest source of noise is the movement of the plasma boundary and the
statistical errors in the reconstruction.

Acknowledgements:

This report is an account of work undertaken within the framework of the ITER EDA
Agreement. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the Parties
to the ITER Agreement, the IAEA or any agency thereof. Dissemination of the information in this
paper is governed by the applicable terms of the ITER EDA Agreement.

References:

I. L. de Kock et aI., Overview of Magnetic Diagnostics Planned for ITER, Diagnostics for
Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, Varenna 1995, p. 71
2. PJ. McCarthy and F.C. Morabito, these proceedings
3. I. Senda and T.Shoji, Report on ITER Design Task D324, 1997 (in progress)
4. M. Matsukawa, et ai, Fusion Eng. Des. 23 (93) 341.
5. P. Vyas and J.B. Lister, Report ITER Design TaskD324-1 Phase II, Aug. 1997
6. IR. Ferron et aI., Real Time equilibrium reconstruction for control of the discharge in the DIII-D
tokamak. APS, Denver, CO, USA, Nov. 1996
7. S. Hara, M Abe and K Moriyama, A Functional Test of a Magnetic Sensor Designed for Long
Period Measurements in a Magnetic Fusion Device, J. of Plasma Fusion Res., vol. 73, p 501
(1997) and
R. Woolley, Tokamak poloidal magnetic field measurements accurate for unlimited time
durations., 16th IEEEINPSS Symp. on Fusion Endineering (SOFE), 1995, p. 1530-1533.

539
REALTIME IDENTIFICATION OF PLASMA SHAPE AND POSITION
ON ITER USING AN EQUILmRIUM DATABASE

Patrick J. Mc Carthyl and Francesco C. Morabito 2

lPhysics Department, University College Cork,

Association Euratom DCU, Cork, Ireland
2Department of Electrical Engineering and Applied Mathematics,
University of Reggio Calabria, Italy

1. INTRODUCTION

Realtime control of the plasma shape and position on ITER requires a fast and accurate
determination of the equilibrium configuration. A suitable identification method must be robust
in the presence of measurement noise and must also remain reliable when the plasma geome-
try makes possibly large deviations from the pre-programmed configuration. The realtime use
of an iterative equilibrium code will, under benign conditions, yield the solution most closely
satisfying a given set of input diagnostic measurements. However, apart from the relatively
large computational requirement, the danger of uppredictable results due to faulty measure-
ments and/or convergence to an incorrect solution by the minimization algorithm in such codes
is always present. In contrast, a non-iterative identification of the equilibrium which naturally
incorporates robustness against measurement noise is possible by methods based on offline anal-
ysis of a database of randomly generated equilibria chosen to span the entire parameter space
accessible by ITER. We describe here the generation of one such database by the Garching
Equilibrium Code 1 using the ITER FDR PF coil set and spanning a cigar-like volume in a
high-dimensional (16-D) parameter space whose axis is a line segment connecting Start of Burn
(SoB) and End of Burn (EoB) fiducial ITER equilibria. We investigate the identification of a
variety of plasma position, shape and current profile parameters from magnetic flux and field
measurements prescribed by the most recent conceptual design of the magnetic sensor layout. 2
We analyse a linear model, which is expected to be inadequate, and two leading identification
techniques, namely Function Parameterization and Artificial Neural Networks.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUILmRIUM DATABASE

A database of 1522 lower x-point equilibria with fixed Ip = 21 MA and B. = 5.7T was
generated by partial Monte Carlo variation of 16 input parameters consisting of 9 external
coil currents and a 7-parameter family of toroidal current density profiles within the plasma.
The database was designed to contain equilibria clustered around a I-D sequence spanning the
fiducial SoB and EoB ITER equilibria "sob21-109-b09-cl.tl" and "eob21-109-b09-cl.tl". This
was achieved by a part-deterministic part-random variation of the PF currents using the scheme

Ij = ISoB + (lEoB - ISoB) x (~c + U{a, J})

in the database, Nc is the number of cases and U{a, J}

where I is any PF current, ISoB and lEoB are its SoB and EoB values, j is the equilibrium index
E [-I, IJ is a random number chosen

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 541
from the uniform distribution with limits ±f. The current density profile
iteR, t/!) = Rp'(t/!) + F F'(t/!)/(/JoR)
was randomly varied using a 7-parameter family given by (tf; is the normalized poloidal flux:
.p = 1 at the magnetic axis, .p = 0 at the plasma boundary)
p'(~) ex ~ap exp {bp(l-~) + cp(l _ ~)2}

where ap,bp,cp are randomly chosen for each p'(~) profile, GFF,bFF,CFF specify the FF'(~)
profile, and the 7th parameter determines f3p o/' Reversed shear and edge pedestal profiles are
easily generated with this family. A total of 47 raw measurement inputs were calculated for
each equilibrium. These consist of 18 flux differences and 29 pick-up coil field measurements, all
located on the plasma side of the blanket backplate. Their geometry is described elsewhere. 2

3. OFFLINE TRAINING METHODS

3.1 Linear Models

As a benchmark for the more sophisticated models considered below, the recoverability
of each output parameter was investigated by carrying out a well-conditioned linear regression
using the input signals as predictors and noting the rms fitting error averaged over the database.

3.2 Function Parameterization

In the method of Function Parameterisation 3 (FP) the dependence of a set of outputs

(plasma parameters) on a corresponding set of inputs (magnetic measurements) is modelled by
(typically) a second degree polynomial whose arguments are the most strongly varying statis-
tically independent linear combinations of the inputs. These linear combinations, known as
Principal Components (PCs), are determined by diagonalizing the correlation matrix R of the
set of inputs. The eigenvalues of R are the variances of the PCs and those PCs with eigenvalues
that are close to zero or below the expected noise level of the inputs can be discarded. Thus the
PC transformation has the dual purpose of identifying independent linear combinations of the
inputs and reducing the dimensionality of the problem. FP is a widely used technique within
plasma physics research and is the routine method of realtime and between-shot equilibrium
identification on the ASDEX Upgrade tokamak. 4 If we denote the ith PC variable by <p. then
<Pi = 'Y •. V. where 'Y. is the ith eigenvector (in order of eigenvalue magnitude) of Rand V.(1 x m)
is the vector of m standardized input variables (note <Pi and V take a different value for each
case in the database) then the FP representation for each output parameter is given by
p

en = l::: c.,j,n<P'<Pj
i=O
j=i

where en is the nth output parameter variable, p is the number of retained PCs and the C',j,n
(CO,O,n is the intercept and the CO,l,n are linear PC coefficients) are (p + 1)(p + 2)/2 unknown
coefficients to be determined (for each en) by a linear least squares regression.

3.3 Artificial Neural Networks

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are also widely used as a method ofrapid data interpre-
tation in plasma physics 5 The ANNs we consider here are of the multilayer type, in which the
first layer is directly connected to the inputs and the last layer outputs the plasma parameter
values. Here we use one hidden-layer of nodes (neurons) which nonlinearly transform a selected
set of linear combinations of the inputs using the hyperbolic tangent function. Using similar
notation to that of the FP model above, we have the following ANN model:
p

en = l::: Ci,n tanh[wi . V - b;]

;=0

where Wi . V is again a linear transformation of the inputs vector. Here, the Np + N output
weights Ci,n, the p biases bi and the matrix of input weights W(p x m) are simultaneously deter-

542
Table 1. Linear, FP and ANN parameter recovery statistics for 1522 ITER equilibria.
t l £-
';::1
('=OmT
Parameter Min Avg Max Spread Model OmT 2mT
S read S

R geometric (mm) 7779 8084 8347 109 Linear 4 3.6% 5 4.1%

FP 0 0.4% 2 1.8%
ANN 2 2.1% 2 2.3%
Z geometric (mm) 328 689 1056 154 Linear 15 10.0% 16 10.3%
FP 4 2.8% 6 3.8%
ANN 5 3.0% 6 3.6%
Z current 893 1164 1499 119 Linear 1 0.6% 2 2.0%
centre (mm) FP 0 0.3% 2 1.8%
ANN 2 1.9% 2 1.9%
R x-point (mm) 6845 7136 7480 110 Linear 4 3.8% 5 4.1%
FP 0 0.4% 2 1.8%
ANN 3 2.8% 3 2.7%
Z x-point (mm) -4399 -4165 -3837 122 Linear 8 6.7% 9 7.2%
FP 2 1.3% 5 4.1 %
ANN 3 2.8% 5 3.8%
horizontal minor 2188 2674 2932 112 Linear 4 3.6% 5 4.4%
radius (mm) FP 1 0.5% 2 1.8%
ANN 2 1.7% 2 2.2%
elongation x1000 1580 1820 2358 107 Linear 7 6.8% 8 7.1%
FP 2 15% 2 2.3%
ANN 3 2.6% 4 3.4%
R inner (mm) 5163 5410 5840 142 Linear 5 3.8% 7 4.8%
FP 1 0.4% 3 2.2%
ANN 3 1.8% 3 1.8%
Router (mm) 10135 10757 11054 170 Linear 6 3.4% 7 3.8%
FP 1 0.4% 3 1.5%
ANN 3 1.9% 4 2.2%
Z top (mm) 5019 5543 5999 253 Linear 28 11.0% 29 11.3%
FP 8 3.2% 10 3.9%
ANN 6 2.3% 10 4.1%
R(Ztop) (mm) 6254 7133 7819 244 Linear 44 17.9% 44 18.1%
FP 21 8.8% 22 9.0%
ANN 12 5.0% 19 7.7%
R magnetic 8164 8442 8662 123 Linear 18 14.7% 20 15.9%
axis (mm) FP 4 3.1% 14 11.4%
ANN 8 6.7% 11 9.0%
Plasma 1587 1834 2035 75 Linear 4 5.1% 5 6.1%
Volume (m3 ) FP 1 1.0% 2 2.5%
ANN 2 2.8% 4 5.3%
Bottom -455 -355 -284 30 Linear 3 8.5% 3 8.9%
Triang. x1000 FP 0 1.2% 1 3.8%
ANN 1 3.8% 2 6.9%
i3p ol x 1000 613 875 1330 172 Linear 11 6.4% 16 9.5%
FP 2 1.2% 6 3.7%
ANN 4 2.6% 9 5.3%
Ii x 1000 524 951 1574 170 Linear 18 10.7% 29 17.0%
FP 3 1.7% 10 5.7%
ANN 8 4.6% 15 8.9%
qo x 1000 390 1007 2664 296 Linear 112 37.9% 113 38.1%
FP 44 14.9% 85 28.7%
ANN 87 29.5% 112 37.8%
q95% x 1000 2536 2966 3566 176 Linear 27 15.6% 29 16.6%
FP 8 4.3% 14 8.2%
ANN 10 5.9% 21 12.0%
Gap Out (mm) 178 470 1087 170 Linear 6 3.3% 6 3.7%
FP 1 0.6% 3 1.6%
ANN 3 1.6% 5 2.8%
Gap Top (mm) 87 564 1200 263 Linear 21 7.9% 22 8.4%
FP 3 1.2% 6 2.3%
ANN 5 1.8% 7 2.6%

543
mined for all N output parameters in the ANN by the backpropagation algorithm, an iterative
gradient descent technique designed to minimize the error between the true and ANN output
parameter values. Thus unlike FP, where the PC transformation is done without regard to the
parameters to be recovered, the ANN can optimize the choice of input signal mappings (Le. W)
for the vector of output parameters G that are to be recovered. Fifteen hidden nodes have been
chosen here for the hidden layer and the parameters were modelled by four separate ANNs, each
of which was trained on two-thirds of the cases and validated on the remaining third.

3.4 Simulation of Signal Noise

The magnitudes of the flux difference and magnetic field signals in the database are typcally
50Vs and 1 T, respectively and Gaussian noise was optionally added to these input signals prior
to training. For a given choice of noise magnitude 6mT for the pick-up coils, 50.5 m Vs was used
for the flux differences. Since the area subtended by each flux loop pair is typically 50-60 m 2 ,
this gives (approximately) equal uncertainties in the magnetic field for all measurements.

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

We report results for models of 15 PCs or hidden nodes, reflecting the number of degrees of
freedom in generating the database. (Note this dimensionality is much higher than a previous
database analyzed in a similar manner to here~) Table 1 gives database summary statistics and
rms recovery errors, both absolute and expressed as a percentage of the parameter Spread (the
standard deviation of the parameter about its mean value in the database) for Linear, FP and
ANN models both for noise-free and noisy measurements (noise level: .5 = 2mT). For the 20
parameters tabulated, the noisy model recovery error for the three methods was, on average,
in the ratio FP: ANN: Linear:: 1 : 1.3 : 2.2. Thus FP performed moderately better than ANN
and clearly better than the Linear model. For geometric parameters, the typical noisy model
absolute rms error is 4 mm for FP, 5 mm for ANN and 12 mm for the Linear model.
Of relevance for realtime control is the computational requirement of the identification al-
gorithm. If it can be assumed that the plasma is of the single null type, then it is straightforward
to show that for m inputs, p PCs or hidden nodes and N outputs, the number of multiplications
per evaluation cycle for FP and ANN is given by
NFP = mp + p(p+ 1}/2 + N(p+ 1}(p+2}/2
NANN = limp + IIpt + N(p+ I}
where II separate networks are required for the N output parameters and t is the number of
equivalent multiplications to evaluate the tanh function. Using a test fortran program running
on a 170 MHz spare, the following timings for m = 47, p = 15, N = 20 and (for ANN) II = 4, were
obtained: TLinear = 0.28ms, TFP = 0.84ms, TANN = 1.27ms.
We conclude, on the basis of the results presented here, that there are only moderate
differences in the accuracy and speed of realtime parameter identification between the FP and
ANN models and that both methods would be well suited to this task on ITER.

REFERENCES

1. K. Lackner, Computation of ideal MHD equilibria Comput. Phys. Commun. 12 (1976), 33--44.
2. L. De Kock, S. Bender, A. Costley, J. Leuer, P. Mc Carthy, A. Portone, I. Senda, R. Snider, C.
. Walker, Magnetic diagnostics for ITER this workshop.
3. B.J. Braams, W. Jilge and K. Lackner, Fast determination of plasma parnmeters through Function
Parametrization Nuc\. Fusion 26 (1986), 699-708.
4. P.J. Mc Carthy, W. Schneider, K. Lackner, H.P. Zehrfeld, K. Biichl, J. Gernhardt, O. Gruber, A.
Kallenbach, G. Lieder, R. Wunderlich, MHD Equilibrium Identification on ASDEX Upgrade in
"19th European Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Innsbruck, 1992", Euro-
physics Conference Abstracts 16 C-I (1992) 459-462.
5. J.B. Lister, H.Schnurrenberger, Nuc\. Fusion 31 (1991), 1291.
6. R. Albanese, E. Coccorese, O. Gruber, R. Martone, P.J. Mc Carthy, F.C. Morabito, Identification
of Plasma Equilibria in ITER from Magnetic Measurements via Functional Parnmeterization and
Neural Networks Fusion Technology 30 (1996) 219-236.

544
STEADY STATE MAGNETIC SENSOR IN A FUSION DEVICE

Shigemitsu Hara, Yuzuru Neyatani, Mitsushi Abel, Akira Nagashima and

Satoshi Kasai

Naka Fusion Research Establishment, Japan Atomic Energy Research

Institute, Naka-machi, Naka-gun, Ibaraki-ken 311-01, JAPAN
I Hitachi Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd., Hitachi, 319-12, JAPAN

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic measurement is the one of the most important issue for the magnetic
confinement device like a tokamak. The magnetic measurement provides an accurate
knowledge of the plasma position, shape, current and many parameters. In future machine
like International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), the magnetic sensor is
required to measure accurately in severe environment for a long time. Then, it will be
necessary to measure magnetic field continuously in a long discharge during which
radiation damage will occur I. Conventional sensors, which consist of a pick-up coil and
integrator, undergo zero level drift and they are unfeasible for a long pulse operation. Hall
elements have been used for a long pulse discharge 2. However, their use is problematic in a
high neutron and high temperature environment as in a fusion device.
A new hybrid magnetic sensor was proposed which consists of a mechanical sensor
and a conventional magnetic probe 3 . A mechanical sensor is a new type of magnetic sensor
for frequencies smaller than O.IHz and employs the measurement of electromagnetic force.
This paper provides the practical feasibility of this hybrid sensor. The prototype of a new
hybrid sensor was manufactured and tested on the JT -60U tokamak discharges. Our results
show that the hybrid sensor is a promising candidate for the measurement of magnetic fields
on next generation long-pUlse fusion devices for the magnetic confinement of
thermonuclear plasmas.

SYSTEM OUTLINE DESCRIPTION

Figure 1 shows a system diagram of the hybrid sensor, which consists of three parts;
an electromagnetic force measurement part (mechanical sensor), a magnetic probe part
(conventional sensor), and a signal synthesis part. In the first part, there is a transmitter

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 545
module which supplies E the bridge voltage of load cell, and amplifies V the signal voltage,
which is proportional to the magnetic field. However the mechanical sensor can not measure
high frequency components (> 1 Hz) of the field, due to its own inertia. Therefore high
frequency components are measured by a conventional magnetic probe.
The signal synthesis part combines the signals from the mechanical sensor and the
conventional sensor. The low pass filter cuts the high frequency components off for the
mechanical sensor. However, for the conventional magnetic probe, the low pass filter acts as
an integrator in the high frequency region, producing a signal proportional to the magnetic
field without the low frequency components. These two filtered signals are added to
produce a signal proportional to the magnetic field.
This new hybrid sensor have two good features. One is that the hybrid sensor does
not produce offset drifts of the analog integrator since only the high frequency component
of the signal from the conventional magnetic probe is integrated. Another is that the hybrid
sensor may be tolerant of high neutron fluxes since the magnetic field detection parts (i.e.
the sensing coil, magnetic probe and load cell) are not made of semiconductors.

Mechanical Sensor Load Cell Transmitter Module

[--~-
Sensing Coil ______________

Signal Synthesis Circuit

Magnetic probe ~ Bps Output Signal

/<-------- ------------!~
Conventional Sensor Signal Synthesis Part
Low Pass Filter
(=Integrator + High Pass Filter)
Figure 1. System schematics of the hybrid sensor, showing its three parts, the mechanical sensor,
conventional sensor, and signal synthesis part.

TEST RESULTS ON JT-60U

Performance tests of the hybrid sensor were carried out by using JT -60U discharges.
The hybrid sensor was set inside the toroidal field coil. The measurement test was enforced
under the condition of strong toroidal magnetic field of higher than 1 Tesla. At the setting
position, Br was larger than Bz in the typical discharge. We measured Br component of
magnetic field and up to a lxlO- 1T magnetic field was measured.
Figure 2 shows the waveform of the magnetic measurement during the plasma
discharge. The waveform of 120 second is shown in Fig. 2(a) and time-expanded one is
shown in Fig. 2(b). The waveform of integrated pick up coil signal(Bp), the pick up coil
signal through low pass filter(BpH), load cell signal(VL), load cell signal through low pass
filter(VLL) and synthesized signal(Bps) obtained by adding both signals were shown. The
toroidal field ripple was observed in Fig2(a). The hybrid sensor seems to be more sensitive
for the toroidal field ripple than conventional magnetic probe. It is found that the waveforms
of Bps and Bp are similar within several percent error in Fig. 2(b). The results shows that it
is possible to measure real magnetic field by the hybrid sensor essentialy.

546
 5.0
(a)
4.0 . M.-M.--M----.f...-.-.M--.--t-..---..---.~---.-.--.-
~ 3.0
1 i
·_·······_·_-_·_-1-_····- - - , " -·----·--t----·--~·-···-·-----t·--·--·----··-

-- ~~t-. - ._-.-._.-_-.·-1. ·-·-~;----·+. . -..---·-

0)
bI)
g
'0 2.0
:>
""; 1.0 J!':-w;,...-..u,""-___ i.a... '''-1-'-''''''-'--'-'
=
.~
rn 0.0

-1.0
!
. _······_··--·-r--·---· I BpH!
__···_[ . ·-·-··-·-·--·r-·-----··-··-T'---··----·r'·-·----··---
I •

-2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

5.0

4.0
~ 3.0
0)
bI)
g 2.0
'0:>
""; 1.0
=
bI)
Ci5 0.0

-1.0

-2.0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (s)

Figure 2. Example wavefonn of 120 second magnetic field measurement(a) and wavefonn(b) on an
expanded time scale.

The long time measurement test was enforced by hybrid sensor. The hybrid sensor
measured magnetic field for about 2 hours. There was no drift of in the measured signal.
The feasibility of dynamic range measurement was tested by changing sensing coil
current during discharge. When the sensing coil current was changed violently from 0.1 A
to 0.5 A, the hybrid sensor could measure magnetic field normally with no influence of
sensing coil current changing. The results shows that it is possible to measure the magnetic
field on wide magnitude range by adjusting sensing coil current.

FUTURE PLAN
The irradiation effect of the hybrid sensor is one of the most important issues.
Especially, RIC (radiation induced conductivity) and RIED (radiation induced electrical
degradation) of insulating materials are important issues under DClAC electrical fields 4 • We
are planing the irradiation test of the hybrid sensor. Figure 3 shows the schematics of the
hybrid sensor for irradiation test. The load cell will be made without organic materials and
the sensing coil will be wound with the ceramic coated wire. We will investigate the

547
irradiation performance of the load cell and sensing coil using Co 60 Gamma-ray irradiation
facility in JAERI Takasaki around the end of 1997. In the next step, the hybrid sensor will
be irradiated in the neutron irradiation condition using JMTR (Japan Materials Testing
Reactor ).

Vacuum Chamber or
Irradiation Test Capsule

Load Cell ~

Rotation Axis
~
Front View Magnetic Field Direction

Figure 3. Schematics of hybrid sensor for irradiation test. Low frequency component of magnetic field can be
found by measuring the electromagnetic force which is raised on a sensing coil. The hybrid sensor is set in a
vacuum chamber or irradiation test capsule in order to prevent from oxidization.

REFERENCE
1. V.Mukhovatov, H. Hopman, S. Yamamoto, et aI., in: ITER Diagnostics, ITER Documantation Series,
No.33, IABA, Vienna (1991).
2. S. Itoh, N. Hiraki, Y. Nakamura, K. Nakamura, A. Nagao, S. Moriyama, et aI., in: Proc. 13th Int. Con! on
Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research, Washington D. C., 1990 1: 733, IAEA,
Vienna (1991).
3. S. Hara, M. Abe and K. Moriyama, A Functional Test of a Magnetic Sensor Designed for Long Period
Measurements in a Magnetic Fusion Device, 1. of Plasma Fusion Res., 73: 501 (1997), Robert D.
Woolley, Tokamak poloidal field measurements accurate for unlimited time duration, in Proceedings of
the16th lEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SO FE) 1995, 1530-1533.
4. T. Nishitani, T. !ida, Y. Ikeda, et ai, Irradiation Tests on Diagnostics Components For ITER in 1955,
lAERI Tech 96-040, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Tokai (1996).

548
PLASMA VIEWING IN JET USING ENDOSCOPES AND
A DETAILED DESIGN FOR ITER

J Paul Coad, Johann Lingertat, *Jean-Blaise Migozzi, Peter E Stott,

* *Christopher I Walker and Colin H Wilson

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxon OXl4 3EA, UK

*JBM Optique, F-91140 Villebon-sur-Yvette, France
**ITER Joint Work Site, D-85748 Garching, Germany

1. INTRODUCTION

For the efficient operation of a tokamak like JET, it is very important to provide
immediate visual information on the position of the plasma within the vessel (and possible
regions of interaction with the wall) from a wide-angle view showing the complete plasma
cross-section, and of the strike-point positions in the divertor. It will be more important to
have an comprehensive on-line viewing system in ITER from the very start of operations,
since the much larger heating power involved has a greater potential for causing problems.
The development of viewing systems at JET has highlighted the advantages and difficulties
inherent in such systems, and has also indicated the possibilities of the technology.
Video cameras were fitted to the JET tokamak in 1994 to provide detailed views of the
newly-installed divertor and a wide-angle view of the inside of the torus in real time. The
detailed views of the divertor were provided by cameras on the upper main vertical ports
(UMVP) at Octants V and VIII, looking down almost vertically (the central ridge of the
divertor is at 7° to vertical) in the poloidal plane, as shown in Figure 1 (which also shows a
typical plasma configuration). As can be seen in the figure, almost all the divertor floor is
visible: the view of the inner and (especially) the outer wall of the divertor is very oblique
and partially shadowed, but this was not considered important at the time. The viewing lines
are shared by spectroscopic (1) and infra-red cameras (1,2). The wide-angle view installed
in 1994 was from a camera in a re-entrant water-cooled tube mounted in the pumping box at
Octant I. The camera position is limited to approximately 1.5 metres from the point of entry
of the Oct I main horizontal port (MHP) through the first wall by the requirement to leave
the port clear for viewing by other diagnostics and for personnel entry into the vessel: this
restricts the view of the interior of the torus to that shown in the computer-generated
(CAD) image in Figure 2.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 549
 View from cameras at
top 01 machine

Figure 1 Poloidal section through the JET Mk I divertor Figure 2 CAD drawing of the wide-angle
used during 1994/5 and showing the lines of sight from view of JET from the camera in the Oct
the cameras mounted on the top of the torus and a typical Pumping Box.
plasma configuration.

A number of problems were envisaged for subsequent JET campaigns. Firstly, the
1996/7 (Mk II) and planned future divertors have a more closed aspect and there is
increasing interest in shaping the plasma so that the strike points are on the side walls, so a
complete view is not possible from the top ports. Figure 3 (a) is a poloidal cross-section of
the 1996/7 Mk IIA divert or, showing a typical plasma configuration. It is clear that the areas
of interaction on the vertical plates cannot be viewed by the cameras at the UMVP, and part
of the outer strike zone is also shadowed by the outer divertor wall. For the Mk II Gas Box
(due to be installed during 1998) which has a shape similar to the proposed ITER design the
situation is even worse (Figure 3(b )). Secondly, the wide-angle view is very restricted so
that only about 5% of the vessel surface is seen, and the complete torus cross-section is not
visible. Finally, none of the existing cameras can be used during plasma operations using D-
T fuelling, because the neutrons (and associated y-rays) will destroy the detectors.
VtfNlfrom
Cameras at top
01 machine

(a) (b)

Figure 3 Cross-sections of the JET divertor showing a typical plasma configuration and the viewing lines
from cameras mounted at the top of the machine, for (a) Mk IIA in use during 1996/7 and (b) Mk II Gas
Box due to be installed in JET in 1998.

550
2 THE NEW ENDOSCOPE VIEWING SYSTEM ON JET

The ideal position from which to obtain both wide-angle and divertor views is just inside
the vessel near the outer midplane. Since the JET vessel is operated with wall temperatures
at 250 to 350°C (and of course under high vacuum conditions) cameras cannot simply be
placed at such points. Instead re-entrant tubes have been fitted within two of the old Limiter
Guide Tubes (LGT). The LGTs are horizontal vacuum ports welded into the outer wall
which extend through the vessel support structure to a flange which is easily accessible: the
length of each port is 1.8 metres from outer wall to flange. There are pairs of LGTs in each
octant (in sectors B and D), one 280 mm above and one 280mm below the outer mid-plane,
and although all these ports have been re-allocated to various diagnostics since the discrete
limiters were removed in 1987, the upper ports in Octants IVB and VIIIB became available
when one of the diagnostics was removed in 1995. The re-entrant tubes are mounted on the
flange and end in a double sapphire window at the ideal viewing point just within the outer
vessel wall. The window is in the shadow of an outer poloidallimiter which protects it from
the plasma, and is covered by a shutter during vessel conditioning treatments such as glow
discharge cleaning and Be evaporation. The window is angled at 45° to the vessel radius to
give a clear view from inside the window in the anti-clockwise direction inside the torus: the
poloidallimiters to the left of each port block the view in the clockwise direction. From each
of these two vantage points approximately 30% of the vessel is visible.
An optical relay (endoscope) system has been constructed to allow cameras mounted
outside this flange to view through the window. The endoscope allows three different views
into the torus; a wide-angle view (WAV), and detailed views of the divertor in the visible
and in the infra-red. Each of these views is accomplished via a separate set of relay lenses
within the endoscope (contained within tubes of 44mm internal diameter), and the assembly
is water-cooled to maintain the mechanical stability required to give high resolution images.
The optical design of the W AV gives an included angle for the viewing cone of 80° at an
aperture offl4, and the objective lens of the video camera is chosen to give an image with
the diagonal just equal to this value. Figure 4, which is a frame taken from a video of a JET
pulse, shows the area of the torus that is visible, and the improvement over the previous
view (Figure 2) is obvious.
The optics which provide a detailed view of the divertor in the visible spectral range
image a circle of 14° centred in the divertor with an aperture of f14. The camera is fitted
with a filter so that light of one specific wavelength is recorded (currently the ClI line at 658
nm). The optics for viewing in the infra-red are optimised for operation at 5 J..Lm, and the
view is split into two halves, one giving a close-up of the inner half of the divertor floor, and
one of the outer half. However, at the present time the infrared camera is still viewing from
the top of the torus whilst an improved image processing package is developed.
The glasses used in the construction of the WAV and divertor viewing systems are not
radiation-resistant. Thus the endoscope was temporarily removed in March 1997 for the
duration of the experiment with deuterium-tritium fuelling (code-named DTEl) to avoid
possible neutron-induced damage. The endoscope is due to be replaced later in 1997, when
once again a colour WAV and a close-up of the divertor will be recorded for every pulse.

3. EXAMPLES OF THE USES OF THE VIEWING CAMERAS

3.1 to verify plasma equilibrium and identify major hot-spots

Het. radiation (mostly Det. for deuterium-fuelled discharges) dominates the visible
emissions from within the torus during plasma pulses. As the deuterium is ionised close to
the surfaces interacting with the plasma, the edge of the plasma is the primary light source.

551
VI
VI
tv

Figure 4 A frame taken from the video of the wide-angle view of pulse 38907 Figure 5 A frame taken from the video of the wide-angle view
when the plasma was also in contact with the outer poloidal limiters. of pulse 40466 which includes the light from a giant ELM.
Thus the wide angle view clearly shows all points of interaction with the plasma, and is a
primary check on the position of the plasma within the vessel.
During the divertor phase of the discharge the only surfaces with significant plasma
interaction should be the target tiles in the divertor. However, in order to develop the
optimum plasma conditions plasma shape (especially elongation) and size are important
variables: the WAV gives an immediate indication of the available working space for these
experiments. The plasma shape is also varied to try to provide the optimal coupling between
the ICRH antennas and the plasma for each heating scenario. Figure 4 is an example of what
happens when there is too much power loading on the outer poloidal limiters during ICRH
heating. Strong interaction is observed with the limiters to the right of the antenna banks at
just above the outer midplane. The limiter surfaces have reached sufficiently high
temperature for carbon atoms to sublimate, and as these atoms are ionised they move
around the torus along the magnetic field lines. Emission from the carbon can be seen as
streaks angling from lower left to upper right across the interaction areas, and in the colour
original continues as blue light around the top of the inner wall (top right of image). For
sublimation to occur a temperature in excess of 2500°C is required, so some of the light
from the limiters must be thermal in origin, but the Da predominates. However, if the
plasma is suddenly moved away from the outer wall the Da light source there is "switched
off', and the thermal emission from the limiter tiles can be seen decaying with time.
A further useful diagnostic tool visible in Figure 4 concerns the clearance to the inner
wall. The scrape-off layer (SOL) is clearly illuminated by emission of Da from particles
streaming up from the inner leg of the divertor, so that the distance of the last closed flux
surface (LCFS) from the wall can be seen to well above the midplane. (In this example the
separation is rather large and the illumination ofthe inner SOL correspondingly weak.)

3.2. Studies of ELM interactions outside the divertor

During an ELM up to a few per cent of the energy content of the plasma is expelled in
about 100 microseconds. It is known that some of the energy goes to the divertor (but
usually deeper into the SOL regions (2», but little is known of interactions elsewhere. A
frame is recorded from the WAV camera every 20 milliseconds, and the information within
that frame represents an integration over a period of between I and 20 milliseconds
(depending on the camera settings). Thus if an ELM occurs within the active period for the
frame, all the interactions associated with the ELM will be integrated in the picture: if the
ELM occurs during the gap between the active periods it will be missed. Many examples of
ELMs have thus been recorded on the WAV videos. Figure 5 shows a video frame that
captures the interaction effects of a giant ELM. The strong interaction within the divertor
increases in area (and intensity) and normally extends to the tiles at the entrance to the
divertor. Light is also invariably seen from some other points in the vessel - in this instance
there was power deposited near the tops of the outer poloidal limiters, on the protection
tiles for the upper saddle coils (inner) and at various points on the roof tiles. However, each
ELM has a different set of interaction points, and no part of the first-wall is immune from
these effects. Future fusion machines are likely to operate in ELMy regimes, so it is
important to learn more about the dynamics of the power deposition to different parts of the
first wall during ELMs before defining the design criteria for these surfaces.

3.3. Monitoring UFOs and looking for first wall component failures

Flashes of light (UFOs) are often seen in the plasma during a pulse. The flashes are
usually caused by a particle burning up after entering the plasma. Occasionally showers of
particles are seen after material is dislodged from the wall (eg following a partial disruption),

553
and sometimes the source of particles can be seen due to interactions within the field of view
of the camera. For example, particles have been emitted from tiles during strong interaction
with the outer poloidallimiters such as shown in Fig. 4.
An example of a previous component failure can be seen in Figure 4. There is a dark
rectangle at the midpoint of the outer poloidallimiter between the two which are interacting
at this time, which is due to a gap in the limiter where one tile pair is missing. These tiles
were damaged during a previous experiment when the limiters were overheated during
several pulses. On another occasion edges of the protection tiles for the upper saddle coils
(inner) were overheated whilst a plasma quench procedure was being developed, until one
tile was seen on video to break and two pieces of the tile dropped down to the bottom of the
vessel: one fell between the divertor and the inner wall, and the other into the divertor.
Neither piece nor the damaged wall tile could initially be seen by In-Vessel Inspection
System (IVIS), but the damaged tile was eventually located after directions were taken by
comparison with the video footage. It was decided to improve the mountings of these tiles
at the next vessel entry, and the broken pieces were retrieved at the same time.

3.4. Detection of high levels of visible bremstrahlung emission from the core associated
with high performance discharges (e.g. optimised shear regime)

During normal operation there is no emission seen in the visible range from within the
plasma, all light emanating from the periphery of the plasma. However, during experiments
on the optimised shear regime (OSR), which is a possible operating scenario for ITER, low
levels of yellowish light can be seen in the plasma core due to bremstrahlung emission. The
initial experiments on OSR have been encouraging, and further work is planned wherein
some attention may be given to the camera information.

3.5. Diagnosis of density limits due to MARFE formation and disruptions

Plasma instabilities register as fluctuations on many diagnostics, but it is often difficult to

visualise what is actually happening. Some instabilities such as MARFEs may last long
enough to follow by video, so that the 3-D complexity can be seen readily.
Such instabilities may end in a disruption. Almost all plasma diagnostic signals are
lost/overloaded at a disruption, so characterisation is poor. Video recordings of pulses
ending in a disruption provide some useful information, such as which surfaces take the
energy released at the disruption. In JET the majority of disruptions go to the top of the
machine, however disruptions to the inner or outer walls are not uncommon. If a disruption
occurs at high plasma current (as opposed to minor disruptions that frequently occur well
into the ramp-down phase of the discharge) all the edges/asperities in the contact area are
seen to glow red-hot in several video frames after the disruption, indicating that surfaces can
be heated to the order of2000°C.

3.6. Applications of the divertor viewing camera

A typical frame from the divertor-viewing camera is shown in Figure 6. The strike points
are clearly visible, and radiation can also be seen from the inner divertor leg extending to the
X-point. The narrowness of the bands oflight at the strike points indicates the zone width is
only of the order of 1 cm. The divertor view is principally used to study the positions of the
strike points. There has been much interest in recent months in the comparison of the effects
of horizontal and vertical divertor targets on divertor recycling and detachment (3). The
divertor view has been valuable in providing a direct visual confirmation of whether the
strike points are indeed on the planned targets and to provide a check for the Langmuir

554
 Figure 6 View of the divertor recorded in ell light during JET pulse 38267.

probe data, since the magnetic field measurements cannot give the strike-point position to
the accuracy required. The plasma is also swept during portions of many discharges to
distribute the power, and this movement (which is usually done at a frequency of a few
Herz) of the strike points can be precisely corellated with the divertor tile structure using the
divertor viewing camera.
The divertor view has proved useful for studies of detachment, when not only is the
reduced interaction at the target surface seen (as also observed by Langmuir probes (3)) but
also radiation can be seen moving up the divertor leg to the X-point region : the 3-D nature
of the divertor view gives a unique visualisation of the X-point in addition to the targets.
The integrated picture of ELM activity in the divertor can also be seen to complement the
WAV image of elsewhere in the vessel (the WAV image sensitivity is such that the image is
saturated in the divert or region) .
The divertor viewing system is being modified before the endoscope is replaced on the
JET machine later in 1997 so that three cameras can view through the optical system at the
same time by means of beam splitters. Each camera will have a filter changer, so that a
number of experiments will become possible, such as measuring divertor temperatures by
comparing helium spectral lines during He-puffing experiments and using filters for impurity
lines, as well as studying various D and C spectral lines.

555
 4. A DESIGN OF AN ENDOSCOPE SYSTEM FOR ITER

All the attributes of the JET viewing system are required for ITER. In addition a
complete visual coverage of the vessel is required in case there is any toroidal non-
uniformity in the plasma power load ings which could result in erosion or melting at the first
wall of the main chamber (which is expected to be contructed of beryllium). Positions in two
mid-plane blanket modules (on opposite sides of the machine) have been allocated for wide-
angle viewing, with viewing in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions from each
position to allow complete visual coverage of the vessel. Furthermore, divertor viewing
from these positions as well as from two other mid-plane modules would also be possible.
A major difference between viewing systems for ITER and the existing JET endoscope
is that for ITER systems must be able to withstand the large neutron (and associated y-ray)
fluxes. Naturally the design must also be able to withstand the thermal and mechanical loads
anticipated, but these are similar to those experienced at JET.
An outline design for a system to view the interior of ITER from the outer midplane has
been produced which uses reflective optics for the first 2 metres (approximately) from the
first-wall, changing to refractive optics to relay the images -10 metres through the primary
and secondary vacuum containment, the intermediate structure and the biological shield to
the cameras. The scheme is shown in Figure 7. Two independent optical systems are
portrayed with a cross-over just behind the first-wall: one sytem views in the clockwise
direction, the other anti-clockwise.

/
Blanket
shield
module
(showing
top part
removed)
Camera
platform

vacuum
seal plate

Figure 7 Overall scheme for wide-angle viewing from the outer mid-plane ofITER.

The design uses a concave aspheric mirror as the first element (Figure 8), and a catadioptric
telescope (Figure 9) to produce a planar image to relay via conventional diffractive optics to
the cameras which are located behind the biological shield. A high resolution wide-angle
view inside the vessel can be obtained for the assessment of the plasma, and the same optics

556
 Optical axis

Figure 8 Concave aspheric mirror proposed for Figure 9 Catadioptric telescope stage to convert
use at the first-wall ofITER to provide a wide- the spherical image of the interior of ITER to
angle view of the interior of the vessel. a planar image for relaying through
the shielding surrounding the machine.

(b)

(c)
(a)

Figure 10 (a) Simulated wide-angle view inside the ITER vessel. (b) and (c) optimum angles for viewing
into the inner and outer legs of the divertor (respectively).

557
can be used to examine closely any parts of the first-wall that appear to interact strongly
with the plasma by means of a zoom lens, and to view into the outer leg of the divertor.
Figure 10(a) is a simulated image of the interior of ITER, and the approximately semi-
circular lines show the view obtained at different included angles for the aspheric mirror:
figure 1O(b) shows an expansion of the optimum angle for viewing the outer divertor leg.
The optimum view into the inner leg shown in Figure 1O(c) is along a line of declination of
approximately 50 0 in the radial plane. Dedicated optics will be necessary for viewing into the
inner divertor leg, and greater resolution may be obtained in the visible range if dedicated
optics are also available for the outer leg: in any case viewing in the infra-red for
temperature measurement will require separate optics to viewing in the visible for each
divertor leg.
At the diffraction limit, the spatial resolution for viewing items in the ITER vessel of the
proposed wide-angle optical system is 2-3 mm at areas 10 metres from the mirror at the first
wall. This resolution should allow any significant damage at any point on the first wall to be
visible, and since the precursor to any damage event (i.e. strong plasma interaction) will
show up clearly on the live video, the operators will already know precisely where to search
for any signs of damage. If the included angle in the viewing cone is reduced by a factor of
perhaps five to give detailed viewing into the divertor, there is a commensurate
improvement in the resolution limit. Erosion of the target tiles is a major concern for high
power operation of ITER: with sub-millimetre spatial resolution there is the possibility of
designing an on-line indicator of the extent of erosion in these areas (e.g. the shadow cast by
grooves or steps in the target surfaces). However, this assumes certain values for the
manufacturing and assembly tolerances, and for the mechanical and thermal stability of the
system. It is very important to check that components can be made and assembled in
materials suitable for ITER to the standard required, and to test the design in a suitable
environment. Accordingly, a prototype is being designed to be tested on JET which
incorporates as many of the features of the proposed ITER system as possible, including a
dog-leg for radiation screening and a three-point focussing camera with zoom capability.
The prototype will be of similar size to the ITER design, and will be subject to at least as
severe thermal conditions as expected on ITER. It is planned for the prototype to be built
and installed by the end of 1998, so that if there is an extended period of DT operation on
JET in 1999 the radiation-resistance of the device can be thoroughly tested.

CONCLUSIONS

A new endoscope system has been installed on JET which gives greatly improved wide-
angle and divertor plasma viewing at high resolution. Similar real-time viewing of the ITER
plasma may be possible using an aspheric mirror as the first optical component. The critical
issues which control the resolution obtainable in ITER are the mechanical tolerances and
stability that can be acheived on assembly and maintained long-term in the high radiation
levels, and the thermal stability of the endoscope system. The next step is therefore to build
a prototype system which is as close as feasible to the ITER configuration that can be tested
in the laboratory and then installed on JET.

REFERENCES

1. J Lingertat, A Tabasso et alJ Nuc!. Materials 241-243 (1997) 402

2. E Gauthier, A Chankin et ai, in 24th EPS Can] on Controlled Fusion and Plasma
PhYSics, Berchtesgaden, Germany, June 1997.
3. R Monk, A Loarte et ai, in 24th EPS Can] on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics,
Berchtesgaden, Germany, June 1997.

558
PRESSURE GAUGES AND NEUTRAL PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT IN ITER

G. HaasI, H.-S. BoschI, D. Costerl, L. de Kock 2 ,

R. Maingi 3 , J. Neuhauser!, R. Schneiderl

1) Max-Planck-Institut fiir Plasmaphysik

IPP-EURATOM Association
D-85748 Garching, Germany
2) ITER JCT, JWS Garching, Germany
3) Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Lockheed Martin Energy Research,
presently assigned to General Atomics, San Diego,
USA

ABSTRACT

The neutral gas environment in a poloidal divert or tokamak like ITER plays an impor-
tant role for the global machine performance.
In order to investigate the local neutral gas dynamics with sufficient time resolution,
specific neutral pressure gauges have been developed originally for ASDEX, and are now
applied in modified form in most existing experiments. Application of these gauges for
ITER seems to be feasible (Diagnostic Design Document DDD 5.5.G.03). In this paper,
recent progress in gauge design and understanding is described and experimental results
from several divertor tokamaks are presented. The results are used to check numerical
edge-divertor codes (B2-EIRENE), which, in turn, can be applied for ITER predictions
and neutral diagnostics optimization.

INTRODUCTION

The parameters of the neutral gas environment of the divertor and the main plasma
have a crucial influence on the overall operation of ITER as of any tokamak. Therefore
two years ago at the ITER Diagnostic workshop in Varenna a neutral gas diagnostic
for ITER was proposed [1], based on so called ASDEX gauges [2]. The proposal was
adopted by the ITER design team and was incorporated into the Diagnostic Design
Document DDD 5.5.G.03. It is foreseen to install 50 to 100 ASDEX gauges at the walls
of the instrumented standard divert or cassettes (See Fig. 1).
These gauge heads are small and versatile and with appropriate shield structures robust
enough to be installed even in positions of high recycling and power load like divertor

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenwn Press, New York, 1998 559
 Bt

Plate

Case

Acceleration Grid

Toroidal Direction
10 Cap < >-

Ca p

(al (bl

Figure 1: Two versions of attachment of a pressure gauge head to a target tile using either the gap
between the tiles or a small hole in the tile as duct to access the plasma. The inserts show the gauge
head and its housing.

targets or scoop limiters in existing tokamaks [2, 3]. Only those positions have to be
excluded where the gauge head or its shield structure would cause additional recycling
and would influence the neutral gas or the boundary plasma. With this exception no
problems are expected with installation and operation of the gauges at any desired posi-
tion in ITER. The final positions have to be chosen in accordance with predicting model
calculations. Also the in-vessel cabling and electrical connections and the feedthroughs
do not pose specific problems except those which have to be solved in general for other
diagnostics too. Therefore it is still considered as premature to develop a complete and
detailed design of the whole neutral gas diagnostic system, but one has to ensure that
the components are compatible with the constraints set by the overall design of ITER
and its divertor systems and by the operation of ITER. In the next chapter we deal
with some new developments of the gauges and the implications on their use in ITER.
In chapter 3 and 4 we describe some examples how the gauges are used in present
tokamaks phenomenologically and in connection with model calculations, respectively.

560
TECHNICAL PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENTS ON THE ASDEX
GAUGES

The ASDEX gauge [2, 4, 5] is used as a diagnostic tool on many fusion experiments
and it is subject to ongoing development to meet new requirements. Some examples
relevant for ITER are given below.
The Ah03 base plate has been replaced by a grounded metal plate with inserted Al2 0 3
insulators. This is similar to what was used until about 1990. It completely avoids
leakage currents between the electrodes even for long term operation. This was possible
with the all ceramic base plate only by conducting, grounded strips on the ceramic
surface, but it does not work as well as a complete metal barrier. Like the gauge head
with all ceramic base plate, the new version is fully brazed in contrast to the oldest
design. This one could be dismantled for repair, but that is not a useful option for
tokamaks like JET or ITER, anyway. The change became possible by progress in metal
to ceramic brazing.
A diameter reduction at the central part of the filament allows to operate the gauge with
reduced heating current without impairing the stability. Beside the advantages of the
reduced power (lower gauge temperature, smaller feedthrough and cable cross section)
it avoids the danger of deforming the filament by the Lorentz force especially if the
feedback loop fails and the heating current rises to the limit necessary for conditioning.
It was shown during tests performed in a superconducting magnet at Forschungszentrum
Karlsruhe, that startup and normal operation of the gauge for hours in strong magnetic
fields of up to 9 Tesla do not present any problems. A limitation in the achievable
emission current and a non-linear behaviour of the gauge were probably the consequence
of the poor vacuum condition as recent experiments in IPP Garching with a better
vacuum system indicated. The same experiments in Garching cast some light on the
dominating processes in the gauge immersed in" a strong magnetic field [5]:
The main result is that the strong enhancement of the sensitivity due to even small
magnetic fields is caused by electrons which return to the filament after one passage
through the gauge. These electrons contribute to the ionising electron density in the
ionisation volume, but not to the measured emission current.
The Radiation Induced Electrical Degradation (RIED), considered two years ago still
as a severe problem for all components containing ceramic insulators in an electric field,
seems to be avoidable if appropriate ceramics are used. Therefore tests of a gauge in a
neutron radiation field will be postponed for the moment.

SELECTED RESULTS FROM DIVERTOR TOKAMAKS

In this chapter we will demonstrate on a few examples the importance of the high time
resolution of the in vessel pressure gauges.
Generally, only 10 or 20 % of the gas injected into a (divertor) tokamak are found
in the plasma and the neutral gas [2, 6]. The rest is stored on the walls, most of it,
however, as transient inventory participating in the particle recycling. IT one removes
this wall inventory or tries to build up the plasma without it, achievement of stationary
plasma density proves impossible [7]. The gas is probably rather unevenly distributed
on the walls and hardly accessible to a direct measurement, but only to a global particle
balance. Such balances are determined on a slow time-scale, i.e. by taking into account
the particle input by fueling, the changes of the particle contents of plasma and neutral
gas and the particle flux pumped by the external pumps [6, 8, 9]. This gives inventory
changes averaged over the whole vessel, and integrated over the full duration of a

561
discharge it yields changes in the permanent wall inventory.
Neutral gas balances, however, are sometimes useful also on a much faster time scale,
and one such example is a disruption, i.e. the sudden breakdown of the plasma which
frequently leaves behind a rather uneven distribution of the neutral gas in the vacuum
vessel. During a disruption elongated tokamak plasmas loose the vertical stability and
move towards the vessel walls. In ASDEX Upgrade the plasma is mostly dumped in
the lower part of the vessel (See Fig. 2 for a poloidal cross section of the vessel).

Figure 2: Poloidal cross section of the ASDEX Upgrade vessel. The numbers denote typical positions
of gauges. For the particle balances gauge 2 (private flux region) and 3 (vessel) are used.

-;_ 3.0
'1'" 600 ~
E 2.0
iii 400 _15.
0

:;, 1.0
.... 200

0
ASDEX Upgrade
53 #3888, Jp • 800 !lA,
.i!.
n.. 4.5-10 19 m;3
51 ohmic Heating
a:
u.
cnfl. 49
.s
47

454 .2 4.25 4.4 4.35

Figure 3: Neutral particle flux densities and plasma current during a disruption in ASDEX Upgrade
(upper figure). The bottom curve displays the exponential decay of the fast portion of the particle
source in the private flux region. The slowly decaying portion is deducted.

This raises the neutral flux density ¢ in the divertor much more and much faster than
in the upper part of the vessel. The neutral flux density is connected with the neutral
density no by
no' v
¢=-
4

562
with v being the mean velocity of the neutrals.
In the neutral gas flow range typical for tokamaks the neutral flux density is especially
for non homogeneous temperature distribution or non-Maxwellian velocity distributions
the better defined quantitiy than the particle density or the pressure of the neutral gas
which may change locally much more. Since moreover the quantity primarily measured
by the encased gauges is the neutral flux density, we prefer for quantitative discussions
the neutral flux density rather than the neutral pressure or the neutral density.
The particle balance of the volume below the outer target plate (private flux region) as
an example is:
dcPPFR + cPPFR - cPuess.1 = SPFR • v/4
dt VPFR/L pFR VPFR

with cPPFR and cPu•••el being the neutral flux density in the private flux region and in
the upper part of the vessel, respectively, and v the mean velocity of the neutrals in the
private flux region. VPFR and LpFR are the volume of the private flux region and the
conductance to the main plasma chamber. De- or adsorption of particles at the wall
appear as additional particle source or sink SPFR. It is composed of a small, slowly
decaying part (T ~ 0.5 to 1 sec) and a large one which decays exponentially with a time
constant of 10 to 15 msec over more than 2 decades. The neutral flux densities and the
fast portion of the source SPFR are plotted in Fig. 3. The bottom part of this figure
clearly shows the exponential decay with a time constant of ~ 10 ms. The total amount
of gas stored in the walls of the private flux region can be derived by integrating the
particle source. It exceeds the gas content of the private flux region at the maximum of
cPPFR (at 4.29 s) by more than a factor 3. In the rare event of a plasma moving upwards
during a disruption this term appears as particle sink with the same time behaviour.
The neutral flux density is modulated by ELM's, too. The absolute and relative am-
plitude, the rise time and some other details of the wave form change from tokamak
to tokamak and also depend on the discharge parameters. In Fig. 4 examples from
DIII-D and ASDEX Upgrade are shown. In both cases the neutral flux density in the
private flux region during a type I ELM is plotted together with the Da intensity as
time marker and indicator for the ELM. The neutral flux starts to rise just after the
ELM indicated by the Da signal is nearly finished.
Ha [LU. I ,
: A8DEX...,.. Ha [LU.J DIHI
182001. I.... 1.5 lolA.
: 18187, lp-l.01olA.
If" _S,5010"m;"
: If" - 8.G-l0" m;3
! PNBI - 4.8 MW.
41ELM - 50 IIII8C
PNBI-4.1 MW.
41ELM -eollllllO

\
.0 [m.as·l J +0 [m.a•.1J
1,5010 22
4'10 21
1.G-l0 22 /' 3'1021
2 '10 21
0.5010 22
1'1021
o O.~~--~~~~~~~~
-0.01 0.01 0.02 0.G3 0.04 0.06 -0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06
lima [sJ lima Is]

Figure 4: ELM history in ASDEX Upgrade (left) and DIII-D (right). Time is the time relative to
the onset of the ELM, determined from the HOI signal (upper traces).

Sometimes a slight decrease of the neutral flux density is observed during the ELM.
Maybe it is caused by the intensified pumping ability of the divertor plasma which has

563
been heated up by the increased energy flow during the ELM. On the other hand, how-
ever, indications have been occasionaly found that gas is desorbed due to the ELM [8].
The absolute increases of the neutral fluxes are comparable in the examples of figure 4,
but due to the lower base neutral flux the relative modulation is larger in DIII-D (In
JET still larger modulations have been observed up to a factor of 5 to 10). The most
surprising fact is the almost identical rise time of about 10 msec in both tokamaks which
is much longer than the ELM and coincides with the decay time of the source term de-
rived from the fast particle balance in a disruption (See Fig. 3). The large differences
in the volumes of the private flux regions and in the connections to the divertor plasma
in both tokamaks and the fact that even in ASDEX Upgrade the vacuum time constant
of the PFR is by a factor of about 3 shorter than the rise time excludes pumping times
as explanation. A more likely explanation is a large reservoir of adsorbed gas which
needs this time constant to come into an equilibrium with the gas in the volume.

THE ROLE OF MODELLING

The neutral gas has a rather complicated distribution which shows no symmetry ac-
cording to the magnetic field and may change especially in the divertor on a short length
scale. To get experimentally the full information on the neutral flux density would re-
quire the installation of more gauges than is technically possible and partly on positions
where it is impossible at all. Therefore one has to restrict the number of gauges and
to use their output for cross checks of Monte Carlo model calculations rather than as
input for them. Being constrained by experimental plasma data, i.e. with the transport
parameters properly adjusted, model calculations can deliver all desired parameters of
the neutral gas.
To assess the relative merits of different divertor schemes the numerical models and
codes used have to be able to treat all the atomic physics processes as well as the com-
plicated geometries involved. Due to the strong non-linear plasma-neutral interaction
a sophisticated coupling between fluid plasma code and kinetic neutral transport code
is necessary to get converged solutions. The basic setup is the exchange of sources for
the plasma fluid code due to neutrals and plasma background for the neutral transport
code.
On ASDEX Upgrade the B2-EIRENE code package [10, 11, 12] is used as a tool for
modelling the plasma boundary, the scrape-off layer plasma and the neutral gas. In
EIRENE [13] a rather complete set of atomic and molecular data is available, including
elastic collisions of neutral atoms and molecules and ions [14]. Neutral recycling sources
are defined by the target plasma fluxes, accounting also for the sheath acceleration of
the ions. Plasma fluxes to the side walls are fed back locally as thermal molecules or
fast neutrals, sampled from a Maxwellian energy flux distributrion of 2kTi. Pumping is
simulated with an appropriate albedo at the pump duct entrance (for external pumps)
and/or at the walls (for wall pumping). Various experimental scenarios for ASDEX,
ASDEX-Upgrade and other tokamaks including ITER have been successfully modelled
using the B2-EIRENE package [10, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Fitting the coefficients for the anom-
alous radial plasma transport to experimental profiles (usually at low density operation)
comparison with neutral gas measurements show very good agreement even for neutral
fluxes different by more than four orders of magnitude (outer divertor volume, private
flux region, main chamber).
A neutral flux density cPo can only be converted directly into a neutral density no if the
mean velocity of the molecules v is known, e.g. if the gas is fully thermalized,
according to no = 4 . </>o/v. Near to a plasma this condition is usually not fulfilled,

564
Figure 5: Trajectories of particles started at the inner and outer target plates. For each plate
100 particles are launched according to the particle and energy flux distribution of a self-consistent
B2-Eirene result.

but an essential portion of the neutral flux is carried by energetic atoms [19]. Even
molecules may be heated up to 1 eV by elastic collisions with deuterium ions and
atoms. Fortunately, for the majority of physical questions the neutral flux density is a
more important quantity than the neutral particle density. Therefore, the conversion is
frequently unnecessary for the analysis. Only detailed particle balances for which also
the number of particles in the gas is needed require such a conversion.
The overall power load and the power density on the target plates have to be reduced
in ITER to a safe value of below 5 MW1m 2 • This can be achieved only by operation
under partially or totally detached conditions. The physics of detachment, which has to
be understood therefore in detail, is closely related to the physics of the neutrals. Can-
didates for power loss and wider energy distribution are neutral recycling and impurity
radiation. It would be desirable to avoid the addition of impurities. Two energy loss
channels - CX- and elastic collisions with and atomic radiation from neutral hydrogen
- are in principle available [20]. Both processes, however, constrain strongly the para-
meters, and can, even in connection with other loss channels, transmit only a minor
fraction of the total power for realistic ITER parameters. This has been demonstrated
by modelling calculations [21, 22, 23] but can be understood also from simple analytical
estimates [24].
Due to the localized reionization of neutrals the ion flux to the target plate increases
faster than the midplane density, whereas the temperature decreases at the target plates.
Below a temperature of about 3 eV CX- and elastic collisions with neutrals prevent a
further increase of the ion flux to the target and produce a pressure drop along the
field-lines. At temperatures of about 1 eV volume recombination (especially three-
body recombination) stops the ion flow completely before reaching the target and the
target plasma flow drops at least by one order of magnitude.
A proof for this mechanism is the observation, that detachment experimentally man-
ifests itself as a drop of the plasma flux (or ion saturation current) onto the target
plate and of the plasma density and pressure at the target plate combined with an

565
increase of the Do signal and of the neutral flux densities in the divertor. The explana-
tion of this contrary behavior of Do and neutral flux on the one hand and the plasma
density and flux to the target on the other forces the introduction of strong volume-
recombination [25]. Modelling with the volume-recombination suppressed shows that
without this effect no significant drop of the particle flux onto the plate is possible.
Elastic collisions between molecules and ions represent another important process in
these low temperature plasmas resulting in an additional momentum loss and creating
a hot (about 1 eV) population of molecules as measurements in the private flux regions
of JET and DIII-D have shown. Neutral particle flux densities measured in the private
flux regions could be brought into accordance with Do intensities measured simultane-
ouslyat the adjacent gas/plasma interaction zone only if elastic collisions were assumed.
Otherwise the particle fluxes were by far too large [26]. In accordance with this analy-
sis of the detachment process divertor geometries which are closed by the SOL plasma
are tested in several tokamaks to maximize the neutral flux density in the divertor,
to enhance energy and momentum losses and to allow easier access to detachment. It
may, however, result in a reduced SOL density limit which is determined by complete
divertor detachment [27].

CONCLUSIONS

Neutral gas measurements are of vital importance for ITER, especially in the divertor
since neutrals play a key role for safe divertor operation (compatible with good con-
finement). The application of ASDEX-type neutral flux gauges for ITER seems to be
technically feasible. For the analysis of the experimental results modelling with sophis-
ticated codes like B2-Eirene is a key element, because it helps to understand them in
detail and (in an iterative process) it allows improvement and validation of the model
for extrapolation to ITER.

References
[1] G. Haas, H.-S. Bosch, and L. de Kock, Neutral Gas Diagnostics for ITER, in Di-
agnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors, edited by P. E. Stott,
G. Gorini, and E. Sindoni, pages 571-579, New York, 1996, Plenum Press.
[2] G. Haas, J. Gernhardt, M. Keilhacker, E. B. Meservey, and the ASDEX Team,
Measurements on the Particle Balance in Diverted ASDEX Discharges, J. Nucl.
Mater. 121, 151-156 (1984).
[3] T. E. Evans, J. S. DeGrassie, G. L. Jackson, N. Ohyabu, A. J. Wootton, K. W.
Gentle, W. L. Hodge, S. C. McCool, P. E. Phillips, T. L. Rhodes, et al., Experi-
ments to Test an Intra-Island Scoop Limiter on TEXT, J. Nucl. Mater. 145-147,
812-818 (1987).
[4] C. C. Klepper, T. E. Evans, G. Haas, G. L. Jackson, and R. Maingi, Neutral
Pressure Studies with a Fast Ionization Gauge in the Divertor Region of the DIII-
D Tokamak, J. Vac. Sc. Techn. AU(2), 446-450 (1993).
[5] G. Haas and H.-S. Bosch, In Vessel Pressure Measurements in Nuclear Fusion
Experiments with ASDEX Gauges, Vacuum, 1997, in press.
[6] G. Haas, H.-S. Bosch, A. Kallenbach, C. Klepper, R. Maingi, D. Meisel,
W. Poschenrieder, ASDEX Upgrade Team, and NBI Team, Particle Exhaust and

566
 Wall Pumping Studies in ASDEX Upgrade, in Europhysics Conference Abstracts
(Proc. of the 22th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics,
Boumemouth, 1995), edited by B. Keen, P. Stott, and J. Winter, volume 19C,
part I, pages 321-324, Geneva, 1995, EPS.
[7] G. Haas, M. Kaufmann, R. S. Lang, ASDEX Team, and Pellet Team, J. Nucl.
Mater. 145-147,519-552 (1987).
[8] J. Ehrenberg, P. Andrew, L. Horton, G. Janeschitz, L. de Kock, and V. Philipps,
Material Related Aspects of Density Control in JET, J. Nucl. Mater. 196-198,
992-996 (1992).
[9] R. Maingi, B. Terreault, G. Haas, G. L. Jackson, W. Zuzak, P. K. Mioduszewski,
M. A. Mahdavi, M. R. Wade, S. Chiu, M. J. Schaffer, J. T. Hogan, and C. C.
Klepper, Comparison of Wall/Divertor Deuterium Retention and Plasma Fueling
Requirements on the DIII-D, TdeV, and ASDEX Upgrade Tokamaks, J. Nucl.
Mater. 241-243,672-677 (1996).
[10] R. Schneider, D. Reiter, H. P. Zehrfeld, B. Braams, M. Baelmans, J. Geiger,
H. Kastelewicz, J. Neuhauser, and R. Wunderlich, B2-EIRENE Simulation of AS-
DEX and ASDEX-Upgrade Scrape-off Layer Plasmas, J. Nucl. Mater. 196-198,
810-815 (1992).
[11] D. Reiter, Progress in two-dimensional Plasma Edge Modelling, J. Nucl. Mater.
196-198, 80-89 (1992).
[12] D. Reiter, C. May, D. Coster, and R. Schneider, Time dependent Neutral Gas
Transport in Tokamak Edge Plasmas, J. Nucl. Mater. 220-222, 987-992 (1995).
[13] D. Reiter, The EIRENE Code, Version: Jan. 92 Users Manual, Technical Report
Jiil-2599, KFA Jiilich, Germany, 1992.
[14] D. Reiter, Neutral Gas Transport in Fusion Devices: Atomic and Surface Data
Aspects, in Atomic and Plasma-Material Interaction Processes in Controlled Ther-
monuclear Fusion, pages 243-266, Elsevier Science Publishers, 1993.
[15] K. McCormick, S. Fiedler, G. Kyriakakis, J. Neuhauser, D. Reiter, R. Schneider,
J. Schweinzer, and N. Tsois, Particle and Energy Transport in the ASDEX Scrape-
Off Layer, in Proc. of the 20th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma
Physics, Lissabon, 1993, volume II, pages 587-590, Petit-Lancy, 1993, EPS.
[16] H.-S. Bosch, J. Neuhauser, R. Schneider, A. Field, A. Herrmann, G. Lieder,
W. Junker, C. S. Pitcher, D. Reiter, B. Braams, and ASDEX-Upgrade Team,
2D-Modelling of the ASDEX-Upgrade Scrape-off Layer and Divertor Plasma, J.
Nucl. Mater. 220-222, 558-562 (1995).
[17] H. Kastelewicz, R. Schneider, J. Neuhauser, D. Reiter, B. Braams, U. Wenzel,
K. Biichl, M. Laux, and V. Mertens, Numerical Made Simulations at ASDEX
and ASDEX Upgrade, in Proc. of the 20th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion
and Plasma Physics, Lissabon, 1993, volume II, pages 807-810, Petit-Lancy, 1993,
EPS.
[18] R. Schneider, D. Reiter, D. Coster, J. Neuhauser, K. Lackner, and B. Braams,
Analysis of Cold Divertor Concepts for ITER, J. Nucl. Mater. 220-222, 1076-
1080 (1995).

567
[19] H.-S. Bosch, R. Dux, G. Haas, A. Kallenbach, M. Kaufmann, K. Lackner,
J. Neuhauser, S. de Pena Hempel, W. Poschenrieder, D. Coster, R. Schneider,
ASDEX Upgrade Team, and NI-, ICRH- and ECRH Teams, Particle Exhaust
Studies in ASDEX Upgrade, Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion, in press.

[20] J. G. Watkins, R. A. Moyer, D. N. Hill, D. Buchenauer, T. N. Carlstrom,

R. Conn, J. Cuthbertson, R. Doerner, R. Lehmer, M. A. Mahdavi, R. T. Mc-
Grath, L. Schmitz, and R. Stambaugh, Scrape-off Layer Measurements in DIII-D,
J. Nucl. Mater. 196-198,829-832 (1992).
[21] R. Schneider, D. Reiter, J. Neuhauser, J. Igithkanov, H. Kastelewicz, M. Baelmans,
and B. Braams, Analysis of Cold Divertor Concepts by 2-D Simulations, in Pmc. of
the 20th European Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Lisbon,
1993, volume II, pages 775-778, Petit-Lancy, 1993, EPS.

[22] A. Kukushkin, Feasibility of Gas Target Mode of Divertor Operation in ITER,

Contrib. Plasma Physics 34(2/3), 282-292 (1994), 4th Workshop on Plasma Edge
Theory, October 1993, Varenna, Italy.

[23] S. Weber, R. Simonini, and A. Taroni, Numerical Simulation of Hydrogenic Atomic

Losses in a Divertor Plasma, Contrib. Plasma Physics 34(2/3), 374-379 (1994),
4th Workshop on Plasma Edge Theory, October 1993, Varenna, Italy.

[24] K. Lackner, Figures of Merit for Divertor Similarity, Comments Plasma Phys.
Controlled Fusion 15(6), 359-365 (1994).

[25] K. Borrass, R. Schneider, and R. Farengo, A Scrape-Off Layer Based Model for
Hugill-Greenwald Type Density Limits, Nucl. Fusion 37, 523-537 (1997).

[26] G. Haas, P. Bachmann, D. Diichs, R. Reichle, D. Reiter, and R. Schneider, Elastic

Backscattering of Hydrogen Molecules from a Plasma, J. Nucl. Mater. 196-198,
481-484 (1992).
[27] K. Borrass, D. Coster, and R. Schneider, Numerical Study of the Impact of Divertor
Closure on Detachment, EPS 1997.

568
HIGH RESOLUTION IR TEMPERATURE MONITORING SYSTEM FOR THE
ITER TARGET PLATES

A. Herrmann and H. Salzmann

MPI fur Plasmaphysik, EURATOM Association, 85748 Garching,

Germany

INTRODUCTION

Monitoring the surface temperature of the divertor target plates of ITER is needed for
machine protection. In this study no complete 2D coverage of the divertor is considered but
a measurement in a single poloidal plane with the front optics being placed in the dome of
the diagnostic cassette.
In addition to machine protection, the diagnostic serves for measuring the actual
position of the strikepoints on the target plates to be compared with the prediction of the
magnetic reconstruction codes, and for determining the heat flux profile in the SOL.
The IR measuring technique is well established on present day tokamaks and the
difficulties in applying it to ITER are concerned with: the capability of the optical front end
to endure, the complexity of the optical system inside the divertor cassette, a possible
luminescence of the vacuum window and the movement of the vessel relative to the
building. In this paper an unconventional optics is proposed which should reduce the
number of optical elements inside the divertor cassette by wavelength-multiplexing.
Additionally, the more basic problem of the error in the temperature measurement due
to the change of the emissivity of the divertor material as a consequence of particle and
neutron impact is discussed.

UNCONVENTIONAL COLLECTION OPTICS

In competition with a complex reflective optics system transmitting the light collected
from a wide angle of view, an unconventional optics approach is proposed. This method is
based on the fact that the information about the temperature of the radiating surface is
contained in a wide range of wavelengths. A collection optics for the divertor diagnostic
cassette was designed which wavelength-multiplexes the collected thermal radiation from
different points of the target plates into a single beam. Thus the number of optical elements
inside the vacuum vessel is drastically reduced and only a small optical window is needed.

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 569
 The mentioned wavelength-multiplexing of the beams from different target locations
is achieved by using a low-frequency grating close to the front mirror, but shielded from
the divertor plasma (Fig. 1). We propose a kind of inverse Rowland circle spectrometer:
When an approx. 3 cm wide strip of a large poloidal section of the target plates is imaged,
the image surface will be curved, and, to first order can be approximated by a circle. Thus,
when imaging an input stop A onto A' by an off-axis ellipsoidal mirror, the images of
points of the target plate can be taken as the 'exit slits' on a Rowland circle spectrometer
defined by these images and A', the position of the curved grating. Light at different
wavelengths, determined by the grating equation, entering from these 'exit slits' then
emerges at the 'entrance slit' B as a single beam of broadband radiation. This beam has a
smaller etendue than the beam of collected light in a conventional collection optics
imaging the same area of the target plates and can therefore be transmitted more easily. The
information on the spatial origin of the collected radiation is encoded in the wavelength
and can be recovered passing the light once more through a spectrometer, similar to ECE
measurements of the plasma electron temperature. Note that the chosen wavelength interval
is such that the first and second diffracted order do not overlap. The shown Rowland circle
spectrometer is folded to fit into the dome structure of the diagnostic cassette using
additional mirrors'.

Figure I. Principle of the proposed optics. PI - P6 are points of the contour of the outer target plate. R:
radius from torus centre; z: height above the centre line of the horizontal viewing duct of the diagnostic
divertor cassette.

The drawback of the method obviously is the linkage between spatial and spectral
resolution: E.g., viewing the outer target plate with a single system (field of view 75°)
requires a spatial resolution of about 210 points to achieve 5 mm resolution on the target
surface. Assuming a reasonable spectral range of 3200 nm - 4800 nm for the
measurements, the information on a spatial point has to be transmitted in a bandwidth of
about 7 nm. Thus the SNR achievable with the proposed optics is certainly less than the
one for the conventional optics where the bandwidth can be chosen independently from the

570
spatial resolution. Further, the spectral resolution of the Rowland circle spectrometer in
combination with the ellipsoidal mirror used as front optics has to match this requirement.
First optical ray tracing calculations assuming a spherical grating with constant groove
separation (200 Umm) along the surface (R = 654 mm) indicate a spectral resolution of
about 12 nm combined with a spatial resolution of about 8 mm.
The question of how to determine the position being observed in a certain wavelength
interval is solved by the planned measure to cover one part of the target plate with carbon
and the other one with tungsten. The distinct change in spectral emissivity between the two
areas can serve as a 'landmark'.

ACCURACY AND CALIBRATION

Thermography systems used for monitoring the surface temperature of in-vessel

components in addition to an IR detector with imaging optics comprise of a vacuum
window and a relay optics. Although modem commercially available IR cameras are
calibrated, the optical transmission of the additional components has to be taken into
account for the overall calibration. If the transmission or reflection of the components is
known, the new calibration factor can be calculated. Alternatively the whole IR system
used on the experiment has to be calibrated against a black body source either in the
l!iboratory before installation or in situ at the experiment. Once the linearity of the detector
has been checked the calibration is a two point calibration with A and B acting as
calibration factors. The detector signal UOD! is given by
U t =E'tAMb (A.,T)+B (equ. 1),
ou p
where Mbp ( A. , T ) is the emittance of the target, A Mbp ( A. , T ) is the detector signal
caused by a black body at temperature T via loss-free optics, and E and 't account for the
emissivity of the target and the transmission of the optical system, respectively. B
represents the -background radiation. Calibrating an IR camera or detector against a black
body source (e-l, r-l), the measuring error at high temperatures is dominated by the error
of the black body calibration and is about 1%. At low temperatures the error due to the
background temperature (temperature of the optics) is dominating. If we consider such an
ideal thermography system it matches by far the ITER specifications of ±10 % at 2500 C.
However, in practice additional uncertainties of temperature mesurements are caused by
other reasons, such as:
i) uncertainties of the emissivity of the target as function of the temperature and the surface
structure which may be changed by particle and neutron impact as well as by deposited
layers.
ii) degradation of the optical transmission of the system by coatings or neutron damage.
iii) hot spot radiation from other locations of the inner wall reflected at the target.
iv) Bremsstrahlung.
The contributions i) and ii) reduce the received signal from the target and have to be
taken into account when evaluating equ. 1, whereas iii) and iv) influence the background
term. Assuming Wien's law for the emittance of the target, the error of the temperature
calculation is
AT = A. T( AE+ A't+ AA) (equ.2),
T C2 E 't A
where C2 is the second constant of Planck's law. To meet the ITER requirements of 10 %
temperature error (±250 K at 2800 K) the sum of the uncertainties of emissivity,
transmission, and the calibration accuracy should be about 50 % for a system measuring at
1 J.lIll and 10 % at 4.5 J.lIll, respectively. A typical change of the emissivity of graphite with

571
temperature at a fixed wavelength is about 8%, and the variation of the emissivity for
different graphites, which may be an indication for the influence of graphite layers building
up, is of the order of 10% 3. Thus, the ITER requirements are met easily for a system
measuring at 1 1Jlll. However, the spectral range of 3.2 IJlll to 4.8 IJlll is needed to meet the
requirement of measuring down to 200 C. Then, considering only the uncertainty in
emissivity it is already difficult to meet the ITER requirements without performing a
periodical in situ calibration of the system. This in situ calibration can be done by
monitoring in between discharges the temperature of the target plates heated by the cooling
water. To avoid a deterioration of the calibration by background radiation it is necessary in
this case to keep the temperature of the target well above the temperature of the optics. If
this is not possible, an additional measurement must be performed using a heated target of
known emissivity placed at the position of the entrance stop.
The consequences for the three different tasks, machine protection, strike point
recognition and power density measurement are different. Systems for measuring the power
density are operating at wavelengths above 311m and thus can be calibrated in situ. The
location of the strike point may be derived from relative data by searching the temperature
maximum, as long as the emissivity and the transmission vary little across the surface. The
consequences for the machine protection depend on the operational scenario. If the divertor
is carbon dominated the change in emissivity can be assumed to be in the range of 10 %
resulting in a temperature error of 170 K at 3.2 IJlll and 260 K at 4.8 IJlll which can be
taken into account for machine protection by decreasing the upper temperature limit. The
temperature measured for metallic targets such as tungsten is strongly affected by carbon
deposition layers which increase the emissivity from about 20% to 70%. As a result the
measured temperature is higher than the real one. From the point of machine protection it
is an inherently safe scenario.
The contribution of bremsstrahlung to the temperature evaluation is dicussed in 4. Its
effect to the measured temperature as well as the effect of reflected radiation of hot spots
results in a measured temperature higher than the true temperature which again is
favourable for machine protection.

SUMMARY

The merit of the proposed unconventional optics is the smaller etendue compared to
conventional optics which reduces the number of optical elements inside the vacuum vessel
and the necessary diameter of the optical window. The spectral region of 3.2-4.8 IJlll
anvisaged for the measurements allows a in situ calibration reducing the measuring errors
of temperature due to a change of emissivity and system transmission.

REFERENCES
1. ITER DDD 5.5.G.06, IR Thennography Divertor, (1997)
2. E. Ishitsuka, Sample No. JA-W-T246-(I}-OI, ITER R&D Task T246 'Irradiation Effects on Diagnostic
Components' (1997)
3. G. Neuer, R. Kochendorfer, F. Gem, High temperature behaviour of spectral and total emissivity of CMC
materials, High Temperatures - High Pressures 27/28: 183-189, (1995/%)
4. A. Hernnann, Optical surface temperature measurement, in: Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear
Fusion Reactors, Edited by P.E.Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, (1996)

572
THE USE OF X-RAY DIAGNOSTICS IN PLASMA CONTROL

A. W. Edwards, B. Alper, K. Bladder, R. D. Gill, M. Lennholm

JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, OXON, OX14 3EA, United Kingdom

INTRODUCTION

Plasma control is normally performed using analogue signals from magnetics

diagnostics. However, with the increase in performance of digital signal processors (DSPs)
more use is being made of digital systems for plasma control. For the pumped divertor
phase of JET a new VME based Plasma Position and Current Control system (PPCC) was
developed!. PPCC consists of two separate subsystems; the first for vertical stabilisation of
the plasma position (VS), the second for plasma shape and current control (SC)2.
When pumped divertor operation began in JET, it was found that the bottom pick-up
coils were corrupted by noise at 600 Hz (together with higher harmonics) from the ripple in
the divertor power supply. The input to the VS control algorithm was therefore limited to
signals from a reduced number of magnetic coils positioned in the upper part of the vessel.
A JET working party was set up, therefore, to make recommendations on improving
the performance of the VS system. The principal recommendation of the working party
was to introduce high power filters for the 4 divertor coil power supplies. These it was
estimated would reduce the 600 Hz noise by a factor of 10, allowing the use of the pick-Up
coils in the bottom of the vessel near and around the divertor.
In addition, it was proposed that the use of a control signal measuring the plasma
vertical velocity derived from a soft X-ray diagnostic system should be used in the VS
system as an alternative to the signal from the magnetic pick-up coils.
One of the requirements was that this new soft X-ray system should provide such a
signal through the planned JET D-T experiments, as well as during D-D plasma operation.
A proposal was made, therefore, to design two D-T compatible soft X-ray cameras which
could be used together with a modified version of the JET Central Acquisition and Trigger
System (CATS) to provide a real-time measurement of the vertical velocity of the plasma.
This signal could then be used within PPCC to stabilise the vertical position of the plasma.
It is important to emphasise how the design of the hardware and data acquisition in
this new soft X-ray system complement each other. The CATS design not only made
provision for a significant degree of real-time processing to produce multiple event triggers,
but in addition, the design allowed for data to be routed in real-time to processors where

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 573
real-time control signals could be derived. Although this feature was not used in the initial
phase of CATS operation, its inclusion in the original design was an important factor in
determining the feasibility of providing additional real-time plasma control signals.
In this paper some further background on PPCC will be given first. This will be
followed by a brief description of the design of the new soft X-ray system and a review of
CATS and the additional changes implemented to calculate the control signal in real-time.
Some examples of the use of the system for real-time control of the JET plasma position
will then be given. Finally, future considerations and improvements will be outlined,
together with how this work can impact on the ITER design: for plasma control; for
diagnostic data acquisition; and for soft X-ray imaging.

THE JET PLASMA POSITION AND CURRENT CONTROL SYSTEM

The intended control algorithm for use in the VS system was based on constructing a
full current moment signal from pick-up coils measuring the field around the entire plasma.
However, the corruption of the bottom pick-up coils by the 600 Hz noise and the
elimination of these signals from the measurement meant that the control algorithm had to
be based on the derivative of the radial flux. The VS feedback system was not, therefore,
driven by a true measurement of the vertical plasma velocity.
The consequences of this power supply noise and the change in control algorithm were
firstly that it was difficult to understand the behaviour of the VS system and secondly, in
most of the plasma disruptions, the VS circuit applied the wrong FRF A polarity leading to
vertical displacements and increased forces on the JET vessel.
In addition, the shots with the highest neutron fluxes during the JET MKl pumped
divertor phase were seen to have a high probability of ending in a disruption following the
giant elm at the end of the high performance phase. In these cases the plasma current was
often still above 3.5 MA. When preparing for the MKII pumped divertor phase, the 3 high
performance shots in the MKII simulation experiments all disrupted at 3.8 MA following a
giant elm. A sudden upward jump in the position of the plasma X-point was inferred from
magnetic signals and divertor probe measurements. If this jump exceeded a critical
amplitude, the VS system was found to be unable to stop the vertical displacement.
Further exploration of the JET high performance regime required that these problems
be overcome. Hence the recommendation to install filters to the divertor power supplies
and to propose a new soft x-ray system to provide an alternative vertical stabilisation
control signal. In principle this signal would: be de-coupled from any edge effects such as
the divertor power supply ripple; provide a control signal derived predominantly from a
measurement made over the plasma core; provide valuable insight into the operation of
plasma control systems using multiple control signal inputs derived from different sources.

THE JET D-T COMPATIBLE SOFT X-RAY SYSTEM - CAMERA DESIGN

It is difficult to determine the soft X-ray emission from a plasma in the presence of
high fluxes of energetic neutrons. Firstly the neutrons induce in the X-ray detector a
background signal which needs to be corrected for. Secondly, the neutrons give rise to a
disproportionately large noise level because the incident radiation has much higher energy
per particle compared with soft X-ray radiation. Finally, if Si pin diodes are used as
detectors, these will start to suffer from radiation damage at approximately 200 rads (Si)
and the detectors will cease to work at radiation levels 100 times larger.

574
 The camera design is based on cautious estimates of the predicted performance of the
proposed system during the second planned JET D-T Experiment (DTE2). It is assumed
that DTE2 will consist of 1000 D-T shots each producing 10 MW of power of which 80%
will be in the form of 14 MeV neutrons. The total soft X-ray power observed for each pulse
is taken to be 100 kW. The detectors to be used are Si diodes with a thickness of250 11m
and a detection efficiency of 100% for soft X-rays in the region of interest.
The results of this design study showed that with a suitable shield it was possible to
satisfy the criteria of a low neutron background signal, a signal to noise ratio of better than
1% and the ability to withstand the total DTE2 dose of 6xl 04 rads.
Two cameras have been constructed and a schematic cross-section of one is shown in
Figure 1. Each views a vertical plasma cross-section through a JET main horizontal port.
One camera is displaced by 1800 toroidally around the machine from the other in order to
overcome m=n=l plasma instabilities such as the sawtooth crash, which would otherwise
lead to a spurious VS control signal being generated. In addition, the cameras also have the
capability of measuring soft X-ray signals from mhd events in D-T plasmas.

0-11
plates
Non radial
section of torus

1m

Figure 1. The outline design of one of the JET D-T compatible soft X-ray cameras.

The two cameras each contain 17 detector assemblies embedded into a large shield
made ofbarytes concrete. This type of concrete has a high Ba content. The shield is 75 cm
deep in front of the detectors in the plasma direction and roughly half that thickness in all
other directions. The detectors view the plasma through precision machined stainless steel
collimators and 250 11m Be windows which separate the machine vacuum from that of the
diagnostic. The detector vacuum is maintained at 10-2 torr.

575
 Each detector assembly has a stack of different elements as follows:
1. a Centronics Si diode detector (type OSD196-0G(CER» which is 14x14 mm
square and has an efficiency of 100% for X-rays with an energy less than 10 keV, but a
much lower efficiency for 14 MeV neutrons which are mainly transmitted through the
detector with very little attenuation and provide a noisy background signal;
2. a Si diode detector, identical to the first, which is used to measure the neutron
induced background signal;
3. a plastic scintillator (Bicron BC 400) 20cm long and 20mm diameter which has a
high efficiency for the detection of neutrons. The light subsequently emitted by the charged
particles produced by the neutrons is measured by a third identical Si diode.

THE JET D-T COMPATIBLE SOFT X-RAY SYSTEM - ELECTRONICS DESIGN

The Central Acquisition and Trigger System4 (CATS) has been under continual
development at JET since 1991. This system now provides advanced data acquisition with
real time data selection and analysis for very large volumes of data acquired at high
sampling frequencies in the range of 100's of kHz. CATS is designed to be modular and
can easily be expanded to include new channels. The system design also allows for
hardware failures without affecting the acquisition of other parts of the system. Such a
system has great relevance to all long pulse machines, in particular ITER.
An overview of the CATS system is shown in Figure 2. The CATS system can be
considered in four parts. The first is the signal conditioning electronics, responsible for
taking in analogue signals and outputting digital data. Next the data collection system
receives this data, holds it and then stores relevant data in response to events from the third
part, the trigger system. Finally, in the fourth part, data is stored on high volume local disks
and then centrally archived. The data from the local disk or the central archive can be
examined using Windows NT workstations. In addition, the system can be controlled from
Windows NT workstations in the JET Control Room.

Signal Conditioning

The CAT system was designed to provide a standard data acquisition solution for a
large number of channels from several diagnostics systems with different signal
characteristics. The specification of the CATS ADC card includes the following: the
analogue signal input can be either uni- or bipolar current or voltage; the gain of the signal
is switchable in software from 1 - 64; the signal offset can be adjusted from software; the
analogue signal is sampled at either 1, 2, 4 or 8 MHz with a I2-bit simultaneous sample and
hold ADC; the I2-bit ADC data is then digitally filtered to 250, 500, or 1000 kHz; the
output is fully anti-aliased and has an inherent noise of less than I-bit.
In addition, there is high clock coherency between all the widely distributed systems,
only one single clock being used to generate all timing and clock signals throughout the
system. There is also full electrical and optical isolation between channels and each
channel is shielded against high electrical and magnetic interference.
Control signals are distributed to each rack of ADC cards via an Interface card in each
cubicle. A Control card in each ADC rack allows monitoring and control of the ADC cards
outside of a data acquisition sequence. During data acquisition, the Control cards packages
the data from all ADC cards in a rack and transmits this data through an optical TAXI link
to a remote data collection system.

576
Data Collection

The data collection system receives data, in parallel, from many serial links. Each
element of the collection system holds the data in a 200 ms ring buffer while extracts are
passed to the trigger system for analysis. Upon receipt of trigger events (see later), all data
collection modules save relevant extracts of data into longer term memory. Following the
pulse, this is written to disk and may be collected later for archival by the central systems.
Currently there are approximately 35 data collection modules, receiving data from over 500
channels, resulting in a total data flow into the system in excess of 250Mbytes/second.

Diagnostic Cubicle

1st Level
Trigger

Detect
Event

High
Slow Data Acquisition Capacity
Data
Memory

Hrequlred-
Data to
RealTime
Control

JET Pulse File

Figure 2. An overview of the JET Central Acquisition and Trigger System (CATS).

Triggering

A specific trigger module receives data in real-time from selected channels. After
applying a certain algorithm, an event may be detected. If an event is found, the data
window to be recorded for that event is broadcast to all data collectors. Up to 100 ms of
pre-event data may be stored and any amount of post-event data, subject to the limits of the
memory. Essentially, any number of trigger events may be detected during a pulse.
Trigger algorithms have so far been developed to detect: threshold levels in neutron
production rates (RDD and RDT); sawteeth; peaks in signals - in particular ELMs.

577
System Control

The CAT system is controlled by a PC running the Windows NT server operating

system. Data is written to a large bank of disks, capable of holding data from many pulses.
These are generally archived overnight to the JET IBM mainframe computer, while selected
shots are written to a local Windows NT server to enable faster access for analysis.

THE VERTICAL STABILISATION CONTROL SIGNAL

In order to provide a real-time control signal to the VS system, the CAT system
described above was extended to allow real-time processing of all the soft X-ray data from
the new D-T compatible cameras. To ensure the system is as reliable as possible, the front-
end signal conditioning electronics are not positioned close to the detectors as with the
existing soft X-ray systems. Rather, a pre-amplifier was designed based upon that used in
the CATS ADC card. These are placed as close as possible to the detectors and the current
input signals are then amplified and converted to differential voltage signals. These signals
are brought to racks of CATS ADC cards positioned in the JET Diagnostic Hall where they
are readily accessible should any faults develop in this part of the system.
At present the ADC cards used in the D-T compatible soft x-ray system are configured
to sample at 500 kHz. This allows the physics studies of D-T plasmas undertaken with the
new cameras to be combined with the real-time calculation of the control signal. The data
from each rack of ADC cards is transmitted to both a CATS data collection module, as
described earlier for data recording and analysis, and to an equivalent system in which the
real-time calculation of the plasma vertical velocity is made.
In order to derive a velocity from the measured soft X-ray data, the centroid of the soft
X-ray profile for each camera is first calculated. At the first level, the data sent to the real-
time system is dealt with in four proc~ssors which each evaluate the centroid for one half of
each camera. These results are then passed to a final processor which combines the results
to extract a centroid for each camera and then averages the results in order to remove (as far
as possible) effects from the presence of m=n= 1 modes. This value of the vertical position
of the soft X-ray plasma centroid is then converted to a velocity by comparing the change in
displacement from the previous value calculated.
An accuracy of better than a few millimetres is normally achieved when determining
the centroid, this value being essentially limited by counting statistics. However, given that
the signal bandwidth is 200 kHz, even an accuracy of a few millimetres can lead to
velocities in the range of 100's of metresIs. However, it is not necessary for the VS system
to determine the plasma vertical velocity on such a timescale. Indeed, whilst the VS system
is designed to stabilise plasma growth rates of up to 1OOOS·I, typical growth rates are at least
an order of magnitude below this. Further, the VS system itself uses 20 kHz ADCs to
digitise the control signal transmitted to it from the soft X-ray system.
The plasma vertical velocity derived from the D-T compatible soft X-ray cameras is
therefore filtered to a much lower frequency. First attempts at filtering this signal resulted
in a significant propagation delay being introduced in to the signal. To avoid introducing
such a delay, a modified approach was adopted where instead of applying the more
traditional FIR filter, resulting in a significant delay, an effective rolling box car average
was applied to the raw velocity signal.. This resulted in a both a reduced delay and a signal
which was now suitably filtered and appropriate for use in the VS system.

578
FIRST RESULTS USING THE SOFT X-RAY CONTROL SIGNAL

The soft X-ray control signal (SXR CS) has so far been tested within the VS system
during the restart of JET operations following a JET shutdown. Initially, the SXR CS was
recorded and monitored within the VS system to assess the suitability of the SXR CS for
use as a plasma control signal. This showed, for example, that the first filtered signal
derived within the soft X-ray real-time system had an excessive delay. Hence, as described
earlier, the filtering method was changed to reduce the propagation delay in the SXR CS.
Following this period of integration of the SXR CS in to the VS system, successful
vertical stabilisation of the JET plasma using the SXR CS was achieved, firstly in ohmic
plasmas and then in ICRH heated plasmas. For ohmic plasmas, the soft X-ray emission
from the plasma above the Be filter cut-off is rather low, due to the low electron
temperature of the ohmic plasma. The SXR CS derived under these conditions is noisier
than that from the magnetics. For the ICRH heated plasmas a strong soft X-ray signal is
measured which allows a very clean SXR CS to be determined and the quality of the SXR
CS under these conditions is normally comparable with that from the magnetics.
Using the SXR CS plasma control has now been maintained for up to one second in
ICRH heated plasmas, this being the maximum period allowed for testing. There are no
reasons to believe that control could not have been maintained for much longer periods
using the SXR CS, especially in ICRH heated plasmas.
Figure 3 shows signals measured during VS of the JET plasma position for a period of
1 second using the SXR CS for an ICRH heated plasma. At 20 seconds, a switch was made
within the VS system from control using the magnetics signals to the SXR CS. A small
jump in the plasma position is seen at that time. For the first \t2 second a high gain was
used in the VS controller, followed by a lower gain for the remaining \t2 second through to a
time of 21 seconds. At this time control switched back to the magnetics.

Plasma vertical position

from magnetics

0.215

0"----

>

19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5

Time (s)

Figure 3. Vertical stabilisation of an ICRH heated JET plasma using the soft x-ray control signal.

579
 Figure 3 shows clearly that the plasma position can be controlled using the SXR CS to
the same level as that of the magnetics. Indeed, during the period when the high controller
gain was used, control of the plasma position is kept within ±2mm. When the controller
switches to a lower gain at 20.5 seconds, the variation in the plasma position is comparable
with that during the period that the magnetics is used to control the plasma position. The
main difference between the two control systems is seen in the voltage applied to the radial
field amplifier (FRF A). During the period that the SXR CS is used, the voltage on the FRA
is switched in larger steps than that used during the magnetics. However, although larger
FRF A voltages are presently switched using the SXR CS, during normal operation this
voltage does not saturate.
The tests have also conclusively demonstrated that the use of signals from the
2 cameras 1800 apart toroidally has effectively suppressed any m=n= I contribution to the
signal, in particular from effects due to the sawtooth crash.
The system has not so far been tested using NBI heated plasmas to study the response
of the VS system to the SXR CS measured during giant elms. However, studies of the
system have been made during ICRH heated plasmas when small elms are present.
Figure 4 shows the signals measured during an ICRH heated discharge when the magnetics
were being used for plasma control. Away from the elm, excellent agreement is seen
between the magnetics' control signal and that derived from the soft X-ray measurements.
At the time of the elm the signals are observed to diverge. The sudden inferred change in
the plasma position as derived from the magnetics is also clearly seen. When the JET DTEI
run is over, it is hoped that more extensive testing of the system will be possible, especially
in the presence oflarge elm activity.

l---
:::; 3
.!.
r.rJ 2

5 Vertical velocity multiplied by

From soft
X-rays plasma current
:::;
0
.!.
-5

5
~
'"0
-5
12.98 13.02 13.04 13.06
Time (s)

Figure 4. Vertical stabilisation of an IeRR heated JET plasma during elm activity using the magnetics
control signal.

580
FIRST SOFT X-RAY MEASUREMENTS FROM D-T PLASMAS

First operation in tritium has already taken place at JET and this has provided an
opportunity to compare the actual behaviour of the new D-T soft X-ray cameras with the
anticipated performance. By comparing the neutron induced signals in the edge and central
channels it is possible to conclude that over 85% of the neutron induced signal seen in the
diode comes from neutrons viewed directly along the line of sight of a channel.
If it is assumed that D-T neutrons are produced within the inner one third of the
plasma radius, then excellent agreement is obtained between the signal measured in the
background detector and that predicted assuming this current is produced principally by
8 MeV recoiling alpha particles. This same level of noise will also effect the front detector,
although it will be larger here as this detector has a higher bandwidth. Again, if the
increased bandwidth is taken into account then good agreement is found between the
measured and predicted value of the signal noise. The relative noise found is 1.8% at a
bandwidth of 220 kHz. (This would be reduced to 0.7% if the bandwidth were limited to
30 kHz as had been assumed in the design calculations.)
When a comparison is made of the estimated neutron flux at the detectors in the new
shielded D-T compatible soft x-ray cameras with that in the existing unshielded cameras,
then it is seen that the neutron flux is reduced by a factor of 1700. This confirms both the
design and that the detectors will continue to operate beyond the end ofDTE2.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

The present CAT system is limited in the amount of data that can be passed from one
processor to another through the processor network. This means that at present any large
amounts of data within CATS that are to be used for control purposes need to fanned out
after the front-end ADC racks and before the data collection system. If certain data were
required for more than one control algorithm this would require it to be fanned out a
number of times. The introduction of a "ring" for passing large quantities of data at very
high rates between large numbers of processors is being actively worked on at present6 •
This should permit CATS to further evolve such that in the next stage front-end data will be
first brought into the back-end data collection system, from where it can be easily passed to
all parts of both the trigger and control system that require it. Hence, it should be possible
to develop ever more complex algorithms using ever larger quantities of data from many
different diagnostics to either find and classify events, or to produce control signals.
Regarding plasma control using X-ray diagnostics, the work described in this paper
has so far concentrated on bringing the JET D-T soft X-ray system into operation and
producing a suitable signal for the control of the plasma vertical position. The flexible
design of CATS allows further DSPs to be added with ease. The use of such DSPs provides
the ability to perform error checking and correction of the input signals to a level that was
not possible in previous hardware based systems. Confidence levels of the output control
signals can also be derived such that an overall controller can easily verify that the control
signal is acceptable to be used. Part of the future work will, therefore, concentrate on this
question of error checking, correction and validation of the input and output signals in real-
time. In particular, the use of neural networks within CATS is currently being investigated.
If this preliminary work proves successful then one aim would be to extend this work into
the area mentioned above.
In principle, the work described in this paper can be adapted to other diagnostics of a
similar type. Nonetheless, soft X-ray detectors provide a simple, reliable and effective way

581
of diagnosing the plasma with a high temporal and spatial resolution. Reliable control
signals can be derived from the soft X-ray measurements, without the long pulse integration
problems present in the magnetics signals on machines such as ITER. If soft X-ray systems
are to be incorporated into the ITER design, then work is required on developing suitable
radiation hardened soft X-ray detectors. It is hoped to be able to test various possible
candidate detectors on JET, in particular Gallium Arsenide detectors, which could provide a
simple alternative to existing silicon diodes, and vacuum photo-diode X-ray detectors.

CONCLUSION

This paper has described the work carried out at JET to provide an alternative control
signal to the JET vertical stabilisation system to that normally used from the magnetic
diagnostics. This work has involved the development ofD-T compatible soft x-ray cameras
integrated closely into the existing fast central data acquisition and trigger system
developed at JET. It is important to stress this, that is that the hardware, electronics and
data acquisition system are designed as a whole, not in isolation of each other.
The CAT data acquisition system is considered highly relevant to long pulse machines
such as ITER. The modular nature of the design firstly allows new diagnostic systems to be
easily "added in". In addition, whilst the functional elements of the design are relevant to
all machines, the modular nature of the design means that the actual components can be
chosen to suit the particular machine concerned, and further can be easily upgraded as new
digital electronics components come onto the market.
The soft X-ray system described has been shown to be capable of vertically stabilising
the JET plasma position.
Finally, it is intended to continue this work in the future to provide further information
on the use of such signals in control systems, particularly on ITER.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work described here includes valuable contributions from many people made over
a long period of time. John Holm and Erik Van der Goot helped to start the work on real-
time event recognition and data processing. Dennis Thompson, William Mulligan and
Hunt Engineering are responsible for the design of the CATS electronics Richard Robins
and Perry Beaumont have provided technical support and Robert Felton software support in
bringing this work to its present status. Simon Dillon has been responsible for the hardware
design of the D-T compatible soft X-ray cameras. Stefano Puppin and Filippo Sartori have
been involved with much of the work within PPCC.

REFERENCES

1 M Garribba et aI., The new control scheme for JET plasma position and control systems, in: "Proceedings
of the 15th Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SOFE)", Hyannis, Massachuetts, USA, 1993
2 M Garribba et aI., First operational experience with the new plasma position and current control system of
JET, in: "Proceedings of the 18th Symposium on Fusion Technology", Karlsrhue, Germany 1994
3 R. D. Gill, B Alper, A. W. Edwards, S Dillon, A radiation hardened soft X-ray camera, JET-IR(95)03
4 K B1ackler and A. W. Edwards, The JET fast central acquisition and trigger system, IEEE Trans. On
Nucl. Sc. 41:111 (1994)
5 B. Alper et aI., The JET soft X-ray diagnostic systems, Rev. Sci. Instr. 68:778 (1997)
6 Hunt Engineering, Brent Knoll, Somerset, UK. at http://www.hunteng.demon.co.uk

582
 STATUS REPORT OF PREPARATION FOR
NEUTRON MEASUREMENT ON LHD

M. Sasao, M. Isobe, H. Yamanishi, M. Osakabe, and T. Iguchil

National Institute for Fusion Science (NIFS), Toki, Gifu-509-52, Japan

lDept. of Nuclear Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-01, Japan

INTRODUCTION

Helical confmement systems have been recently revived with a strong interest. One
of them which are operating or are expected to be operated in near future, is the Large
Helical Device (LHD), of a 3.9 m major radius and a 0.6 m average plasma radius[l].
The LHD is also one of the largest, superconducting torus devices, and various R&D
issues of ITER can be studied on LHD.
In LHD, DT experiments will not be conducted, and most of the operation will be
made with hydrogen discharges in the first phase, while DD and D-3He experiments are
now under consideration for the second phase. Plasmas will be initiated by 400 kW
ECH, and be heated by 20 MW NBI and/or 5 MW ICRF. Because the study of the
confinement property of high energy ions is one of the main physics research issues on
LHD, neutron diagnostics are expected to play an important role. Then it is important to
prepare an efficient detection system, and the system with a moderate spatial resolution.
Presently, the preparation for a neutron emission monitor located at the torus center, a
neutron profile monitor, and an escaping high energy particle probe have started[2].
Among various R&D issues on neutron diagnostics presently being examined, the
followings are shortly described in this paper,
a) the magnetic field effect on a gas chamber
b) the effect of the liquid helium on a calibration factor
c) a profile monitor viewing trough a port with a long throat.

MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECT ON A FISSION CHAMBER

The highest detection efficiency for toroidally extended neutron source can be
obtained at the center position of the torus, which is available on a helical system. In Fig.
1 is shown the schematic view of the neutron emission monitor at the torus center of

Diagnostic3 for Experimental Thermonuclear Fullion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 583
 LHD. An efficiency as high as 10-5 can be expected by using a commercially available
1"0 x 10" long- 3He or a BF3 counter surrounded by a 10 cm-hick moderator at this
position. With this high detection efficiency, even in a case of 180 kV-hydrogen beam
injection into a hydrogen plasma, the DD neutron signals of 10 4-105 counts/sec can be
obtained[2].
However, the biggest concern is the magnetic field effect on a proportion chamber
or an iQnization chamber, because a residual vertical magnetic field at this position is
predicted to be about 50 % of the toroidal field on the axis, which is 3T during the first
phase. A test experiment was performed on CHS to prove that a BFrdetector works at
the torus center under the magnetic field as high as IT. No effect was observed on the
pulse height spectrum, and on the counting efficiency[3]. The results has been
theoretically explained with the collisional diffusion of electrons toward the electrodes of
the detector[3].
In this model, collisional cross sections of low energy electrons ( about 50 e V)
produced through the ionization process in a gas chamber by a high energy charged
particles, are considered[4]. In a typical fission chamber, an Ar gas of 1-4 atom. is filled.
The mean free path of 50 eV electrons in an 1 atom. Ar gas is about 3xlO-4 , while the
electron gyro-radius under IT is 2 X 10-3. This ratio is about 10 times larger comparing
with that in the CHS test case. Therefore, a higher filling gas pressure is desirable for
LHD.
A micro fission chamber presently proposed is filled at 14 atom. The ratio of the
collisional mean free path to the electron gyro-radius is about the same as in the CHS test
case, and the detector will be tolerable under a 1-T magnetic field.

o 4m

NEUTRON Detector

"""""""""""""""""""""""""'"
Fig. 1 The shematic view of the neutron emission monitor at the torus center of LHD.

584
EFFECT of LIQUID HELIUM ON A CALIBRATION FACTOR

The magnetic system of LHD consists of three pairs of poloidal field coils of 3.6m,
5.6 m, and 11m diameters, and one pair of helical coils. All of them are
superconductive. It takes about a month to cool down the coils to the liquid helium
temperature, 4.5 K, and takes about a month to bring them back to normal. Although the
heat shield between coils and the vacuum vessel are enough to break the vacuum at 4.5
K, the number of calibration experiment with liquid helium in coil cases is very limited
and an in-vessel man work is not allowed. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the effect
of the liquid helium on the calibration factor.
Neutron spectra at the position of the neutron monitor at the center of the torus have
been calculated, using a 2-dimensional neutron transport code, for cases of DD
operation. In LHD, an elongated plasma cross section is rotating along the torus axis.
At the angle where the central detector looks the vertically elongated palm, a massive
helical coil with liquid helium in between exits, but at the angle where the central detector
looks the horizontally elongated plasma, there is no coil to attenuate the neutron source.
The neutron spectrum is approximated by taking mean values of these two spectra. The
component of Helical coils(a) and Poloidal coils(b) are obtained from Hitachi Co .. For
both of them, Cu and Al are main elements but the number density of He contributes
about several % of the total.
The calculation was performed for two cases, one with liquid helium and one
without. The calculated spectrum with He is shown in Fig. 2a. The difference of two
cases are shown in Fig. 2b. In general, the effect of helium is within 10%, but the
change depends on the neutron energy. So, it is important to measure the effect of helium
on the calibration factor experimentally, and evaluate the validity of the transport
calculation. After that, the factor calibration obtained with in-vessel source without
helium can be used. On LHD, one of the possible method is a use of the in-vessel port
which is prepared for foil activation.

Neutron Spectrum at the torus center of LHD

1012 Uil»spe-2 «Fn with He) - (Fn without He»/(F. with -He)
UiD-n-spe-2

0.1 10 1000 10
En(eV)

Fig. 2(a) Neutreon Spectrum at the torus Fig_ 2(b) Effect of Liquid Helium in %
center of LHD.(Data are provided from Safty I
Enviroment Research Center of NIFS)

585
 PROFILE MONITOR THROUGH A PORT WITH A LONG THROAT

Because the whole plasma devise is set in the cryostat for superconductive coils,
the diagnostic port has a long throat. We use a 2 m thick- concrete floor for the neutron
shield of the profile monitor and collimators and detector boxes will be set in the floor.
Fig. 3 shows the vertical cut of the neutron profile monitor. For helical plasma, the 3
dimensional information in one helical pitch is important. The neutron detector array will
be tilted towards two opposite directions so that some information might be obtained. The
plasma cross section is in an egg shape. However, the information will be very limited
with this long port throat.
Authors wish to thank Mr. Saito of Hitachi Engineering Co. For the neutron
transport calculation.

eu[ro" Prorile
Moni,or of LHD
F . , Sl 'ut
l . ll «
rOHt ...... l1

"",""
tH'J'IIIn

Collim;;uor
Collimlltor

Nculron Delcclor Arr.... y

Fig. 3 Schematic view of the neutron profile monitor of LHD

REFERENCES
[1] A. Iiyoshi, et. aI., Phys. Plasmas 2 , 2349 - 2356 (1995)
[2] M.Sasao et. aI., Fusion Engineering and Design 34/35, 595 - 598 (1997)
[3] M. 1sobe et aI., Rev. of Sci. 1nstrum. 68, 532 - 535 (1997)
[4] S. Fukui,lntroduction to High energy Particle Measurement (Kyoritu Press, 1992)

586
STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF PULSE RADAR REFLECTOMETRY
ON THE START TOKAMAK

Vladimir F. Shevchenko l

UKAEA Fusion, Culham Science Centre, Abingdon

Oxfordshire, OX14 3DB, UK
(UKAEAJEURATOM Fusion Association)
ITRINITI, 142092, Troitsk, Moscow region, Russia

I. INTRODUCTION

The START experiment has exhibited both peaked and flat density profiles, with steep
gradients either internally or at the edge. Time resolved profile information is therefore
important to explore profile changes. Any diagnostics should be resilient to the transient
MHD instabilities including edge fluctuations. The START tokamak has been in operation
since 1991 and is the first spherical tokamak to have produced high temperature plasmas I.
The diagnostics set on START includes multipoint Thomson scattering (TS), a neutral
particle analyser, fast CCD video camera, multichord SXR camera, HCN interferometer,
magnetic pick-up coils, flux loops and spectroscopy.
A multifrequency pulse radar reflectometer (MPRR) is now one of the routine
diagnostics on the START tokamak. The main feature of the technique used in this system
is the direct time delay measurement of microwave signals reflected back from the plasma.
The MPRR has been in operation on START since September 1994, and now the total
operation time of the system is about 18 000 hours. The reflectometer has been fully
commissioned and cross checked with the results of other diagnostics. The MPRR allows
the study of the plasma density profile dynamics at different regimes, to follow the
behaviour of the plasma boundary position and edge density gradient during the shot. In
combination with other diagnostics it also permits the identification of toroidal and
poloidal mode numbers of MHD perturbations and analysis of their structure, localisation
and dynamics.
In this paper a description of recent MPRR modifications is presented in Section n.
Sources of measurement errors and different types of MPRR experimental data filtering are
discussed in Section ill. A problem of plasma density profile reconstruction from
reflectometry data is analysed with two different approaches in Section IV. A brief
overview of recent experimental results obtained with MPRR is presented in Section V. A

Diagnostics for Experimental Thennonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Slott et 01., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 587
schematic of a novel frequency scanning pulse reflectometer proposed for GLOBUS-M 3
(Russia) is considered and possible system developments for various machines are
discussed in Section VI, while a summary is presented in Section VII.

II. MPRR MODIFICATIONS ON START

The MPRR system has been designed to measure electron density profiles on the
START tokamak using four probing frequencies: 19 GHz, 33 GHz, 47 GHz and 63 GHz
which cover a plasma density range from 0.45.10 19 m· 3 to 4.92.1019 m· 3 with o-mode
plasma probing 2. Initially, the antenna system consisted of a pair of separate horn-like
transmitting and receiving antennas which produced a wide solid angle of plasma probing.
In order to reduce the angle of plasma view the MPRR antenna setting has been modified
by addition of two elliptical mirrors arranged in the periscopic system. This is illustrated in
Fig. I; probing beams are focused to the centre of the machine for all probing frequencies .

Top-view
of START

Figure I. Periscopic antenna lay-out on the START tokamak.

This kind of focusing should provide very small losses of the reflected power both in
plasma absence and in presence of the spherical plasma. Gaussian beam optics also
predicts an improvement of the antenna performance with beams focused. In practice due
to beam focusing, the signal-to-noise ratio in the receiving system of MPRR has been
increased by approximately 2 times in comparison with unfocused beam reflection from the
central rod of the START tokamak.
Another improvement of system performance due to probing beam focusing is dealing
with the reduction of two-dimensional effect contribution in reflecting plasma layers. This
is because of reduced sizes of the reflecting area and better spatial shape matching between
the reflecting plasma layer and the spherical probing beam. As a result of partial
suppression of two-dimensional effects the experimental MPRR data jitter has been
decreased from 290 ps without focusing to 245 ps with beam focusing while the data jitter
in the absence of plasma remains the same - about 80 ps (see Fig. 2). This data jitter
reduction improves the spatial resolution of the system. But it should be mentioned that the

588
MPRR sensitivity to vertical plasma displacement has been increased with decreasing of
the area of reflection in the plasma.
100
lIE Shot # 31466
• Shot # 23178

80

60
(f)

C
:::l
0
() 40

20

0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 1.0 1.5

Time Delay Spreading, ns

Figure 2. MPRR (33 GHz channel) data spreading due to density fluctuations with
probing beam focusing - (*) and without - (.). Data jitter in the absence of plasma
presented by dotted line.

The last MPRR modification concerns to the temporal locking circuit. The original
circuit performed the temporal locking at a constant fraction of the reflected signal. The
value of the fraction was selected close to 50% of the detected signal amplitude4 . The new
locking system is based upon a zero-crossing detector which locks to first zero crossing of
a second derivative of the detected signal. The temporal position of this point is very close
to the half amplitude fraction point for a wide range of reflected signal amplitudes and
settling times. Having slightly improved the dynamic range of analysed signal amplitudes
the new circuit performs locking two times faster in comparison with the old one, and as a
result it has better temporal stability and protection against pickup and amplitude variations
on top of the reflected signal.

III. EXPERIMENTAL DATA ERRORS

The main sources of experimental data perturbations in reflectometry are well known,
they are: plasma density fluctuations, spurious reflections, 0, x - mixed mode probing,
reflected beam deflection, plasma emission and absorption. Nevertheless the data response
to these perturbing factors is very dependent on the measurement technique and on
peculiarities of the plasma machine. For this reason the sensitivity of reflectometry to
perturbations of different origin has to be analysed for specific method of measurements on
particular machine.

Plasma Density Fluctuations

Density fluctuations reveal themselves in MPRR data as strong broadening of the time
delay jitter. Usually time delay jitter is increased in the presence of plasma by a factor of 3-

589
4 with respect to its vacuum value of 80 ps. As predicted by one-dimensional wave
equation simulations5 density fluctuations should introduce additional slowing-down for
probing microwave pulses. This effect results in an asymmetrical form of experimental
data jitter with dominant part corresponding to signals delayed in the plasma. Data jitter
asymmetry observed in experiments with unfocused beam probing was stronger indicating
that two-dimensional effects in the reflecting layer enhance the slowing-down of signals.
Fig. 2 illustrates time delay jitter measured in two similar shots: one with probing
beam focused and another without focusing. Low frequency components of experimental
data were removed by a high-pass digital filter (cut-off frequency of 1 kHz) after that time
delay histograms were plotted for lOOO experimental points. Zero time delay shift
corresponds to averaged experimental data while histogram maxima indicate most probable
values of time delays. Histogram maxima are usually shifted from mean values to the
positive side that is an agreement with slowing-down effect.
A special digital filter is applied to MPRR experimental data to calculate probability
maxima for selected time intervals. Another digital filtering procedure applied has transfer
performance of an arctangent function type which allows a very effective suppression of
single short spikes of both signs (see Fig. 5 below). Such kind of filtering allows us to
reduce the plasma fluctuation influence in density profile reconstruction.

Spurious Reflections and Mixed Mode Probing

In pulse reflectometry spurious reflections of probing signal can reveal themself in two
different manner: large distance retroreflections inside the vacuum vessel with time
separation greater than rise time of the probing signal and small distance reflections with
time separation less than signal rise time. The temporal locking system of MPRR selects
only the first class for further analysis. The time separation of retroreflections inside the
START tokamak is defined by the distance between plasma boundary and vacuum vessel.
Its value is about 3 ns that is greater than the rise time of probing signals which is Ins.
Small distance spurious reflections can appear in the antenna-waveguide system having in
a result an amplitude variations of the reflected signal due to interference between phase
shifted reflections. Such kind of reflections has been reduced to a possible minimum by
means of antenna system alignment.

Ex
---==_+-~==-------____::...,E prob
oo;;;:::_ _ _ _ _ _
.-----.

Eo

~::--...., E refl

Figure 3. Polarisation effect with mixed mode probing for low q plasmas.

590
 It is difficult to arrange pure o-mode probing on the START tokamak: because the
magnetic field direction on the plasma boundary can vary significantly during the plasma
shot. So actually MPRR operates with mixed 0, x - mode probing. The probing beam is
split at the plasma boundary into two orthogonal components which have different points
of reflection inside the plasma and different phase shift on the output of plasma. Reflected
components can not interfere directly because they are orthogonal, so the resultant wave
coming into the receiving antenna has elliptical polarisation. Because of the dependence on
phase difference, the orientation of the ellipse will oscillate between two linear
polarisations with respective changing of ellipticity, as shown in Fig. 3. The detector
selects the linear polarisation with the same orientation as the probing beam. As a result,
the detected signal will have amplitude variations with phase difference changing. These
variations can reach up to 100% if the angle between the input polarisation and magnetic
field is close to 45°. This effect was experimentally observed on START as a short time
loss of reflected signal in one frequency channel while other channels show no evidence of
plasma inclination or vertical displacement.

100

80
N
:I:
(!)
60
~
c::
CD
::l
0- 40
~
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Major Radius, em
Figure 4. Cutoff and cyclotron frequencies on START at reference conditions
(0.3 T central field, 1_\020 m'3 central density, 0.1 MA plasma current),

Such kind of reflected signal behaviour is appropriate to the START tokamak: because
cut-off layers of both modes are localised quite close in the plasma (see Fig. 4),
consequently the time separation between components is relatively small and does not
disturb the signal shape significantly. In the case of large time separation between
components reflected from plasma strong signal shape perturbations are expected because
of mode scrambling6 .

Plasma Absorption and Emission

The START tokamak: (spherical tokamak: in general) has a very unusual topology of
cutoffs and cyclotron frequencies because of the low toroidal field. Due to this fact a
regular set of harmonics of electron cyclotron frequency is localised in transparent plasma
layers in front of cutoffs as shown in Fig. 4. These harmonics should reveal a resonant
absorption and emission of microwave power, but the optical depth of cyclotron harmonics
decreases very fast with harmonic number increase. So in START only the first two

591
harmonics can play a feasible role in absorption/emission processes. Typically they are
located below the first probing frequency of MPRR and do not disturb the beam
propagation in the plasma.

IV. DENSITY PROFILE RECONSTRUCTION

The principle of reflectometry is based on continuous or discrete frequency plasma

probing from zero to a highest probed density with measurement of reflected signal time
delay or phase shift. The density profile can be reconstructed from reflectometry data by
consequent solving of integral equations involving measured values with plasma
parameters from zero frequency to the highest. But in practice the lowest probing frequency
is limited by plasma dimensions or by accessibility restrictions. Even with x-mode probing
it is very difficult to diagnose close to zero densities because of interpretation problems. So
an unknown portion of density profile below first probed density always exists for any
reflectometry technique.
The standard solution of this problem is the estimation of the first reflecting layer
position from other diagnostics and application of some density profile model below that
layer7. Similar initialization methods were applied for START plasmas in ohmic shots
where edge density profile was extrapolated by linear function with gradient estimated
from data obtained from the two lowest frequency channels2 . But in NBI heated plasmas
edge density gradient can vary in a very wide range during the plasma shot and the
previous edge density model becomes incorrect.
A new method of density profile reconstruction has been developed. The idea of the
method is to solve the initialization problem starting not only from the plasma edge but
from any point where additional information is available or some profile model is
applicable. This method is much more flexible and allows us to apply any additional
information op model in order to avoid the uncertainty due to unknown edge profile.
Let's suppose a piecewise linear approximation for probed part of density profile
where the pieces meet at cutoffs. In this case for every cycle of measurements with k
frequency channels (for simplicity let k=4) we can write the system of k linear equation for
k+ 1 unknown positions,

Xo

a lO all 0 0 0 XI '/;1

a 20 a 21 a 22 0 0 x X2 '/;2 (1)
a 30 a 31 a 32 a 33 0 X3 '/;3

a 40 a 41 a 42 a 43 a 44 X4 '/;4

where Xo is the plasma boundary position, Xi is the cutoff position and 'l"i is the measured
time delay of i-th frequency channel. In the case of o-mode probing matrix components can
be calculated as follows:

(2)

592
and
(3)

(4)

where c is speed of light, Ni is the cutoff density of i-th probing frequency. In the case of x-
mode probing it is necessary to apply some approximation to internal magnetic field as
well in order to calculate ak.i matrix coefficients. Note that matrix coefficients (3) are
greatest and responsible for particular cutoff coordinates, while coefficients (4) define the
contribution of zero density coordinate to position of appropriate frequency cutoff. From
here it is easy to find that the relative contribution of initial plasma layer decreases with
increasing frequency channel number as fast as N\INi.
In order to have single solution of system (l) we need to introduce one additional
linear equation which can be some model of local or edge density profile or it can be the
cutoff position of particular frequency channel obtained for example from Thomson
scattering measurement.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

As is well known, MHD perturbations in a tokamak are described with toroidal - nand
poloidal - m numbers. Thus n corresponds to the number of periods of perturbation
originating on a full turn of a torus in the toroidal direction, and m - the number of periods
in the poloidal direction. If the probing frequency is fixed the reflecting "point" will draw a
line of equal density while the plasma rotates either in poloidal or toroidal direction. So
when MHD is localised near cut-off, the time delay of the reflected signals should have m
periodical perturbations per full turn in the case of poloidal MHD rotation and n for
toroidal rotation. The situation is different for interferometric measurements through the
plasma centre: the number of phase shift perturbations per full toroidal turn equals n for
even numbers of m, and - 2·n for odd.
The described effect has been rather clearly observed on the START tokamak. The
signals of third MPRR channel and HeN interferometer are presented on Fig. 5. The
reflectometer signal is shown in raw (points) and filtered (solid line) variants. Filtering was
carried out with a digital filter which has transfer performance of an arctangent function
type plus conventional low pass filtration with 20 kHz cut-off frequency. As well seen
from Fig. 5 the main mode exhibits two times higher frequency on interferometer signal in
comparison with reflectometer. This perturbation is accompanied by quite a regular
structure of small phase oscillations which correlate with spikes on reflectometer signal
with appropriate phase shift due to different toroidal location of those diagnostics. The
dominated perturbation was identified as a toroidally rotated mode min = Ill, while small
scale oscillations are caused by higher order modes located in transparent plasma layers.
The amplitude of mode oscillations in major radius direction can be estimated from MPRR
data as big as 12 cm that is in a good agreement with SXR camera data.

593
 Shot #252.93 Channel 3
6
4
'c:"
,;. 2
"
Qj
0 0
"
E
F
-2
-4

32.0 32.5 33.0 33.5 34.0 34.5 35.0

Time. ms

Shot #252.93 Interferometer

3.40
? 3.30
~
;:: 3.20
~ 3.10
~ 3.00
-&. 2.90
2.80
~------~--------~------~--------~------~----~--~

32.0 32.5 33.0 33.5 34.0 34.5 35.0

Time. ms

Figure 5. MHO activity registered by MPRR (47 GHz channel) and HeN interferometer.

In high f3 regimes8 START plasma exhibits a very steep density gradient at the edge
which is accompanied by a low density plateau starting at a density level approximately ten
times lower then central. That complicates the interpretation of MPRR data with standard
initialization method so the system approach described above was applied using the
normalisation of highest frequency channel to the Thomson scattering profile, which gives
the position of 63 GHz cutoff and allows the estimation of the plasma edge location. Fig. 6
illustrates the high f3 plasma density profile measured by multipoint Thomson scattering
and MPRR. As is seen from Fig. 6 the profile is quite sharp down to the density level of
OS 10 19 m- 3 at major radius of 59 cm while low densities reach major radii about 70 cm.

Shot #330.07 Time. ms 37.0180

6

,
III •
- . II ... 63
.... !lIE II lI!

..
• .... .. II
E 4
II
0
"; l1li
II
••
... 47
:£.
'jj)
I:
II)
2 •
CI
... 33

... 19 .~.O"
0
a 20 40 60 80
Major Radiu5, em

Figure 6. Plasma density profile measured by Thomson scattering (*) and MPRR (Ll).

594
VI. FREQUENCY SCANNING PULSE REFLECTOMETER

MPRR on the START tokamak has a high temporal resolution and moderate spatial
sampling limited by the number of channels employed in the system. Spatial sampling in
principle defines the possible spatial resolution of the density profile measured with
reflectometry. It is possible to increase spatial sampling with channel number build-up that
leads to undesired hardware complexity. Another solution is the employment of frequency
scanning pulse reflectometer for plasma density measurements. The main problem met in
the designing of such kind of system is to provide fast frequency scanning over operational
frequency band keeping desired level of the signal to noise ratio. With the appearance of
fast swept solid-state microwave sources 9 this problem is significantly simplified. Such
sources in combination with active frequency multipliers can cover now the frequency
range up to 100 GHz with output power of tens mW that is quite close to desired values for
most existing tokamaks.

Fast-tuning Active Di recti ona I Pin Diode

Oscillator Mu~iplier Coupler Modulator
CIS
E
(f)
CIS
a:

Varactor Arbitrary
Driving 1-----1 Function
Circuit Generator

Start signal E(t) COS (<II) E(t)sin(<II)

for time-to-vo~age
converter
Figure 7. Schematic of the frequency scanning pulse reflectometer with simultaneous instant phase
measurement.

The frequency scanning pulse reflectometer (FSPR) based on the fast swept solid-state
technique has been proposed for GLOBUS-M 3 (Russia) and MAST (UK) tokamaks. The
basic schematic of the single-band section of FSPR is shown in Fig. 7. It consists of a
hyperabrupt varactor tuned oscillator followed by an active frequency multiplier, so as to
cover a frequency range preliminary selected for GLOBUS-M of 26-40 GHz. During every
step-wise frequency scan the fast p-i-n diode modulator cuts short microwave signals
which are directed toward the plasma by antenna/waveguide system. The receiver is based
on the quadrature balanced scheme allowing the separation of quadrature components of
reflected signals. The amplitude of those components are registered by ADC to perform
instant phase calculations for each reflected pulse. For time delay measurements quadrature
components are summed in analogue quadrature summator to have an envelope of reflected
power for further temporal analysis which is mainly the same as employed in the MPRR.
Performing both the time delay and instant phase registration FSPR system allows us to
improve the accuracy of time of flight measurements and to combine advantages of two
different reflectometric techniques in one device.

595
 An appropriate set of FSPR single-band sections can be applied separately or
combined in a common antenna system with band-pass filter joints in order to cover the
desired frequency range.

VII. SUMMARY

The multifrequency pulse radar reflectometer on START has shown itself as a highly
reliable and powerful diagnostic tool for plasma density profile studies. Using pulse
reflectometry data in cooperation with other diagnostics it is possible to investigate the
dynamics and structure of MHD oscillations. MPRR has a high temporal resolution and
moderate spatial sampling limited by the number of channels employed in the system. The
frequency scanning pulse reflectometer is a logical extension of this technique.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the START and COMPASS teams for their help and
continuing support, especially T. Edlington, M. Gryaznevich, AW. Morris and MJ.
Walsh. This work was funded by the UK Department of Trade and Industry and
EURATOM.

REFERENCES

l. A Sykes, et al., Nucl. Fusion 32,694 (1992).

2. V.F. Shevchenko, MJ. Walsh, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 2040 (1997).
3. V.E. Golant, et al., SOFE 1995, Vol. II, 1430.
4. V.F. Shevchenko, et aI., Int. 1. Infrared MilUm. Waves 14, 1755 (1993).
5. V.F. Shevchenko, Plasma Physics Reports 23 (2), 169 (1997).
6. AJ.H. Donne, et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68,473 (1997).
7. P. Varela, et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66,4937 (1995).
8. A Sykes, et al., 24 EPS Con!, Berchtesgaden, Germany, Topical Lecture to (1997),
to be published in Plasma Phys. Contrtol. Fusion.
9. K.W. Kim, et aI., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68,466 (1997).

596
BOLOMETRIC AND SXR TOMOGRAPHY IN RFX

Piero Martini, Andrea Murari, Gianni Gadani, Gabriele Manduchi,

Lionello Marrelli, Angelo Parini and Cesare TaIiercio

Consorzio RFX
Corso Stati Uniti 4,35127 Padova, Italy

INTRODUCTION
Among the various diagnostic systems which equip the RFX Reversed Field Pinch
experiment (Rostagni, 1995; Bagatin et aI., 1995) the new integrated bolometric and soft
x-ray tomography is one of the most complex. It has been designed and to operate in a
harsh environment following standards compatible with the requirements of large fusion
experiments. The bolometric detectors which have been used are the same adopted in the
major tokamaks (Mast et aI., 1991)
This paper is dedicated to describe those features of the diagnostics which may be
more relevant for the ITER bolometry project. The characteristics of the plasma and of the
machine are briefly described. A more detailed description of the instrument can be found
in the paper by Martin et aI. (1997).
RFX is a large (minor radius a=0.46 m, major radius R=2 m, pulse duration up to
0.25 s), air-core experiment designed to operate in high plasma current regimes (up to
2 MA). Despite the size of the machine the access to the plasma is limited by portholes
which are kept small to reduce magnetic field errors and this requires substantial
miniaturisation of the diagnostic equipment. A careful engineering of the project was
necessary because of: (1) the highest temperature (300 C) at which the first waIl can be kept
during operation; (2) the UHV conditions of the vessel (base pressure ",,10.9 mbar); (3) the
need for full remote control of the diagnostic and for decoupling it from the machine
without breaking the main vacuum; (4) the fast timing of the configuration set-up and of the
evolution of some important physicaI phenomena which characterise the plasma (sub-ms
time scale) and (5) the relatively high level of electromagnetic noise around the machine.

THE DIAGNOSTIC
Several units compose the diagnostic: the insertion and the detection systems, the
support structure, the signal processing electronics, the data acquisition system, the head

IUniversity of Padova, Department of Physics

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et al., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 597
temperature conditioning circuit, the control and safety system and the in-situ detectors and
electronic calibration systems.
The insertion subsystem includes eight versatile and multi-purpose bellow drive
manipulators (seven of them used simultaneously) which bring each photocamera to its
operating position with ±O.1 mm positioning error. Two versions of the manipulators have
been produced, which differ only in size: that coupled to vertical portholes (six units, stroke
of 800 mm, length 2345 mm) and that coupled to the horizontal, shown in Fig. 1 (two units,
stroke of 500 mm, length 1524 mm). Four manipulators (3 vertical and 1 horizontal) are
dedicated to bolometric tomography (48 lines of sight) and the remaining four to SXR
tomography (78 lines of sight). The manipulators are supported by three independent
mechanical structures, anchored to the floor to decouple the diagnostic from machine
vibrations.

VACUUM TIGHT SCREW FOR LINEAR MAIN DRIVE

CYLINDRICAL TRANSLATION BELLOW
CONTAINER ENCODER
PHOTOCAMERA~

-frt-----J,---/1
FI LTER WHEEL
PNEUMA TI C MOTOR
BOLOMETER S 12CH.
CABLES, CONNECTORS
CONNECTORS PLATE TUBINGS
INTERNAL
GUI NG RODS

SUPPORT TUBE MECHANICAL S PNEUMATI CS

CYLINDER FOR FILTER
RODS WHEEL MOVEMENT
SCALE
1000 (mm)
4CH. BOLOMETER 63 PINS ELECTRI CAL
MODULE VACUUM FEEDTHROUGH
I
TUBE
FI LTER WHEEL
PINHOLE SCALE

GRAPHITE L _100(mm )
SHIELD

BELLOW FOR FI LT ER
WHE EL MOVEMENT

Figure 1: Cross-sectional view of one manipulator (top) and of one bolometric photocamera-horizontal
version (bottom)

The bolometric and SXR photocameras are identical and have cylindrical shape, with a
diameter of 83 mm for the vertical version and of 89 mm for the horizontal (see in Fig. 1 a
cross-sectional view of one bolometric photocamera). To mount both the SXR detectors (Si

598
photodiodes) and the bolometers without any resort to wiring in vacuum, they are equipped
with built-in female connectors fitting to corresponding pins on a ceramic adapter plate,
which in turn can be directly plugged into specially made 63-pin electrical vacuum
feedthrough welded in the head rear flange. This solution makes also easy to interchange
detectors for test purposes. Each head can be kept at a selected steady temperature in the
range 8-90 C by means of a water circuit.
Four-channels miniaturized low-noise metal resistor bolometers, with an active area of
3.8x1.3 mm 2 , are used for total radiation measurements (MUller and Mast, 1984; Mast et
aI., 1991). Small high power remotely controlled light emitting diodes are installed in each
photocamera and provide a system for fast and on-line testing of the detector correct
operation. Absolute and in-situ calibration of the bolometers can be made by means of
remotely controlled electronic systems. Four different material foils can be interposed
between the pinhole and the detectors by means of a 5 position filter-wheel (the fifth is left
open), driven by an air pressed stepping cylinder and a small bellow.
The status display, the remote operation of all the diagnostic, all the alarms and the
overall safety of the diagnostics are managed by the control subsystem.
The signal processing analog electronics, fully remotely controlled, (Murari et al.,
1997) is located in cubicles close to the machine. The signals are amplified and digitised in
the same board with 1 MHz sampling rate and 12 bit resolution to be then optically
converted and transmitted via TAXI-link to the VME units, located in a different room,
along 60 m long fibre optics. The bolometer amplifier is a 50 kHz carrier frequency
amplifier with amplitude modulation technique. With hardware filtering the overall
bandwidth of the electronics can be selected between 1, 4 and 10 kHz. With specially
developed calibrator circuits the gain of SXR and bolometric amplifiers can be absolutely
calibrated with an accuracy of 1%.

DATA ACQUISITION AND ON-LINE ANALYSIS

Data acquisition and on-line analysis are carried out by a distributed system based on
a configurable number of VME CPUs which perform local data preprocessing, as software
filtering and resampling, and exchange pre-elaborated data to perform on-line tomographic
analysis. The system resides on three different platforms: a VAXNMS cluster, where the
main RFX control and data acquisition system is installed, VME CPUs for data acquisition
and on-line tomographic inversion and a UNIX Alpha station for support facilities and local
storage of raw data. The system architecture allows a number of inversion routines (even
with the use of different algorithms) to be assigned to any CPU of the system. It is therefore
possible to balance workload among CPUs and to increase the computing power of the
system by adding new CPUs. The communication protocol has been defined to support any
number of participating CPUs. Communication is achieved on a LAN using the IP protocol.
The inversion is performed after the shot when all data have been acquired and the results
are then sent to the central control and data acquisition system to be stored in the pulse file.
Most of the existing architecture can be used in a real-time system, as that needed by
thermonuclear reactor, to perform on-line tomographic inversion for feedback applications.
In a real-time system, in fact, preprocessed data for all chords must be exchanged among
the CPUs at the time they have been acquired and tomographic inversion must be
completed before the next acquisition. For this reason the overhead introduced by the LAN
would be unacceptable, and CPU faster than that currently used would be required.

599
Therefore other hardware configurations should be considered and two solutions could be
adopted: i) the use of a reflective memory, which guarantees that pre-elaborated data stored
in the memory are available with a very short delay to the other sites; ii) the use of a DSP
with dedicated high speed communication ports for data exchange, such as for example the
C40 by Texas Instruments.

EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The bolometric tomography has proved to be very effective for the study of many
phenomena. Two quite different examples are shown in Fig.s 2(A) and 2(B), where a
maximum entropy approach (Buck, 1991) has been used. Fig. 2(A) shows a typical
distribution, with radiation emissivity concentrated in an outer layer extending over the last
15-30% of minor radius, whereas in the case of Fig. 2(B) a much more poloidally localised
radiative structure, due to the interaction of a locked mode with the first wall, is present.

shot 695 1 shot 6768

W/mJ 0 .6 w/mJ

0.4
37 .2 0 1. 59
0 .2
~

E 24 .80 E 0 .0 1.06

- 0.2 12.40 -0.2 0.53

-0.4 - 0.4
0.00 0.00
- 0.6 - 0.6
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2 .2 2.4 2.6
Distance from magnetic axis [m) Distance from magnetic axis [m)

Figure 2: Emissivity profiles in RFX. Left, (A), typical case; right,(B), locked mode case.

These examples, together with the technological characteristics of the diagnostics, with
its versatility and with the features of the RFX experiment and of its plasmas, should
indicate that this system may be suitable to host some specific test dedicated to the ITER
bolometry project. For example various versions of the detectors can be interchanged in a
relatively easy way in the photocameras. The existing electronic set-up, with a bandwidth
up to 10 kHz, could allow their test to monitor high frequency phenomena, with possible
developments of a prototype of a real time system. Tests of the detectors in various
temperature conditions or dedicated to the study of electromagnetic compatibility in rapidly
varying magnetic fields may also be planned.

REFERENCES
Bagatin M. et aI. , 1995, Fusion Eng. Des 25, 425
Buck B. , Macaulay Y. , 1994 "Maximum entropy in action", Oxford Science Publications
Martin P. et aI., 1997, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 1256
Mast K.F. et ai , 1991 Rev. Sci. Ins/rum 62, 774
Murari A. et aI., 1997, Rev. Sci. Instrum 68, 951
Muller E. R., 1984, and Mast K.F., J. Appl. Phys 55, 1984
Rostagni G., 1995, Fusion Eng. Des 25, 301

600
ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF THE MOVEMENTS OF THE CRITICAL
REFLECTING LAYER ON SWEPT REFLECTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Roberto Cavazzana, Maurizio Moresco, and Emanuele Spada

Consorzio RFX - Corso Stati Uniti 4, 1-35127 Padova - Italy

INTRODUCTION

The impact of density fluctuations on reflectometry measurements has been studied

extensively and is still matter of discussion. Detailed numerical models [1-4] (either in WKB
or full-wave simulations, 1-D and 2-D) gave insight on many effects that the fluctuations may
cause to the reflectometric measurements. However some fundamental requirements which
have to be taken into account in designing swept reflectometric systems can be recovered
from a simple 1D model with analytical considerations.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR HOMODYNE DETECTION

The typical signal from an homodyne reflectometer is:

set) = A(t)cos(<I>(t» (1)
Different methods have been proposed to recover the phase law from the reflectometric
cosine signal, such as sliding FFT [4], digital complex demodulation [5], digital frequency
discrimination [6] and Hilbert transform. These advanced methods give typically a good
phase resolution, and have the ability to filter out moderate or sporadic phase distortion
induced by fluctuations; however in presence of a strongly distorted signal also these smart
methods will fail. For the purpose of this work the basic fringe count method (the phase is
increased by n every time a fringe is found) will be used, because of its predictable and clear
behaviour.

Time Domain Analysis

The simplest case to discuss is a linear phase law perturbed by a sinusoidal phase modulation
of frequency COl' and amplitude 0;:
s(t) = cos( O>ot + a· COS(O>ft)) (2)
Fringes can be found searching the minima and maxima in the signal; to find them just look
for zeroes in the signal derivative:
O>ot + a· cos(O>ft) = kn (3a)
0>0 - O>fa· sin(O>ft) =0 (3b)
In the unperturbed case (0;=0) only eq. (3a) has solutions at positions tk = knlffio, which can
be considered as the proper extremals. The phase can be correctly recovered until:
(4)

Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors 2

Edited by Stott et aI., Plenum Press, New York, 1998 601
If this relation is not satisfied spurious fringes appear from eq. (3b) and the total number of
extremals is higher than expected. This is the major trouble of homodyne detection scheme:
in presence of disturbances it is very difficult and often not possible to detect if the phase
function is increasing or decreasing.
In the case of reflectometry the IF beat frequency ~ depends on the average target distance d
and microwave source sweep rate Vsw:
=
~ (4n/c)·(vs w d) (5)
while the parameter a on the oscillation amplitude h and the microwave wavelength .4.:
a=4tr·hlA., (6)
The condition (4) appears to be symmetric regarding fluctuation amplitude and frequency, but
the effects of these two parameters on the signal are quite different. As can be deduced from
Fig. 1, the distortion of the signal at a fixed product amplitude by frequency, is stronger in
the case of fluctuation with high frequency and low amplitude. Thus high frequency
fluctuations are likely to be dangerous even if small.

120

10 0

'"c:
Ql
C>

:E aO
15
Gi
.0
E 60
:::>
c:

~ 40

Fig. 1: number of counted fringes in a homodyne perturbed signal as function of the fluctuation amplitude
and frequency.

Frequency Domain Analysis

A similar analysis can be applied in the frequency domain and easily extended to more
general cases. In the previously considered case of the sinusoidal perturbation (eq. (2» the
amplitude spectrum of the signal contains a series of harmonics of frequency CO() ± n·Cilf. The
amplitude of the n-th harmonic is given by the value of Bessel functions:
An = IJn(a)1 (7)

602
 Fig. 2: example of an PM spectrum with aliasing.

The obvious method to find the frequency roo is to find the central frequency in the spectrum.
In the considered case with a real signal if the frequency is negative, it will appear in the
positive frequency domain, because the imaginary part of the signal is missed.
So it is possible to find the correct central frequency only if there is no negative frequency
aliasing. Recalling the Bessel function property:
In(a),,,Oifa>n (8)
the condition found in the time domain case (4) can be recovered again:
COo > a cof (9)
Now this rule can be extended to the general case of an arbitrary perturbing function applying
the Carson's law [7], which states that the bandwidth of the modulated signal BWmod
depends on the typical peak amplitude of the phase variation a* and on the total bandwidth of
the modulating signal, which in this case is the fluctuation bandwidth Bw(.

(10)

Typical high frequency density fluctuations have a noise spectrum of the form f -~ ; ~> 1. For
this cases the parameters can be chosen as the bandwidth with 90% of energy and 3 times the
r.m.s. amplitude as peak amplitude.
Since two sidebands of width BWmod appear around the central IF frequency, even in the
case of heterodyne detection the total IF bandwidth of the system BWIF should be at least
2·Bwm od to properly recover the phase information on the density fluctuations.

EFFECTS OF FLUCTUATIONS ON PROFILE RECONSTRUCTION

If the target is not stationary during the measurement time, the profile reconstruction can be
erroneous, even if the phase can be correctly recovered from the reflectometric signal
(homodyne or heterodyne). This effect can be easily outlined in the case of an oscillating
metallic mirror, but it is still present in any plasma profile reconstruction [8]. The phase law
written as a function of the linear varying probe frequency F = vswt becomes:
4nF
W(F)=-(d+hcos(COfF1vsw)) (11)
c
Reflectometric density profiles are reconstructed by means of Abel inversion using the
formula:

C JF w'(F)dF
(12)
Xc = 2n2 0 ~F2 _ F2 .
In the considered case:

Xc = ~(JF d dF+ JF hcos(cofF/vsw ) dF +JF -(Fcor/vsw)h sen(Fcor/vsw ) dFj.

n 0 ~F2 - F2 0 ~F2 - F2 0 ~F2 _ F2
(13)

603
The first two tenns contain the correct physical information about the mirror position and
displacement, while the third which is introduced by the phase derivative is a spurious effect
that typically tends to amplify the measured oscillation amplitude.
In principle this effect may be corrected, but a very clean and precise phase signal is needed
or it can be attenuated by averaging on different measurements. In any case the condition to
reduce this effect is:
Ivsw »mfLWI (14)
It does not depend on the average target distance d and emphasises the role of the sweep rate
Vsw . This result applies both to homodyne and heterodyne detection systems. An example of
a profile reconstruction on a metallic mirror with Vsw '" wrLW is shown in Fig. 3.

:[ 20
.,
<J
r:
u;'"
'5
g
'e 15 ______ mirror position
- - - - reconstructed position

10~~~~~~~~~~~~-L~~~~
20 40 60 80 10 0
Probing frequency [GHz]

Fig. 3: simulation of profile reconstruction on a moving mirror.

EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

The discussed statements for homodyne systems have been experimentally verified on RFX
[9]. In RFP plasma the fluctuations of the cut-off layer seen by the reflectometer are mainly
caused by plasma rotation. Because of the configuration properties, higher modes are present
and this gives raise to a wide frequency spectrum.

Required Sweep R ate [G Hzlms)

500 1000 ISoo
'-
60 ...
-
- r-' --
, -
20 -
o
0-
SOO
j-

1000 ISoo
ll--h 2000
S w mod @40GHz (KH z)
Fig. 4: typical modulated bandwidths of IF signals measured on RFX by the homodyne reflectometer.

604
The bandwidth BWmod has been measured directly by operating the RFX reflectometer at
fixed frequency and values up to 2 MHz have been found (Fig. 4).In these plasma conditions
we were able to successful recover the phase from the signal using a sweep rate of 1 GHzlllS
or higher. A further raising of the sweep rate to 4 GHz/lls produced a better SIN ratio (Fig.
5) and increased the fraction of signals on which the phase could be correctly recovered from
35% to more than 70% .

normalized time tjT

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

t= 20 I1S
,......., 40
OJ
~ 20

~ 0
~
D--20
E
«
-40

150
Vsw =4 GHzlj.lS Vsw = 1 GHzlI1s Vsw = 0.2 GHzlj.lS
IF signal
';' 100
c
power spectrum
.......
'-
(l)
~
~ 50

o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ __~~~~~~~~~~
o 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 25
normalized frequency [1 /T]

Fig. 5: IF signals from RFX plasma measurement obtained at different sweep rates.

CONCLUSIONS

From a simple ID model it is possible to outline some fundamental requirements that are to
be taken into account while designing swept reflectometric systems.
For homodyne reflectometers it is possible to extract the phase from the IF signal only if the
product of sweep rate Vsw by average plasma apparent distance d satisfies the relation:

(15)
where h is the typical peak amplitude of the fluctuation, '). the microwave probing wavelength
and BWf the frequency bandwidth of fluctuations.
In both homodyne and heterodyne systems the sweep rate should be keep as high as possible
to reduce the errors introduced by plasma movements in density profile reconstruction:
(17)
Furthermore a high sweep rate gives also a better SIN ratio.
To obtain a correct information about fluctuation the bandwidth of the IF section must be
wide enough to accomodate the two sidebands Bwmod around the central frequency:
BWIF > 2 . BWmod' (16)

605
REFERENCES

[1] I.H. Hutchinson, Plasma Phys. Control. Fus. 34, 1225 (1992).
[2] R. Nazikian, E. Mazzuccato, Rev. Sci. Instr 66, 392 (1995).
[3] B.B. Afeyan et at., Plasma Phys. Control. Fus. 37, 315 (1995).
[4] V. Zhuravlev, I. Sanchez, E. De la Luna, Plasma Phys. Control. Fus. 38, 2231 (1996).
[5] K.W. Kim et at., Rev. Sci. Instr. 66, 1229 (1995).
[6] P. Varela et aI., Rev. Sci. Instr. 66, 4937 (1995).
[7] A. B. Carlson, Communication Systems, McGrawHiIl (1975).
[8] R. Cavazzana, E. Spada, RFX internal report FBr71 (1996).
[9] R. Cavazzana et at., 24th EPS Con!, Vol. 21C (1997).

606
INDEX

ADAS (atomic data and analysis structure) DIII-D (divertor doublet configuration) tokamak
database, 364 and diagnostics, 3, 5, 120, 129, 148,228,
Advanced operation scenarios, 32 368,563
Alcator C-Mod tokamak and diagnostics, 3, 5, 228 DEMO demonstration fusion reactor, 31, 261
Alpha particle( s), 417 Diagnostic neutral beam, 46
CX diagnostic, see also CXRS Divertor diagnostics, 21, 62, 69
diagnostic with Faraday cups, 525 Divertor impurity monitor, 327
ASDEX Upgrade tokamak and diagnostics, 3, 5, 6, geometry,331
68,157,228,389,561 requirements, 328
spectrometers for, 332
BANDIT 3D code, 210 VUV,337
BES (beam emission spectroscopy), 371 design of, 339
Bolometry, 44, 389 Divertor bolometry, see Bolometry
in Dill-D,6
of ITER, 392 ECA (electron cyclotron absorption), 63, 115
IR detectors for, 399 ECCD (electron cyclotron current drive), 31
calibration of, 405 ECE (electron cyclotron emission), 171
inRFX,597 analysis of, 172
Bubble chamber, 475 antennas, 185, 189
B2-EIRENE code, 564 edge plasma, 178
refraction effects on, 175
CER (charge exchange recombination) simulation scenarios, 174
spectroscopy, see CXRS startup plasma, 179
CHEASE code, 205 superthermal, 181
CHERS, see CXRS ECELS code, 173
CHS (Compact Helical System), 399 ELM (edge localized mode), 26, 227, 553, 563
Collective Thomson scattering, 253 ELMy H-mode, 3,28
COMPASS-D tokamak, 3, 357 Endoscope viewing system, 549
Compton scattering, 349 design for ITER, 556
X-ray diagnostics with, 349
CORSICA code, 30 Faraday rotation, see Interferometry and
COTETRA (counter telescope with thick radiator), polarimetry
471 Fission detectors, see neutron flux detectors
Cotton-Mouton effect, 204, 208, 213 Fuel density measurements, 463
CX neutrals, 223, 279, 565 FURNACE code, 503
CXRS (charge exchange recombination Fusion reaction product(s), 409
spectroscopy),361,371 measurement requirements, 410
diagnostic neutral beam, 361, 372
in-situ calibration, 377 GAMMACELL gamma ray spectrometer, 511
ion temperature measurements using, 369 Gamma ray spectrometry, 414, 511
ITER requirements, 363 data base for, 521
projected performance, 364 with GAMMACELL, 511
with pulsed beams, 366 GLOBUS-M tokamak, 595

607
HANDC code, 302 ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental
Helium ash, see Alpha particles Reactor) tokamak (cont'd)
H-mode,2 port plug, 19
confinement database, 2 power and particle control, 5
power threshold, 3 radial tractor, 17
RH (Remote Handling), 16
Ignition, 32 ripple, 9, 32
Ignition burn control, 93 Test Blanket Module, 22
Ignition diagnostics, 93 TF (toroidal field) coils, 8
Interferometry and polarimetry, 193 vacuum vessel, 10
C02 lasers for, 196 ITG (ion temperature gradient) turbulence, 3
geometry of, 204
ITER baseline design, 194 JET (Joint European Torus) tokamak and
plasma facing mirrors, 200 diagnostics, 3, 68, 174, 220, 228,
for poloidal field measurements, 203 279,309,355,373,389,410,441,449,
vibration-compensated, 197 479,491,502,525,549,561,573
wavelengths of, 204, 210 JT-601U tokamak and diagnostics, 3, 7, 340, 357,
IR (infrared) diagnostics, 43 414,441,480,491,502,546
IR termography, 71, 569
calibration, 571 Langmuir probes, 71
IR-8 reactor, 287 LCT-2 tokamak, 128
ITER diagnostics LHD (Large Helical Device), 399, 583
access, 22, 57 LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) Thomson
integration of, 47, 79 scattering diagnostics in ITER, 43, 60, 71,
in equatorial ports, 21, 58 217
for machine protection, 25 calibration, 224
overview, 41 laser, 219, 247
for plasma control, 26, 83 optical components, 218, 219, 251
for plasma performance, 28 SNR,220
requirements, 25 vacuum window, 221
vacuum coupled, 79 LIDAR divertor diagnostics, 237
in vertical ports, 22, 60 access requirements of, 239
in vessel, 20 design of, 243
ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Locked modes, 9
Reactor) tokamak, I Ly-a fluorescence, two-photon induced, 381, 385
blanket, 11, 17 with a diagnostic neutral beam, 383
building, 8, 10 with lasers, 385
confinement, 28
cryosorption pumps, 16 Magnetic diagnostics, 42, 529
cryostat, 8, 9 design, 533
CS (central solenoid) coil, 9 for fluctuation measurements, 536
CTM (cassette toroidal mover), 16 requirements, 530
density limit, 2, 5, 31 resolution, 533
diagnostic integration, 20 for steady state measurements, 538, 545
diagnostic ports, 19 system configuration, 530
disruptions, 6, 12 Magnetic equilibrium identification, 541
divertor, 13, 16, 67 MARFEs, 13, 121, 139,554
radiative, physics of, 31, 67 MAST tokamak, 595
target plates, 72 MCNP code, 302, 463, 485
edge temperature, 5 WE (wall emission) calculation, 465
energy confinement, 2 Microfission chambers, 415,491
fuelling and pumping system, 15 arrangement on ITER, 499
halo currents, 7, 533 Microwave diagnostics, 45,161
H-mode,2 transmission line design for, 161
confinement database, 2 vacuum windows for, 167
power threshold, 3, 31 MPR (magnetic proton recoil) neutron
Hot Cell, 10 spectrometer, 449
in-vessel transporter, 18 calibration, 459
machine design, 7 experience at JET, 452
magnet system, 7 principles, 451
pellet fuelling, 15 MPRR (multifrequency pulse RADAR
PF (poloidal field) coils, 8, 86 reflectometer), 587
physics basis, 1

608
NDD (natural diamond detector), 439 Reflectometry (cont'd)
Neutral beams, see Diagnostic neutral beam for density fluctuations, 98
Neural network, 375, 542 for density profile, 98, 107
Neutral gas diagnostic; 559 for divertor density, 98, 139
pressure gauges for, 561 electronics, 114
Neutron activation system, 43, 416, 479 for ELMs, 98
calibration, 503 existing experience on, 148
Neutron diagnostics, 43, frequency range, 109, 124
Neutron camera(s), 43, 411, 419, 586 instrumentation, 130
calibration, 504 for plasma shape and position, 98, 119, 129
collimation, 426 plasma rotation effect on, 152
detectors, 424 profile initialization, 144, 155
geometry,420 profile reconstruction, 142
in JET, 420 reflected power, 143
radial, 58, 419 role of, 98
Neutron flux detectors, 43, 414, 583 signal generators for, 147
calibration, 417,503 signal to noise ratio in, 115
magnetic field effects on, 583 spurious reflections in, 116
liquid helium effect on, 585 turbulence effect on, 116, 124, 151, 158,601
Neutron profile monitor, see Neutron camera RFX (reverse field pinch experiment), 597
Neutron spectrometry, 43, 413, 426, 429 Rogowski loops, 42, 532
instrumentation, 435 RTP tokamak and diagnostics, 196
MPR based, 449 Runaway electrons, 31
NDD based, 439
requirements, 430 SANCO code, 307
using bubble chambers, 475 Spectrometers
NPA (neutral particle analysis), 44, 79, 353 X-ray crystal (XCS), 79
diagnostic neutral beam for, 355 Vacuum ultra-violet (VUV), 79
NSPEC code, 431 Spectroscopy, 44
see also BES, CXRS, La fluorescence,
OKTAVlAN neutron generator, 472 spectrometers, VUV and XUV
Optical diagnostics, 43 spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy
Optical reflectivity of mirrors, 279 Ha,60
Optical vacuum window seal, 257 STAJlTtokamak,587

Phosphor screens, 345 TAE (toroidicity-induced Alfven eigenmode), 32

Photoelectron spectrometry, 319 TBN (triton bumup neutron) emission, 453
PES (photoelectron spectrometers), 319 TEXTOR tokamak, 6, 196
VPD (vacuum photodiode), 324 TFTR tokamak and diagnostics, 6, 357,410,424,
Pick-up coils, 42, 64 441,471,479,491,502,525
Plasma control, 26, 83 Thomson scattering, see also LIDAJl
matrix, 29 at the edge of ITER, 227
Plasma disruptions, 26 access requirements of, 230
Polarimetry, see Interferometry and polarimetry design constraints of, 233
PRETOR code, 2, 28 imaging options for, 229
PSI-l plasma generator, 385 TORAY code, 210
TORE-SUPRA tokamak, 441
Radiation testing, 261, 269 TRIM code, 442
of optical fibres, 287, 291, 378
Radiation damage, 261 VUV and XUV spectroscopy, 297
Radioluminescence, 265, 287, 378 calibration of, 304
RIC (radiation induced conductivity), 263, 270, instruments for, 303
538 radiation shielding of, 301
RIED (radiation induced electrical degradation), requirements of, 298
263,270,561
Reflectometry, 45, 63, 73, 79, 97 X-ray tomography, 573
antenna geometry, 124 for plasma position and current control, 574
bandwidth,123 inRFX,597
cutoff layers, 101, 109 X-ray spectroscopy, 307

609