ROORKEE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ROORKEE

Department of Mechanical Engineering

WORKSHOP PRACTICAL
(BMEP – 101)

LAB MANUAL
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Machine Shop - To prepare a job on lathe machine as per given drawing.

2. Fitting shop - To prepare a job in the fitting shop as per given drawing.
3. Carpentary shop - To prepare a half Lap Joint T – joint in Carpentry shop.
4. Electrical – soldering - To join different electronic components on
Printed circuit board using soldering process.
5. Welding Shop (Arc + Gas) - To prepare a job in welding shop.
6. Casting Shop - To prepare an aluminium casting with the help of a given
wooden pattern.
7. Smithy - To forge a chisel.
8. Sheet Metal Shop - To prepare a sheet metal tray as per given size.
9. Injection Moulding - To study the plastic processing with injection
moulding method.
 MACHINE SHOP

AIM
To prepare a job on lathe machine as per given drawing.

REQUIREMENT
M.S. Rod 30/32 mm diameter and length 130 mm, Centre lathe machine with all
accessories, centre scriber, lathe turning, parting, facing, grooving, threading,
cutting and knurling tools, centre drill, outside callipers and scales etc.

THEORY
Introduction to machine shop
It is a very well known fact that machine shop forms not only an important but
an indispensable part of a modern workshop. It not only involves a heavy
investment but at the same time, calls for a fairly high skill of workmanship. If
carried out successfully, the operations performed on this shop are capable of
producing a large number of jobs of different shapes and sizes having a fine
finish within very close limit of dimension.
Machine Tools
Machine tool is a device in which energy is expanded to remove excess material
from the parent material in the form of chips by a suitable wedge shaped device
call cutting tool.
Functions of machine tools
The main functions of a machine tool are:
1. To hold and support the job to be machined
2. To hold and support the cutting tool in position
3. To move the cutting tool, work or both of them in a desired direction
4. To regulate the cutting speed and provide the feeding movement to one of
these.

Lathe
The lathe can be defined as a machine tool which holds the work between two
rigid and strong supports, called centres, or in a chuck while the latter revolves.
The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post and is fed against the
revolving work. In doing so it produces a cylindrical surface.
Specification of lathe
 10.
Fig.: Lathe sizes
The important dimensions required to be mentioned for a lathe are:
1. Maximum distance between centres (A)
2. Maximum swing in gap in case of gap bed lathe (B)
3. Height of centres over bed (C)
4. Maximum swing over carriage (D)
5. Maximum swing over bed (E)
6. Length of the bed
Parts of a lathe
The lathe carries the following main parts as illustrated by the block diagram.
The main part of a lathe are:
a. Bed
b. Headstock
c. Tailstock
d. Carriage
e. Legs
Fig. 9.2: Block Diagram of a Lathe

Lathe Bed

The bed of a lathe acts as a base on which the different fixed and operating parts
of the lathe are mounted. It withstands various forces exerted on the cutting tool
during the operation. These are usually made as a single piece casting of cast
iron during for easy sliding action.
Headstock
The headstock is the part of the lathe which serves as a housing for the driving
pulleys and back gears, provides bearing for the machine spindle and keeps the
latter in alignment with the bed.
Tailstock
The main function of tailstock is to provide bearing and support to the job
which is being worked between centres. In the dead center carbide tipped
centres are observed. It helps to retain its shape and size inspite of the high heat
produced due to friction at high speeds. Without this type of tip, the tip will fail.
Carriage
Carriage serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against
the job during the operation on the lathe. It consists of the following main parts:
Saddle: Saddle is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed ways and
supports the cross slide, compound rest and tool post
Cross slide: It is mounted on the top of the saddle and always moves in the
direction normal to the axis of the main spindle.
Compound rest: It is also known as tool rest. It is mounted on the cross slide
and carries a graduated circular base called swivel plate.
Tool post: It is the top most part of the carriage and it is used for holding the
tool and the tool holder in position.
Apron: It is the hanging part in front of the carriage it serves as a house in a
number of gear trains through which power feeds can be given to the carriage.

Fig.: The carriage

Legs
They are the supports which carry the entire load of the machine over them.
Both the legs are firmly secured to the floor by means of foundation bolts in
order to prevent vibrations in the machine.
Need for change of speed
There are several reasons due to which different spindle speed are needed.
Work piece material: Harder and tougher material needs slower speed while
softer material demands faster speed.
ii) Cutting tool material: The harder the tool material, the higher is the cutting
speed employed in order to take the full advantage of the higher hot hardness of
this material.
iii) Type of operation: For example operations like external and internal
threading need much lower speed than operation like turning, drilling, boring,
facing etc.
iv) Surface finish: Rough machining where the main requirement is to remove
the maximum amount of material needs a deeper depth of cut and slower speed.
Against this, in finish machining, the depth of cut is substantially reduced and
higher speed is used.
v) Rigidity of machine tool: A rigid machine tool in perfect running condition
enable employment of higher spindle speed
Chucks
They provide a very efficient and true device for holding the work on the lathe
during operation. The most common types of chucks used are:
Three jaw Universal chuck
It is also known as self centring chuck. It grasps the work quickly and within a
few hundredths of a millimetres or thousandths of an inch of accuracy, because
the three jaws move simultaneously when adjusted by the chuck wrench.
Four jaw independent chuck
Each of the jaws can be adjusted independently by a chuck wrench. They are
used to held irregular-shaped work pieces. The jaws can be reversed to hold
work by the inside diameter.
Operations in Lathe
In lathe the work/job rotates and the tool remains stationary. Lathe operations
involve the turning, drilling, facing, boring, threading and many more. Let’s
discuss some these methods.
Facing
Facing is used to make a flat surface at the end of the work piece. The work part
should be rotating and the implied feed should be radial.
Straight turning
In this operation of lathe, the tool is fed in a straight path parallel to the axis of
the job and the job is held in either a chuck or between two centers.
Taper turning
The tool is not fed parallel to the axis of rotation of the work part. The tool is
fed at an angle. This turning operation gives a conical and taper cylindrical
shape.
Chamfering
Only the cutting edge is used at the corner of cylindrical shapes which is used
for stress relieving of the work-piece.
Cutoff or Parting
In parting operation the tool is fed radially and the end part of the work-piece is
cut off.
 Fig: Lathe Operations

Cutting tool materials

The main characteristics of a good cutting tool material are its hot hardness,
wear resistance, impact resistance, abrasion resistance, heat conductivity,
strength etc. They are generally made of high carbon steel, high speed steel,
satellite, cemented carbide, ceramics, diamond etc.
JOB – 1
PROCEDURE
1. Hold the work pieces on the centre lathe machine from one end and
centred the job.
2. Facing the end of the job by the facing tool.
3. Now centre drilling this end by the centre drill and support the work
pieces by the dead centre of tail stock.
4. Now turning as per drawing length by the turning tool.
5. Adjust the gear ratio for threading M16 and then cut thread in 40 mm
length.
6. For taper turning adjust the compound rest at the calculated angle and
taper turning in 31 mm length.
7. Turning as per requirement length by turning tool.
8. Now grooving by the grooving tools.
9. Now knurling at the 28 mm dia. X25 mm length by the knurling tool.
10.Unloading the job and reloading on the machine from just machined end.
11.Facing the free end by the facing tool.
12.Now adjust the compound rest at 450 and chamfer 1 X45 according to the
drawing.

JOB – 2

PROCEDURE
1. Hold the work piece on the centre lathe machine from one end and
centred the job.
2. Facing the end of the job by the facing tool.
 3. Now centre drilling this end by the centre drill and support the work piece
by the dead centre of the tail stock.
4. Now turning 16 mm diameter X 35 mm length by the turning tool.
5. Adjust the gear ratio for threading M16 X 2 and then cut thread in 35 mm
length.
6. For taper turning adjust the compound rest at the calculated angle and
taper turning in 40 mm length.
7. Turning 30 mm dia X 100 length and 30 mm diameter X 17 mm length
by turning tool.
8. Now grooving of 2.5 mm radius by the grooving tools.
9. Now knurling at the 28 mm dia X 12 mm length by the knurling tool.
10.Unloading the job and reloading on the machine from just machined end.
11.Facing the free end by the facing tool.
12.Turning 30 mm diameter X 13 mm length by turning tool.
13.Now adjust the compound rest at 45 angle and chamfer 1 X 45 according
to the drawing.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Job should be hold at the centre in the jaws of machine.
2. Tool’s tip should be at the centre of the axis of the job.
3. Always use coolant in all the operations of lathe machine.
4. Depth of cut, speed of machine and feed of tool should be as per
requirement.
 EXPERIMENT

AIM: Study of quick return mechanism in a shaper machine.

REQUIREMENT:
Shaper, try square, scriber, steel scale and shaper tool.
THEORY:
INTRODUCTION: Shaper is a versatile machine which is primarily used for
producing flat surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
This machine involves the use of a single point cutting tool held in a properly
designed tool box mounted on a reciprocating ram. The main significance of
this machine lies in its greater flexibility on account of ease in work holding,
quick adjustment and use of tools of relatively simple design.
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING: Principle parts of shaper are shown in figure 1
ahead.

Shaper consists of a hollow machine bed made of cast iron which rests on the
ground. Inside the hollow portion the machine drive mechanism is housed. This
mechanism is called slotted lever quick return mechanism and it drives a
horizontal ram which reciprocates in the guide ways provided on the top surface
of the machine frame. In the front face of the ram, a tool post is fitted. This is a
very special kind of tool post. It carries a slide which can be operated by a hand
wheel and the entire tool post can be lowered or raised. Besides, the tool slide
can be swivelled in a vertical plane and its inclination to the vertical (amount of
swivelling) can be read off on a scale marked in degrees. The tool is inclined,
when an inclined surface has to be machined. In the front portion of the base, a
table is fitted. The table can be raised or lowered to vary its height. It can also
be moved horizontally to left or right. A vice to hold the work piece is provided
on the table top. The tool does useful work i.e. cutting only in the forward
stroke of the ram. It does not cut i.e. it is idle during the return stroke of ram. In
order that while returning, the tool may not rub and spoil the strip of the metal
machined in the forward stroke, a special device called the “clapper box” is
provided in the tool post.

DRIVE
Since useful work is done only during the forward stroke of ram, the mechanism
driving the ram is so designed that the return stroke is completed in much less
time than the forward stroke. The slotted lever quick return mechanism is
illustrated in Figures 2 (a) and 2 (b).

The crank AB (of adjustable length R) rotates with a uniform angular speed.
The crank pin B is in the shape of a die block which is free to slide inside the
slot in the slotted lever OBC. This slotted lever is pivoted at O and the other end
C is connected to the ram by a short link arm as shown in Fig. 2 (a). When the
crank AB rotates clockwise from position AB1to AB2, the ram moves forward
from left to right and when it rotates from position AB2 to AB1the ram returns
back to its original position. Clearly the time taken to complete forward stroke
is proportional to angle α (refer to Fig. 2 (b)) and the return stroke is completed
in less time which is proportional to angle β.
 FITTING SHOP

AIM
To prepare a job in the fitting shop as per given drawing.

REQUIREMENT
M.S. Plate size (50 mm X 65 mm X 6 mm), Bench vice, hand vice, surface
plate, trisquare, flat bastard file (rough and smooth both), centre punch, hand
hammer, tap size M 10 X 2 and tap handle, drilling machine with all
accessories.

THEORY
INTRODUCTION:
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but there are
occasions when components are processed at a bench. Sometimes it becomes
necessary to replace or repair a component that must fit accurately with one
another or reassemble. This involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The
assembly machine tools, jigs, gauges etc., involves certain amount of bench
work.

FITTING TOOLS: Holding tools:-

Bench vice 
V-block with clamp 
C-clamp 
Bench vice:-
It is a work holding device, when vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction
the sliding jaw forces the work against the fixed jaw, the greater the force
applied to the handle, the tighter is the work held.
V-block with clamp:-
It is a rectangular (or) square block with v-groove on one or both sides, opposite
to each other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-clamp:-
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v-block.

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:

1. Surface plate
2. Try square
3. Angle plate
4. Scriber
5. Universal scribing block
6. Odd leg caliper
7. Divider
8. Calipers
9. Dot punch
10. Vernier caliper

Surface plate:-
It is used for testing flatness of work piece, for marking out small works.

Fig: 1 Bench wise

Fig: 2 V- Block
 Fig: 3 C – Clamp

Fig: 4 Surface plate

Fig: 5 Angle plate

 Fig: 6 Dot punch

Fig: 6 try square Fig: 7 scriber

Combination cutting pliers: -

This is made of tool steel and is used for cutting as well as for ripping work.
Taps and die holders: -
Tap and wrenches are used for cutting internal threads in a drilled hole.
Dies and die holders:-
They are used for making external threads. Dies are made either solid (or) split
type.
TYPES OF FILES:
Hand file:-
It is a rectangular in section tapered in thickness but parallel in width.
Flat file:-
Rectangular in section and tapered for 1/3rd length in width and thickness.
Square file:-
Square in section and tapered for 1/3rd length on all sides.
Half round file:-
It has one flat face, connecting by a curved (surface) face & tapered for 1/3rd
length.
Round file:-
Circular in cross section and tapered for 1/3rd length, it has double cut teeth.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS: Ball peen hammer:-
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for
riveting.
Screw driver:-
It is designed to turn the screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in
different lengths and diameters.
Spanners:-
It is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.

FITTING OPERATIONS:
Chipping:-
Removing metal with a chisel is called chipping and is normally used where
machining is not possible.
Fitting:-
1. Pinning of files:-
Soft metals cause this; the pins are removed with a file card.
2. Checking flatness and square ness:-
To check flatness across thickness of plate.
MARKING AND MEASURING:
Measurements are taken either from a center line, for visibility of the non-
ferrous metals and oxide coated steels are used.

Fig: 8 odd leg clamp and divider

Fig: 9 calipers
Fig: 10 Vernier calliper

Fig: 11 Parts of hand file

 Fig: 12 Types of files

Fig: 13 ball peen hammer

JOB DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Take a piece of size 50 mm X 65 mm X 6 mm and remove all burrs and
scales from the work piece with rough file.
2. Hold the work piece firmly in the bench vice for filling of one reference
surface.
3. File this surface bright, clean and flat with a flat bastard file, check the
flatness with a tri square.
4. File the adjacent surface bright clean, flat and perpendicular to teh
previous surface following the above procedure. Check by trisquare.
5. File over all edges of the work piece and give a exact shape of rectangle.
6. Now mark the lines draw with the help of scriber, centre punch and
hammer.
7. Cut off the part 2 from the part 1 and the all edges.
8. Now drill of 10 mm diameter on the drilling machine according to the
drawing.
9. For internal threading in a hole use tap (taper tap, plug tap and then
bottoming tap).
10.Now hold the plate from another end, cut off 35 mm by hand hack saw as
shown in figure.
11.File the all cut sides by a smooth file until the job is finished to required
dimensions and smoothness.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The job is securely held in the vice otherwise it may spill away and injure
you or your fellow workers.
2. Hold the job firmly for drilling operation.
3. Work with right way and proper required tools.
 CARPENTARY SHOP

AIM-To prepare a half Lap Joint T – joint in Carpentry shop.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

Soft wood such as kail wood, red mirindi wood etc.

TOOLS USED: Jack plane, tenon saw, try square, marking gauge, scriber, steel
rule, chisels, hammer etc.

THEORY
INTRODUCTION:
Wood work or carpentry deals with making joints for a variety of applications
like door frames, cabinet making furniture, packing etc.,
Timber:-
Timber is a name obtained from well grown plants or trees. The timber must cut
in such a way that the grains run parallel to the length. The common defects in
timber are knots, wet rot, dry rot etc.,
Market sizes of timber:-
Timber is sold in market in various standard shapes and sizes. They are:-
Log:- The trunk of a tree, which is free from branches.
Balk:- The log sawn to have roughly square cross section.
Post:- A timber piece, round or square in cross section with more than 275 mm
in width, 50 to 150 mm in thickness and 2.5 to 6.5 mts length.
Board:- A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 mm to 50 mm in
thickness.
Reapers:- Sawn timber pieces of assorted and nonstandard sizes, which don’t
conform to the above shapes.
WORK HOLDING TOOLS: Carpentry vice:-
It is a work holding device. When handle vice is turned in a clockwise direction,
the sliding jar forces the work against the fixed sawn. The greater the force
applied to the handle, the tighter to the work held.
Bar clamp:- It is a rectangular (or) square block with V-groove on one or both
sides opposite to each other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-Clamp:- This is used to hold work against an angle plate or V-block.

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:

Try square:-
It is used for marking and testing the square ness of planed surfaces. It consists
of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for flatness. The size of
a try square usedfor varies from 150 mm to 300 mm, according to the length of
the blade. It is less accurate when compared to the try square used in fitting
shop.
 Fig : 1 steel rule

fig: 2 marking Gauge

Fig: 3 steel tape

fig: 4 Try square

Fig: 5 corpenter vice

Fig: 6 Bar clamp

Fig: 7 metal jack plane

 Fig: 8 compass and divider

Marking gauge:-
It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edges of wooden pieces. It consists
of a square wooden stem with a riding wooden stock on it. A marking pin, made
of steel is fitted on the stem. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In these it is
possible to adjust the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on
the stock.
Compass and dividers:-
This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines on the
planed surface of the wood.
CUTTING TOOLS:
Hack saw:- It is used to cross cut the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set
that the saw kerfs will be wider than the blade thickness. Hard blades are used
to cut hard metals. Flexible blades are having the teeth of hardened and rest of
the blade is soft and flexible.
Chisels:- These are used for removing surplus wood. Chisels are annealed,
hardened and tempered to produce a tough shank and a hard cutting edge.
Rip saw:- It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of
this saw makes a sleeper angle about 60o whereas that saw makes an angle of
45o with the surface of the stock.
Tenon saw:- It is used for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet works. The blade
of this saw is very thin and so it is used stiffed with back strip. Hence, this is
sometimes called back saw. The teeth shapes similar to cross cut saw.

DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS: Auger bit:-

It is the most common tool used for boring holes with hard pressure.
Gimlet:- This is a hand tool used for boring holes with hand pressure.
Hand drill:- Carpenters brace is used to make relatively large size holes,
whereas hand drill is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used
with these tools. It is small light in weight and may be conveniently used than
the brace. The drill is clamped in the chuck.
 Fig: 9 cross cut saw

Fig: 10 Tenon saw

Fig: 11 compass saw

Fig: 12 Chisels

Fig: 13 Carpenter’s brace

 Fig: 14 Auger bit

Fig: 15 Gimlet

Fig: 16 wood rasp file

Fig:17 Mallet

Fig: 18 Hand drill

 Fig: 19 Trammel

Fig: 20 Claw hammer

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
Ball peen hammer:-
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for
riveting.
Mallet:-
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, steel
hammer should not be used for these purpose, as it may damage the chisel
handle. Further, for better to apply a series of light taps with the mallet rather
than a heavy single blow.
Claw hammer:-
It is a striking flat at one end and the claw at the others. The face issued to drive
nails into wood and for other striking purpose and the claw for extracting nails
out of wood.
Pinches:-
It is made of steel with a hinged and is used for pulling out small nails from
wood.
Wood rasp file:-
It is a finishing tool used to make the wood smooth, remove sharp edge
finishing fillets and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on
its surface for the purpose. This file is exclusively used in wood work.

The Different Types of Wood Joints

1 – Butt Joint
2 – Rabbet Joint.
3 – Lap Joint.
4 – Dado Joint
5 – Spline Joint.
6 – Mortise and Tenon Joint
7 – Tongue and Groove Joint
8 – Finger joint.

JOB DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Take the drawing of the job to be prepared.
2. Now take the workpiece of size greater than (105X45X35) as per
drawing.
3. Take first work piece. Plane its wide side with the help of jack plane.
Thereafter, plane the narrow outsides at right angle.
4. Mark both sides as 40 mm and 30 mm as per drawing with the help of
marking gauge.
5. Again, plane the work piece by the jack plane above the marked line.
6. Now cut the length at right angle with the help of tenon saw to obtain the
size (100X40X30) as per drawing.
7. Now make the cut with the help of chisels as per drawing.
8. Take second work piece and repeat the procedure from points 3 to 6.
9. Now join both the workpieces with each other as per drawing.
10. Finish the final job with jack plane.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Wear proper uniform while working.
2. Use good quality of tools.
3. Do not use defective wood.
4. Chisel edge should be sharp.
5. Concentrate on the job.
6. Planning should be parallel to the grains of wood.
7. Tenon saw should be held in both hands with light pressure.
8. During cutting operation by tenon saw, saw should be placed outside the
marking.
 ELECTRICAL SOLDERING
AIM
soldering process.

OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to understand function of boiler and function of various
components or parts of boilers. Students should also be able to understand
classification of boilers.

EQUIPMENTS / INSTRUMENTS / SYSTEM REQUIRED

Soldering Iron 30 W with stand, Soldering wire (Tin 60% & Lead 40%),
Soldering paste, Components for soldering like resistances of different values,
capacitor, Inductor, Diode P-N junction, Transistor NPN adn PNP, Transformer
9 – 0 - 9 or 12 – 0 – 12.

THEORY
Soldering is a process in which two or more items are joined together by
melting and putting a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a
lower melting point than the adjoining metal. Unlike welding, soldering does
not involve melting the work pieces. In brazing, the work piece metal also does
not melt, but the filler metal is one that melts at a higher temperature than in
soldering. In the past, nearly all solders contained lead, but environmental and
health concerns have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for electronics
and plumbing purposes.

Soldering Iron
A soldering iron is a hand tool that plugs into a standard 120v AC outlet and
heats up in order to melt solder around electrical connections. This is one of the
most important tools used in soldering and it can come in a few variations such
as pen or gun form. For beginners, it’s recommended that you use the pen style
soldering iron in the 15W to 30W range. Most soldering irons have
interchangeable tips that can be used for different soldering applications. Be
very cautious when using any type of soldering iron because it can heat up to
896′ F which is extremely hot.
Soldering Iron Tips
At the end of most soldering irons is an interchangeable part known as a
soldering tip. There are many variations of this tip and they come in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes. Each tip is used for a specific purpose and offers a
distinct advantage over another. The most common tips you will use in
electronics projects are the conical tip and the chisel tip.
Conical Tip – Used in precision electronics soldering because of the fine tip.
Because of its pointed end, it’s able to deliver heat to smaller areas without
affecting its surroundings.
Chisel Tip – This tip is well-suited to soldering wires or other larger
components because of its broad flat tip.

Soldering Iron Stand

A soldering iron stand is very basic but very useful and handy to have. This
stand helps prevent the hot iron tip from coming in contact with flammable
materials or causing accidental injury to your hand. Most soldering stations
come with this built in and also include a sponge or brass sponge for cleaning
the tip.

Solder
Solder is a metal alloy material that is melted to create a permanent bond
between electrical parts. It comes in both lead and lead-free variations with
diameters of .032″ and .062″ being the most common. Inside the solder core is a
material known as flux which helps improve electrical contact and its
mechanical strength.
For electronics soldering, the most commonly used type is lead-free rosin core
solder. This type of solder is usually made up of a Tin/Copper alloy. You can
also use leaded 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) rosin core solder but it’s becoming
less popular due to health concerns. If you do use lead solder, make sure you
have proper ventilation and that you wash your hands after use.

Soldering Safety
Now that you know what tools and materials are required, it’s time to briefly
discuss ways of staying safe while soldering
Soldering irons can reach temperatures of 800′ F so it’s very important to know
where your iron is at all times. We always recommend you use a soldering iron
stand to help prevent accidental burns or damage.
Tinning The Tip
Before you can start soldering, you need to prep your soldering iron by tinning
the tip with solder. This process will help improve the heat transfer from the
iron to the item you’re soldering. Tinning will also help to protect the tip and
reduce wear.
Step 1: Begin by making sure the tip is attached to the iron and screwed tightly
in place.
Step 2: Turn on your soldering iron and let it heat up. If you have a soldering
station with an adjustable temp control, set it to 400′ C/ 752′ F.
Step 3: Wipe the tip of the soldering iron on a damp wet sponge to clean it.
Wait a few seconds to let the tip heat up again before proceeding to step 4.
Step 4: Hold the soldering iron in one hand and solder in the other. Touch the
solder to the tip of the iron and make sure the solder flows evenly around the
tip.
How to Solder
Step 1: Mount the Component – Begin by inserting the leads of the LED into
the holes of the circuit board. Flip the board over and bend the leads outward at
a 45′ angle. This will help the component make a better connection with the
copper pad and prevent it from falling out while soldering.

Step 2: Heat the Joint – Turn your soldering iron on and if it has an adjustable
heat control, set it to 400’C. At this point, touch the tip of the iron to the copper
pad and the resistor lead at the same time. You need to hold the soldering iron
in place for 3-4 seconds in order to heat the pad and the lead.

Step 3: Apply Solder to Joint – Continue holding the soldering iron on the
copper pad and the lead and touch your solder to the joint. IMPORTANT –
Don’t touch the solder directly to the tip of the iron. You want the joint to be hot
enough to melt the solder when it’s touched. If the joint is too cold, it will form
a bad connection.
Step 4: Snip the Leads – Remove the soldering iron and let the solder cool
down naturally. Don’t blow on the solder as this will cause a bad joint. Once
cool, you can snip the extra wire from leads.
A proper solder joint is smooth, shiny and looks like a volcano or cone shape.
You want just enough solder to cover the entire joint but not too much so it
becomes a ball or spills to a nearby lead or joint.

Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

PROCEDURE

Carry out the soldering of various components on PCB as explained in theory

above under supervision.

PRECAUTIONS
 1. Don’t touch the tip of soldering iron.
2. Always wear gloves while etching PCB plate.
3. Perform various operations carefully in the presence of lab staff only.

Typesofcable
1. Non-Metallic Cable
Commonly called NM cable, this form of wiring is by far the most common
in modern residential homes. NM cable contains three or more conductors
(usually a hot wire, a ground wire, and a neutral wire) that have been
wrapped in plastic sheathing for protection. If this wiring is installed in a
place that features some external exposure, then it may be placed in a more
robust encasing called a conduit.
2. Metal-Clad Cable
Metal-clad cable, as its name would suggest, is wiring with a strong metal
outer casing. They are mostly used in areas where the wires will be exposed
to possible damage, such as in basements.
3. Armoured Cable
Armored cable is used when NM cable is not sufficient. The armored cable
comes with a metallic protective coating (sheathing), which provides more
protection than plastic sheathing. Armored cable is only acceptable for use
in buildings with fewer than three stories. It cannot be used in commercial
buildings.
4. Underground Feeder Cable
Underground feeder — or UF — cable is another example of a non-metallic
cable that is buried in the ground. It is usually used to power outdoor
electrical operations, such as lights. Much like the NM cables that we
mentioned above, underground feeder cables will have neutral and
insulated wires. The difference is the UF cable features a stronger plastic
encasing to compensate for the fact that they live outdoors.

6. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable , or Coax, is a type of cable that is used to carry television
signals. It consists of a central wire with a protective thin plastic coating.
7. Ethernet Cable
This type of cable is also known as “category 5e”, but you probably know
it by its regular nomenclature, Ethernet cable. It is used exclusively to
connect phones, computers, or other audio-visual networks. It consists of
multiple wire pairs wrapped up in a single sheathing.
Types of house wire

When you need to describe wiring, you first must comprehend some basic
terms. While the electrical wire is nothing but a conductor, the material of home
electrical wiring is copper or aluminium. But, on the other hand, when two or
more wires are combined in a single jacket, it forms a cable. So, as you read
ahead, you can check out the various types you can think of for your house.

1. Low-Voltage Wires
When you have circuits that run at a voltage less than 50 volts, then you must
ideally use low-voltage cable wires. Usually, you will find such home electrical
wiring in items that work with less electricity. These items include landscape
lighting, doorbells, thermostats, and sprinkler systems. Above all, as you start
using such kinds of wires, you can use them fearlessly because you will not
experience any shock. However, when you are not using the items, it’s always
better to switch them off for a period of time.
2. Solar Wires
When you come across solar cables, these are designed to connect photovoltaic
power supply systems. As such cables are known for high mechanical strength,
they can withstand extreme climatic conditions. Since these cables can operate
for a maximum time span of 20,000 hours at a temperature as much as 120°C,
they can last up to 30 years. As far as the overall design is concerned, these
cables have fine copper strands which are enclosed in an ozone resistant and a
flame retardant UV sheath.
3. Phone and Data Wires
Among the types of electrical wiring, you may observe phone and data wires
that fall under Category 5 cables. These cables have around four to eight wires
which are usually wrapped together. As the electrician uses such wires, they are
very much efficient while transmitting data. Additionally, electricians prefer
using the Ethernet cable owing to the high capacity and the overall quality.
Even when such wires don’t run on high voltage, you must not lay them closer
to household wiring. Hence, you must avoid touching the wires and treat them
very carefully.

Types of power supply

1.DC power supplies. An AC-to-DC power supply operates on an AC input
voltage and generates a DC output voltage. ...
2.AC power supplies. Main article: AC power supply. ...
3.Programmable power supply. Programmable power supplies. ...
4.Uninterruptible power supply. ...
5.High-voltage power supply. ...
6.Bipolar power supply.
Types of motor-
1). DC Shunt Motor
DC shunt motor works on DC and the windings of this electric motor like the
armature windings and field windings are linked in parallel which is known as a
shunt. This kind of motor is also called as shunt wound DC motor, where the
winding type is known as a shunt winding. Please refer to this link to know
more about DC shunt motor working and applications
2). Separately Excited Motor
In separately excited motor, the connection of stator and rotor can be done using
a different power supply. So that the motor can be controlled from the shunt and
the armatures winding can be strengthened to generate flux.
3). DC Series Motor
In DC series motor, rotor windings are connected in series. The operation
principle of this electric motor mainly depends on a simple electromagnetic law.
This law states that whenever a magnetic field can be formed around conductor
& interacts with an external field to generate the rotational motion. These
motors are mainly used in starter motors which are used in elevators and cars.
Please refer to this link to know more about DC series motor working & its
applications
Please refer to this link to know more about DC MOTOR – Basics, Types &
Application
4). PMDC Motor
The term PMDC stands for “Permanent Magnet DC motor”. It is one kind of
DC motor which can be inbuilt with a permanent magnet to make the magnetic
field necessary for the electric motor operation. Please refer to this link to know
more about PMDC Motor: Construction, Working, and Applications
5). DC Compound Motor
Generally, DC compound motor is a hybrid component of DC series and shunt
motors. In this type of motor, both the fields like series and shunt are present. In
this type of electric motor, the stator and rotor can be connected to each other
through a series & shunt windings compound. The series winding can be
designed with few windings of wide copper wires, which gives a small
resistance path. The shunt winding can be designed with multiple windings of
copper wire to get the full i/p voltage.
AC Motors
The types of ac motors mainly include synchronous, asynchronous, induction
motor.
ac-motor
1). Synchronous Motor
The working of the synchronous motor mainly depends on the 3-phase supply.
The stator in the electric motor generates the field current which rotates in a
stable speed based on the AC frequency. As well as the rotor depends on the
similar speed of the stator current. There is no air gap among the speed of stator
current and rotor. When the rotation accuracy level is high, then these motors
are applicable in automation, robotics, etc. Please refer to this link to know
more about synchronous motor types and applications.
2). Induction Motor
The electric motor which runs asynchronous speed is known as induction motor,
and an alternate name of this motor is the asynchronous motor. Induction motor
mainly uses electromagnetic induction for changing the energy from electric to
mechanical. Based on the rotor construction, these motors are classified into
two types namely squirrel cage & phase wound. Please refer to this link to know
more about induction motor types and advantages
Special Purpose Motors
The special purpose motors mainly include servo motor, stepper motor, linear
induction motor, etc.
special-purpose-electric-motor
1). Stepper Motor
The stepper motor can be used to offer step angle revolution, as an alternative to
stable revolution. We know that for any rotor, the whole revolution angle is
180degrees. However, in a stepper motor, the complete revolution angle can be
separated in numerous steps like 10 degree X 18 steps. This means, in a total
revolution cycle the rotor will go stepwise eighteen times, every time 10 degree.
Stepper motors are applicable in plotters, circuit fabrication, process control
tools, usual movement generators, etc. Please refer to this link to know more
about stepper motor types and its applications
2). Brushless DC Motors
The brushless DC motors were first developed for achieving superior
performance within a lesser space than brushed DC motors. These motors are
lesser when compared with AC models. A controller is embedded into the
electric motor to facilitate the process within the lack of a commutator and a slip
ring. Please refer to this link to know more about Brushless DC Motor –
Advantages, Applications & Control
3). Hysteresis Motor
The operation of the hysteresis motor is extremely unique. The rotor of this
motor can be induced hysteresis and eddy current to generate the required task.
The motor working can depend on the construction, 1-phase supply otherwise 3-
phase supply. These motors give a very smooth process with stable speed,
similar to other synchronous motors. The noise level of this motor is quite
small, due to this reason they are applicable in numerous complicated
applications wherever the soundproof motor is used such as sound player, audio
recorder, etc.
4). Reluctance Motor
Basically, reluctance motor is a 1-phase synchronous motor & this motor
construction is quite same with induction motor like cage type. The rotor in the
motor is like squirrel cage type & the stator of the motor include sets of
windings such as auxiliary and main winding. The auxiliary winding is very
useful at the beginning time of the motor. As they offer a level operation at a
stable speed. These motors are commonly used in synchronization applications
which include signal generators, recorders, etc.
5). Universal Motor
This is a special kind of motor and this motor works on single AC supply
otherwise DC supply. Universal motors are series wound where the field and
armature windings are connected in series and thus generates high starting
torque. These motors are mainly designed for operating at high-speed above
3500 rpm. They utilize AC supply at low-speed and DC supply of similar
voltage. Please refer to this link to know more about Universal Motor
Thus, this is all about types of electric motors. At present, there are different
and flexible. The purpose of the motor is whenever a motion control is required,
this is the best choice. The motor must support the use and overall act of the
system. Here is a question for you, what are special type motors?
 WELDING
AIM
To prepare a job in welding shop.

REQUIREMENT
Electric arc welding machine with all accessories, eye shield, apron, gloves,
chipping hammer, tong and electrode holder, M.S. Flat Size 50 mm X 50 mm X
8 mm long – 2 nos. , M.S. Electrode 3.15 mm diameter.

THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with
or without application of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is
equivalent in composition andcharacteristics of the metals joined. In the
beginning, welding was mainly used for repairing all kinds ofworn or damaged
parts. Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction
industry(construction of ships, tanks, locomotives and automobiles) and
maintenance work, replacing rivetingand bolting, to a greater extent.
The various welding processes are:
1. Electric arc welding,
2. Gas welding
3. Thermal welding
4. Electrical Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding
However, only electric arc welding process is discussed in the subject point of
view.
Electric arc welding
Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc
struck between
an electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge
between two electrodes
through ionized gas.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the
following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC);
b. Welding electrode;
c. Work piece;
d. Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to
the power supply.
 Fig:1 Arc welding set up

Fig:2 Parts of an electrode

Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The
arc
temperature may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the
work piece edges and joining them. When a long joint is required the arc is
moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool melts the welded
surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.
Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding
machines. These machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an
electrode is used to produce the necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler
rod and the arc melts the surface so that, the metals to be joined are actually
fixed together.
Sizes of welding machines are rated according to their approximate amperage
capacity at 60% duty cycle, such as 150,200,250,300,400,500 and 600 amperes.
This amperage is the rated current output at the working terminal.
Transformers
The transformers type of welding machine produces A.C current and is
considered to be the least expensive. It takes power directly from power supply
line and transforms it to the voltage required for welding. Transformers are
available in single phase and three phases in the market.
Motor generators
These are D.C generators sets, in which electric motor and alternator are
mounted on the same
shaft to produce D.C power as pert the requirement for welding. These are
designed to produce D.C current in either straight or reversed polarity. The
polarity selected for welding depends upon the kind of electrode used and the
material to be welded.
Rectifiers
These are essentially transformers, containing an electrical device which
changes A.C into D.C by virtue of which the operator can use both types of
power (A.C or D.C, but only one at a time).In addition to the welding machine,
certain accessories are needed for carrying out the welding work.
Welding cables
Two welding cables are required, one from machine to the electrode holder and
the other,
from the machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred
because of the case of using and coiling the cables. Cables are specified by their
current carrying capacity, say 300 A, 400 A, etc.
Electrodes
Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of
metallic wire called
core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be
welded. These are coated uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While
fluxing an electrode; about 20mm of length is left at one end for holding it with
the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current from electrode holder to
the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator of electricity. In
general, electrodes are classified into five main groups; mild steel, carbon steel,
special alloy steel, cast iron and non‐ferrous. The greatest range of arc welding
is done with electrodes in the mild steel group. Various constituents like
titanium oxide, potassium oxide, cellulose, iron or manganese, Ferro silicates,
carbonates, gums, clays, asbestos, etc., are used as coatings on electrodes. While
welding, the coating or flux vaporizes and provides a gaseous shield to prevent
atmospheric attack. The size of electrode is measured and designated by the
diameter of the core wire in SWG andlength, apart from the brand and code
names; indicating the purpose for which there are most suitable

Electrodes may be classified on the basis of thickness of the coated flux. As

1. Dust coated or light coated
2. Semi or medium coated and
3. Heavily coated or shielded
Electrodes are also classified on the basis of materials, as
1. Metallic and
2. Non‐metallic or carbon
Metallic arc electrodes are further sub‐divided into
1. Ferrous metal arc electrode (mild steel, low/medium/high carbon steel, cast
iron, stainless steel, etc )
2. Non‐ferrous metal arc electrodes (copper, brass, bronze, aluminum, etc).
In case of non‐metallic arc electrodes, mainly carbon and graphite are used to
make the electrodes.

Fig :3 Electrode holder

Fig :4 Ground Clamp

Fig :5 Wire brush

Fig :6 Chipping hammer

 Fig :7Hand gloves

Fig :8Face shield

Fig9:
Weld positions

WELDING TOOLS
Electrode holder
The electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the
electrode. Itshould be light, strong and easy to handle and should not become
hot while in operation. Figure shows one type of electrode holder. The jaws of
the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.
Ground clamp
It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or
welding table to complete the electric circuit. It should be strong and durable
and give a low resistance connection.
Wire brush and chipping hammer
A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding. A
chipping hammer is used for removing slag formation on welds. One end of the
head is sharpened like a cold chisel and the other, to a blunt, round point. It is
generally made of tool steel. Molten metal dispersed around the welding heads,
in the form of small drops, is known as spatter. When a flux coated electrode is
used in welding process, then a layer of flux material is formed over the
welding bead which contains the impurities of weld material. This layer is
known as slag. Removing the spatter and slag formed on and around the
welding beads on the metal surface is known as chipping.
Welding table and cabin
It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be
welded properly.
Welding cabin is made‐up by any suitable thermal resistance material, which
can isolate the surrounding by the heat and light emitted during the welding
process. A suitable draught should also be provided for exhausting the gas
produced during welding.
Face shield
A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and
from spatter or
flying particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand or helmet type. The
hand type is convenient to use wherever the work can be done with one hand.
The helmet type though not comfortable to wear, leaves both hands free for the
work.
Shields are made of light weight non‐reflecting fiber and fitted with dark glasses
to filter out the
Harmful rays of the arc. In some designs, a cover glass is fitted in front of the
dark lens to protect it from spatter.
Hand gloves
These are used to protect the hands from electric shocks and hot spatters

TECHNIQUES OF WELDING
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and
other foreign
material. The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges,
however, thick work pieceshould be beveled or veed out to ensure adequate
penetration and fusion of all parts of the weld. But, in either case, the parts to be
welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld.
Before commencing the welding process, the following must be considered
a) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.
b) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
c) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.
WELDING POSITIONS
Depending upon the location of the welding joints, appropriate position of the
electrode and
hand movement is selected. The figure shows different welding positions.
Flat position welding
In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and
the face of the weld is approximately horizontal. Flat welding is the preferred
term; however, the same position is sometimes called down hand.
Horizontal position welding
In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately
horizontal surface
and against an approximately vertical surface.
Vertical position welding
In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical as shown in
figure.
Overhead position welding
In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of a joint.

JOB DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Filing on the edge of both plates and preparing the bevelled edges for
single V 300 butt joint.
2. Make necessary connection and hold the electrode in electrode holder,
run a bead on a scrap metallic piece and adjust the current for a proper
bead.
3. Place the base plate in V-butt position horizontally as per given drawing.
4. Make two tacks by welding at the end of two plates placed horizontally
and check the straightness of both plates.
5. Turn the weld bead to joint according the drawing.
6. After completion of the welding remove the scale by the chipping
hammer from the welding bead and clean the splinters.
7. Switch off the machine, allows the plates to cool down.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Always use eye shield in welding.
2. Proper gap should be maintained between electrode and work pieces.
3. Do not file on welding bead.
 CASTING/FOUNDRY SHOP
AIM
To prepare an aluminium casting with the help of a given wooden pattern.

REQUIREMENT
Moulding sand as desired, Aluminium (Raw Material), mallet (hammer), riddle,
square and heart type trowel, moulding box, runner pin, Rammer flat type, Solid
pattern, sprue pin, riser pin, vent wire, slick lifter, gate cutter.

THEORY

Introduction: -
Foundry practice deals with the process of making casting in moulds, formed in
either sand or other material. This is found to be the cheapest method of metal
shaping. The process involves the operations of pattern making, sand
preparation, molding, melting of metals, pouring in moulds, cooling, shake out,
fettling, heat treatment, finishing, and inspection.
Mould is a cavity in a molding core, formed by a pattern. It is similar in shape
and size that of the actual casting plus some allowance for shrinkage, machining
etc., molding is the process of making molds.
Moulds are classified as: -
Temporary moulds
Permanent moulds
Temporary mould are made of sand and other binding materials and may be
produced either through hand molding (or) machine molding.
Permanent moulds are made of ferrous materials and alloys i.e., cast iron, steel
etc.,
Molding Sand: -
Sand is the principle material used in foundry. The principle ingredients of
molding sands are
1) Silicon sand 2) Clay 3) Sand
Clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the molding sand, moisture
when added
to correct preparation provides the bonding action to the clay sand can
withstand high temperature and doesn’t react with molten metal.
Natural molding sand is either available in river beds are dug from pits. It
possesses and appreciable amount of clay and are used as received with the
addition of water. Synthetic sands are prepared by adding clay. Water and other
materials to silica sand so that the desirable strength and banding properties are
achieved.
Most of molding is done with green sand i.e.; sand containing 6 to 8%, moisture
and 10% clay content to give it sufficient bond. Green sand moulds are used for
pouring the molten metal – immediately after preparing the moulds. Green sand
moulds are cheaper and take less time to prepare. These are used for small and
medium size casting.
Parting sand, which is clay tree, fence grained silica sand, is used to keep the
green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to prevent the cope and drug
from cleaning. Core sand is used for making cores. This is silica missed with
core oil and other oddities.

Pattern; -
A pattern is the replica of the desired coasting, which when packed in a suitable
materials produces a cavity called mould. This cavity when filled with molten
metals, produces their desired coasting of the solidification.
Types of pattern; -
Wood are metal patterns are used in foundry practice, single piece, split loose
piece and cored patterns are some of the common types.
Tools and equipment; -
The tools are equipment needed for molding are; -
Molding board: -
It is wooden board with smooth surfaces. It supports the flasks and the pattern,
while the mould is being made.
Molding Flask: -
It is a base, made of wood or metal, open at both ends. The sand is rammed in
after placing the pattern to produce a mould it is made of 2 parts; cope is the top
half of the flask, having guides for the aligning paints to enter. Drag is the
bottom half of the flask having aligning pins.
Shovel: -
It is used for mixing and tempering molding sand and for transferring the sand
in to the flask. It is made of steel blade with a wooden handle.
Rammer: -
It is used for pocking or ramming the sand, around the pattern one of its ends
called the peen end, is wedge shaped and is used for packing sand in spaces,
pockets and corners in the early stages of ramming. The other end called the But
– end has a surface and is used for computing the sand towards the end of
molding.
Strike of edge / strike of bar: -
It is a piece of metal or wood with straight edge. It is used remove the excess
sand from the mould after ramming to provide a level surface.
Spruce pin: -
It is tapered wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope sand through which the
molten metal is poured into the mould.
Riser pin: -
It is tapered wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope sand over the mould
cavity for the molten metal to rise and feed the casting to compassable the
shrinkage that take place during solidification.
Trowel: -
It is used to smoothen the surface of the mould. It may also be used for
reproducing the damaged portion of the mould. A trowel is made in many
different styles and sizes each one recallable for a particular hole.
Procedure: -
1. Place the pattern on the molding board, with its flat side on the board.
2. Place the drag over the board, after giving clay wash inside.
3. Sprinkle the pattern and molding board, with parting sand.
4. Allow loose sand, preferably through a riddle over the pattern, unit it is
covered to a depth of 2 to 3 cm.
5. Pack the molding sand around the pattern and into the corners of the flask,
with fingers.
6. Place some more sand in the flask and pack the pattern with a rammer, using
first the peen end and then butt end.
7. Strike-off the excess sand from the top surface of the drag with the strike-off
bar.
8. Turn the drag upside down.
9. Blow-off the loose sand particles with the bellows and smoothen the upper
surface.
10. Place the cope on to the drag in position. Locate riser pin on the highest
point of the pattern.
11. Place the sprue pin at about 5 to 6 cm from the pattern on the other side of
the riser pin.
12. Sprinkle the upper surface with parting sand.
13. Repeat steps 3 to 7, approximately.
14. Make holes with the vent rod to about 1 cm from the pattern.
15. Remove the sprue and riser pins by carefully drawing them out. Funnel
shaped hole is made at the top of the sprue hole, called the pouring cup.
16. Lift the cope and place it aside on its edge.
17. Insert the draw pin into the pattern. Wet the edges around the pattern.
Loosen the pattern by rapping. Then draw the pattern straight up.
18. Adjust and repair the mold by adding bits of sand, if necessary.
19. Cut gate in the drag from the sprue to the mold. Blow off any loose sand
particles in the mold.
20. Close the mold by replacing the cope and placing weights on it.

Precautions:-
1. Do not get the sand too wet. Water is an enemy of molten metals.
2. Provide adequate ventilation to remove smoke and fumes.
3. Never stand near or look over the mold during the pouring because of the
molten metal might be too hot.
4. Do not shake out a casting too hastily, which may result in second and third
degree burns.

Result: - A sand mold cavity is prepared by using one–Stepped Shaft.

 SMITHING/FORGING
AIM
To forge a chisel.

REQUIREMENT
Round bar of mild steel, sledge hammer, chisels, flatter, anvil, tongs, scale,
Open hearth furnace, gloves, goggles, apron etc.

THEORY
Introduction
Forging is a process in which material is shaped by the application of localized
forces exerted manually or with power hammers, presses or special forging
machines. The process may be carried out on materials in either hot or cold
state. When forging is done cold, processes are given special names. Therefore,
the term forging usually implies hot forging carried out at temperatures which
are above the recrystallization temperature of the material.
Smithy shop has a credit of being used since prehistoric days for making
agricultural, household components like, plough, ace, hammers, chisels etc. The
forged parts have good strength and toughness; they can be used reliably for
highly stressed and critical applications.
Smithy can also be termed as hand forging. But now a days forging is carried
out by power tools, which are driven by hydraulic power or mechanical systems
and motors.
Forgeability
The ease with which forging is done is called forgeability. The forgeability of a
material can also be defined as the capacity of a material to undergo
deformation under compression without rupture.
Hand forging implements
Anvil
It is a heavy mass on which the work piece is placed for forging. The top
surface is made of hard carbon steel. It has a square and round hole on the top.
These are used either for securing the tang of forming tools or for forming
operations, such as bending, punching etc. Anvils in forging shop may vary up
to about 100 to 150 kg.
 Fig: Anvil

Swage block
It has circular and square holes of several sizes. Several half sizes are there on
its four sides. It can be used for carrying out several operations such as bending,
sizing, heading etc.
Hearth
A common furnace used for smithy shop is open hearth furnace. It is equipped
with a blower to enhance or reduce the fire intensity. The workpiece is kept
submerged under the burning coal. The heated portion is not in direct contact
with oxygen of the atmosphere otherwise oxides may form in the grain
boundaries and as a result brittle object ends up.
Forging hand tools
For carrying out smithy operations certain common hand forging tools are
employed. These are also called blacksmith’s tools.
Hammers
The weight of hand hammers vary within 500 gm to 2 kg. ball peen hammer is
most commonly used. The punch is used to make a hole, fuller is used to
elongate the material, flatter is used to smoothen the uneven surface created by
fuller.
Tongs
These are useful to hold the workpiece or a tool.
Forging operations
Drawing or Fullering
This operation is used to elongate the workpiece, while the thickness is reduced.
The fullering operation is followed by flattering with a flat tool to make the
workpiece surface smooth and plane.

Fig.: Fullering operation

Upsetting
This is applied to increase the cross sectional area of a stock in the expense of
length.
Forge welding
It is a common process in smithy. The iron component ends to be welded are
heated to white hot condition (around 1250℃) and are hammered together to
drive out the oxide layer and to bring the nascent hot surfaces together in
intimate contact. The welding takes place due to interface diffusion and
localized melting during striking.

JOB DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Take a round bar of mild steel.
2. Ignite the furnace.
3. Wait till the furnace becomes red hot.
4. Put the round bar in the furnace.
5. Wait till the round bar becomes red hot.
6. Take the work piece out with the help of round hollow tong.
7. Support it on the anvil and strike it with the help of hammer.
8. Change the shape from circular to square with hammering. Use the flatter
to give finish to its side.
9. Use the flatter to give finish to its side.
10.Put the work piece again in the furnace.
11.Wait till it becomes red hot.
12.Take the work piece out with the help of square hollow tong.
13.Hold its one end and set the other end on the anvil.
14.Strike the end with hammer and make it taper.
15.At last, put the work piece in water tank for cooling.
16.Use grinder to sharp the taper edge.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Hold the hot work downwards close to the ground, while transferring from
the hearth to anvil, to minimize danger of burns; resulting from accidental
collisions with others.
2. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work. These should hold the work
securely to prevent its bouncing out of control from repeated hammer blows.
3. Care should be exercised in the use of the hammer. The minimum force only
should be used and the flat face of hammer should strike squarely on the work;
as the edge of the hammer will produce heavy bruising on hot metal.
4. Wear face shield when hammering hot metal.
5. Wear gloves when handling hot metal.
6. Wear steel-toed shoes.
7. Ensure that hammers are fitted with tight and wedged handles.

Upsetting -Forging or Upsetting is defined as 'free forming', by which a

billet or a portion of a workpiece is reduced in height between usually plane,
parallel plates [ASM Handbook 1988]. Upsetting is a basic deformation process
which can be varied in many ways. Upsetting of metals is a deformation process
in which a (usually round) billet is compressed between two dies in a press or a
hammer. This operation reduces the height of a part while increasing its
diameter. The process is mostly used as an intermediate step in multiple step
forging operations. The billet may be cold, warm or hot forged. A large segment
of industry primarily depends on the upsetting process for producing parts
ranging in complexity from simple bolts, screws, nuts, rivets or flanged shafts to
wrench sockets that require simultaneous upsetting and piercing. Hot upsetting
is also occasionally used as a finishing operation following hammer or press
forging, such as in making crankshafts. A sketch of the

Drawing – Drawing operation is performed to elongate the work piece and to

decrease the cross sectional area. Drawing operation takes place when the forces
act towards the perpendicular direction of the longitudinal axis. Swaging –
Swaging is carried out by cold forging process.

Fullering:
Fullering is forging operation done by keeping the bottom fuller in an angle
hole with the heated metal placed on it, the top filler is then placed above the
metal, and force is applied through the top filler using a sledgehammer.

Bending:

“Bending” is the act of turning or bending a piece of metal in a round or angular

shape. The graph below illustrates this. This process is used to create round
rings and other shapes. Bending operation is the most common and easiest
forging. It is done to give a turn shape to a metal rod or plate.

Punching:
This forging operation is done to produce holes on the workpiece. The
workpiece is placed on a hollow cylindrical die, placing the punch to the area
where a hole is required. In this procedure, a punch is used to create a hole in
heated metal. The work is first placed on the punch hole of the anvil, nut
 SHEET METAL SHOP
AIM
To prepare a sheet metal tray as per given size.

REQUIREMENT
G.I. Sheet of 26 S.W.G., surface plate, scriber, mallet, soft face hammer, try
square, stakes.

THEORY
INTRODUCTION:
Many engineering and house hold articles such as boxes, cans, funnels, ducts
etc., are made from a flat sheet of metals. These process being known as tin
smithy. For this, the development of the article is first drawn on the sheet metal
then cut and folded to form the required shape of the article. The edge of the
articles are then secured through welding, brazing, soldering, riveting etc.,
Sheet metal materials:-
A variety of metals used in a sheet metal shop such as black iron, aluminum and
stainless steel. A sheet of soft steel which is coated with molten zinc is known
as galvanized iron. The zinc coat forms a coating that resists rust, improves the
appearance of the metal and permits it to be solderised with greater care.
Hand tools:-
The common hand tools used in sheet metals work are steel rule, usually of 60
cm length, Vise gauge, dot punch, scriber, trammels, ball peen hammer, and
straight peen hammer, cross peen hammer, mallets, snips and soldering iron.
Trammels:-
Sheet metals layouts require marking of arcs and circles. This may be done by
using the trammels. The length of the beam decides the maximum size of the
arc that can be scribed.
Wire gauge:-
The thickness of the sheet metal is referred in numbers known as standard wire
gauge (SWG). The gaps in the circumstance of the gauge are used to check the
gauge number.
Bench shears:-
Sheet metal may be cut by shearing action. In this the force is applied through a
compound lever, making it possible to cut sheet metal up to 4mm thick. The
chopping hole can shear a mild steel rod up to 10mm diameter.
Snips:-
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to
250mm being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent
snips are for trimming along inside curves.
Hammers:-
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight
peen and similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle
which can be used conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Stakes:-
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form
seam, bend, rivet sheet metal objects.

Fig: 1 Sheet metal joints

 Fig: 2 Stakes

Snips:-
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to
250mm being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent
snips are for trimming along inside curves.
Hammers:-
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight
peen and similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle
which can be used conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Stakes:-
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form
seam, bend, rivet sheet metal objects.
SHEET METAL JOINTS:
Various types of joints are used in sheet metal work to suit the varying
requirement. These are self-secured joints, formed by joining together two
pieces of sheets metal and using the metal itself to form the joints. These joints
are to be used on sheets of less than 1.6mm thickness.
Riveting:-
Rivets are used to fasten two of more sheets of metal together. It is the common
practice to use the rivets of the same material as that of the sheets having
fastened.
Sheet metal screws:-
These are used in sheet metal work to join and install duct work for ventilation
air conditioning etc. These screws are also known as self-tapping screws since
they cut their own threads.
Soldering:-
Soldering is one method of joining two pieces of metal with an alloy that melts
at a lower temperature than the metals to be joined for a good job. The metals to
be joined must be free from dirt, grease and oxide. Solder is made of tin and
lead in equal proportions. It comes either in the form of wire and bar.
Soldering iron:-
Soldering requires a source of heating. A common method of transmitting heat
of the metal surfaces is by using a soldering iron.

JOB DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Mark and cut a piece of size 130 mm X 130 mm from the G.I. sheet.
2. Place it on the flat surface and straighten with the help of the mallet and
soft face hammer (if required).
3. The layout of the required tray is given in figure. Mark it on the
straightened piece and check all the dimensions properly.
4. Cut away the unwanted material from the metal piece to obtain the final
figure as shown in figure.
5. Again straighten the piece and check its dimensions. Make necessary
corrections, if needed.
6. Using suitable stake and soft face hammer/mallet, bend the surfaces P, Q,
R, S along the lines 1-2, 3-4, 1-3 and 2-4, to make them perpendicular to
the horizontal base of teh tray.
7. In the same way, bend the four triangular surfaces along the vertical
edges of surfaces R and S as shown in figure.
8. Check the squareness of all the four bent surfaces, with reference to the
rectangular base of the tray, by means of a try square.
9. Finally bend the smaller rectangular surfaces K, L, M and N at 180 0
outwards as shown in figure.
10. This in addition to providing reinforcement and rigidity to the tray, will
totally avoid the sharp edges and, thus, make handling safe.

PRECAUTIONS
1. For marking purpose use scriber only. Do not use pencil or pen.
2. Sufficient care is to be taken while cutting and folding of G.I. sheet.
3. Remove the waste pieces immediately from the work place.
 INJECTION MOULDING.

AIM
To study the plastic processing with injection moulding method.

REQUIREMENT
Injection moulding machine with compressor attachment, die set, plastic
granules.

THEORY
Injection moulding is the process used for forming thermoplastic materials. The
basic process involves six major steps in the moulding cycle.

1. The hopper is loaded granules of plastic materials.

2. Heat is applied to the plastic until it becomes soft to flow.
3. The softened plastic is forced through the nozzle into the mould cavity.
4. When cool the halves of mould are separated.
5. The part is ejected from the mould.
6. Gates connecting the product to the runner system are removed.

For injection moulding two most important units are required along with raw
material. One is injection moulding machine and the other is injection moulding
tool, commonly named as mould. Injection moulding machines are made in
many sizes. These are rated according to size by the amount of material, which
can be injected in one cycle. There are two basic units to an injection moulding
machine - one for injecting the heated plastic and other for opening and closing
the mould. The first unit includes a feeding hopper, heated injection cylinder
and an injection plunger or screw system. The second unit comprises a
hydraulic operated moving pattern and a stationary plate on which the halves of
mould are mounted. Injection moulding machine are available in horizontal or
vertical models.

Injection moulds
Moulds are used in injection moulding consist of two halves, one is stationary
and another is movable. The stationary half is directly connected to the
stationary pattern directly and is in direct contact with the nozzle of the mould is
secured to the movable half of the mould and usually contains the ejector
mechanism. There are many possible mould designs, includes multiple piece
mould for complicated parts.
PROCEDURE
1. Turn on switches of heater.
2. Pour the raw material in hopper of machine pour and fill it.
3. Adjust the temperature of heater around 320 to 350 degrees.
4. Clamp injection moulding tool at correct position so that the axis of sprue
hole and barrel hole is in one line.
5. Open mould halves and start pump.
6. Adjust the pressure and by lever manually apply pressure to inject molten
plastic.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Don’t touch the barrel when it is heated.
2. Clamp the mould perfectly before applying the blow.

RESULT
Required product is made using injection moulding process.