Republic of the Philippines

Mindanao State University

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Marawi City

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL FOR

ABE 133- Farm Mechanization and Management

Prepared by
Engr. Rakim B. Casnor, MSAE
 CONTENT

 Level of mechanization
 Land preparation
 Planting
 Crop Care
 Irrigation
 Harvesting
 Shelling and Threshing
 Mechanical Drying
 Milling Equipment
 Testing And Evaluation Of Agricultural Machinery
 Safety In Agricultural Machinery
 Selection Of Agricultural Machines
 Resources

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LEVEL OF MECHANIZATION

Mechanization in any area is characterized into three levels: low, fair, and high.
Low mechanization level means that manual power used exceeded 33%. Fair means that
animal power utilization ranges from 34% to 100%. High means that mechanical power
utilization ranges from 67% to 100% (Rodulfo, et. al, 1998).

Table 1 shows the level of mechanization in rice and corn farming operations,
expressed in three main sources of power, namely: manual, man-animal and mechanical.
The data shows that human power dominates farm operations at an average of 56.53%.
Mechanical operations are applied mainly in milling, threshing or shelling, land
preparation, and planting. Animals continue to dominate land preparation. Sun drying is
still preferred by farmers. In terms of available power expressed as horsepower per hectare
(hp/ha), the level of mechanization stands at 1.68 hp/ha (Table 2). This is relatively low
compared with other neighboring countries. The reason for this is the abundance of manual
labor, which dominates the use of human power in rice and corn cultivation activities. The
high hp/ha of power tillers and threshers indicate that the use of mechanical power in land
preparation and threshing is increasing. Irrigation, harvesting, and drying have low hp/ha
level.

Compared with other Asian countries, the Philippines ranks 9th in terms of level of
mechanization at 0.52 hp/ha in 1990 (Table 3). This again is very low compared with Japan
at 7.00 hp/ha, Republic of Korea at 4.11 hp/ha, and People’s Republic of China at 3.88
hp/ha (RNAM, 1994)
In terms of rice production, RNAM report indicates that the Philippines ranks eighth and
sixth of 11 countries in terms of mechanization level and production per hectare. Korea
toped the list followed by China both based on total power source. China and Korea ranked
first and second, respectively in terms of production per hectare (Table 4).

AMDP (1998) did a correlation analyses to determine the possible relationship

between the two variables. The computed linear coefficient of 0.7645 shows a degree of
relationship between the level of mechanization (independent variable) and the production
per hectare (dependent variable). However, it does not explain how the level of
mechanization affects the production per hectare since there are other factors that could
affect production per unit hectare such as farm inputs application and farmer’s capability
to increase inputs.

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Table 1. Percentage of rice and corn farms vs. source of power.

Operation Power Source

Manual Man-Animal Mechanical

Land preparation 3.15 64.71 23.17

Planting 98.67 1.15 0.16

Weeding 85.20 14.80 0

Fertilizer application 98.69 1.65 0

Spraying 100 0 0

Harvesting 98.79 0 0

Threshing/shelling 31.01 0 68.99

Drying (farm level) 100 0 0

Milling 0 0 100

Average 56.53 19.25 21.70

Source: Agricultural Mechanization Development Program (AMDP), 1997

Table 2. Level of Mechanization in Rice and Corn.

Source of Power Hp/ ha

1. Human labor 0.24

2. Draft animal 0.08

3. Four-wheel tractor 0.24

4. Engines

a. Power tiller 0.56

b. Thresher 0.34

c. Irrigation pump 0.07

d. Harvesting, drying and shelling equipment) 0.15

Total 1.68

Source: Agricultural Mechanization Development Program (AMDP), 1997

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Table 3. Level of mechanization among selected Asian countries, hp/ha.

Country 1968 1990

Japan 3.00 7.00

Republic of Korea 0.435 4.11

People’s Republic of china Not available 3.88

Pakistan 0.410 1.02

India 0.302 1.00

Thailand 0.348 0.79

Iran 0.239 0.70

Sri Lanka 0.378 0.58

Philippines 0.198 0.52

Indonesia 0.173 0.41

Bangladesh Not applicable 0.40

Nepal 0.733 0.30

Source: RNAM, 1994

Table 4. Comparison of palay production and level of mechanization among Asian

countries.

Palay Production (tons/ha) Average hp/ha

Country

People’s Republic of China 5.36 3.88

Republic of Korea 4.70 4.11

Indonesia 4.04 0.41

Sri Lanka 3.42 0.58

Islamic Republic of Iran 2.81 0.70

Philippines 2.64 0.52

Pakistan 2.50 1.02

Nepal 2.26 0.30

Thailand 2.14 0.79

India 1.68 1.00

Bangladesh 1.49 0.40

Source: RNAM, 1990

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Chapter I - TILLAGE EQUIPMENT

Soil tillage - influenced the biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of the soil in
such a way as to create the optimum conditions for the germination and development of
the plants.

Groups of Tillage Operation

1. Stubble or Post Harvest Cultivation – consist of shallow operations carried out
shortly after the harvest to clear the field of weed and crop residue and to
restore the soil structure
2. Main Tillage – normally the deepest operation that is performed during the
period between two crops to control weeds, restore the soil structure in the
arable layer where most of the roots develop and to prepare the land for
seedbed preparation
3. Seedbed Preparation – shallow operation intended to prepare the seedbed or
make the soil suitable for planting
4. Crop Management Tillage Operation - very shallow operation aimed to control
weeds, break up surface crust to improve water infiltration and crop emergence
and for forming ridges that encourage early growth and facilitate the harvesting
of root crops

Principal Objectives of Soil Tillage

1. Elimination and permanent control of the original vegetation (often considered as
weeds);
2. Creations of conditions favoring the germination, and emergence and growth of the
cultivated plants; and
3. Conservation and improvements of the soil as the growth medium cultivated crops.

Types of basic operations involved during tillage operation:

1. Reduction of volume (compaction) of the soil;
2. Cutting of soil;
3. Shear plane formation (crumbling, pulverization) in the soil;
4. Transport or movement of soil from one place to another place; and
5. Deformation of the soil mass.

Factors Affecting the Energy Requirement in Tillage Operations

1. Soil type
2. Condition of the soil (moisture content, bulk density, structure)
3. Shape, working depth and speed of tool
4. Climatic conditions
5. The extent to which the power source and implement or tool match
6. Correct adjustment or use of the implements

Criteria in Choosing the Correct implement for Tillage Operation

1. Trouble-free performance under the given conditions (implement effect)
taking the entire sequence of implement into considerations;
2. Potential side-effects which maybe expected such as weed control, soil
compaction, erosion, salinization, mineralization, decomposition of humus,
loss of conservation of water;
3. Sufficient capacity to cover the entire are in the time available, allowing for
the size, shape and accessibility of the fields;
4. Compatibility with the available tractor(s), the implements, available p.t.o,
power, carrying and lifting capacities, standards and mounting systems:
5. Maintenance requirements, supplies of spare parts, standardization;
6. Labor requirements;
7. Need to instruct the operators in using and servicing the equipment; and
8. Available results of international recognized testing methods and practical
test.

Kinds of Tillage Operation

1. Broadcast Tillage – tillage of an entire area as contrasted to a partial tillage as
in bands or strips.

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 2. Deep Tillage – primary tillage operation which manipulates soil to a greater
depth than 300mm.
3. Earth Moving – tillage action and transport operations utilized to loosen, load,
carry, and unload soil.
4. Land Forming – tillage operation which move soil to create desired soil
configurations.
5. Land Grading – tillage operation which move soil to establish a desired soil
elevation and slope.
6. Land Planing – tillage operation that cuts and moves small layers of soil to
provide smooth, refined surface condition.
7. Oriented Tillage – tillage operation which are oriented in specific paths or
directions with respect to the sun, prevailing winds, previous tillage actions, or
field base lines.
8. Rotary Tillage – tillage operation employing power-driven rotary action to
cut, break up, and mix soil.
9. Soil Cultivation – shallow tillage operation performed to promote growth of
crop plants by creating a soil condition conducive to aeration, infiltration, and
moisture conservation or to pest control.
10. Tillage – mechanical manipulation of soil for any desired purpose.
11. Primary Tillage – tillage, which constitutes the initial major soil-working
operation, normally designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials,
and rearrange aggregates.
12. Secondary Tillage – tillage, following primary tillage, which are designed to
control weed growth and to create specific soil surface configurations before
seeding.
13. Tillage Depth – tool depth, vertical distance from the initial soil surface to a
specified point of penetration of the tool.

Tillage Systems
1. Conservation Tillage – system that maintains a minimum of 30% residue
cover on the soil surface after planting or maintains at least 1,100 kg/ha of
flat small grain residue equivalent on the soil surface during the critical
erosion period.
2. Conventional Tillage – System traditionally performed in preparing a seedbed
for a given crop and grown in a given geographical area.
3. Minimum Tillage – system wherein least soil manipulation is performed.
4. Mulch Tillage – system in which tillage of the total soil surface is performed
in such a way that plant residue is specifically left on or near the soil surface.
5. Optimum Tillage – idealized system which permits a maximized net return for
a given crop under given conditions.
6. Precision Tillage – subsoiling under the plant row prior to planting usually
intended for subsurface drainage.
7. Reduced Tillage – system in which the primary tillage operation is performed
in conjunction with special planting procedures in order to reduce or eliminate
secondary tillage operations.
8. Reservoir Tillage – system in which the large number of depressions or small
reservoirs are form to hold rain or sprinkler applied water.
9. Ridge Tillage – system in which the ridges are formed during cultivation or
after harvest and maintained from year to year in the same location.
10. Strip Tillage – system in which only isolated bands of soil is tilled.

Specific Tillage Operation

1. Anchoring – tillage to partially bury and thereby prevent movement of
materials such as plant residues or artificial mulches.
2. Bedding – (ridging, listing), tillage which forms a ridge and furrow soil
configuration.
3. Bulldozing – pushing or rolling of soil by a steeply inclined blade.
4. Chisel Plowing – tillage in which a narrow curved shank is used.
5. Combined tillage operations- operations simultaneously utilizing two or more
different types of tillage tools or implements ( subsoil-lister, lister-planter
combinations) to simplify, control or reduce the number of trips over a field.
6. Harrowing – operation which pulverizes, smooths, and firm the soil.

7
 7. Incorporating or mixing – operation which mix or disperse foreign materials,
such as pesticides, fertilizers or plant residues into the soil.
8. Middle Breaking or hilling-up – operation wherein a lister is used in a manner
that forms a furrow midway between two previous rows of plants.
9. Off barring – operation that cuts and throws the soil away from the base of
plants.
10. Moldboard Plowing – operation which performed cut the soil with partial or
complete soil inversion.
11. Residue Processing – operation that cut, crush, anchor or otherwise handle
residues in conjunction with soil manipulation.
12. Subsoiling – deep tillage, below 350 mm for the purpose of loosening soil for
root growth and/or water movement.
13. Vertical Mulching – operation I which a vertical band of mulching material is
injected into the slit immediately behind a tillage tool shank.

Tillage Equipment
1. General-Purpose Tillage Implement – implement performing functions
simultaneously that of initial cutting, breaking and pulverizing the soil.
2. Plow-Harrow – Implement which works under the combined principles of the
regular disc plow and harrow.
3. Rotary Tiller – implement used for broadcast or strip tillage and is also used
as a chemical incorporator and as row crop cultivator.
4. Spiral Plow or rotary plow – implement which consists of two horizontal
power driven spiral flanged shafts which rotate vertically.
5. Primary Tillage Implement – implement used for cutting, displacing and/or
shattering the soil to reduce soil strength and to bury or mix plant materials,
pesticides, and fertilizers in the tillage layer.
6. Chisel Plow – implement which shatters the soil without complete burial or
mixing of surface materials.
7. Disc Plow – implement with individually mounted concave disc blades which
cut, partially or completely invert a layer of soil to bury surface material, and
pulverize the soil.
8. Moldboard Plow – implement which cuts, partially or completely inverts a
layer of soil to bury surface materials, and pulverizes the soil.
9. Right-Hand Plow – turns the furrow slice to the right of the plow.
10. Left-Hand Plow – turns the furrow slice to the left of the plow.
11. Two-Way Plow – eliminate back and dead furrows and is used for surface
irrigation.
12. Subsoiler – implement for intermittent tillage at depths sufficient to shatter
compacted subsurface layers.
13. Secondary Tillage Implement – implement used for tilling the soil to a
shallower depth than primary tillage implements, provide additional
pulverization, mix pesticides and fertilizers into the soil, level and firm the
soil, close air pockets, and eradicate weeds.
14. Comb-Tooth Harrow – implement used for breaking clods after initial
plowing, for subsequent operations prior to transplanting and for puddling and
leveling.
15. Disc Harrow – implement used to pulverize the soil and put it in a better tilt
for the reception of the seed.
16. Single-Action Disc harrow- consists of two gangs of discs, placed end-to-end
at an angle, which throw the soil in opposite directions.
17. Double-Action Disc Harrow or Tandem Disc Harrow – consists of two or
more gangs, in which a set of two gangs follows behind the front gangs and is
arranged in such a way that the disc on the front gangs throw the soil in one
direction (usually outward) and the disc on the rear gangs throw the soil in the
opposite directions.
18. Offset Disc Harrow – consists of two gangs wherein one is located behind the
other at an angle and the harrow is operated in an offset position in the relation
to the tractor.
19. Field Cultivator – implement for the seedbed preparation, weed eradication, or
follow cultivation subsequent to some form of primary tillage.
20. Packer – implement for crushing soil clods and compacting the soil.

8
21. Roller-Harrow – implement used for seedbed preparation which crushes soil
clods and smooths and firms the soil surface.
22. Rotary Hoe – implement for dislodging small weeds and grasses and for
breaking soil crust and is used for fast, shallow cultivation before or soon after
crop plants emerge.
23. Row Crop Cultivator – implement wherein the frame and cultivating tools are
designed to adequately pass through the standing crop rows without crop
damage.
24. Spike-Tooth Harrow – implement consisting of long spikes attached rigidly to
cross bars and staggered to attain maximum stirring and raking of soil.
25. Spring-Tooth Harrow – implement consisting of long, flat and curved teeth
made to spring steel.
26. Cultivating Tillage Implement – implement consisting shallow post-plant
tillage to aid the crop by loosening the soil and/or by mechanical eradication
of undesired vegetation.
27. Continuous-Tool Bar Cultivator – implement consisting of tool bars that
extend across the top of the rows, which allow lateral adjustments of the tools
for different row spacing.
28. Separated Gang Cultivator – implement consisting of the tool bars that drop
down between the rows to provide maximum vertical clearance for the plants.
29. Bed Shaper – soil-handling implement which forms uniform ridges of soil to
predetermined shapes.
30. Blade – soil-working tool, consisting of an edge and a surface, which is
primarily designed to cut through the soil.
31. Coulter – circular, flat tool used to cut plant material and soil.
32. Draft – force to propel an implement in the direction of travel which is equal
and opposite to drawbar pull.
33. Effective Operating Width – operating width excluding overlap.
34. Edge Clearance Angle – effective angle which is included between the line of
travel and a line drawn through the back or nonsoil-working surface of the
tool at its immediate edge.
35. Ground Clearance – minimum vertical distance between the soil surface and a
potentially obstructing machine element.
36. Hitch – portion of an implement designed to connect the implement to a
power source.
37. Implement Width – horizontal distance perpendicular to the direction of travel
between the outermost edges of the implement.
38. Injector – miniature plow attachment whose purpose is to turn over a small
furrow slice directly ahead of the main moldboard plow bottom, to aid in
covering trash.
39. Lateral Tool Spacing – horizontal distance between corresponding reference
points on adjacent tools when projected upon a vertical plane perpendicular to
the direction of travel.
40. Line of Travel – line and direction along which the tillage implement travels.
41. Lister-Planter – combined tillage implement which is composed of a lister and
a planting attachment to permit a single listing-seeding operation with the
planter normally being operated in the furrow.
42. Longitudinal Tool Spacing – horizontal distance between corresponding
reference points of two tools when projected upon a vertical plane parallel to
the direction of travel.
43. Mechanical Tillage Implement – single or groups of soil-working tools
together with power transmission structure, control, and protection systems
present as an integral part of the machine.
44. Tilt Angle – angle in vertical plane perpendicular to the rdirection of trave;l,
between a tool axis and the soil surface
45. Side Angle or Disc angle – angle in the soil surface plane between a tool axis
and the line which is perpendicular to the direction of travel
46. Lift angle or rake angle – angle in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of
travel between a tool axis and the soil surface

9
Soil and Surface Characteristics
1. Back Furrow – raised ridge left at the center of the strip of land, when plowing
is started center to side.
2. Dead Furrow – open trench ( about twice the width of one plow bottom) left in
between the adjacent strips land after finishing of plowing.
3. Furrow – trench left when the plow bottom cuts and turns the furrow slice.
4. Furrow Crown – peak of the turned furrow slice.
5. Furrow Depth – ditch depth, pat depth, trench depth, depth of depression
below a specified (initial or subsequent) soil surface.
6. Furrow Slice – soil mass cut, lifted, pulverized, inverted and thrown to one
side of the plow bottom.
7. Furrow Wall – undisturbed or unbroken side of the furrow.
8. Head Land – unplowed soil at the end of the furrow strip.
9. Land – unplowed soil.
10. Ridge Height – Bed height, hill height, windrow height, height of the soil
above a specified (initial or subsequent) soil surface
11. Root Bed – soil profile modified by tillage or amendments for use by plant
roots.
12. Root Zone – part of the soil profile exploited by the roots of the plants.
13. Seedbed – soil zone which affects germination and emergence of seeds.
14. Soil Density – weight of a unit volume of soil expressed on either a wet basis
(including soil and water) or on a dry basis (soil only, most common).

Classifications of Main Tillage Equipment

1. Primary Tillage - an operation that constitutes the initial major soil working
operation. It is normally designed to value soil strength, cover plant materials,
and rearrange aggregate.
2. Secondary Tillage - is intended to create refined soil conditions following
primary tillage.

Objectives of Main Tillage Operation

1. To develop a desirable soil structure for a seed bed or rootbed.
2. To control weeds or to remove unwanted crop plants.
3. To manage plant residues.
4. To minimize soil erosion by following such practices as contour tillage, listing,
and proper placement of trash.
5. To establish specific surface configurations, for planting, irrigating, drainage,
harvesting operations and others.
6. To incorporate and mix fertilizers, pesticides, or soil amendments.
7. To leave a surface as level as possible to facilitate the movement of machines.

Primary Tillage Equipment

1. Moldboard plow
2. Disk plow
3. Rotary plow
4. Chisel plow
5. Subsoiler

Secondary Tillage Equipment

1. Harrow (Spike Tooth, Spring
Tooth, Disk, Power)
2. Roller
3. Pulverizer
4. Mulcher
5. Lister
6. Middlebreaker - This can be described as lister without planting attachments.
They are used in soils with poor internal drainage to make ridges or beds on
which to prepare a seedbed.

10
 7. Field Cultivators - Implement which are constructed more lightly than chisel
plows and have closer spaced standards designed to operate 7 - 12 cm (3 - 5
in.) deep.

Some Effects of Primary Tillage Implements

Implement/Effec Moldboard Disc Rotary Chisel Plow

t Plow Plow Tiller
Pulverizing Medium Medium Big Small
Loosening Big Medium Medium Big
Mixing Small Medium Big Small
Inverting Big Medium Small Small

Draft of Plow
1. the amount of pull required to move plow is dependent on the size of the plow
and the depth of plowing
2. in plowing at least 3/4 of the available power should be used
3. one moldboard plow bottom requires about 10-20 hp is required in order to pull
the implement.

unit draft - force required per unit cross-sectional area of the plow's action and is dependent
on the width and depth of the plow

Factors Affecting the Draft of a Plows

1. Soil condition
2. Topography
3. Adjustment of the plow
4. Hitch of the tractor
5. Depth and rate of plowing
6. Sharpness of shares, coulters, and jointers

18 % is used for pulling

48 % is used for cutting the furrow slice
34 % is used turn the furrow slice

Center of Resistance of Plow - the point where all the horizontal and vertical force meet
together
(a) moldboard - located at the intersection between the share and moldboard and to
the right of the
(b) disk plow - located at the left and below the center of the disk and is closer to
the furrow wall

Center of pull of the tractor - the point halfway between the driving wheels, 3-4 in. in front
of the rear axle and the height of the front support for the tractor drawbar.

Classification of Tractor Mounted Tillage Equipment

1. Trailing - the equipment is attached to the tractor hitch and are being adjusted
mechanically both for vertical and horizontal.
2. Semi-mounted - called as direct connected plow wherein the front of the plow is
connected to the tractor while the furrow wheel of the plow supports the rear
end.
3. Integral-mounted - mounted at the rear of the tractor where it is lifted or picked-
up by its hydraulic system

Disk Harrow - used in a wide variety of field operation from cutting of vegetables matter
that maybe on the surface, pulverizing to covering of seed when sown by broadcasting

Advantages
1. Ability to work in organic matter up to the size of maize stalks
2. Reduction of erosion when plant residue can be mulched (in one pass)
3. Simple to operate, maintain, and service
4. Highly reliable

11
 5. Rolls over obstacles.
6. Products hardly compaction soles.
7. Reduces evaporation by capillary action.

Disadvantages
1. Not very effective against root-propagating weeds.
2. May cause slaking, crushing, and possibly erosion in the event of over-intensive
tillage.
3. Usually needs more than one pass (compaction by tractor wheels).
4. High draught requirement
5. Hardly any possibility of combining it with other implement.

Types of Gang Arrangement for Disk Harrow

(1) Single action - Two gang placed end which throw the soil opposite in direction.
(2) Double action or "tandem" - Set two gangs follows behind the front gangs so as
the front gang thrown the soil outward while the rear gang throw
the soil inward.
(3) Offset - harrow is set in an offset position either on the right or left of the tractor.

Special Trailing Disk Harrow - built heavy enough to chop up brush on pasture lands and
excessively heavy crop residue (sugarcane) requires 110 to 130 drawbar horsepower for a
13 feet 24-disk 28" diameter and weight of 8,900 lb.

Mounted Disk Harrow

- designed to be used with tractors equipped with thee-point hitch and hydraulic lift
system
- known as direct connected, pick-up, and lift type harrow
- sizes ranges from 5 to 6 feet for double action, 3-3/4 to 6-3/4 feet for offset type
- single action mounted disk harrow are usually of heavy type

Factors Affecting the Depth Penetration of Disk Harrow

1. Angle of the disk gang.
2. Weight of the harrow.
3. Sharpness of disks.
4. Size of disks.
5. Concavity of disks.
6. Angle of hitch

Formulas in calculating drawbar power, capacity and width of cut

Drawbar Pull
F = A s
where: F - drawbar pull, kg
A - cross-sectional area of cut of implement, m2
s - soil draft, kg/m2

Drawbar Horsepower
DHP = F V / 76.2
where: DHP - drawbar horsepower, hp
F - drawbar pull, kg
V - implement velocity, mps
Theoretical Field Capacity
Ct = 0.1 W V
where: Ct = theoretical field capacity, ha/hr
W = implement width, m
V = implement speed, kph
Effective Field Capacity
Ce =  Ct
where: Ce = effective field capacity, ha/hr
Ct = theoretical field capacity, ha/hr
 = field efficiency

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Cutting Width formula for Disk Plow and Harrow
(1) Disk Plow
Cutting Width = 0.95 N S + 0.3 D

(2) Single Disk Harrow (18 degree cutting angle)

Cutting Width = 0.95 N S + 0.3 D

(3) Tandem Disk harrow (18 deg cutting angle)

Cutting Width = 0.95 N S + 1.2 D

(4) Double Offset Disk Harrow (18 deg cutting angle)

Cutting Width = 0.95NS + 0.85D

(5) Offset disk Harrow

Cutting Width = 0.95 N S + 0.6 D
where:
N - Number of spaces between disk blades
S - Blade spacing, m
D - Diameter of disk blades, m

LABORATORY EXERCISES I

1. What is the force required to pull a single moldboard plow on a clay loam soil having a
width and depth of cut of 30 cm and 15 cm, respectively. Soil draft is 8 psi.
Given: Width of cut - 30 cm
Depth of cut - 15 cm
Soil draft - 8 psi
Required: Force to pull the plow

2. If the plow above has an average speed of 5 km/hr, what is the drawbar horsepower of
the plow.
Given: Force to pull the plow - 253 kg
Velocity of the plow - 5 kph

3. A rotary tiller has 2 m operating width. If the tractor runs at a speed of 2 km/hr, what
is the theoretical field capacity of the machine?
Given: Operating width -2m
Operating speed - 2 kph
Required: Theoretical field capacity

4. The field capacity of the rotary tiller was measured at 0.23 ha/hr. If the operating
width and speed of the machines are 1.5 m. and 2 kph, respectively, what is the field
efficiency of the tiller?
Given: Actual field capacity - 0.23 ha/hr
Operating width - 1.5 m
Operating speed - 2 kph
Required: Field efficiency

5.What is the effective field capacity of the rotary tiller tilling theoretically at 0.4 ha/hr
with a field efficiency of 85%?
Given: Theoretical field capacity - 0.4 ha/hr
Field efficiency - 85%5
Required: Effective field capacity
6. What is the effective field capacity of 2 moldboard plows having 25 cm width, each
plowing at a speed of 7 km/hr? The field efficiency is 80%.
Given: Number of plows -2
Plowing speed - 7 kph
Field efficiency - 80%
Required: Effective field capacity

7. A single-bottom moldboard plows on a clay loam soil (8 psi draft) having an effective
width of cut of 0.3 m. and a depth of cut of 15 cm. What is the force exerted by a plow?

13
8. What is the drawbar horsepower of the plow in item above if the plowing speed is 5
kph?

9. A 3-bottom plow is plowing at a speed of 8 kph. The effective width per plow bottom
is 25 cm. If the plowing efficiency is 80%, what is the theoretical field capacity? The
effective field capacity of the plow in item above is

11. What is the required drawbar pull for a 5-meter tractor drawn spike tooth harrow with
a specific draft of 89 kg/m?

12. What is the drawbar-horsepower of the implement in item above if it is running at a

speed of 6 kph.

13. In a 200-hectare corn project, the field has to be tilled in 30 days. What size of heavy-
duty offset-disk harrow should be selected if the tractor to be used operates at 5 kph.
Assume a 75% field efficiency and an 8-hour working day.

14. Determine the number of hills for a 2-hectare farm planted with corn with a spacing
of 25 cm x 45 cm.

Chapter II - SEEDING AND PLANTING EQUIPMENT

Equipment used to place the seeds or plant

part into the soil and keep it from weeds
and insect pest and diseases until it is fully
grown and is ready for harvesting.
Functions of seeder/planter
1. To meter the seeds/plant parts
of different sizes and shapes.
2. To place the seed/plant parts
in the acceptable pattern
distribution in the field.
3. Place the seed/plant parts
accurately and uniformly at the desired depth in the soil; and
4. To cover the seed/plant parts optionally and compact the soil around it to
enhance germination and emergence.

Classification of Seeder
A. According to the Methods of Seeding
1. Drills - machines that prepare the soil, meter the seed, and position the seeds in
one operation.
2. Field Distributors - machines that consist of a seed box with metering devices
in the bottom of the hopper, and in no way to prepare the soil for the seed, used
as fertilizer as well as for the seed
3. Broadcasters - machine that meter the materials onto a revolving flanged wheel,
least expensive to purchase, has the highest work capacity but is the hardest to
calibrate because of uneven distribution from the flanged wheel, unequal seed
weight and shape, and difficulties with wind and uneven soil surface

According to the Source of Power

1. Manually Operated
2. Animal Drawn (Single Animal or Pair-Operated)
3. Power Tiller Operated
4. Tractor Type (mounted or pull type units)
5. Self-Propelled unit (operated by hydraulic motors etc.)

Different Kinds of Seeder/Planter

1. Jab Planter - manually power machine of about 85 cm long and weigh 3.2 kg when
filled with 1 kg of maize seed

14
 2. Plow-Attached Multi-crop Seeder - designed as simple attachment to the native
plow, has a capacity of 0.136 ha/hr (or more man-day per hectare
3. Power Tiller-Attached Multi-crop Seeder
4. Drum Seeder - designed for planting pre-germinated rice seed in rows so that
manually operated mechanical weeder can be used
5. Rice Transplanter - place rice seedling at a proper spacing in a well prepared paddy
soil
6. Air Seeders - machine with points of seed deposition which are behind multiple
shovel; or sweep tillage tools of a chisel plow or field cultivator

Type of Seeeder/Planter
1. Manually Operated or Hand Seeder – type of seeder which deposit the seed in holes
with spacing set by the operator
2. Tractor power driven seeder and planter – type of seeder with metering mechanisim
driven by the ground wheel or by power take-off from a tractor.
3. Seed Drill – type of tractor - type of power driven seeder which drills and deposit
the seeds at a specified rate and depth and in narrow-spaced rows
4. Row-Crop planter – type of tractor power-driven seeder which can deposit the seeds
at a specified rate in hill and row spaced to permit inter-row cultivation and also
functions as a seed drill of required
5. Hill Drop Planter – type of row crop plnater which is designed to deposit one or
more seeds in a hill at equal intervals
6. Check row planter – type of row crop planter whichenables operator to perform hill
planting at a definite spacing (in check or squares) to facilitates mechanical weed
control and other opreations

Factors Affecting the Performance of Seeders and Planters

1. Seed Related Factors
a. Quality of seed
b. Method of seed treatment
2. Soil Related Factors
a. Soil bulk density e. Specific volume
b. Soil porosity f. Soil cohesion
c. Soil water g. Soil air
d. Soil temperature h. Soil strength
3. Mechanical Factors
a. Seed damage during metering
b. Uniformity of depth of placement of seed
c. Uniformity of distribution of seed along rows
d. Transverse displacement of seed form the row
e. Prevention of loose soil getting under the seed
f. Degree of soil compaction level above the seed
g. Uniformity of soil cover over the seed
h. Changes of mixing fertilizer with seed during placement in the furrow.
Basic Functions of a Seeder/Planter
a. open the seed furrow to proper depth (furrow opener)
b. meter the seed (metering device)
c. deposit seeds in furrow in acceptable pattern (metering device and seed tube)
d. cover seed and compact soil around it to the proper degree for the type of crop
involved (furrow covering device).

Types of Furrow Opener

a. full or curved runner - commonly used
b. stub runner -corn planters in rough or trashy land
c. hoe - for stony or root infested soil
d. disc copener - for hard or trashy ground in wet sticky soil (single or double disc)

Types of Metering Devices

a. cell type - moving member has cells
b. fluted wheel or external forced feed (fluted cylinder rotating about a horizontal
axis)
c. double run or internal force feed
d. augers

15
 e. variable orifice
Types of Delivery Tube
a. spiral ribbon
b. smooth tubular
c. telescopic (small to larger tubes)

Types of Furrow Covering Devices

a. drag chains
b. disc coverers
c. blade coverers
d. shovels
e. press wheels

Number of Plants/Hectare
Np = (10,000) A / (Sp x Sr)
where: Np - number of plants per hectare
Sp - plant spacing, m
Sr - row spacing, m
A - area, hectares

Grams of seed to sow per hill from a given seeding rate

Ws = (Rs x Sp x Sr) / 10
Where: Ws - weight of seed needed/hill, kg
Rs - rate of seeding, kg/ha
Sp - plant spacing, m
Sr - row sapcing, m

Wheel Slip
Sw = (Nw – No) 100 /Nw
Where: Sw - wheel slip, %
Nw - sum of revolutions of all driving wheels for a given distance with
slip, rev
No - sum of revolutions of all driving whees for a given distance without
slip, rev
Implement width
W = n x Sr
Where: W - working width, m
n - number of rows
Sr - row spacing, m

Effective diameter of Ground Wheel

De = d / ( N)
Where: De - effective diameter, m
d -distance for a given N
N - number of revolutions, rev

Delivery Rate
Q = (10,000 L ) / ( De N W)
Where: Q - delivery rate, kg/ha
L - delivery for given N, kg
De - effective diameter of growund wheel, m
N - numbre of revolutions, rev
W - working width, m

LABORATORY EXERCISES II

1. Determine the number of hills for a 2-hectare farm planted with corn with a spacing of
25 cm x 45 cm.

2. A corn plantation requires a population of 37,000 plants per hectare. The average
emergence is 90 % and the row spacing is to be 1.2 meters. If the seed are to be drilled,
what should be the seed spacing?

16
3. A five-row seeder will be used to place 5 seeds per hill to a 100 hectare farm. The seeder
row spacing is 30 cm while the hill spacing is 25 cm. Compute the number of hills to be
planted for the entire area?

4. If the seeds weigh 0.1 g/seed and requires 5 seeds per hill, what is the total weight of the
seeds needed? % germinability of seeds is 98%.

5. A power tiller draws a two-row seeder at 30 cm spacing. The seeder has a 6-pocket
metering device and is driven by a 0.4 m ground wheel. If the required hill spacing is 0.3
m, what is the recommended sprocket ratio for the drive?

6. If the seeds per hole is required at 0.08 g/seed, how many kilos of seeds are needed to
finish 10 ha? Assume germination percentage at 90%.
7. How many hills will be planted for the 10-hectare farm?
be finished?

8. If the speed ratio to be used is 1.5, what is the distance per hill?

9. A corn plantation requires a population of 37,000 plants per hectare. The average
emergence is 90 % and the row spacing is to be 1.2 meters. If the seed are to be drilled,
what should be the seed spacing?

Chapter III - CROP MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT

Sprayer
a. to break the liquid droplets
of effective size and
distribute them uniformly
over the surface or space to
be protected
b. regulate the amount of
chemical solution to avoid
excessive application that
might prove harmful or
wasteful

Spray particle size - primary factor that effects performance of the sprayer
Particle size plays a significant role in relation to
1. Penetration and carrying ability of sprayer;
2. Efficiency of catch of spray or dust by plants surfaces;
3. Uniformity and competencies of coverage;
4. Effectiveness of individual particles after deposition; and
5. Drift which is a function of the rate of fall of particle in relation to horizontal
velocity, and related to particle size and local climatology.

Classification of Sprayer
1. Hand sprayer
a. compressed-air sprayer
b. Knapsack sprayer
2. Power Sprayer
a. Hydraulic or field sprayers
b. Hydro-pneumatic sprayer
c. Blower sprayer
Hand Operated Hydraulic Sprayer (HOHS)
Basic Components
1. Reservoir system (tank 3.8 to 22.5 liter size, filled cap, strainer)
2. Pump assembly
3. Delivery assembly.

Types HOHS

17
 1. Compressed-Air Sprayer - simple in design and operation, and are relatively
inexpensive to buy and maintain, particularly useful for spot and small-area
spraying
a. Parts: spray tube, plunger-type pump, dip tube, spray hose, extension spray
tube, cutoff valve and nozzle
b. tank usually has a capacity between 7.5 and 15 liters and can withstand pressure
up to 3.5 kg/cm2

2. Knapsack Sprayer – carried on the back by means of shoulder straps

a. simple design and operation, and are relatively inexpensive to buy and
maintain tank is usually shaped to fit comfortably on the shoulders
b. capacity up to 22.5 liters pump used are diaphragm pump and the plunger-
type pump with cap leather
c. capable to maintaining pressures up to about 4.2 to 5.4 kg/cm2
d. useful for boom spraying when series of four nozzles or more are operating
at the same time

Hydraulic Energy Sprayer Nozzles

1. hydraulic energy nozzles are obviously dependent on hydraulic energy
2. relationships of the hydraulic energy to the spray droplets
a. the higher the pressure, the smaller the droplets.
b. the higher the pressures the higher the amount of chemical forced through
them in unit time (flow rate).
c. the higher the pressure the wider the angle of the spray.

Nozzle Type
1. Cone-Type Nozzle
a. operates at between 2.76 and 4.14 bar (40-60 psi) which is usual range pressure
found in hydraulic energy type sprayers
b. best suited for spraying crops because they produce a spray in which droplets
approach the leaves from several angles as compared to the fan type nozzle
2. Fan-Type Nozzle
a. nozzle is composed of a single element, the nozzle tip
b. shape of the hole is responsible for the shape of the spray and the angle formed
3. Impact-Type Nozzles
a. spray formed has a fan-type
b. used extensively for the application of herbicides, both pre and post emergence

Purpose of Calibrating Knapsack Sprayer

a. to determine the application rate per hectare suing a certain sprayer.
b. to determine the number of sprayer loads per hectare and the amount of chemical to
be mixed per load.

Steps in Calibrating Sprayer

1. Prepare the sprayer
2. Determine the walking speed
3. Determine the width of spray or swath.
4. Calculate the area sprayed in 1 min.
Area sprayed in 1 min = distance covered in 1 min (m/min) x swath
5. Determine the nozzle discharge
6. Calculate the application rate
10,000 m2/ha x delivery (li/min)
Application rate (li/ha) = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
swath (m) x speed (m/min)
7. Calculate liquid herbicides or insecticides to mix in each sprayer load.
amount of chemical/ha in cc or ml
Amount of chemical per load = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
No. of load per hectare

Power Sprayer
1. uses plunger or piston pumps

18
 2. consist of 2 or 3 bronze cylinders and plungers, suction and delivery valves, an
air chamber, a pressure regulator and a crank mechanism
3. air chamber is used to reduce fluctuations in the delivery volume of the plunger
pump, air in the air chamber is compressed with the increase in discharge
volume, volume of the air chamber (1.2-1.61) is about 6 to 7 times of discharge
volume of the pump
4. regulator is used to adjust pressure
5. nozzle is the atomizing device whereby the liquid stream from an orifice is
broken up by its inherent instability and its impact upon the atmosphere or by
impact upon a plate or another jet
6. pneumatic atomizing (two-fluid) nozzles, in which compressed air is employed
for atomization, has been used on some special low-volume sprayers because
fine atomization can be obtained at low liquid pressure

Rotary atomizer
1. liquid type chemical is dropped on a handstand cone-type disk or flat disk that
rotates at a speed of 3,000 to 14,000 rpm and the chemical is atomized by the
centrifugal force
2. mean diameter of droplets is in the range of 50-300m.

Boom sprayer
1. has horizontal booms mostly 5 to 15 m long with nozzles pointed downward and
attached directly to the booms
2. nozzles are usually spaced at intervals of 38-51 cm
3. fan-spray nozzle is widely used on field sprayers because the shape of their spray
distribution pattern makes uniformity of coverage less sensitive to boom height
than that of a hollow-cone nozzle
4. hollow-cone nozzles may be preferred for fungicides because of the greater degree
of atomization

Total Quantity Discharge of Boom sprayer

QD = Qd1 n
= (60 B V Q) / 10,000
Spraying Speed of Tractor
V = 167 QD/(B Q)

where: Qd1 - discharging quantity of one nozzle. lpm

n - number of nozzles
B - width of boom sprayer, m
V - travelling speed of tractor during spraing, m/s
Q - spraying quantity per hectare, l/ha

Time to Change Mixture

T = (300 V) / Q
Where: T - time to change mixture, hr
V - volumeof mixture, liters
Q - flow rate through all of the nozzles, lph

Mist blower or Aair Blast Sprayer

1. has the mist nozzle at the end of the discharging pipe
2. liquid is sent from the tank to the mist nozzle by the pressurized air at the rate of
3.55-4 lpm
3. chemical is atomized by the air from a fan, the quantity is in the ranged of 20-25
m3/min, and the wind velocity is about 80-130m/s
4. diameter of the droplets is in the range of 30-100 m, and they travel a long
distance with the air stream

Duster - compressed air from the fan is guided to the bottom of the tank to agitate the
powder of granules
Fog machine - sprays liquid-type chemicals as an aerosol

19
Weeder
Problems associated with weeds
1. Reduces rice yield and quality;
2. Intensity problems with insects, diseases and other pests by serving as hosts;
3. Reduce harvesting and processing efficiency;
4. Reduce efficiency of irrigation system by restricting the flow of water in
reservoirs, canals, and ditches;
5. Cause assumption of energy for their control;
6. Maybe poisonous and injure animals and human; and
7. Reduce the volume and productivity

Methods of Weed Control

1. Manual weeding requires about 120 man-hour to finish one hectare
2. Mechanical weeders require 80-90 hours to finish the same area.

Different weed control measures

1. Manual weeding
2. Chemical weeding
3. Flame weeding
4. Mechanical weeding

Factors Influencing the choice of methods for controlling the weeds

1. type and age of the crop.
2. Type and sizes of weeds or grasses.
3. Timeliness
4. Availability of equipment
5. Other factors.

Mechanical weeding is the most important and economical method of controlling weeds
and grasses.
Objectives of weeding are:
1. To control the growth of weeds.
2. To improve the potential condition of the soil by
a. Reducing the evaporation from soil surface;
b. Improving infiltration of rainfall and surface water;
c. Reducing run-off of surface water and so reducing the severity of soil erosion;
d. Maintaining ridges or mound on which the crop is growing.

Weeder - a mechanically operated machine that removes weeds or grasses from the crops.
This machine is either operated manually or by a separate power driven source.

Classifications of Mechanical Weeder

1. Manual weeder
2. Animal or Tractor Drawn Weeder
3. Power Weeders

Different Kinds of Weeder

1. Spin Tiller
2. Single-Row Rotary Weeder
3. Single-Row Claw Rotary
4. Two-Row Rotary Weeder
5. Three-Row Weeder
6. Blade Hoe
7. V-Blade Hoe
8. Wheel-Hoe
9. Power Weeder
10. Cono Weeder

Weeding index - ratio between the number of weeds removed by weeder to the number
present in a unit area, and is expressed as a percentage

Iw = (W1 - W2) 100 / W1

20
 where: Iw = Weeding index
W1 = Weeds before weeding
W2 = Weeds after weeding

Performance index- measurement of the performance of a weeder and is directly

proportional to the area per unit time, the weeding index and the quality of work
(undamaged plant) and inversely proportional to the power required
Ip = (Cf Q Iw) / P
where: Ip - performance index
Cf - Field capacity, ha/hr
Q - (100-percent plant damage)
Iw - Weeding index
Pi - power input, hp

LABORATORY EXERCISES

1. One-thousand gallons per minute (1000 gpm) of water is to be pumped from a river to a
farm 150-ft above the river. What is the required horsepower to drive the pump considering
a pump efficiency of 70 % and the friction and other losses of 20 % of the static head.

2. What is the total head loss in meters of the pump system in item above.

3. If a diesel engine will be used to drive the pump in item above, what is the recommended
horsepower for the engine? Engine efficiency is 80%.

4. If a gasoline engine will be used to drive the 80.9 Hp item above, what is the power
requirement? (70% engine efficiency)
5. A farmer wishes to spray his cotton plantation at a rate of 300 gallons per hectare. Sixteen
nozzles, 18 inches apart will be used. The froward speed of the tractor will be 5 kph.
Compute the field capacity of the sprayer in hectare per hour.

6. What is the required pump capacity for the sprayer above?

7. A farmer wishes to spray his cotton plantation at a rate of 300 gallons per hectare. Sixteen
nozzles, 18 inches apart will be used. The froward speed of the tractor will be 5 kph.
Compute the field capacity of the sprayer in hectare per hour.

8. What is the required pump capacity for the sprayer above?

9. What is the application rate of a granular broadcast spreader required to apply 1 ton of
manure at a distance of 1000 meters. The machine swath is 2 meters.

10. A sprayer containing 100 liters of mixture operates at a nozzle discharge of 0.2 liters
per minute per nozzle. If the sprayer boom consist of 6 nozzles, what time does the sprayer
mixture be changed?

11. Compute the volumetric efficiency of a sprayer pump having a diameter of 20

cm and a stroke of 20 cm. The actual volume of water displaced per stroke is 0.460
liter.

12. If the seeds weigh 0.1 g/seed and requires 5 seeds per hill, what is the total
weight of the seeds needed? % germinability of seeds is 98%.

Chapter IV - HARVESTING EQUIPMENT

21
Grain Harvesting - consist of
unit operations of cutting
stalks, binding to make bundles
for easy handling or carrying
and threshing to separate
grains from stalks

Classifications
1. Hand tools
a. Sickle
b. Scythe
2. Mechanical
Equipment
a. Reaper
b. Reaper binder
c. Stripper harvester
d. Combine harvester-thresher

Reaper - machine that cuts the grain and places it in a window where it is gathered and
bound into sheaves and carried to thresher

Star Wheel Velocity

Vsw = Vf / cos A
Where: Vsw - star wheel velocity
Vf - forward velocity, m/s
A - angle of inclination of star wheel

Flat belt conveyor velocity

Vfb = 1.4 Vf
Where: Vfb - velocity of flat belt conveyor, m/s
Vf - forward velocity, m/s

Knife Velocity
Vk = 1.3 to 1.4 Vf
Where: Vk - knife velocity, m/s
Vf - forward velocity

Reaper Binder - machine to cut and bind the crops in form of bundles of about 10 cm
Basic Parts of Reaper Binder
1. Divider and pick-up device - located at the front of the machine to divide the
crops and at the same time to slightly raise lodged crops.
2. Cutting device - reciprocating device that cuts the standing straw
3. Conveying device - used to collect and convey cut straws for binding or to place
it on a window for the case of reaper alone.
4. Binding device - use to put together the cut straw in a bundle for ease of hauling
Ways to Reduce Harvesting Losses:
1. Avoid sharp turning when cutting
2. Reduce cutting speed when harvesting shattering varieties
3. Clear rice panicle off the conveying device (upper lugs and star wheel)
4. Maintain uniform cutting height during harvesting operation
5. Stop reaper at the end of each cutting length with the cutter running

Stripper Harvester - involves the stripping or combing of grain from the plant while the
plant remains anchored

Combine Harvester-Thresher - machine that is self-propelled which cuts the plant and
subsequently performs threshing at the same time

Guidelines for Optimum Grain Yield during Harvesting

1. Know the varietal characteristics of the crop particularly the date of harvesting.

22
 2. Approximately 7-10 day before the harvest date, or when the uppermost grain are
the hard dough stage turning from green to yellow, the field should be drained to
hasten and attain uniform maturity and to provide easy operation of the field.
3. Observe the plant daily before harvesting by dehulling a few most matured grains
from the tiller. Matured grains are characterized by a clear and firm grain.
4. Start harvesting when at least 80% of the grains of those that are the upper portion
of the panicle are golden in color, and at the base are in hard stage.
5. When the moisture of the grain is at the range of 20 to 25%, the grain is ready for
harvesting.

Disadvantages of Early or Delayed Harvesting

1. Early harvesting will allow larger percentage of immature and unfilled grains.
2. Delayed harvesting will reduced yield due to shattering and attacks of birds,
insects, and rodents.
3. Delayed harvesting will also reduce head rice recovery of paddy when milled.

Forage Harvester
1. used to harvest and cut crops into short lengths for direct feeding to livestock, or
storage and subsequent ensiling or dehydrating
Types
1. Precission cut forage harvester – uses feedingmechanism to meter crop into the
cutting or shearing mecahnism at a uniform velocity to produce 3 to 50 mm
particle length.
2. Non-precission cut forage harvster – genrallyuses a rotary impact cutting device
to cut standing crop or windrows directlyt into shorter pieces.

Chapter V - THRESHING EQUIPMENT

Threshing - process of detaching the

grain from the panicle
Mechanical threshing
- grain is detached or separated
from the panicle by subjecting it
to the impact of action of the
rotating part of the thresher such
as peg-tooth, wire loop, or a rasp
bar
- has a capacity ranging from 500
to 2000 kg/hr.

Definition of Terms
1. Actual Capacity - the
threshing output collected per unit time
2. Blower loss - the ratio of the weight of collected grains blown with the straw to
the total grain input expressed in percent
3. Clean Threshed Grain - threshed grain with 100% purity exclusive of empty
grains
4. Concave - the part of the thresher which encloses the threshing cylinder and
allows the separation of the grains from the panicles
5. Threshing Cylinder - part of the thresher that rotates about the axis equipped
with either pegs, rasp bar, or wire loop on its periphery
6. Threshing Cylinder Efficiency - the ratio of weights of clean threshed grain
recovered from all outlets loss to the total grain input expressed in percent
7. Threshing Recovery - the ratio of the weights of clean threshed grain at the main
grain outlets to the total grain input expressed in percent
8. Unthreshed Loss - the ratio of the weights of grains that remain in the panicles to
the total grain input expressed in percent.

Classification of Mechanical Thresher

According to Operation
1. Through-Flow Thresher - harvested rice is threshed while the cut plants are
wholly fed into the machine in an opening perpendicular to the cylinder and
directed to an outlet which is also perpendicular to it

23
 2. Axial-Flow Thresher - the stalk with the grains is fed into one of the threshing
chambers and the materials moved axially the straw is thrown out at the other
end when all the grains are removed
According to Methods of Feeding
1. Throw-In Type - the whole cut rice plants are fed into the machine and major
portion of the grains is threshed by the initial impact of the bars or spikes on the
cylinder and further threshing is accomplished as the moving panicles hit the
spikes or bars of the concave
2. Hold-On Thresher – the stalk during opertion is held mechanically by the
operator until all the grains are detached from the panicle

According to Threshing Units

1. Rasp Bar Cylinder - equidistant bar-like protrusion in parallel orientation is laid
on the periphery of the cylinder.
2. Wire Loop - wire loop of the same arch and of equal sizes is attached around the
periphery of the cylinder in tandem arrangement
3. Peg-Tooth - spikes or pegs of equal length are attached around the periphery of
the cylinder in tandem fashion

Recommended Operating Speed for Various Types of Mechanical Thresher

Cylinder Type Hold-on Feeding Throw-In
(fpm) Feeding
(fpm)
Wire Loop without concave 2650 3650
Wire Loop with concave 2150 2900
Peg Tooth 2150 2900
Rasp bar 2650 3650

Classification and Description of Axial-Flow Mechanical Thresher

1. Portable Axial-Flow Thresher without Oscillating Screen
A. simple and lightweight thresher to allow easy movement of machine on
field where there is a n existing pathways
B. consists of a metal frame, peg-tooth cylinder with throwing paddles on one
end and enclosed by a cover with spiral louvers, and a wire mesh or round-
rod lower

2. Portable Thresher with Oscillating Screen.

A. consist of a metal frame, peg-tooth cylinder with straw throwing paddles
on one end, a cover containing spiral louvers, and a round-rod concave
B. it has a feeding tray, oscillating screen, centrifugal blower for winnowing
screen, removable lifting bars for transport, and a 7-hp gasoline engine
3. Mobile Axial Flow Thresher
A. it is a trailing type machine which is intended to be drawn by jeep or a
power tiller
B. large in sizes as compared to the portable thresher.
4. Self-propelled Axial Flow Thresher
A. threshers designed on top of jeep for ease of transport and mobility

Throughput Capacity
C = Wg/Ta
Where: C - throughput capacity, kg/hr
Wg - weight of threshed grain, kg
Tt - threshing time, hr
Thresher Losses
Lt = Lb + Lse + LU + Lsc
Where Lt - total losses
Lb - blower loss, kg
Lse - separation loss, kg
Lu - unthreshed loss, kg
Lsc - scattering loss, kg
Percent Losses
% Lb = Lb 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
% Lse = Lse 100 / (Ctg + Lt)

24
 % Lu = Lu 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
% Lsc = Lsc 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
where: Ctg – clean threshed grain, kg

Factors Affecting Threshing Capacity

1. Moisture content of threshed grain
2. Straw to grain ratio
3. Length of straw cut
4. Variety of crop
5. Operational skill

Factor Affecting the Power Requirement of Thresher

1. Feeding Rate - the higher the amount of materials being fed the higher is the
power requirement
2. Moisture Content of Crops - wet crops has higher power requirement than dry
crops
3. Length of straw - the longer the length the higher is the power requirement

LABORATORY EXERCISES

1. A thresher has a capacity of 30 cavans per hour. Three men are required to operate the
thresher. The other data are as follows:
Purchase price = P40, 000 including engine
Utilization = 1, 500 hours per year, 8 hours/day
Estimated life = 7 years
What is the depreciation cost using straight line method?

2. What is the total fixed cost in the item above if the cost of money is 21 % per annum?

3. What is the total variable cost in the item above using the following additional data?

4. What is the threshing cost for the thresher above?

5. A rice thresher is to be driven by 10-hp gasoline engine using a V-belt drive. The engine
is 1800 rpm while the thresher cylinder speed is 650 rpm. The diameter of the engine
pulley is 4 inches. What will be the recommended diameter of the thresher’s pulley?

6. The amount of material needed in testing thresher should have enough samples to run
the machine for at least _____ hour

Chapter VI - DRYING EQUIPMENT

Drying – process of reducing the

moisture content of the product to an
equilibrium moisture level to
supress the growth and development
of harmful bacteria that cause
deterioration and spoilage

Advantages of Mechanical Grain

Dryers
1. Wet grain can easily be
dried in a shorter time as
compared with sundrying.
2. Drying of paddy can be regardless of weather condition.
3. Programming of farm activities can be more convenient and more profitable with
mechanical dryer.
4. Procurement program can be better managed and can provide more opportunities
to produce more stocks especially during rainy season when farmers are willing
to sell their product at a lower price.
5. More wet paddy can be dried even with a limited space.
6. Good quality grains can be produced due to controlled drying procedure
7. Low labor requirement

25
Methods of Drying
1. Traditional Method - thin layer of paddy is spread directly under the heat of the
sun on a concrete pavement or any other suitable materials
2. Mechanical Method - grains are placed in a drying bin where heated air is blown
though a drying chamber from the fuel burning unit

Types of Mechanical Dryer

1. Batch-Type Dryer - grains are being dried at stationary position
a. Shallow-Bed or Flat-Bed - maximum depth of grain ranges from 6 to 24 inches.
b. Deep Bed - grain depth ranges from as high as 12 feet
2. Continuous-Flow Type Dryer - involves a continuous grain movement within the
drying chamber either by gravity or mechanical means

Classifications
a. Non-mixing Type - Grains continuously move downward between two parallel
screens or perforated sheets on which heated air is blown through the screens
perpendicularly to downward moving grains.
b. Mixing Type - Grains are moved downward in zigzag mode by means of baffles
or alternating rows of intake and exhaust ducts while heated is blown through the
grain mass. This classification of dryer is further sub-classification into:
(1)Baffle-Type - similar in design to the non-mixing type dryer except that it
is equipped with sheet metal baffles which creates turbulence and mixing
of grains.
(2)LSU-Type - consists of a vertical compartment in which there are rows of
air channel, air channels are shaped like an inverted V

Parts of Mechanical Dryer

1. Burner – supplies the needed heat for drying by burning either a fossil or biomass
fuel
- Direct Method - the flame heats directly the drying air and forced through the
drying chamber to the grain mass by means of fan or a blower.
- Indirect Method - drying air is being heated through a heat exchanger in order
that the product of combustion will not mix the drying air and the grains.
2. Heat Exchanger - converts heat from the fuel or flue gas into clean air
3. Fan or Blower - supplies the required amount of air and pressure needed by the
system
4. Drying Bin - is where the grains undergo drying process
5. Tempering Bin - is where the grains are held temporarily after each drying pass to
allow the grains to rest and equilibrate the moisture within the layer of the grain
itself.
6. Plenum Chamber - is the component placed before the drying bin to convert the
velocity pressure of the air into a static pressure thereby allowing a much uniform
distribution of air within the cross-section of the bin.
7. Safety Control Network – it includes accessories such as the moisture meter,
thermometer, manometer and others that monitor the condition and control the
grains being dried
8. Conveyors - are used to load and unload the grains into and from the dryer.
9. Accessories - include the receiving bin, paddy cleaner, tempering bins, bagging
machine, autoweigher, and others.

Grain Drying-Air Temperature

a. Drying temprature 43.3C is safe for the grains that are intended for seeds
b. 45 to 55 C for milling purposes
c. 52C will kill the germ of most seeds including rice
d. flash drying of hig moisture grain is possible for paddy grain 90 C for 1 minute
exposure

Drying Rate
6. 1 to 2 % per hour is the standard use for the rate of moisture removal
7. 10% can be done during flash drying for high mositure grain.
Grain breakage

26
 1. paddy start to fissure when drying at high temperature is done below 16%

Definition of Terms
Grain Drier - device for removing excess moisture, generally by forced
ventilation
with or without addition of heat, to prevent the development
of
favorable environment for growth of molds and insects that
normally
cause spoilage.
Heated-Air Dryer - A device used to remove grain moisture by blowing
artificially heated
air until the required moisture content is attained.
Batch-Type Dryer - a type of mechanical dryer wherein the grain is kept in the
drying
chamber until the grain reaches the required moisture
content.
Vertical-Bin Dryer - A batch-type dryer with a vertical grain holding bin and uses
for deep
bed drying
Flat-Bed Dryer - A batch-type dryer with horizontal grain holding bin and is
used for drying grains having a maximum drying layer
thickness of 457 mm.
Recirculating Dryer - A batch-type dryer equipped to circulate or mix grain
during the drying operation.
Continuous-Flow - A type of mechanical dryer wherein grain is passed
Type Dryer continuously through a drying chamber utilizing agitator,
either by mechanical means or by force of gravity, until the
grain reaches the specified moisture content reduction per
pass and subsequent cooling is affected through the
tempering bins before another pass.
Non-Mixing Type - A continuous flow dryer where the grain flows through a
Continuous-Flow Dryer column in a straight path.
Mixing-Type - A continuous flow type dryer wherein the grain path during
Continuous-Flow operation is being diverted.
Dryer
Plenum Chamber - An air chamber maintained under pressure usually connected
to one or more distribution ducts in a drying system.
Burner Efficiency - The ratio of the heat supplied to the heat available expressed
in percent.
Airflow Rate - The volume of air in cubic meters delivered to the mass of
grains per minute.
Drying-Air - The temperature of air entering the grain being dried.
Temperature
Drying rate - The amount of moisture content removed from the grain for
a certain period of time the grain is exposed in the drying
chamber.
Heat Utilization - The ratio of the total heat requirement to the heat supplied
Efficiency by the burner.
Tempering - A process of diffusing moisture to the surface of the grains
to attain equilibrium moisture.
Static Pressure - The pressure build-up in the plenum chamber to maintain an
equilibrium in the grains, resistant to airflow in the drying
chamber, expressed in head, cm of water.
Relative Humidity - The partial pressure exerted by the water vapor molecules in
moist air.
Dry-Bulb - The temperature of moist air indicated by an ordinary
Temperature thermometer.
Wet-Bulb - The temperature of moist air indicated by a thermometer
Temperature whose bulb is covered with a wet wick. The airflow passing
over the wick should have a velocity of at lest 15 feet per
second.

27
Dew-Point Temperature - The temperature at which condensation occurs when the air
is cooled at constant humidity ratio and constant atmospheric
pressure.
Humidity Ratio - The weight of the water vapor contained in the moist air per
unit weight of dry air.
Specific Volume - The volume of moist air defined as the volume per unit
weight of dry air.
Enthalpy - The heat content of the moist air per unit weight of dry air
above certain reference temperature.

Dryer Capacity
Cd = Wi / Td
Where: Cd - dryer capacity, kg/hr
Wi - initial weight of grain, kg
Td - drying Time (hr)

Moisture Reduction per Hour

Mr = (Wi – Wf) / Td
where: MR - Moisture reduction per hour, kg/hr
Wi - Initial weight of material, kg
Wf - Final weight of material, kg
td - Drying time, hr

Final Weight of Material

Wf = [Wi (100 - MCi)] / (100 - MCf)
where: Wf - final weight of the material, kg
Wi - initial weight of material, kg
MCi - initial moisture content, %
MCf - final moisture content, %

Heating System Efficiency

HSe = [Qsd 100 ] / Qaf
where: HSE - heating system efficiency, %
Qsd - heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr
Qaf - Heat available in the fuel, kJ/hr

Heat Supplied to the Dryer

Qsd = [(h2-h1) Q 60 / [Vs]
Where: h2 - enthalphy of the drying air, kJ/kg dry air
h1 - enthalpy of the drying ambient air, kJ/kg dry air
Q - airflow rate, m3/min
Vs - specific volume of air, kg/m3

Heat Available in Fuel

Qaf = FRf x HVf
Where: Qaf - heat available in fuel, kJ/hr
FRf - fuel feed fate, kg/hr
HVf - fuel heating value, kJ/kg

Heat Utilization
HU = (Qs x td) / Mr
where: HU - Heat utilization
Qs - Heat supplied, kJ/hr
td - Drying time, hr
Mr - amount of moisture removed, kg

Heat Utilization Efficiency - indicates the overall thermal efficiency of the dryer
HUE = (THU 100) / HSd
Where: HUE - heat utilization efficiency, %
THU - total Heat Utilized, kJ/hr
HSd - heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr

28
LABORATORY EXERCISE V1

1. A corn cob has an stoichiometric air requirement of 5.7 kg air/kg fuel. If 3 kg of corn
cob is required to be burned per hour, how much air in m³/hr is required for the system.

2. If 20 kg of water is removed from 110kg of paddy, what is the percentage moisture

content of paddy in wet basis?

3. What is the percentage moisture content of paddy above when expressed in dry basis?

4. What is the amount of moisture to be removed from a material whose moisture content
is 14.5% with dry matter weight of 76 kg?

5. If a product has a percentage moisture content of 12% wet basis, the equivalent
percentage moisture content in dry basis is:

6. A product expressed in dry basis has a percentage moisture content of 25%, what is the
percentage moisture content of the product in wet basis?

7. If 9 ton of a product is to be dried from 24% to 14%, the final weight of the product
would be:

8. What is the theoretical rpm of a bucket elevator whose head pulley diameter is 0.2m.
and the bucket projection is 0.1m.?

9. If the operational efficiency of the bucket elevator above is 85% of the theoretical
speed, what is the operation speed of the elevator?

10. What is the theoretical horsepower requirement of a bucket elevator whose capacity is
545kg./min. and lift of 10.7m. The elevator is loaded down side.

11. Five tons of paddy milled in 6 hours produces 3950 brown rice and 3250kg. of milled
rice. What is the milling recovery?

12. What is the hulling coefficient of the huller in item above?

13. If the head rice recovery of paddy in item above is equal to 85%, what is the amount
of broken grains?

14. What is the amount of rice hull produced during milling in item above?

15. A two-ton mechanical dryer dries paddy from 24% to 14% in 8 hours. What is the
final weight of the product after drying?

16. What is the drying capacity of the dryer in the item above?

17. What is the moisture reduction per hour in the item above?

Chapter VII - RICE MILLING EQUIPMENT

Milling is the process of converting paddy into

rice
Processes:
1. Cleaning - removing foreign materials
such as rice straws, stones, seeds, etc.
from paddy.
2. Dehusking and husk separation -
removing the husk from the paddy with a
minimum damage to the grain, and
separating the husk from paddy.

29
 3. Paddy separation - separating dehusked paddy from the remaining grains. Most
dehusker removes about 90% of the husk.
4. Bran removal - removing all or part of the bran layer from the grain to produce
polished rice.
5. Grading - separating or grading broken grains from unbroken rice. Broke are
separated into different sizes.

General Types
1. Small-capacity single machine
a. operated at the village level for custom milling, e.g. steel huller, single pass
rubber roll rice mill either stationary and travelling models
b. capacity ranged from 45 to 270 per hour.
2. Large-capacity multiple machine
a. used for commercial milling
b. sizes varies from 2 to 4 tons of paddy per hour
c. consists of several stages of milling machines that dehusk rough rice,
separates brown rice, and for removing bran
d. conveying equipment are used to move paddy and its by-product into
various machineries

Rice Milling Principles and Methods

Operation Equipment By-Product
Precleaning and de-stoning Pre-cleaner and Foreign material such
Destoner as straw, chaff, weed
seeds, stones, metal
sands
Paddy grading Thickness or length Paddy different length
grader or thickness
Hulling or dehusking Under-runner stone Paddy of different
disc or rubber roll length or thickness
Sifting Plansifter Coarse bran and germs
Husk aspiration Husk Aspirator Husk
Separation of paddy and brown rice Paddy Separator Return paddy
Brown rice grading Thickness length or Immature kernels or
grader brown rice of different
length or thickness
Conditioning of brown rice (exposing Conditioning tank None
brown rice to steam and air to increase
moisture content from 14 to 15%)
Tempering of brown rice (allow steamed Tempering Bins None
brown rice to equalize to a uniform
moisture content of 15%)
Abrasive whitening (from brown rice to Abrasive Whitener Bran and germ
undermilled rice) or Whitening Cone
Friction whitening (from undermilled to Friction whitener Fine bran
milled rice)
Rice polishing or refining (from milled Polisher or Refiner Very fine bran
rice to polished rice)
Sifting Plansifter or Brewer's rice
Gyrosifter
Rice grading 9from mixture of polished Indented Cylinder Broken grain
rice to whole and broken rice) Grader
Sorting 9with mixed discolored grains to Color Sorter Discolored grain
purely white milled rice0
Glazing or coating (addition of nutrients in Glazing Drum None
the from of glucose talcum or lyzine)
Blending (whole enriched milled rice with Mixing or None
brokens with known percentages) Proportioning
Tanks
Weighing Auto Weigher None
Packaging Packing Machine None

30
Dehusking Equipment
1. Steel hullers
a. combines the dehusking ad polishing process in one operation
b. husking is accomplished due to friction between grains and steel parts of the huller
which cause the husk and bran to be scraped of
c. has lower head rice recovery and high power requirement
d. steel huller operates at 800-900 rpm for smaller mill and 600-800 rpm for larger
mill
2. Under-runner Disc Sheller
a. consists of two horizontal iron disc partly coated with abrasive layer
b. top disc is fixed to the housing while the bottom disc rotates
c. paddy is fed at the center and moves outward by centrifugal force which cause the
grain to dehusked due to friction
d. advantage is that it is simple and lower cost
e. disadvantage is the high broken grains

3. Rubber Roll paddy Husker

a. consist of two rubber rolls rotating opposite in direction at different speed
b. one roll moves slower than the other by 25%
c. difference in the peripheral speed causes the shearing action which dehusked the
grains
d. faster rubber rolls worn out quicker than the other
e. wearing out rubber roll reduces the diameter and capacity of the huller
f. advantage is the high milling recovery while the disadvantage is the cost
replacement of the rubber roller
g. average capacity of the pair of rubber is 100-200 tons paddy per pair
h. optimum age of rubber begins 2-3 months after manufacture and decreases rapidly
when the rubber is 6-9 months old

Number of Bags
Rubber Roll Size (in.) Number of Bags (50 kg paddy processed
per pair of rubber roll)
2-1/2 200-250
3 300-350
4 400-600
6 850-900
8 950-1000
10 1500-2000
Hulling efficiency ranged from 60-88%

Paddy Separation Equipment

1. Compartment-Type Paddy Separator
a. made of steel or wood consisting of number of compartments in one or more
decks
b. number of compartments determine the capacity
c. each compartment has a capacity of 40 kg brown rice per hour for long grains
and 60 kg/hr for short grains
2. Tray Separator
a. consists of several indented trays mounted one above the other about 5 cm apart
all attached to an oscillating frame
b. tray moves up and forward causing the brown rice and paddy to be separated
c. capacity ranges from 1.2 to 9.5 tons per hour

Bran Removal
1. Vertical abrasive Whitener
a. dehusked paddy enters the top center and moves outward by centrifugal force to
the edge of metal cone
b. cone has abrasive surface and turn inside a cylinder covered with screen
c. clearance between the cone and screen is adjusted at 10 mm by raising and
lowering the cone

31
 d. vertical rubber brakes (30 to 50 mm wide) is placed at an interval around the
cone
e. abrasive action takes place on brown rice as it moves down between the cone
and the screen
f. peripheral speed of the cone is about 13 m/s
g. air aspiration through the whitener reduces breakage caused by heating and keep
the dust out of the mill
2. Horizontal Abrasive Whitener
a. more compact that the vertical abrasive whitener
b. machine consists of an abrasive roll (emery stone to steel shaft) operating in a
cylindrical metal perforated screen mounted horizontally
c. brown rice enter at the end and discharge at the other end
d. bran removal is accomplished similar to the vertical abrasive whitener.
3. Horizontal Friction Whitener
a. often called a jet or pneumatic peeler
b. machine uses a friction process in which the bran is peeled off by friction of the
rice grains
c. steel hullers are also used as friction-type whitener
d. air is used to remove bran
4. Rice Polishers
a. these are sometimes called peelers or refiners to make the rice more glossy and
highly polished
b. made of vertical or horizontal abrasive whitener wherein the cone are covered
with leather strips and operated at lower rpm
c. leather strips rolls the whitened rice against the screen which make the remaining
bran to removed and rice become shinier and glossier
d. machine produces few broken grains and power consumption is less than by 30-
40% of the whitener

Grading Equipment
1. Vibrating or rotary sieves - used for separating small broken grains.
2. Trieurs, rotating cylinder, or drum grader - used for large broken grains.

Indices for Efficient Milling

1. grain factors
2. mechanical factors
3. operational factors

Percentage broken milled rice = [Wt. of broken grains x 100] / Wt. of milled rice

Percentage brewer's rice = [Wt. of brewers rice x 100] / Wt. of milled rice
Head rice recovery = [Wt. of head rice x 100] / Wt. of milled rice
Milling recovery = [Wt. of milled rice x 100] / Wt. of input paddy

LABORATORY EXERCISES VII

1. A rice mill transmission drive uses a standard flat belt of 20 ft. long. The pulley
diameter of the power source is 6 inches. The pulley diameter of the line shaft is 16
inches. What is the center distance required for the two shafts?

Chapter VIII - WATER PUMPING EQUIPMENT

Pump - is a device used to lift and delivers water

Classification of Pumps
1. Positive Displacement Pumps - pumps wherein
a constant volume of liquid is generated for
every working stroke of the piston or of the
pumping unit
2. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps - pumps
wherein the volume of liquid generated for

32
 every working stroke of the propeller or of the pumping unit varies with the
discharge head
Lift Pump
1. used for pumping water from a source level of pump spout only and are operated
by hand or windmill
2. operate on shallow well source 20 to 40 ft
Force Pump
1. used for pumping water from a source and to deliver it to higher elevation or
against pressure such as elevated reservoir and/or pressure tanks
2. operate for shallow or deep well up to 1500 feet.

Centrifugal Force Pump

1. has wide application on farms and in homes
2. most efficient in handling large volumes of water at low pressures and low suction
heads. It is relatively inexpensive and is efficient in operation if used for the
purpose for which it was designed
3. consist of an impeller mounted within the housing and is only the moving part of
the pump

Turbine Pumps
1. modified from centrifugal pump
2. used to move water through the pump, but the design of the impeller and housing
is such that much higher pressures and suction heads are obtainable than with the
straight centrifugal pumps of the same size
3. consists of a series of turbines called stages arranged one above the other with
drive shaft extending to the surface
4. discharge pressure increases with the number of stages in the pump
5. the deeper the well the more stages is required

Jet Pumps
1. combination of a conventional water pump of some kind usually a centrifugal
pump, and an ejector or reducer which commonly referred to as "jet"
Diaphragm Pump

1. has the same type of drive as reciprocation pump and is suitable for high-output
small-pumping heads
2. consists a cylinder closed at the lower end with a circular diaphragm of rubber of
some other flexible material fixed at the top end
3. reciprocating connecting rod is fixed at the center of the cylinder
4. valve allows water movement in only one direction through the cylinder
5. advantages are large-volume flow per stroke, self-priming with air-filled suction
line, and easy to build

Spiral Pump
1. follows the principle of a conveyor where a waste hose is spirally wounded around
an inclined rotational axis and is driven directly by a low-speed prime mover
2. suitable for transporting surface water

Bucket wheel Pump

1. bucket wheel pump operates like a simple chain conveyor consisting endless chain
with pails, cups, or other bailing container
2. suitable for head up to 3 meters.

Rotary Pump
1. has a rotating member eccentrically located at the casing
2. has vanes that swing during rotation where water is trapped
3. self-priming and is capable of operating against a suction head up to 8 meters
4. swinging vane pumps are suitable for moderate volume and low-head pumping
5. starts operating in low speed.

Classification According to their Position with Respect to Well Structure

1. Shallow-well pump - operate within the limit of suction lift of 6.7 to 7.6 m

33
 2. Deep well pump - pumps installed within the well casing and usually pump inlet
submerged below the pumping level

Pumps Classifications
Lift Pump Shallow Bucket
Well
Chain
Single Acting Plunger Type
Deep Well Single Acting Plunger Type
Force Shallow Single Acting Plunger Type
Pump Well
Differential Acting Piston Type
Double Acting Piston Type Single
Cylinder
Duplex
Centrifugal Single Stage
Multistage
Turbine Multistage
Jet Centrifugal
Turbine
Helical, Rotary, Screw Type
Submersible
Deep Well Single Acting Plunger Type
Differential Plunger Type
Double Acting Plunger Type
Jet (with centrifugal)
Submersible (with multistage
centrifugal)
Turbine (multistage)
Helical, Rotary, Screw Type

Selection Table for Pump capacity and Head

Type of Pump Low Medium High
Capacity Capacity Capacity
LH LH HH LH
HH HH
Centrifugal Single- x x x x x x
Stage
Mixed Flow x x
Axial Flow x
Portable
Submersible x x x
Reciprocating
Plunger x
Reciprocating Piston
x x x x
Gear x x x
Vane x x x
Screw x x x x
Diaphragm x X

Performance of Water Pumps

Pump Type Range of Head Efficienc Starting Speed
Suction Discharge y Torque (rev/mi
(m) (%) n)
(m)
Piston 7 100 80 High 30
10 30 80 High 30
Double Acting
Piston 7 100 85 High 30
Screw 0 5 60 Low 30-400

34
 Diaphragm 7 30 90 High 30
Rope and Bucket 0 50 High 2
Spiral Wheel 0 1 60 Low 80
Propeller 0 7 60 Low 400-
2000

Performances of Water Pumps

Pump Type Range of Head Efficiency Starting Speed
Suction (%) Torque (rev/min)
Discharge
(m)
(m)
Piston 7 100 80 High 30
10 30 80 High 30
Double
Acting Piston 7 100 85 High 30
Screw 0 5 60 Low 30-400
Diaphragm 7 30 90 High 30
Rope and 0 50 High 2
Bucket
Spiral Wheel 0 1 60 Low 80
Propeller 0 7 60 Low 400-2000

Water horsepower - amount of water that can be delivered per unit time for a given lift.
WHP = (Q x h) /273
where: WHP - water horsepower, hp
Q - discharge, m3/hr
h - vertical lift, m

Pump efficiency - ratio of the water horsepower and the brake horsepower of the pump
p = (WHP 100)/ BHP
where:  p - pump efficiency ,%
WHP - water horsepower, hp
BHP - brake horsepower, hp

Pump Type Overall Efficiency

New electric motor and water 95
pump
Reconditioned pump and motor 60
units

Pump Characteristics Curve

1. represents the interrelationship between speed, head discharge, and horsepower
2. enables one to select a pump which fits operating conditions and thus attain a
relatively high efficiency with low operating cost

Factor for the Selection

1. head-capacity of the well
2. initial cost
3. space requirement
4. type of power unit and pump characteristics
5. storage capacity, rate of replenishment and well diameter
6. other possible uses of pump

Factors to Consider in Selection of Power Units for Pumps

1. Amount of power required
2. Initial cost
3. Availability and cost of energy fuel
4. Duration and frequency of pumping
5. Maintenance and convenience of operation
6. Durability and dependability of unit

35
 7. Labor availability and quality

Pump Laws
Q1 / Q2 = n1 / n2
H1 / H2 = n12 / n22
(bhp)1 / (bhp)2 = n13 / n23

For geometrically Similar Pumps

Q2 / Q1 = (D2 / D1)3
H2 / H1 = (D2 / D1)2
(bhp)2 / (bhp)1 = (D2 / D1)2

where: Q - discharge
D - impeller diameter
H - head
n - rpm
bhp - brake horsepower

LABORATORY EXERCISES VIII

1. One-thousand gallons per minute (1000 gpm) of water is to be pumped from a river to a
farm 150-ft above the river. What is the required horsepower to drive the pump considering
a pumps efficiency of 70 % and the friction and other losses of 20 % of the static head.

2. What is the total head loss in meters of the pump system in item above.

3. If a diesel engine will be used to drive the pump in item above, what is the recommended
horsepower for the engine? Engine efficiency is 80%.

4. A pump which discharges 4 liters per second at a head of 6 meters is driven by electric
motor. The input current of the motor is 1.5 amp while the input voltage is 220 volt. What
is the overall efficiency of the pump if the motor power factor is 0.98?

5. A pump was installed with a suction head of 6 m and a discharge head of 10 meters. The
discharge rate of the pump is 60 liters per minute. What is the water horsepower of the
pump?

6. A water pump with a 0.2m diameter propeller discharges 60 lpm of water at a head of 5
m. depth suction and 1 m. discharge. The pump is driven by an electric motor at 1720 rpm.
The pump efficiency is 72%, and 90%, respectively. Compute the WHP.

7. A farmer has a pump which discharges 100 lpm of water at a head of 10 m. The pump
is driven by an electric motor at a speed of 1700 rpm through a 4” x 4” pulley-drive
combination for the motor and the pump, respectively, what would be the pump output if
the motor pulley is changed to six inches diameter?

8. If the speed of the pump is to be reduced to 1200 rpm, what is the capacity of
the pump?

9. What is the working head?

Chapter IX - TESTING AND EVALUATION OF AGRICULTURAL

MACHINERY
Purposes
1. it is the critical assessment of a machine or process under a given set of operating
conditions
2. it provides functional data for the assessment of the performance of the machine
including the rate and quality at which the operations are accomplished

Criteria in Evaluation of the performance of a machine

1. Capacity and power requirement
36
 2. Quality of material or operation handled by the machine
3. Operator performance
4. Reliability of machine parts and components
5. Environment effect
6. Safety
7. Cost of operation

Need for Testing and Evaluation

1. needs the assurance that the machine that is intended to buy will perform
according to requirment and that the use of such machine will bring economic
benefits
2. to provide financial institutions and government agencies the needed informaion
regarding the machine performance
3. agencies and institutions doing research and development work on farm
mechanization will be provided with information on design modifications,
adjustments in operating conditions as well as overall machine performance
which are needed in attaining optimum and efficient operation of specific
machines

Steps in Testing and Evaluation

1. Know the machine\
2. Know the objectives
3. Design the test procedure.
4. Preparing the test instruments
5. Testing the machine
6. Analysis of samples
7. Analysis of data
8. Preparing the report

Testing Instrument
Length - Meter stick, push roll tape
Thickness - Caliper, micrometer
Shaft speed - Tachometer
Temperature - Low – glass bulb thermometer, thermocouple wire, infrared
Pressure - manometer
Velocity - Machine - odometer
- Air - thermoanemometer
Power - brake dynamometer
Force - spring scale, strin gauge, load cell

LABORATORY EXERCISES IX

1. An engine was tested on a brake dynamometer at a speed of 2000 rpm. The brake arm
of the machine is 1.2 meters and it registered a load of 5 kg. What is the shaft power of the
engine?

2. The engine fuel tank was completely filled with gasoline fuel before testing. After 4
hours of continuous test 3.7 liters of fuel was used to reload the tank completely. Test has
shown that the engine shaft power was 10 hp. What is the specific fuel consumption of the
engine?

3. A power tiller was tested on a 10 m wide plot. During the test, the machine made 22
rounds to complete the plowing operation using two-0.3 m diameter disk plow. What is
the average swath of the power tiller?

4. A pump was tested to measure the flow rate using a 90 degree triangular weir. Tests
have shown that the head of water into the weir averages to 13 cm. What is the average
rate of flow of the pump?

5. A four-stroke naturally-aspirated diesel engine was tested on a prony brake

dynamometer and gives a BHP output of 14.2 horsepower. During the test the

37
ambient air temperature is 27 C while the total atmospheric pressure is 1020 mb.
What is the corrected brake horsepower of the engine?

Chapter X - SAFETY IN AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

Accident - unplanned but not necessarily damaging event which interrupts completion of
an activity
Factors Responsible for Accident
1. Man – human factor
a. age
b. experience
c. education and training
d. strain, fatique, comforts, etc
2. Machine
a. Poor design and manufacturing
b. Lack of safety devices, measures, and instructional procedue in the
use of machine
3. Operational Environment
a. Knowledge on weather, terrain, crop condition

Common Nature of Accident

1. Overturning of tractor during operation
2. Overrun while running on roads due to failure of usingbrakes properly
3. Hydraulic failure
4. Cloth entanglement with belt and protruding part of pulley
5. Inhaling and physical contact with chemical during spraying
6. cutting hands while feeding into thresher without safety shield
7. Inhilation of dust particles
8. Electric shocks especially during water pumping with electric motor
9. Burning of skin upon touching hot surfaces on furnaces, dryers, and related
equipment

Safety Precautions
1. Familiarize self with the operation of the machine
2. Check machine before operating it
3. Never leave machine unattended without stopping engine
4. Do not fill fuel tank while engine is operating
5. Do not attempt to oil or grease or adjust machine while in operation
6. Keep all shield guard in place
7. Operation should be done by highly trained or qualified person
8. Use machine with shields and protective devices on feeding section
9. Never operate machine in close garage or shed
10. Do not operate machine with loose parts
11. Provide first aid kit
12. Keep fire extinguisher handy at all time
13. Take time for safety

Chapter XI – SELECTION OF AGICULTURAL MACHINES

Factors Need to Consider in the Selection of Farm Machines

1. Trade Mark - distinguishing mark, device, or symbol affixed by a manufacturer

merchant, or trader to his goods in order to identify them as his goods and
distinguish them from the goods manufactured, sold, or dealt in by others
2. Trade Name or Brand Name - name by which an article is called or given by a
manufacturer to an article to distinguish it as one produced by that company
3. Models - indicate the type of machine, the size, or an improvement or new
design
4. Repairs - before considering the purchase of any machine, it is well to look into
the source of repair; machine should be examined to see whether the various
parts are accessible for making repairs when needed

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 5. Design - the arrangement of the parts to show the difference of make-up in
machines of the same type; provision of safety devices should be carefully
considered; the machine should have a finished appearance and style without
sacrificing strength and performance.
6. Ease of Operation - simply depend upon the correct adjustment, when properly
adjusted; little effort is required for the operator other than the steering and
turning of the machine.
7. Ease of Adjustment - careful study should be made of the methods for adjusting
the various parts; devices designed to simplify adjusting the equipment are time
and labor savers.
8. Adaptability to Work Condition - many implements on the markets which are
not adaptable to every condition; machine may work in one locality and be an
absolute failure in another because it is adapted to certain soil conditions or
types of crops grown.
9. Quick change of of Units - time and labor required to dismount one unit and
mount another are important considerations in selecting farm equipment.
10. Maneuverability - greatly reduced when machines are mounted in front of row-
crop tractors.
11. Comfort - comfortable seat should be supported with shock-absorbing devices;
seat should be stable and adjustable to suit different sized individuals.
12. Other factors such as power requirements, cost of operation, initial cost, years
of service expected and whether the purchase of the equipment is economical
in relation to the size of the farm and the work to be performed by the
equipment.

RESOURCES:

1. Wikipedia. 2015. List of Agricultural Machinery. Retrieved

fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery.

2. Wikia. 2015. List of Farm Implements. Retrieved

fromhttp://tractors.wikia.com/wiki/List_of_Types_of_Agricultural_Machinery

3. R.A. 10601. Agricultural and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.gov.ph/2013/06/05/republic-act-no-10601/.

4. NRCS. Tillage Equipment. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs141p2_036234.pdf

5. MRII. Review Materials.

6. CIGR Handbooks
7. Piadozo. M. E. Agricultural Marketing

8. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2015. Agricultural Technology. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.britannica.com/technology/agricultural-technology

9. Agro Products. 2015. Harvesting Machinery. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.agriculturalproductsindia.com/agricultural-machinery-
equipments/agricultural-machinery-harvesting-machinery.html.

10. State University: Extension and Research. 2013. Replacement Strategies for Farm
Machinery. Retrieved fromhttps://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/crops/html/a3-
30.html.

11. Engr. Alexis T. Belonio. Review Materials

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