SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

(BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY DIVISION)

SEMESTER 2 2023/2024

IWK 306 FIBRE AND LIGNOCELLULOSIC COMPOSITE

ASSIGNMENT

OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH FIBRE

Prepared By:

NAME MATRIC NUMBER

MOHD FAUDZY BIN SANI 163783

Prepared For:

DR. MOHD NURAZZI NORIZAN

ABSTRACT

According to environmental concerns and financial problems, natural fibers have become
interesting and fascinating nowadays to be used as an industrial material and structural material
for rehabilitating of structures (Mahjoub et al., 2013) and also for other applications . Empty Fruit
Bunch (EFB) from oil palm is one of the potential biomass to produce biofuels like bio-oil due to
its abundant supply and favorable physicochemical characteristics (Chang, 2014). Empty fruit
bunches are the significant source of lignocellulosic biomass available at the palm oil mills. The
OPEFB has two types of fibers namely stalk and spike (Shinoj et al., 2011). The Empty Fruit
bunches have about 20–25 % of stalk and 75 to 80 % of spikelet. The fundamental characteristics
of EFB in terms of proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and chemical composition, as well as
the recent advances in EFB conversion processes for bio-oil production like pyrolysis and
solvolysis are outlined and discussed. The work on oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber-
reinforced polymer composites with some interest on the OPEFB physical structure, and
chemical compositions. Finally, the incorporation of OPEFB into polymeric materials leads to
several interesting consequences on the water absorption characteristics and the mechanical
properties, which have been reviewed.
INTRODUCTION

During the past decades, natural fibers have attracted the interest of material scientists,
researchers, and industries because of their specific advantages as compared to conventional or
synthetic fibers. First and foremost is the environmental issue that is alarming the present
scenario of the world. This issue is on the top of national and international agenda. Hence, these
natural or bio-based fibers, which are biodegradable unlike the synthetic fibers, have become the
centre of attraction. In addition to this, low cost, low density, specific properties comparable to
those of synthetic fibers, ease of separation, carbon dioxide seizure, non-corrosive, reduced tool
wear, reduced dermal and respiratory irritation have increased the interest in using natural or
biofibers with various available synthetic and natural polymeric materials. The applications of
these biocomposites range from household to more sensitive and specialized areas such as in
space and aircrafts. They also pointed out that even though natural fibers enjoy some superior
properties compared to synthetic fibers, but they also suffer from serious problem such as
polarity nature. The polarity characteristic creates incompatibility problems with many polymers.
In addition to this, other study has reported the limitations of poor resistance to moisture, limited
processing temperature, and low dimensional stability. Hence, various chemical treatments have
been done to improve the adhesion or interfacial bonding between natural fibers and polymers.
(Hassan et al., 2010)

A comprehensive review of research and development on OPEFB fibers composite materials is

presented. The oil palm industries generate abundant biomass, which can be used to generate
energy and value-added products. OPEFB fibers are currently used as fuel in oil mills, but efforts
are underway to convert them into fertilizers for farms. However, uncontrolled burning of
OPEFB fibers raises environmental pollution concerns. The investigation of OPEFB fibers'
physical and mechanical characteristics has led to diversification in composite material
applications. OPEFB fibers have great potential as reinforcing materials in polymers, especially
in countries like Malaysia and South East Asia. These fibers have specific properties that can be
used to develop biocomposite materials. However, improper use could lead to disposal problems,
environmental issues, and forfeiture of substantial economic value. Palm oil producing countries
can generate revenue from this waste product, which is currently considered challenging. The
sustainable, non-hazardous, non-carcinogenic, eco-friendly, and biodegradable products
developed from these fibers will benefit the global community. Commercial companies like
Sabutek Sdn. Bhd. and Ecofuture Berhad are manufacturing value-added products from OPEFB
fibers. However, OPEFB fibers have not achieved total commercialization due to their
hydrophilic nature, which can cause separation of the matrix and fiber phase in composite
materials. Despite this, research and development efforts are focused on minimizing greenhouse
gas production (GHG) and promoting a "zero-waste" concept.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH FIBER

Physical Characteristics

The structure and contents of natural fiber cell walls vary depending on species and plant parts.
OPEFB fibers are lignocellulosic fibers with cellulose and hemicellulose reinforced in a lignin
matrix. The major constituents may differ based on plant age, growth conditions, soil, weather,
and testing methods. The chemistry of natural fibers changes during growth and depends on the
alignment of cellulose fibrils along the fiber length.

Reference Hemicellulose Cellulose (%) Lignin (%) Location

(%)

Hill and Abdul 22 48 25 Malaysia

Khalil

Rozman et al. 17.1 47.9 24.9 Malaysia

Sabutek 68.3 41.9 13.2 Malaysia

Abdul Khalil et 83.5 49.8 20.5 Malaysia

al.

Sreekala and – 65 19 India

Thomas

Table of chemical composition of oil palm fibers from different researchers

Cellulosic fibrils form a crystalline structure in biomass fibers, including OPEFB fibers. Electron
microscopy observations show two main cell walls, with a secondary layer embedded in a
primary wall. This layer consists of three layers with different orientations of cellulose fibrils.
OPEFB fibers have a similar structure to coconut coir fibers, being hard, tough, and similar to
coir fibers in structure. The transverse section of OPEFB fiber cell wall structure is shown in
Figure (a) and (b).
 Figure (a) and (b)

Moreover, the crystal and amorphous nature of OPEFB fiber cell structure also plays an
important role in determining the mechanical properties of the final composite products. This is
because of the crystal region that gives the maximum value for the specimen modulus of
materials. Oil palm biomass fibers are thread-like bundles with a physical length of 50-60 mm
and 10-30 mm, respectively. The average fiber diameter is around 200μm. The length-weighted
fiber length of OPEFB fiber obtained directly from the oil palm mill was about 0.99 mm. The
aspect ratio of OPEFB fiber has a significant effect on the properties of final composite
materials. Flax and hemp showed the highest aspect ratio, possibly presenting higher mechanical
properties compared to others.

Aspect ratio can be improved by decreasing its diameter via physical, chemical, or thermal
treatments. Numerous physical and chemical treatments have been reviewed for natural fibers,
which can modify the structural and surface properties of the fibers, improving the interfacial
bonding with the polymer matrix. An increase in the aspect ratio of bagasse from 18.63 to 23.41
using alkali treatment (1% conc.) improved the tensile and flexural properties by 14% and 16%,
respectively.

Various types of natural fibers, such as wood, rice husk, straw leaf, straw stem, and whole straw
reinforced with HDPE, also showed improvement in mechanical properties. However, no
detailed study has been performed for OPEFB fibers reinforced polymer composite materials,
except for one research work that considered the effect of aspect ratio for OPEFB fibers to
observe the young modulus.
Aspect ratio or geometry of the fibers usually gets altered during several process steps before
final products. Properties such as fracture in the composite materials are also governed by the
aspect ratio of the fibers, defined by critical fiber length. Most research on natural fiber polymer
composite materials involves the effect of fiber loading or content, physical, chemical, or thermal
treatments of fibers, matrix treatment, and coupling agents.

Fibers Diameters (μm)

Oil palm (long) 358

Oil palm (short) 151

Oil palm (EFB) 300

Banana 120 ± 5

Sisal 205 ± 4

Pineapple leaf 50 ± 6

Ramie 34

Coconut 397

Bagasse 399

Jute 20–200

Hemp 31.2 ± 5

Flax 19

Table of average diameter of natural fibers

Fiber type Length (L) (mm) Diameter (D) (mm) Aspect ratio (L/D)

Oil Palm Fibers

Short*
(Average) 17.5 0.1515 115.5
(Range) 10 0.12 83
20 0.15 133
30 0.16 187
Long
(Average) 142.3 0.358 397.5
 (Range) 100 0.105 952
200 0.358 558
300 0.777 386
General 50 0.2 250
Banana
(Average) 45 0.15 300
(Range) 20 0.08 250
50 0.15 333
80 0.25 320
Sisal
(Average) 50 0.205 244
Pineapple leaf
(Average) 50 0.05 1000
Ramie
(Average) 50 0.034 1470
Coconut
(Average) 50 0.397 126
Bagasse
(Average) 50 0.399 125
Jute
(Average) 50 0.100 500
Hemp
(Average) 50 0.031 1612
Flax
(Average) 50 0.019 2631
Table of aspect ratio of oil palm and other natural fibers

Chemical Characteristics
Natural fiber polymer composite materials' performance is influenced by their internal structural
components, including chemical compositions. These fibers consist of cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin, with varying proportions. Other components like pectins and waxes are also present
in minor quantities. OPEFB fiber typically contains 40-50% cellulose, 20-30% hemicellulose,
and 20-30% lignin, with a moisture content of 10-15%. The chemical composition of OPEFB
fibers varies within and outside regional borders, influenced by geographical and soil conditions.
Similar variations were observed in jute and kenaf fibers, and other natural fibers, with the
percentage of cellulose varying based on plant species and age. The formation of the internal
chemical structure of natural fibers is influenced by various factors.
Abdul Khalil's study found that oil palm fond (OPEFB) fiber has the highest hemicellulose
content compared to coir, pineapple, banana, and soft and hardwood fibers. Lignin, responsible
for toughness and stiffness, is lower than coir fibers but still higher than other fibers. OPEFB
fiber contains minor components of arabinose, xylose, mannose, galactose, silica, copper,
calcium, manganese, iron, and sodium. Researchers found that a large number of silica bodies
attached to the fibers may complicate the pulping and bleaching process, as inorganic metals and
substances may react with the chemicals used for treatment. Comparative studies are lacking to
show the effect of inorganic materials attached to OPEFB fibers on chemical treatment. OPEFB
fiber contains 1.5-2.5% ash, carbon (45-50%), oxygen (44-48%), silica (5-6%), and minor
quantities of magnesium, calcium, and potassium.
The properties of natural fibers and composite materials are significantly influenced by their
lignocellulosic components. For instance, cellulose's hydrophilic nature causes water absorption,
which weakens the interfacial bonding with the matrix, resulting in poor physical and mechanical
properties. Hemicellulose exhibits properties like biodegradation, moisture absorption, and
thermal degradation. Lignin, on the other hand, is thermally stable and protects biocomposite
materials from degradation but is susceptible to photochemical degradation due to ultraviolet
light. Once degraded, the inner content becomes more prone to degradation, leading to the loss of
surface characteristics. These lignocellulosic components significantly influence the mechanical
and physical properties of fibers. Therefore, research has focused on modifying these
components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) to enhance the mechanical and other properties
of OPEFB fiber polymer composite materials. The chemical route is the most commonly used
technique for modifying natural fibers.
Polymerization (DP) is a crucial factor in determining the mechanical properties of fibers and
assessing cellulose degradation caused by physical, chemical, or radiation damage. However, the
degree of DP for OPEFB fibers is still under-understood in literature. Evaluating its effect on
physical and mechanical properties is also necessary. OPEFB fibers have a complex chemical
structure that is yet to be fully established. Understanding these characteristics can improve the
applicability and design criteria of composite materials with different polymeric resins.
OPEFB fibers offer advantages like buckling during processing and fabrication, but also have
weaknesses that can be overcome through suitable treatments. Natural fibers have a flattened
oval shape, making them suitable for high stress due to their higher aspect ratio. This review
article explores the mechanical and water absorption properties of various polymeric materials
reinforced with OPEFB fiber, highlighting their potential for improvement.
PREPARATION OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH FIBER

A study was conducted to determine the methods for extracting fibre from oil palm empty fruit
bunches (EFB). Fibre extraction was attempted initially in a combing machine used for
extracting fibres. Individual EFB were fed to the machine by holding the EFB stalk. The bunches
were subjected to combing action by the nails on the rotating drum of the extracting machine.
However, this process was tedious and although it could separate the fibres to some extent, it was
unsuitable for large-scale fibre extraction from EFB. For large-scale extraction of fibres from oil
palm EFB, the fibre decorticating machine used for coir extraction from coconut husk was
employed. The fibre decorticator had a cylindrical drum mounted on a central shaft (which was
fixed with slight slope towards the outlet port). In the decorticator, the bunches were subjected to
the beating action of the blades on the rotating shaft, which helped in fibre separation. However,
feeding bigger-sized EFB into the decorticator was not possible because of fibre choking inside
the drum. Choking was due to lower motor capacity and lesser beating effect on the bunches.
The fibres were collected at the outlet in less than one minute. After cleaning in a willowing
machine, the fibres were tested for making yarn. Fibre breakage in the decorticator made yarn-
making difficult due to varying fibre lengths. Coconut fibres were hence blended on a 10-20% of
oil palm fibre weight basis to get continuous yarn. Modifications to the decorticator (i.e. increase
in cylindrical drum length and diameter, shaft interval and motor capacity) may help prevent
fibre choking and fibre breakage (Extraction of Fibres From Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches,
n.d.).

Sketch of simple fiber decorticator

APPLICATION OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH FIBER

1. ACOUSTIC ABSORBER
The utilisation of fibres from the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) to be an alternative natural
acoustic material. The study was carried out by fabricating samples from raw OPEFB fibres with
different densities and thicknesses to observe their effects on the sound absorption performance.
It has been demonstrated that the sound absorption performance can be improved by increasing
the thickness of the sample and also by having optimum densities of fibres. In particular for
lower frequencies, this can be achieved by introducing air cavity gap behind the fibre samples.
Measurement of the normal incidence absorption coefficient in an impedance tube based on ISO
10534-2 found that the OPEFB fibres can have absorption coefficient of 0.9 on average above
1 kHz. The sound absorption performance of OPEFB fibres is also shown to be comparable to
that of the commercial synthetic rock wools.

Mass of sample, m (g) Thickness of sample, t (mm) Bulk density,

d = M/V (kg/m3)
1 10 116.9
2 10 233.8
3 10 350.8
4 10 467.7
5 10 584.6
6 10 701.5
7 10 818.4
2 20 116.9
3 20 175.4
4 20 233.8
5 20 292.3
10 40 292.3
12.5 50 292.3

List of OPEFB fibre samples with the corresponding mass, t3hickness and density.
 Examples of OPEFB sound absorber samples: 10 mm and 20 mm thick.

2. REINFORMENT IN CEMENT COMPOSITES

The construction industry has grown enormously over the last few decades. Concrete has been
the key component in most construction works. Concrete is very good in compression but the
weak tensile properties have made an urge to improve its tensile properties with different
reinforcement materials. The reinforced concrete has more tensile strength compared to non-
reinforced concrete. There are several types of fibers used in reinforced concrete. The Usage of
natural fibers in concrete has not only improved the tensile properties but also has a positive
impact on Environment. There are many varieties of natural fibers available in the market. This
represents the potential of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibers as reinforcement. Several
researchers have used OPEFB fibers as reinforcement in composite materials in the construction
industry. In this statement, the overall performance of OPEFB fibers and their composites
including the surface morphology of OPEFB fibers, physical properties, mechanical properties,
and various treatment methods for improving durability (Rao & Ramakrishna, 2022).
Sketch of (a) Oil palm fruit bunch (b) Cross-section of fruit bunch showing arrangement
(Hassan and Sapuan, 2018).
CONCLUSION

OPEFB fibers polymeric composite materials have wide applications due to their similar
properties to conventional fiber polymer composites. However, their usage is limited and they
have not fully competed with synthetic fibers. To compete, constant development and optimized
outcomes about OPEFB fibers and their composite materials are needed. The mechanical
properties of OPEFB fiber polymer composites vary significantly and depend on various factors.
The complex nature of OPEFB fibers and their composites requires more data on their properties
to establish confidence in their final use.
The thermal degradation at low temperatures restricts their use in various applications, especially
at high temperatures. OPEFB fibers absorb water, which disrupts interfacial bonding between
fibers and matrices, leading to poor mechanical properties. To overcome these disadvantages,
various physical, chemical, or thermal treatments are necessary. OPEFB fibers can be used as
reinforcement with synthetic polymers, biodegradable or bioresin, thermoplastics, thermosets,
and hybrid composites.
Despite significant research, critical evaluation remains the question of OPEFB fibers' further
usage. Industries have been established to tailor OPEFB fiber composites for applications like
fiber boards, medium density boards, and fiber mats, but collaboration between industries,
research institutes, and universities is lacking.
REFERRENCES

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