LECTURE

DESIGN PRACTICE I
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Nguyen The Luong
School of Mechanical Engineering
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
E-mail: [email protected] or
[email protected]
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
What will you learn in this course?
You will learn - How industry communicates technical information.
• Visualization – the ability to mentally control visual information.
• Graphics theory – geometry and projection techniques.
•Standards – set of rules that govern how parts are made and technical drawings
are represented.
•Conventions – commonly accepted practices and methods used for technical
drawings.
• Tools – devices used to create technical drawings and models.
•Applications – the various uses for technical drawings.
How drawing is important to all engineering disciplines…..
Requirements to attend a class: Read a key words,
laptop, pencils (HB, B), A4, A3 papers ???
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BASICS + ADVANCED = SUCCESS

Basic of Any Subject Is CONSTANT But Not Advanced

Importance
 Without Basics we cant make extraordinary work .
 Innovation is also Occurred Only Through Basics
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories
Textbook and Referrence book
Introduction
Drawing

Describing any object/ Information

Diagrammatically

Engineering Drawing OR Machine Drawing

Graphical means of expression of Technical details

without the barrier of a Language

Diagrams/sketches/pictures – communication skills

•We grasp information easily if it is illustrated with
diagrams, sketches, pictures, etc.

4
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction

LCA - the world's smallest, light weight, multi-role Source:

http://img.stern.de/_content/53/96/539645/A3
80_500_artikel_500.jpg
supersonic combat aircraft of the world
AIRBUS A380
• A picture/drawing is worth a thousand words..

•The LCA/Airbus A380 would be impossible to create without computer graphics

and drawing models.
•Drawings are the road maps which show how to manufacture products and
structures. 5
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction

Important for
Mechanical machine all Civil structure
Branches

Chemical reactor
Electrical circuit 6
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
Graphical representation of an object – Drawing
•Engineering drawing – A drawing of an object that contains all
information
-like actual shape, accurate size, manufacturing methods, etc.,
required for its construction.

-No construction/manufacturing of any (man -made) engineering

objects is possible without engineering drawing.

7
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
How Different From Artistic Drawing?
Engineering drawing is completely different from artistic
drawing, which are used to express aesthetic, philosophical,
and abstract ideas.

Engineering Drawing has a specific calculation base.

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 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
Engineering
Drawing

Manual Drawing CADD

9
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Introduction
Elements of Engineering Drawing
Engineering Drawing

Graphics Word
language language

Geometric Projection
construction method Lettering

Line Types
 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

 Items required for drawing Items required for drawing
 A4 paper
 Drawing sheet
 Instrument box containing compass, divider, etc.
 Scales
 Protractor
 Ruler curves
 Drawing pencils
 Eraser
 Drawing clip/pin/adhesive tape
 Sharpener

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 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

Working edge
Drawing board must be placed
on the table with working edge
always to be at the left side.

Last two sizes are normally used for student drawing

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 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

Mini-drafter – a miniature version of the drafting

machine 13
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4 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

Mini-drafter fixed on drawing board

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5 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

Triangle ruler
French
Curve
ruler

Protractor ruler

Some drawing instruments

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5 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

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5 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Drawing Instrument and Aids

Drawing Pencils

Wooden pencils – are graded and designated by numbers and letters

Mechanical clutch pencils – Not allowed
• 7B, 6B, 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B, B - in decreasing order of softness and blackness
• HB to F – Medium grade
• H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, 9H – increasing order of hardness.
Drawings are done using 2H pencils and finished with H
and HB pencils – to be practiced in this course.

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1 CHAPTER-1 Drawing Instruments and Accessories

Standards and Conventions

No effective communication without an agreed upon standard of signs or symbols.

Standards and conventions are the alphabet of technical drawing, and plane,
solid, and descriptive geometry are the science(grammar) which underlies the
graphics language.

Following the standard rules (grammar) of any language (Hindi/English) –

communication of thought between people becomes easier.
If words in a sentence were presented randomly – understanding becomes very
difficult.
For effective communication of technical (graphics) information– set of
standards and conventions – a must.
Standards and Conventions – very important
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4 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Drawing standards
ANSI – American National Standards Institute
ANSI Y14.1 1980 (R1987) – Drawing sheet size
and format
ANSI Y 14.2M-1979 (R1987) – Line
conventions and lettering
ANSI Y14.5M-1982(R1988) –
Dimensioning and tolerances
ANSI Y 14.3-1975(R1987) – Multi view and sectional view
drawings
ISO – International Standards Organization
JIS – Japanese Standards
BIS – Bureau of Indian Standards
TCVN 2-74 to TCVN 19-85
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6 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Drawing Sheet
Standard sizes of drawing sheets as per BIS
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6 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Textbook of Enginnering Drawing

 Title Block: Maximum length of 170 mm providing the following
information:
1. Title of the drawing.
2. Drawing number.
3. Scale.
4. Symbol denoting the method of projection.
5. Name of the firm and Initials of staff who have designed,
checked and approved
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

1.1 Introduction
ISO standand
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Drawing Sheet Layout

Layout of a drawing sheet 17

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Drawing Sheet Layout in TCVN 222 - 66

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 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Folding of Drawing Sheets

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 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Introduction to Types of Lines

• Each line has a definite form and line weight.

• The standard thick line weight is 0.6mm HB Lead.

• The standard thin line weight is 0.3mm HB Lead.

• The standard construction line weight is 0.5mm 2H

Lead.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Line widths (IS 10714 : 2001)

 Choose line widths according to the size of the drawing from the following range:
0.13,0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7 and 1 mm.
 BIS recommends two line widths on a drawing. Ratio between the thin and thick
lines on a drawing shall not be less than 1:2.
Line widths in Vietnam (TCVN 8 - 1993)

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 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Basic Line Types & Name according to

application
Thickness 1. Dimension line
Thick Thin 2. Extension line
Visible line 3. Leader line
Style
Continuous Hidden line
Dash
Chain Center line

1. Visible line represent features that can be seen in the current view.
2. Dimension line
Extension line indicate the sizes and location of features.
Leader line

3. Hidden line represent features that cannot be seen in the current view.

4. Center line represents symmetry, path of motion, centers of circles,

axis of axisymmetrical parts.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Main Line Types

Viewing Planes Visible Lines Hidden Lines

Break Lines Center Lines

Phantom Lines Dimension Lines

Lines

Section Lines Extension Lines

Cutting Planes Leader Lines

CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Break Lines
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Visible/Object Lines
• Dark, heavy lines.
• Used to represent the outline or contour of the object
being drawn.
• Define features you can see in a particular view.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Hidden Lines
• Light, narrow, short, dashed lines.
• Shows the outline of a feature that can not be seen in
a particular view.
• Used to help clarify a feature, but can be omitted if
they clutter a drawing.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Section Lines

• Thin line usually drawn at a 45 degree angle.

• Indicates the material that has been cut through in a
sectional view.

Section
Line
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Center Lines
• Thin line consisting of alternating long and short
dashes.
• Used to represent the center of round or cylindrical
features, or the symmetry of a feature.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices
Dimension Lines
• Thin lines capped on the ends with arrowheads and
broken along their length to provide a space for the
dimension numeral.
• They indicate length.
Principles of Dimensioning
I. All dimensional information necessary to describe a component clearly and
completely shall
be written directly on a drawing.
2. Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a drawing, i.e., dimension
marked in one
view need not be repeated in another view.
3. Dimension should be placed on the view where the shape is best seen
(Fig.2.14)
4. As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only preferably
in millimeters,
without showing the unit symbol (mm).
5. As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside the view (Fig.2.15).
6. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines
(Fig.2.16).
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Dimension Lines
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Extension Lines
• Thin lines used to establish the extent of a dimension.
• Can also be used to show extension of a surface to a
theoretical intersection as shown in (b).
• Begin 1.5mm from the object and extend to 3mm
beyond the last dimension.
• They should not cross dimension lines.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Leader Lines
• Thin lines used to connect a specific note to a feature.
• Also used to direct dimensions, symbols, item number and
part numbers on a drawing.
• Commonly drawn at 45, 30 and 60 degrees.
• Has a short shoulder (3-6mm) at one end beginning at the
center of the vertical height of text, and a standard
dimension arrowhead at the other end touching the feature.

• Leader lines should not cross

each other.
• Leader lines should not be
excessively long.
• Leader lines should not be
vertical or horizontal.
• Leader lines should not be
parallel to dimension lines,
extension lines or section lines.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Arrowheads
• Used to terminate dimension lines and leader lines and on
cutting-plane lines and viewing plane lines.
• They should be three times as long as they are wide.
• They should be the same size throughout the drawing.
• The filled arrowhead is generally preferred because of its
clarity.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Methods of Indicating Dimensions

 Method - 1 (Aligned method)
 Dimensions should be placed parallel to and above their dimension lines
and preferably at the middle, and clear of the line.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Methods of Indicating Dimensions

 Method - 2 (uni-directional method)

 Identification of Sbapes
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Arrangement of Dimensions
They are arranged in three ways:
1. Chain dimensioning
2. Parallel dimensioning
3. Combined dimensioning
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Arrangement of Dimensions
 Violation of some of the principles of drawing
Incorrect Correct
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Cutting Plane Lines

• Thick broken line that is terminated with short 90
degree arrowheads.
• Shows where a part is mentally cut in half to better
see the interior detail.
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Cutting Plane Lines (Example)

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Break Lines

• Used to break out sections for clarity or for shortening

a part.

• Three types of break lines with different line weights:

a) Short Breaks.
b) Long Breaks.
c) Cylindrical Breaks.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

a) Short Break Lines

• Thick wavy line.
• Used to break the edge or surface of a part for clarity
of a hidden surface.

(a) Short break line on metal shape;

(b) Short Break Line on wood shape.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

b) Long Break Lines

• Long, thin lines.
• Used to show that the middle section of an object has
been removed so it can be drawn on a smaller piece
of paper.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

c) Cylindrical Break Lines

• Thin lines.
• Used to show round parts that are broken in half to
better clarify the print or to reduce the length of the
object.

Cylindrical conventional breaks for a solid and tube;

where R = Radius
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Phantom Lines
• Thin lines made up of long dashes alternating with
pairs of short dashes.
• Three purposes in drawings
a) To show the alternate position of moving parts.
b) To show the relationship of parts that fit together.
c) To show repeated detail.
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Phantom Lines (Examples)

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Grades of Pencils used in Lines

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Example 1
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Example 2

Uses of different types of lines in a givendrawing

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Example 3

Uses of different types of lines in a givendrawing 19

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Lettering in Engineering Drawing

Lettering is used to provide easy to read and understand

information to supplement a drawing in the form of notes
and annotations.

Lettering is an essential element in both traditional drawing

and Computer Aided Design (CAD) drawing

Thus, it must be written with:

Legibility – shape & space between letters and words.
Uniformity – size & line thickness.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Types of Lettering
The two types of lettering are:
1. Double Stroke Lettering.
2. Single Stroke Lettering.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

1. Double Stroke Lettering

In Double Stroke Lettering the line width is greater than that of
Single Stroke Lettering.

Double Stroke Lettering is further divided into:

a) Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering.
b) Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering.

A stencil is mostly used when hand drawing double stroked letters.

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

2. Single Stroke Lettering

Thickness in single stroke lettering is obtained by a single stroke of
pencil or ink pen.
It is further divided into:
(a) Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering.
(b) Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering.

Single stroke vertical letters Single stroke inclined letters

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Conventions for Lettering

• Use all CAPITAL LETTERS.
• Use even pressure to draw precise, clean lines.
• Use one stroke per line.
• Horizontal Stroke are drawn left to right.
• Vertical Strokes are drawn downward.
• Curved strokes are drawn top to bottom in one continuous stroke on
each side.
• Use kerning to eliminate excessive space between letters. –
[kerning refers to adjusting the space between characters, especially by
placing two characters closer together than normal. Kerning makes certain
combinations of letters, such as WA, MW, TA, and VA, look better.]
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Conventions for Lettering (cont.)

• Use The Single-stroke, Gothic Style of Lettering.
• Always Skip A Space Between Rows Of Letters.
• Always Use Very Light Guide Lines.
• Fractions are lettered twice the height of normal letters.
• Fraction bars are always drawn horizontal.
• Use a medium (B, HB, F or H) Lead For Normal Lettering.
• Use a Hard (2H To 4H) Lead For Drawing Guide Lines.
• Notes should be double spaced.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Application of Lettering
Lettering in Engineering Drawings is used in writing
Title Blocks which play a crucial role in drawings, they
are used to record all of the important information
necessary for the working drawings. A HB Pencil is used.

What does the Title Block contain?

Other uses of lettering include Dimensions and Notes

on the engineering drawing.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Placement of text on Engineering Drawings

Try and locate the text on the drawings going around.

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices
Guidelines
Extremely light horizontal lines that are necessary to regulate the
height of letters.
In addition, light vertical or inclined guidelines are needed to keep
the letters uniformly vertical or inclined.
Guidelines are absolutely essential for good lettering.
Guidelines are drawn using Hard (2H to 4H) Lead Pencils with light
pressure. HB grade conical end pencils are used for lettering.

Procedure for Lettering

• Thin horizontal guide lines are drawn first at a distance ‘h’ apart.
• Lettering Technique: Horizontal lines of the letters are drawn from
left to right. Vertical, inclined and curved lines are drawn from top to
bottom.
• After lettering has been completed, the guidelines are not erased.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Guidelines in Lettering (including Height)

h -(height of capital letters) Recommended Size (height, h) of
c1 -(height of lower-case letters) Letters/Numerals
c2 -(tail of lower-case letters) Main Title 5mm, 7mm, 10mm
c3 -(stem of lower-case letters)
b1 -(spacing between baselines) Sub-Title 3.5mm, 5mm
b2 -(spacing between baselines)
Dimensions, Notes 2.5mm, 3.5mm, 5mm
etc.
c2

c2
h
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Guidelines for Lettering

Standard height for CAPITAL Letters and Numerals according to the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) is:

• 1.8, 2.5, 3.5, 5, 6, 10, 14, 20 mm. (Sizes selected based upon size of drawing)

•
• Drawing numbers, title blocks and letters denoting cutting planes,
sections are written in 10mm size.
• Drawing title is written in 7mm size.
• Hatching, subtitles, materials, dimensions, notes etc. are written in 3.5
mm size.
Space between lines is 3/10 h (height of capital letters)
Space between words may be equal to the width of the alphabet M or
3/5 h (height of capital letters).
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Guidelines for Lettering

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Basics of Single Stroking

 Straight Slanted Horizontal Curved

Examples
“I” letter “A” letter “B” letter
4 5
1 1 2 1

3 6

3
2
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Order of Strokes
Stroking is done based on the slope of each letter and
the strokes vary with order and direction.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking for Upper Case Letters & Numerals

Straight line
letters

Curved line
letters
&
Numerals
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The I-H-T Group
•The letter I is The Foundation Stroke.
•The top of T is drawn first to the full width of the square and
the stem is started accurately at its mid point.

I H T
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The L-E-F Group
•The L is made in two strokes.
•The first two strokes of the E are the same for the L, the
third or the upper stoke is lightly shorter than the lower and
the last stroke is the third as long as the lower.
•F has the same proportion as E.

L E F
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The V-A-K Group
•V is the same width as A, the A bridge is one third up from
the bottom.
•The second stroke of K strikes stem one third up from the
bottom and the third stroke branches from it.

V A K
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The M-W Group
•Are the widest letters.
•M may be made in consecutive strokes of the two verticals
as of N.
•W is made with two V’s.

M W
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The O-Q-C-G Group
•The O families are made as full circles and made in two
strokes with the left side a longer arc than the right.
•A large size C and G can be made more accurately with an
extra stroke at the top.

O Q C G

The O-Q-C-G Group stroking will be demonstrated on the

whiteboard
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The O-Q-C-G Group (cont.)
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The D-U-J Group
•The top and bottom stokes of D must be horizontal, fail line
to observe this is a common fault with beginners
•U is formed by two parallel strokes to which the bottom
stroke be added.
•J has the same construction as U, with the first stroke
omitted.
D U J
Note:- The
bottom stroke
in J is drawn
once, and not
twice as
shown in the
animation.
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The P-R-B Group
•The number of stokes depends up on the size of the letter.
•The middle line of P and R are on centerline of the vertical
line.

P R B
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Stroking Groups
The N-Z-X-Y Group
•The parallel sides of N are generally drawn first.
•Z is drawn without lifting the pen. Z and X are both
started inside the width of the square on top and run to
full width on the bottom.

N Z X Y
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Other Stroking Groups

The S-8-3 Group
A perfect 3 should be
able to be completed
into an 8; An 8 can be
made from an S
construction. The S is
made up of three
strokes.

The 0-6-9 Group

The cipher (zero) is
narrower than the
letter O and made of
two strokes. The 6
and 9 have the cipher
as their backbone.
With their lobes 2/3
the figure’s height.
 Other Stroking Groups
The 2-5-7-& Group

The bottom of 2 and top of 5 and 7 should be straight lines. For 2 the reverse curve should cross
the center of the space. The ampersand (&) is made of three strokes.

The Fraction Group

• Always made with a horizontal vinculum (a horizontal line used in

mathematical notation).
• The figures are two-thirds the height of the whole numbers, with a clear
space above and below the line, making the total height of the fraction nearly
twice the cap height (h).
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

The Fraction Group (Example)

 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Spacing
Uniformity in spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing
spaces by eye.
•The background area between letters, not the distance between them,
should be approximately equal.
•Words are spaced well apart, but letters within words should be spaced
closely.
L IN E S
LET T ERS
•For either upper case or lower-case lettering, make the spaces between
words approximately equal to a capital O.

LINES AND LETTERINGS

•Avoid spacing letters too far apart and words too close together.
CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Types of Spacing
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Space between letters

• Spacing between characters, is normally (2/10)h.
• Spacing between words, is normally
(6/10)h. where h is the cap height.

Lettering Uniformity
• Important to produce good drawings.
• Uniform in style, size, inclination, weight and space.
• Carelessness might result in mistakes.

ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
 CHAPTER- 2 Lettering and Dimensioning Practices

Exercises chapter 1,2

Draw Layout drawing sheet and insert the following figure
in drawing (title block with 140 mm on A4 paper)
CHAPTER- 3 Scales

SCALES
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET. THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY AFRACTION.. R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE MEANS DRAWING
AND & OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR.
Other RFs are described
as
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED 1:10, 1:100,
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE. 1:1000, 1:1,00,000
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.
USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
=
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME

B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. MAXX.LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

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 CHAPTER- 3 Scales

BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE= 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES

TYPES OF SCALES:

1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)

2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)

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 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
PLAIN SCALE:- This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’ssub-division.

PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.

Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.= DIMENSION OF DRAWING
DIMENSION OF OBJECT PLAIN SCALE
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100
Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger divisionunit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fractionof first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

0 1 4 5

10 2 3 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000 PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger divisionunit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fractionof first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETERS
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour
= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of firstunit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale asshown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it asshown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM

KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM

MIN 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/200.000
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions, such
as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions

DIAGONAL
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit. SCALE

The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

Let the XY in figure be a subunit. X Y
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 10
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 9
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions
8
and number them as shown.
From geometry we know that similar triangles have 7
their like sides proportional. 6
5
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z, 4
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
3
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7XY
:. 2
Similarly 1
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY Z
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES

 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similarrectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION :
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters DIAGONAL
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long. SCALE
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm
of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
METERS

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
100 50 0 100 400
M 200 300 500METE
R.F. = 1 / 4000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters and millimeters
and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters. Show a distance of 13.4 cm on it.
SOLUTION STEPS:
R.F. = 1 / 2.5 DIAGONAL
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm. SCALE
= 8 cm.
1. Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2. Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3. At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4. Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

13 .4 CM

10
9
8
7
6
MM

5
4
3
2
1
0
CM 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRES

R.F. = 1 / 2.5
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
COMPARATIVE SCALE: length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
 Scales having same representative = 15 cm.
fraction but graduated to read different CONSTRUCTION:
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
units are called comparative ( each part will represent 10 km.)
Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
scales ( each will represent 1 km.)
EXAMPLE NO. 8 :
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph. Time Scale:
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
traveled by car in 47 minutes. Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.

47 MINUTES

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
MIN.

KM 10 5 40
0 10 20 30 50 KM

47 KM
R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS
 CHAPTER- 3 Scales
Vernier scales: Vernier scales, like diagonal scales, are used to read to a very
small unit with great accuracy
Example 10: Vernier Scale
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)

Length of scale = RF X max. Distance Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
= 16 cm Covering these parts of vernier.
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long. TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Divide it in 4 equal parts. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39m
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11 =0.80 m
( each will represent decimeter ) The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m
Name those properly.