Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

The application of coastal regulation zones

in coastal management * appraisal of
Indian experience
K. Ajith Joseph*, A.N. Balchand
Department of Physical Oceanography, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682 016, India

Abstract

Human agglomerations in the coastal zone bring about unprecedented changes, the impacts
of which are on the rise. A clear picture has emerged recently on the deterioration of the highly
fragile and sensitive zone of the coastal ecosystem due to overexploitation of living and
non-living resources. The formulation of `coastal regulation zonesa (CRZ) in this context
necessitates the proper management and conservation of these regions by identifying areas that
require adequate attention for preservation and development. This paper critically reviews the
planning and implementation of CRZ with emphasis on socio-economic aspects as well as
traditional practices under Indian conditions. The study also incorporates management strat-
egies for developing countries factually threatened by physical constraints and accelerated
ecological changes.  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The protection and sustainable utilization of marine resources in the coastal zone(s)
has become an issue of great scienti"c concern to ocean scientists in these days of
cultural and economic growth. In the context of land}ocean interaction, coastal zone
is de"ned as extending from the coastal plains to the outer edge of the continental
shelves, approximately matching the region that has been alternately #ooded and
exposed during the sea level #uctuations of the late quaternary period [1]. A major
section of people concentrate their activities in this region, towards global
tourism, industrialization, agriculture, etc., resulting in an alarming increase of coastal

* Corresponding author. Tel.: #91-484-363950; fax: #91-484-374164.

E-mail address: oceans}[email protected] (K.A. Joseph).

0964-5691/00/$ - see front matter  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 1 - 7
516 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

population density. As an example, coastal population accounts for 90% of the

land-based pollutants like sewage, industrial wastes, nutrients and toxic materials.
The anthropogenic in#uence on the coastal zone has recently accentuated the trans-
port of sediment #ux to the coastal waters compared to natural #ux rates, with the
exception of certain regional scenarios. The impact of functioning of reservoirs, river
management strategies and freshwater diversions in the upstream reaches [2] has
brought about vast alterations downstream.
The Rio UNCED Conference in 1992 was a prelude to the protection and sustain-
able utilization of coastal zones and has discussed this item as an issue in its Agenda
21 (Chapter 17) about the need for increased awareness of the socio-economic
importance of coastal marine environments. According to Agenda 21, `despite nation-
al, sub-regional and global e!orts, current approaches to the management of marine
and coastal resources have not always been proved as capable of achieving sustain-
able development, and the coastal resources and coastal environment are being
rapidly degraded and eroded in many parts of the worlda. Hence it recommends,
`each coastal state should consider establishing, or where necessary strengthening,
appropriate coordinating mechanisms for integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both local and
national levela. It has also recommended that `each coastal state should consider
preparing national guidelines for the integrated management of the coastal areasa.
This critical appraisal on the coastal regulation zones gives an overview of the
regulations that have been implemented in developing countries where population
agglomerations thrive and coastal resources have been over-exploited at an unprece-
dented rate. The paper "rst looks into the global scenario on zoning followed by the
Indian scenario wherein the zone classi"cation and regulation norms for prohibited
and permissible activities are examined.

2. Global scenario

Among the "ve basic approaches in CZM plan [3], zoning was given the "rst
priority with subdivisions. These were (a) preservation zone, (b) scienti"c research
zone (c) wilderness zone (d) national park zone (e) recreational zone and (f) general use
zone. The coastal zone classi"cation within the framework of a coastal zone manage-
ment plan had been emphasized under 10 titles [4]. Countries of southeast Asia,
namely, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore with present popula-
tion growth of 2.5% have and are formulating short- and long-term plans on coastal
conservation. Zoning has appealed to many of these countries as an essential constitu-
ent in implementing e!ective measures. The procedures include permit and appeal,
acquisition of lands, rehabilitation and periodic revision under both administrative
and scienti"c set-up. This is very evident for the island country Sri Lanka [5].
Thailand has gone ahead one step by applying suitable matrices (sub zoning) to
counter adverse e!ects. For the country of Bangladesh, CZM is incorporated in the
water resource sector. Coastal protection is facilitated mainly by encouraging man-
grove belts and developments are linked to a 7-year forest resources management
 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526 517

project. The Government of China had recognized as early as in 1986 CZM planning
and had established over 60 marine reserves between 1989 and 1992. On a long-term
basis, 1995}2020 National Marine Development Plan would support traditional
"sheries, the salt industry and adopt e!ective monitoring systems of coastal zones.
The world's largest archipelago state, Indonesia, with more than 17,000 islands
(81,000 km long shoreline) had drawn out an ambitious Marine Resources Evaluation
and Planning (MREP) commencing from 1993. This project focuses on tackling
developmental pressures of marine areas close to the land and those areas, which are
in need of rational management. Zoning in Malaysia having a coast line of 4800 km
comprises to distinctly draw out the di!erent physical formations of mangrove fringed
mud#ats and sandy beaches through an approach by a comprehensive national
coastal erosion study, 1984}1985. This was followed by the South Johor Coastal
Resources Management Plan and promulgation of two laws: the Environment Qual-
ity Act (1985) and Environment Impact Assessment Order (1987). In 1992, the
national coastal resource management policy, to increase the awareness and concerns
for coastal environmental issues in support of the concept of sustainable development
was adopted. All the above countries have taken cognizance of a conceptual integrated
CZM plan, which comprises zoning as an integral part of sustainable development.
Elsewhere in the world, developed and developing countries have implemented
e!ectively since 1970s, projects aimed at managing coastal resources. In USA, a two-
track approach whereby local level demonstration projects are linked to and sup-
ported by national policy makers is currently in vogue. In e!ect, the implementation
of the policy is through annual work plans followed by evaluation since the practical
coastal manager (the authorities) have advanced to a great degree in planning,
implementation and execution with adequate experience since 1970s. Council of
Europe has documented a Model Act on the protection of environment at Strasbourg,
1994 as a revision of all existing legislation. The salient features include an integrated
protection of the environment aims and to promote ecologically stable scenarios.
General principles include precautionary approaches in maintenance of bio diversity
and right of the public to information and participation and co-operation. In Ger-
many, zoning is a part of coastal protection master plans in combination with land use
planning. The master plans are drafted on a regional scale for each of the "ve coastal
states.
Drawing another example from Central America, Belize on the Caribbean, had
established in 1990, the CZM unit, which manages a three phase project. The phase 3,
currently undertaken, include a zoning scheme allowing #exible policies and monitor-
ing mechanisms, which aid research to address major issues. Likewise, since 1989,
Egypt (concentrating more through freshwater management) and Equador, subjected
to e!ects of ENSO have implemented CZM zoning plans. Israel, from 1970 onwards,
through the National Planning and Building Board (NPBB) and the Mediterranean
action plan, since 1984, identifying 12 regional programs, have time and again
implemented fruitfully the CZM plan for the bene"t of development and sustainable
use of coastal resources. A close inspection of the above plan programs have indicated
the extent to which coastal zoning had e!ectively helped in implementing the aims
and objectives of each nations management of their coasts.
518 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

3. Indian scenario

In order to have a control over exploitation and check further continued deteriora-
tion of coastal resources, the Government of India had promulgated a noti"cation in
1990, based on the Environmental Protection Act (1986) and Environmental Protec-
tion Rules of 1986 declaring coastal stretches as Coastal Regulation Zones and
imposing restriction on industries, operation and other activities in these Regulation
Zones [6]. However, while doing so the Government had invited objections/sugges-
tions from all coastal states of India. In 1991, the Government of India had earmarked
the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are
in#uenced by tidal action in the land ward direction up to 500 m from the high tide
line (HTL) as coastal regulation zones. The HTL was demarcated uniformly in all
parts of the country based on the spring tide conditions by appropriate authorities in
consultation with the Surveyor General of India.
Under the coastal regulation zone (CRZ) * the prohibited activities are

Prohibited activities Exception

(1) Setting up of new industries & Those directly need foreshore facility
expansion of existing one & directly related to water front
(2) Hazardous material handling/manu-
facturing /storage/ disposal
(3) Fish-processing and warehousing Hatchery & natural "sh drying in
permitted areas
(4) Waste and e%uent disposal units/ Discharge facilities for treated e%uents
mechanisms and draining of storm water
(5) Discharge of untreated industrial
wastes and e%uents, sewage from cities
& towns and other human settlement
(6) City/town waste dumping for land An interim period of three years to
"lling phase out the existing practices
(7) Waste/ash dumping from thermal
power station
(8) Land reclamation, bunding or dis- Obstruction required for control of
turbing the natural course of sea coastal erosion, sand bars, salt water
water with similar obstructions intrusion and maintenance or leaning of
waterways, channels ports and tidal
regulators, storm water drain, fresh
water recharge
(9) Beach sands, corals, rocks and Rare minerals not available outside
other substrata material mining. CRZ areas.
(10) Ground water withdrawal within Fixing of ordinary wells within 200 and
200 m of HTL 500 m of high tide line for drinking,
horticulture, agriculture and "sheries
 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526 519

(11) Any construction activity within the Facilities for carrying treated e%uents
inter tidal zone and waste water discharge into sea,
carrying of sea water for cooling
purpose, oil, gas and similar pipelines
and other permitted activities
(12) Construction activities in
ecologically sensitive areas.
(13) Dressing or altering of sand dunes, Permissible activities like item (8).
hills, etc., landscaping for beauti"cation,
recreational and other such purposes.

3.1. Coastal regulation zone classixcation

The coastal stretches within the 500 m of HTL on the land ward side are classi"ed
under four categories to regulate the developmental activities, which often degrade the
coastal environment. Ecologically sensitive areas like national land parks/marine
parks, sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats, mangroves, coral reef, areas close
to breeding and spawning grounds of "sh and other marine life, areas rich in
bio-diversity, areas of outstanding natural beauty/historical/heritage areas, inter-tidal
areas and other areas which are under the threats of sea level rise due to global
warming comes under the category, CRZ-I. Already developed areas within the
municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which have already
substantially built up to or close to the shoreline with drainage and approach roads,
water supply and sewerage main facilities are designated under CRZ-II. Whereas the
relatively undisturbed areas in the coastal zone in the rural areas within municipal
limits or in other designated urban areas which are not substantially built and those
which do not belong to the above two categories are classi"ed under CRZ-III. But the
areas that are undesignated under the above three categories which belong to coastal
stretches of small island territories like Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and
small islands comes under CRZ-IV category.
The coastal states and union territory administration shall prepare `Coastal Zone
Management Plana by identifying and classifying the CRZ areas with their respective
territories in accordance with the guidelines designated for CRZ (I,II,III & IV regions)
and obtain approval of the Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and
Forest (MEF). For the interim period, all developmental activities in the CRZ shall be
regulated by the State Government within the framework of guidelines issued and
shall not violate the provision of the norms until the CRZ plans are "nalized.

3.2. Regulation norms for activities

The development or construction activities in di!erent categories of CRZ areas

shall be regulated in accordance with the norms discussed hereunder.
(1) No new construction shall be permitted within 500 m of HTL and also in the
inter-tidal zone, except those exceptions listed in item (11) in CRZ-I zone.
520 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

(2) In CRZ-II region, no new building shall be permitted on the seaward side of the
existing foreshore road or roads proposed in the approved coastal zone management
plan of the area or on the seaward side of the existing authorized structures.
(3) In CRZ-III no development and constructional activities shall be permitted
within 200 m from the HTL. But traditional practices and other occupations like
agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pastures, parks, play "elds, forestry and salt manu-
facture from seawater are permissible without a!ecting the coastal environment.
(4) But the area between 200 and 500 m of HTL in designated areas of CRZ-III can
be utilized for the construction activities with the prior permission of environmental
monitoring authorities.
(5) Similarly construction/reconstruction of dwelling units between 200 and 500 m
of HTL can be permitted in view of the traditional rights and customary uses such as
existing "shing villages.
(6) In CRZ-IV category which constitutes small islands, no new construction shall
be permitted within 200 m of HTL. Similarly corals, beach sands and coastal waters
shall not be used for the construction and other purposes. Likewise dredging and
underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted.
(7) But to control and regulate the impacts of beach tourism certain regulations
have to be implemented for the construction of beach resorts/hotels and other
makeshift shelters. Among the coastal regulation zone, CRZ-III is highly recommen-
ded for promoting global tourism, as these regions of the coastal zones fall within the
framework of sustainable development. Some recommended guidelines for the beach
resorts/hotel developments are also proposed.
(8) To enforce and implement the above regulations any infringement or lapses of
these noti"cation can be raised in legal and administrative judiciaries. A state coastal
management authority in each state or zone or a national coastal management
authority has to be appointed to monitor and manage all coastal environments of
concerned states.

3.3. Coastal regulation zone plan * appraisal of the Indian scenario

Though strict coastal regulation plans have to be implemented to protect the

coastal environment, we should also consider the geographical and demographical
conditions of the concerned region(s). The state of Kerala along the south-west coast
of India, is geographically located between highlands, west of Western Ghats and low
lands bordering Lakshadweep sea on the west having a coastal stretch of 560 km; the
demographic distribution in the coastal districts is so appalling that some amend-
ments have to be considered in the light of this.
The HTL was "xed by the Indian Hydrographic O$ce, `as the position as on
a particular month and year (February, 1991) based on the noti"cation for the coastal
regulation zone which was taken to follow uniformity in assigning HTLa. But this
decision had overlooked the impacts of global warming and associated sea level
changes that altered the HTL position. With limited land availability, high population
density and other special terrain features and prevailing circumstances of this State,
the CRZ distance of 500 m o! the HTL along the creeks, rivers and backwaters shall
 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526 521

be reduced to 100 m or the width of the creek, river or backwater whichever is less
according to state CRZ plans. Other suggestions include mapping of historical and
heritage areas and those with outstanding natural beauty which were also undertaken
to demarcate the spatial extent of these areas under CRZ-I category. Extra care for the
protection of mangrove ecosystems, which falls under CRZ-I, has been taken and
a bu!er zone of 50 m around the mud #ats and marshy areas surrounding them have
to be kept protected even if the width of creek or backwater or river is less than 50 m.
Backwaters cannot be reclaimed within the CRZ for developmental activities and no
reclamation and construction on reclaimed land is permitted in CRZ areas. Dredging
is allowed but no developmental activity is permitted on the land thus formed due to
the dumped dredged spoils and, furthermore, spoils cannot be dumped in CRZ areas.
Mining is permitted only for those rare minerals, which are not available beyond the
CRZ areas and steps have to be taken to minimize erosion in consultation with the
Department of Atomic Energy and Ministry of Environment and Forests (INDIA).
A few case studies are illustrated, which pertain to the working of CRZ in this
country. Ghosh et al. [7] have identi"ed and suggested mitigation measures on the
potential adverse impacts on coastal environments with case studies on port develop-
ment and coastal zone management, namely at Gopalpur Port in Orissa, east coast of
India, the development of Dighi Port inside Rajpuri creek in the coastal plains of
Maharashtra and the development of a crude oil terminal at Gujarat, both locations
along the west coast of India. The above study paved the way for the suggestion for
single point mooring system with anchor piles which would minimize impacts on the
aquatic environments, both o!shore and within the inter-tidal areas. This ensured
that the port development at this site is integrated with the proclaimed provisions of
coastal regulation zone activities while protecting the coastal habitats.
The management of New Mangalore Port, west coast and its surroundings has been
addressed in view of the overall development and coastal processes such as littoral
drift and sedimentation and the requirements of maintenance dredging [8]. Kamath
[9] goes on to discuss the past, present and future of New Mangalore Port with due
emphasis on coastal zoning. On a regional scale, the entire coastal belt of Tamil Nadu
along the east coast of India has been studied for shoreline oscillation which indicate
erosion, accretion, stable and oscillating sites, the behavior of which are analyzed in
the light of CRZ [10]. For the State of Kerala, given the scale of coastal processes,
di!erent alternate coastal protection strategies have been outlined by Baba et al.
[11,12].
Having recognized the increasing pressures on the coastal zone, the coastal regula-
tion zone mapping has commenced along the coastal states of India, with particular
emphasis on industrial activities, critical habitats, tidal inundation and waste manage-
ment [13]. The output of these studies making use of multi-date satellite data will
throw light on shoreline changes, coastal land form utilization, monitoring of pro-
tected areas, coastal stability and would hopefully serve towards building up of
a conceptual model for coastal zone management in view of the regulations.
The Supreme Court of India has the legal authority to take e!ective steps for the
enforcement of environmental laws in India by acting for the fundamental rights of the
people. But keeping in view of the better understanding of the regional coastal
522 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

environmental problems, the High Courts which have territorial jurisdiction over
each coastal state(s), often deal with particular issues. In the context of CRZ, a high-
power committee constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF),
Government of India, functions as the central authority for the inspection of violation
of norms and guidelines described for developmental activities in the coastal zones of
each state/union territory. To cite speci"c instances of strict coastal practices, the
developmental activities for beach/resorts/hotels in the CRZ of Goa state on the west
coast of India which is one of the prime tourist centers has issued notice to curb
extensive construction activities. Another site in Maharashtra, was also required to
implement controls in view of infringement on coastal zone by the presence of
industries causing coastal pollution. A distillery factory at Pondicherry, east coast of
India, was put under strict operational controls for non-compliance of CRZ laws. In
the light of these actions, the Supreme Court of India has asked each coastal state to
prepare coastal management plans in consultation with MEF and submit the same to
Government for approval. The plans would cover all future developmental activities
in the coastal zone with due recognition to the provisions of the CRZ regulations.
An illustration of the working order of the schematic diagram for CRZ (Fig. 1) is
given below. The four zones (CRZ-I to CRZ-IV) are governed by a regulatory
authority under the government to which the Ministry of Environment and Forest
(MEF) along with judicial courts gives directions and orders from time to time. The
coastal state governments and Union Territories accept the guidelines of the regula-
tory authority which are examined and put to practice by the assistance of Planning
Boards, Civil Administration, Survey Departments, Non-Governmental Organiza-
tions (N G O), Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCB). Under
the Regulations, the Coastal Zone Management Authority administers the working of
the guidelines, regulations, speci"c orders, etc. which require to interact with di!erent
sectors like industry, agriculture, transportation, defense, tourism, etc.
The above schematic diagram is supported by a case study which evoked extensive
dialogue among planners, administrators and scientists. The shrimp culture indus-
try/pond aqua culture are prohibited activities in the coastal zone under CRZ as it is
not directly related to water front nor this industry which directly needs any foreshore
facilities like brackish water as it can alternatively draw water from any source
including sea and may carry the same to any distance by pipelines. Hence the Supreme
Court of India ordered that such enterprises like shrimp culture and establishment of
ponds for such activities should be demolished within a prescribed time limit. Sim-
ilarly, agricultural lands, salt pans, mangroves, wetlands, forest lands, land for village
common purpose and for public purposes shall not be used or converted for construc-
tion of shrimp culture ponds. However, farmers operating traditional and improved
eco-friendly system of aqua culture are permitted to continue their profession by
incorporating modern technological methods with the prior approval of concerned
authorities towards increasing production. The drastic change-over in coastal aqua
culture practices is re#ected in the quantitative "gures given below. Of the total
brackish water area (14,16,300 ha) suitable for prawn farming in India, 2,27,000 ha
were identi"ed for prawn culturing and presently only 1,30,000 ha are under culture
[14,15]. Of the cultivable area, 97,000 ha lies in the coastal regulation zone.
 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526 523

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for CRZ.

The decision of the authority to curb culture activities resulted in loss of landings to
the tune of US$42 million compared prior to the implementation of the directions.
The regulatory authority came up with measures to reduce the pressures on the fragile
ecosystem of the coastal zones of India with inputs from Ministry, NGOs and
decisions of the honorable courts. The industry which at "rst resented the approach,
realized the gravity of the problem in time when mass mortality of the seedlings were
noticed due to unhealthy practices, especially in the coastal regions. The analysis of
the failure in prawn culture was directly attributed to the high-density farming
approach without due consideration to ecological principles. The state governments
524 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526

and its departments along with NGOs and other statutory bodies were able to
convince the farmers and the industry to curtail their activities in the light of the
practical situation and follow the guidelines as promulgated by the concerned
authorities. The aqua culture sector has now shown signs of revitalization after
implementing the proposal on regulated eco-friendly farming practices and the
revenue from this sector is currently US$55 million [16]. The present working
arrangement for this sector is quite healthy and in future this activity and all those
sectors listed above will be functioning under the single umbrella of the coastal
zone management authority of quasi-statutory powers controlled by each state
government.

4. Outlook

The implementation of ICZM has long recognized the elements of strategic plann-
ing by means of regulation zoning so as to facilitate decision-making. The e!ective
performance of ICZM and plans drawn up within its framework often attempt and
resolve con#icts, the domain spanning demographic and socio-economic status,
changing demands on coastal resources, sensitive ecosystems, to short- (periodic
variability) and long-term conditions (say global climatic changes). In this context,
maritime states (viz. USA, EU countries, and few developed island nations) evolve and
re"ned their methodology and approach in ICZM. However, their typical plan
proposal are best suited to enhance the sustainable use of coastal resources in view of
low population density, alternate resources and depend to a large extent on cultural,
political, economic and historical conditions. It may also be noted that success in such
enterprises depend on public support and co-operation to a large degree.
The developing countries, many among the SE Asian nations are successfully
attempting to tackle issues of their coastal regions. As resolved at the World Coast
Conference [17], (WCC93), `there is an urgency for coastal states to strengthen their
capabilities for ICZM, working towards the development of appropriate strategies
and programs by the year 2000a. The accelerated development capabilities have been
rightly listed as current trends point out the necessity to reverse degradation and
population growth lead to human intervention of coastal systems * habitats, land
uses and practices, "shery potential and allied aspects. In this context, population
trends indicate substantive care and e!orts required for meeting future challenges in
the coastal zones. Whereas a 50% growth in total population is envisaged by the year
2020 (see Table 1), 85% of those people living in coastal regions face a risk, given that
1 m of sea level rise would occur under global climatic change.
The other limiting factors are the extent to which degradation is threatening coastal
resources and the need for restoration and the time lag already set in to develop self-
capabilities. Immediate bene"ts that were conceived at WCC'93 where the general
awareness and awakening of public interest, respond to long-term needs and arresting
of on going degradation of natural systems the achievements through the protection
of the coastal environment ensures sustainable use of resources and bene"cial devel-
opment on a long-term basis plus self-reliance and capabilities. The concept of
 K.A. Joseph, A.N. Balchand / Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 515}526 525

Table 1
Population projection and people at risk in coastal zones

Land regions Year Total population People at risk

(in billions) in coastal zone
(in million)

North and South America 1990 0.65 A 20

B 25
2020 0.90 C 48

Europe including Russia 1990 0.75 A 30

B 40
2020 0.80 C 42

Africa including Gulf states 1990 0.75 A 15

B 20
2020 1.50 C 60

Asia 1990 2.80 A 130

B 160
2020 4.25 C 240

(A) at present (1990); (B) at present#1 m sea level rise; (C) at present#1 m sea level rise#population
growth (2020). Source: Modi"ed and adopted from Delft Hydraulics & Rijkswaterstaat [18].

Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) is not a novel idea but e!ective guide lines to
implement and observe the regulations on a consensus basis evolved by means of
public participation is a challenge which may not often yield fruitful results. In this
connection, the Indian scenario on managing CZ will provide salient features * the
art of zoning; their regulatory aspects, permitted activities and the extent of #exibility
in implementing programs are well illustrious. To a certain degree, the experience in
Sri Lanka and Thailand are noteworthy. It is suggested that more nations may "nd
good opportunities to closely understand and translate the bene"ts gained from the
Indian scenario.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank CUSAT for facilities. KAJ thanks UGC (India) and ANB thanks
DST and MEF (India).

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