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Unit 2 Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

Content

Types of computer system

Computer systems include smartphones, tablets, notebooks, laptops, desktop pcs and massive server-
based systems.

Components
A computer system can comprise many elements.
Other components might include:
• video camera Monitor
• microphone
• software
• speakers
• hard discs
• memory
• processor Mouse
• scanner
• printer. A typical computer
system comprising
hardware and software. Keyboard

Examples of computer systems

Mobile devices are portable and easily PC
Mobile Server
carried in a pocket or bag, mostly Office
suited to deal with small amounts of workstation Home Company server
data. PCs are larger, general purpose Phone Notebook server E-commerce server
Home PC
computers with only a small number of Tablet Laptop IOT Game server
Games machine
users. Servers are large computers server
Media system Cloud server
that interact with many computers and
Smart TV
users.

Computer systems as multi-functional devices

Multi-functional devices (MFDs) are those that serve more than one purpose. These are commonly
combined printers and scanners, which may also include other functions such as the capability to fax/
copy. It might also be the case that a PDA with built in scanner can be viewed as an MFD, combining the
functions of a data entry device, barcode scanner and communications device into one.

PC Multi-functional
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Mobile and apps and applications device

and peripherals (MFD)

Tasks involving mobility General purpose computing and communication tasks Printing, copying, scanning, faxing,
stapling and emailing.
Health logging, Social communications, Web server, Network server,
sat nav/compass, office tasks, email client, email server, network security,
remote data entry, video player, media controller, SOHO server and security, network policies, cloud server,
mobile communications browser, diary, editor database manager communications server, dbms

Briefly describe the differences between mobile devices, personal computers and servers.

Steve, Farrell. Revise BTEC National Computing Revision Guide, Pearson Education Limited, 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cavc-ebooks/detail.action?docID=6709856.
Created from cavc-ebooks on 2022-02-10 08:11:38.
Unit 2
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!
Content

Internal components
Each internal component of a computer has a purpose, a set of features and a specific use.

Internal components of a computer

If you open up a computer you will see the following components.

Expansion card (SSD) Motherboard

a printed circuit board with standard a printed circuit board that connects CPU to inputs,
connectors to plug into the expansion outputs and storage. Usually has ROM pre-mounted
slot and expand the use of the system.
In this case it adds an SSD Ports
connect to peripherals (keyboard,
Hard disk mouse, USB, sound, graphics)
stores software (OS, and networks
utilities and applications)
and data permanently ROM (1)
contains boot code permanently

Power supply ROM (2)

converts AC from mains contains basic input/output
to low power DC and handling code
then provides power
to motherboard, disks,
fans, CPU, cards, etc. RAM
stores software when
CPU power on. Can add extra
the central processing unit modules to increase memory
Expansion card slots
enable expansion of system controls the whole system
with extra circuits for items
such as better sound, video, Fan
network or specialised uses computers (and CPUs)
can get very hot. Fans and
heat sinks cool them down

Factors affecting choice of components

When selecting components to include in the computer there are a number of factors to consider.

User – Does it meet needs? Performance – capacity, speed,

Does it match user’s experience? efficiency, reliability
Cost – cost of purchase,
budget, lifetime cost, training
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Compatibility –
Factors to consider
Does it match other Timescale – lead time,
components? Will it implementation time
run with desired OS
Form – length, width,
and other software?
depth, weight, style

Cover the image above and try to recall from memory five internal components of a computer and their purpose.

Input and output devices (1)

All computer systems process input to create useful outputs. They do this using input and output
devices, but the features of these devices affect their performance.

Process
Utility and application
Input Output
software
Input Output
devices CPU devices
Operating system
A typical computer
system comprising
hardware and software. AMR OMR Disks, etc. Store

Input devices
Input devices operate in several ways, e.g. via a direct keypress, a pointer or audio.
Direct key Pointers Audio Visual Sensors Electronic
press Magnetic
Input Keyboards Mouse Microphone Camera Environmental Receivers
hardware Specialised Trackpad Telephone Motion sensor Biometric Readers
(examples) keypads Stylus handset Object sensor GPS
Discrete Tablet Gaze sensor
buttons Touchscreen Scanner:
biometric
Specialist ATM Mobile device Voice control OMR, OCR, Security, alarms Security
uses EPOS screens for data Voice data ANPR, EPOS IOT Payments
(examples) entry and control entry Barcode Satellite MICR
scanning navigation
Technologies A button Combines Analogue audio Light is A sensor Data is
selects a detecting is converted captured by an captures received in a
particular relative positions to digital array of light analogue data known format
operation in on-screen with using an ADC sensors. These and converts and translated
context. This is a button-type and then are converted it into digital into the
converted to a press to invoke a processed and/ into binary (using a required
digital (binary) command at the or stored. patterns for specialised ADC) format for the
code. selected range processing or to process and application.
or (x,y) position. storage. store as binary
data.

How input features affect performance

Input features can improve performance of the computer by targeting and to some extent trading off
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between:
• a faster speed of response • improved ease of use through ergonomics/form
• a more accurate response/resolution factor
• more controllability/smoothness • making it configurable
• more feedback/feel • using the most appropriate interface/
connector.
• automation/accuracy

Car manufacturers face very critical decisions regarding input devices for even apparently simple user systems, such
as audio, which is commonly a microprocessor based system. Consider how each of the input features above could
positively affect the system’s performance and thus the car user’s safety.

Input and output devices (2)

Computers output information to a user via output devices.

Examples of output devices

Output can take four major forms: display devices, devices that produce a physical object (such as a
printer), devices that produce audio and devices that control something else, for example, switches and
motors.
laser ink-jet solid ink
VDU, monitor TV, projector

Display Hard copy –

printers
LCD/LED panel satnav screen
ATM, EPOS 3D printer dye sublimation
plotter

speakers headphones
relays, motors,
switches actuators

Audio
Control

sound sources haptic feedback (e.g.

mobile phone vibrating)

How output features affect performance

• Clarity and accuracy of output (resolution, the better it will be. Some modern sound
sample rate, frame rate, colour depth, systems can automatically adapt the sound
contrast, etc.) – the more detail that the output to the room they are contained in;
device can output, the clearer and more some smart TVs can adapt the sound and
accurate an image or sound or finer the control colour depending on whether a movie, talk
will be. show or music is being played, etc.
• Noise – the less unwanted noise or random • Configurable – for even more control it is
signals generated by a device, the more fit for useful to have configurable output so that, for
purpose it will be. example, the sound output can be really finely
• Speed of output – the higher the volume of tuned in a car audio system, a networked music
printing required the more speed of output system, etc. or a printer can be configured,
becomes essential. for example to default to double-sided printing
with a 12 mm border.
• A display, sound source or control system
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that updates quickly causing fewer drop-outs • Form factor and connectivity – it is vital that
or obvious buffering is very desirable. the output device is compatible with the target
computer system.
• Automation – the more a device can be
automated to deal with what it is processing

A maternity hospital is considering upgrading its obstetric ultrasound output facilities (for scanning women
in pregnancy). They currently use a standard 2D monochrome monitor with a small photo printer which prints
directly from the screen.
Write short notes on desirable features of an upgraded output system.

Storage
The features of storage devices affect their performance and the performance of a computer system.

Hierarchy of storage How features affect

Larger secondary storage devices are generally performance
slower, while smaller main memory devices, on a
Performance depends on a number of factors:
processor, are faster.
• Rotational latency: depends on spin
Faster speed.
• Seek time: depends on density of tracks
and some command processing overhead.
Registers
• Data transfer: internal disk transfer rate
Cache on CPU is the speed at which data is transferred
from the disk surface to the controller
Main memory (RAM) while external data transfer rate is the
speed at which data is moved between
Solid state disk
disk controller and the memory.
Hard disk • Fragmentation: the transfer rate is also
dependent on file fragmentation. The more
Removable media (DVD/tape) the physical file is fragmented across the
Slower disk the slower the access time will be.

How a hard disk works Disk cache

The disk spins at very high speed, rotating round A disk cache is a memory buffer with the disk
the tracks. The arm moves in and out very quickly system or part of RAM which ideally holds data
to different parts of a sector. It reads or writes likely to be needed next (for example, next block
from the track sector to the disk controller. The of data, frequently used data or data to be
controller then interrupts the CPU which moves written back to disk) to greatly speed up data
the data to main memory. transfer.
• Read ahead/behind: the disk head reads
data ahead of and behind the requested track
sector and stores these just in case.
• Speed matching: the buffer is used to deal
with speed differences between I/O interface
(SATA, Pata, SCSII, etc.) and r/w speed from
the platter.
Track
• Write acceleration: a write back cache can
cache write data so the CPU can carry on even
Geometrical sector Track sector
though the data has not been written to disk.
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Solid state drives

Solid state drives are made from integrated circuits (ICs). Solid state drives:
are like a disk logically but consume very little power are small and light
like a memory physically do not overheat are mobile
do not require mechanical operate while moving have fast access – no
operation physical latency.
are shockproof
have no moving parts

Fenton Cycles is designing a Satellite Navigation System for cyclists.

What storage device should it use for its system, and why?

Data storage and recovery

Data storage and recovery are commonly provided by network attached storage (NAS).

Network attached storage (NAS) RAID

A NAS: RAID is a redundant array of
• is a server operating solely to serve files to network clients independent disks, that is, a bunch of
cheaper, smaller disks to operate like
• is seen by clients as a disk on the net
a very large, expensive disk system.
• can automate backup or offer more configurable backup and
archiving You can combine all the disks to
create:
• is usually a plug-and-play device
• was originally conceived for large systems but now is often • a very large storage area
used for media servers or similar for home systems. • or very fast storage
Advantages of a NAS are that it offers: • or very fault-tolerant storage
shared mass storage backup • or some combination of these.
facilities manageable on-site ‘cloud Many RAID variants exist for these
fault tolerance storage’. different objectives, though some are
now obsolete.

NAS with RAID RAID Variants

A basic computer system with a cut- RAID 0, 1 and 5 are the most common, along with hybrids
down OS and network connection(s) such as RAID 1-0.
could be: • RAID 0 is very fast but if one disk fails the system
• an old system with open source NAS breaks.
software • RAID 1 is great for fault tolerance, but takes 2 GB of
• an embedded system using a RISC space to store 1 GB of data as it creates a mirror drive
chip of the original as it saves.
• a hardware-based system with an • RAID 3 stripes data across drives and has a dedicated
ASIC chipset running file protocols. parity drive to rebuild the system should a data drive
It usually has a large disk or RAID system fail.
for file storage, but can share files from • RAID 5 is fast, economical and fault tolerant. Any disk
any medium, including USB. It often has can be swapped and rebuilt automatically if it fails but
facilities for backup to removable media if another goes whilst being rebuilt then the system will
such as CD/DVD or tape. break.

RAID variants for different purposes

The diagram shows how each RAID variant uses striping (data written across disks) and mirroring (data
copied bit for bit on different disks and parity (error check and correction)).

Key RAID 0 RAID 1 RAID 5

Striping, no mirroring, Mirroring, no Striping, distributed parity (p).
Data (1, 2, 3…)
no parity. Effectively striping, no parity. In this 5-disk system there is
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Parity (p1, p2…) makes one very large Can write to both parity information for every 4
Data stripe storage volume at same time items of data

Disk 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 P1(1–4)
4 5 6 2 2 5 6 7 P2(5–8) 8
3 3 9 10 p3(9–12) 11 12
4 4

CJ Jones Services runs a local cloud-based backup service for businesses located in its office block using a NAS with
a RAID 1 system. One of its clients has suggested that a RAID 5 system is better.
Discuss this view for this particular business.

Operating systems (1)

An operating system is the vital software that makes a computer system a functional device.

Types of operating system Users

User interface
Single-user single-tasking
Device Kernel System
On early computers a task had drivers Boot/loader utilities
to be shut down before another (registry) Basic
Process
could run. I/O CPU
Hardware manager Application
system
software
Memory Storage
Single-user multi-tasking manager manager Security

Most PCs and devices running Windows, File system

OSX, IOS and Android allow one user
to have a spreadsheet running whilst Disks
Model of operating system
watching a video on the same processor.

Multi-user multi-tasking Real time

Large systems such as those used by Very fast processing with totally predictable
the Met Office run OS like Unix and response to inputs is essential. Embedded systems,
MVS and share processing power for example, in medicine, robotics, planes, cars
amongst a number of users. (e.g. ABS, satnav), and NAS devices run on a RTOS.

Device drivers
Device drivers extend the kernel of the OS to allow it to work with any device from any manufacturer.
To work with a particular OS the device designer will map the particular OS calls (interrupts) to the
individual hardware commands of the device.
The basic operating system may know how to control a number of devices (e.g. keyboard, mouse) at a
basic level, but device drivers add extra functionality (e.g. mouse gestures).

Network operating Managing networks and security

systems The job of a NOS is to manage resource sharing and
scheduling and security for a network by:
Network operating systems (NOS)
such as Windows and Netware are • managing log-on security so each client will log on to the
usually single-user multi-tasking network and the level of access allowed is determined by
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OSs. the NOS

The administrator is the user who • sharing I/O resources such as printers, scanners, etc.
manages security and client access. using queues and buffers
Each client system has its own • managing storage by presenting network storage as
OS, though access to this can be normal volumes
controlled by the NOS. • managing network access (LAN, WAN).

SuperMouse has introduced a mouse that allows touch ID and haptic feedback as well as all the normal mouse
functionality. It wants it to be used on Windows and Apple equipment.
What operating system component will it create to do this and how will it work?

Operating systems (2)

The kernel is the central core of the operating system. Its job is to control and manage all the system
hardware, software and the running of tasks on the system.

The heart of the operating system

Kernel Boot/loader
Input devices
Basic
Process
I/O CPU
Output devices manager Application
system
software
Main memory Memory Storage
manager manager Security
(RAM)

Disks

Booting Executing
Parts of the kernel are on ROM chips which are After ‘booting’, the OS can now operate fully
loaded into running memory immediately after the by responding to events generated by the CPU,
system is turned on and the Power On Self Test software or devices, handled as interrupts.
(POST) is passed. The BIOS (basic input output
system) and the boot system are loaded and Interrupts
executed to pull in the rest of the kernel and the
device drivers, user interface and system utilities. Devices CPU Software
Interrupt Exception/trap Software
request – IRQ interrupt

Scheduling and multi-tasking

S A B S A B C S A B S A The kernel schedules tasks (from one or more users
to the CPU). A hardware interrupt (e.g. the clock or
S=scheduler an I/O transfer being completed) calls the scheduler
A,B,C: processes taking turns (S), which decides which process to allocate next.
CPU time It will choose from those waiting according to the
scheduling algorithm being used. Note: the scheduler
itself (S) also takes CPU time.

Interrupt
Processes flow diagram
Processes can be in three states:
waiting to be scheduled, running or
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blocked (waiting, for example, for a Created Waiting Running Terminated

slow I/O operation to complete).

Blocked
Process
A

Jane is using a CAD program to draw a machine tool.

By following the flow diagram above explain what happens if Jane chooses to print the document she is working on.

The kernel: Managing the system

File system and file handling I/O handling
The kernel provides communication facilities
Deleted file C between peripherals and the processes and
data structures to facilitate this, such as
File File File File File File buffers, queues, lists and tables.
Logical
A B E F D F files Each I/O device will issue an interrupt
request (IRQ) when invoked. A mouse move,
Physical a print job finished, a key press, etc. all
Disk platter 1 Disk platter 2
data send an IRQ.
An OS presents a logical (how it appears to the user) Schedules Process Priority
file system to hide the physical details of storage. The list
OS will decide where to put the data on a device, a Buffers Buffer Device speeds
platter, a sector and block, and how. not equal
For example, it can fragment the data into different Spools Print Ensuring data
gaps on the disk but it will appear as one contiguous queues, etc. sent is in order
file to the user on a volume (which could be a hard disk,
an SSD, a CDRW or in the cloud). Calls IRQ table IRQ calls

Memory management System modes

All software (the OS, utilities App A App B
Memory
and applications) has to be Stack Print
loaded into the memory to run. User mode
All applications used by the App B Free
User mode
user (or users on a multi-user Data:heap
system) must share the memory User mode
App C Source
without clashing. Kernel mode
The kernel’s memory manager
allocates memory space in OS
code System (kernel) processes like
order to do this.
process loading, handling I/O or
storage need to access all of the
Virtual memory Disk memory Main memory
RAM. Kernel mode is therefore
If RAM gets too full the OS Pa P1 dangerous. It can crash the whole
can swap a fixed portion of it Pb App D P2 App A system.
(page) to secondary memory Pc P3
This privilege is not granted in
rather than stop operating. P4
modern OS to applications.
Page swaps P5
P6
They are put into User mode,
App B each with its own workspace, so
P7
P8 that if the code corrupts it will
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P9
only crash that one application.
P10 To access system resources (to
P11 App C print, store, display, etc.) they
P12 must issue a system call (using a
P13 system interrupt) which the OS
P14 makes available for this purpose
OS
P15
code rather than access the device
P16 memory directly.

What advantages derive from the operating system presenting the file system in a logical manner rather than
showing the exact manner in which the data is stored?

Operating systems (3)

The user interface provides a consistent way for a user to interact with the computer system; the most
common forms are graphical (GUI), text (command line) and menu based.

GUI Features of GUI

• WIMP: windows, icons, menus, pointers
• Visual metaphors: desktop, apps, file cabinets,
trash can, clock, calendar, etc.
Graphical user • Visual and audio feedback: dragging, dropping,
interfaces, such as opening (zooming), ringing
those used by Apple • Action metaphors: pointing at, touching,
Macintosh, Windows, dragging, dropping
Unix shells (including
X-Windows, Gnome, Why select a GUI?
etc.), are now the
Ease of use: very easy to learn and use
most common
interface provided Control: easy to control with good feedback
on systems. Multi-tasking: visual through windows
Speed: smooth and fast on modern CPUs, but
GUI does require extra processing
Complex or batched tasks: not suitable!

Menu-based Features of menu-based systems

systems • Lists of options
Menu-based systems are • Often in multiple levels
still very common in practice • Scrolled through and selected using key or
for: pointer or voice command
• TV menus
• ATMs Why select a menu-based system?
• CNC machines They are easy to program provided that only
• running configuration simple choice-based functionality is required.
applications Tedious when having to select from multiple
• some mobile OS apps. levels of menu
A menu
Not suitable for multi-tasking or complex tasks

Command line interface (CLI)

Most modern OS Early operating system user interfaces
including Windows and were text-based, command line interfaces.
Unix-based systems They were relatively difficult to learn and
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(such as Mac OSX slow to use. Although not offered often

and Linux) offer a CLI as a default OS, a CLI is still a useful
alternative to the GUI. alternative to GUIs for direct control of
the OS, or to run batches of operations to
DOS prompt CLI
achieve more complex tasks or automate
routine tasks.

Gibber Amps is building a new electronic guitar effects box for its amplifiers, which simulates six famous amplifiers,
adds 20 audio effects, equalisation and volume. It will have a guitar lead input socket and output socket to the
amp. It will have a small colour touchscreen to control the I/O and effects.
Discuss which type of user interface would be most suitable for a guitarist during a gig.

Utility and application software

Software comprises the instructions that make the hardware work and do something useful.

Utility software Application software

Utility software is a type of system software that Application software (or an app) is software
performs a specific task to extend or aid the that performs tasks that give a direct benefit
operating system. It may provide a service that for a user (entertainment, production, clerical,
the OS lacks or may improve on the version in communication, management, logging, etc.).
the OS, or it may add some functionality that is These may be bundled applications such as the
useful, but is not a central part of the OS. Many office applications, games and media software
OSs over time incorporate the best of the utility that are given away with operating systems such
software that is written for them. as Mac OSX. They may be proprietary apps
(either paid for or free) or may be open source.
Examples of utility software by
purpose
Computer security Housekeeping
Anti-virus Backup and restore
Encoders System monitors
Cryptographic System profiles
Firewall Registry cleaners
Network monitoring Memory checkers
and analysis
File management Disk handling
File managers Disk checkers
Fast copy Disk cleaners
Batch delete Disk defragmenters
Data compression Disk space analysers
partition managers
GUI extensions System health
Smartphone showing a number of
Theme handlers Screensavers
installed applications

Good software General purpose, Integrated, e.g. office

e.g. spreadsheet software with same GUI
Good software has the following features:
a quality interface appropriate to purpose
(rich media for web or video games, voice Customisable,
control, forms input with touch display and e.g. DBMS with Types of Specific, e.g.
voice control for car media centre) processes, macros, software game, satnav
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VBA, etc.
efficient algorithms or fast processing
compatible file structures
enriches the user’s life or makes it simpler Bespoke, e.g. controlling new smart
warehouse, very large e-commerce solution,
takes full advantage of available hardware and OS international banking system, woodcutting
tried and tested, easy to use. program for timber sash production factory

ITForA is a charity that collects old PCs and rebuilds them to be sent to Africa.
Justify three applications that the charity could use to help administer the business and three utilities that they could
use whilst rebuilding and testing the PCs.

Open source software

Open source software is often thought of as ‘free software’, but actually it embodies a series of
principles about the way software projects should be run, managed and shared that underlies the
development and distribution of the software.

The principles of open source

Open source licences
software • Licence usually asserts copyright to
rapid prototyping
collaborative model of original writers.
free exchange development development
• Allows freedom to use the copyright
material, modify it, copy it and indeed
redistribute it without restriction.
Open source • Often modelled on GNU, General Public
principles Licence (GPL), but actually there are
transparency well over a thousand different open
community source licences.
development meritocracy

Open source operating systems Open source applications

Operating systems are complex and critical There are a very wide range of well-established
components of the computer system and thus and supported applications available to be used
most current OS are open source (e.g. Linux) as they are or modified to be exactly to the
or build on open source OS (e.g. Macintosh requirements of the user, including web servers
OSX, Android, Chromium) or include open source (e.g. Apache), web clients (Mozilla Firefox), office
components (Windows) to reap the advantages of software (OpenOffice, LibreOffice), databases
OSS development. (MySql), graphics (GIMP) and many more.

Benefits for users Software cost benefits

Cost of buying is zero or very low – though may still need to Lower costs of marketing and
pay for installation, training etc. distribution
Affordable upgrading for the lifetime of the software. Lower costs of developer teams
Software will not be dropped for commercial reasons. Lower cost of management
Transparent bugs are openly acknowledged and dealt with. Commercial companies are able to
Interoperable with other OSS and much commercial build on solid, reliable code.
software.
Flexible – can be adapted to suit exact needs rather than Software development
having to be used as is. benefits
More rapid development
Implications of open source software Loyal teams – sense of ownership
May not work with existing systems, or may require a
Build team skills – all code
complete changeover
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assessed transparently by peers

Installation, customisation, support and training costs may
Flexible, quality, modular
be high
development – individuals with better
Help from user community may not be as fast nor as tailored skills can work on what they are best at
Can evolve to suit developers’ needs, rather than users’ Innovative – focus on technical
needs. rather than commercial objectives.

A design studio intends to update the computer systems in the office, which currently run on a proprietary
operating system with illustration and design software and standard office software. Its software house has
suggested it uses Linux with OSS which it will install and maintain.
State two reasons why the studio should consider this.

Choosing hardware and software

There are a number of factors affecting choice of hardware, utility and application software.

Spec and price

When considering choices you have to weigh up several factors.
P Productivity

S Security R Requirements and

user needs

P Performance I Implementation
timescales,
testing migration

E Efficiency and C Cost and

effectiveness budget

C Compatability E Ease of use and

user experience

Balance SPEC and PRICE

Spec Price
The spec of the product, whether hardware The price or value (cost versus benefit) of a
or software, is clearly important and must be product and of implementing it is also crucial.
weighed up. The spec will include ensuring the Consider all of the value factors: Will it make users
product does not cause any security issues; more productive? Does it meet all of the user
that the performance of the product is what requirements? What are the costs and timescales for
is required (e.g. a hard disk has sufficient the implementation or integration of the product?
capacity and speed for dealing with 100 000 What is the cost compared to the the budget? Is it
sales a day); that the CPU is sufficiently easy to use and/or within the users’ experience or will
fast for games playing; that the product is there be training needs?
efficient and effective (e.g. that the OS is
capable of handling 20 users on five tasks Remembering ‘spec v price’ will be useful when
each simultaneously; that the webserver can
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answering questions which ask you to discuss or

handle 100 000 simultaneous connections evaluate any choice of hardware or software. The
without failing); and perhaps most crucially technical details you will discuss may be different
that the product is compatible with the but the concepts to work through will be the
system. same.

Use ‘spec v price’ to give you ideas

for your answer. Depending on the
You want to buy one of the two main new games computers to
play multi-player games over the internet. specific case you may choose all
or just the most appropriate of the
Write short notes on the factors you should consider when spec versus price headings.
choosing a new games computer.

Data processing systems

Computer systems can be characterised by, and constructed around, the data they are expected to
process.

Input for good data

REFRACTS: features of good data
Input may have to be manual (e.g. from
GIGO – garbage paper forms, questionnaires, etc.) but
Process
in garbage out wherever possible human error will be
eliminated by automating the data entry
Good data is: process.
reliable: same data give same results Computer forms, menus, drop-downs and
economical: do not cost too much to collect buttons can be used for direct data entry
by humans. This type of entry can be
flexible: can be used in all relevant circumstances validated and verified economically as it
relevant: fit for purpose is input.
accurate: free from error Automated data input using specialised
input devices may be used to speed up
complete: include all required data
the input process, eliminate as much error
time-bound: can be input as required as possible, and save money.
secure: handled to only be visible to those that Real-time systems will rely heavily on
need to see them. sensor input along with direct human data
entry.

Model of data processing system Types of processing

Input Process Output Batch
Collections of data such as monthly
analyse
sort reports
statements, utility bills or payroll are
collect handled and processed in batches.
compare charts
prepare
manual
aggregate summaries Interactive (transaction)
convert insights Transactions such as hotel or flight
direct
report multimedia
bookings, till totals or e-commerce invoices
validate
are processed as they occur.
Store Real-time
Events are dealt with as they occur on
storage (e.g. memory, file, database)
systems such as car ECUs, computer
games, or factory CNCs, ANPR systems.
A data processing system can
be modelled by a flow chart.

Design of systems
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The system will be designed around the type

of output required. Snow Hotels take bookings for their 200 rooms in
Most large business data processing systems their West End Hotel over the internet, using a web-
are very flexible and are thus built around based front end to a database system based in the
database management systems (DBMS) with hotel in London.
flexible inputs and reporting so that new forms
1 What type of data processing system is required
(inputs), queries, functions and procedures for this process?
(processes) and reports, charts, etc,
2 What are the main challenges for this type of
(outputs) can be built and stored as required
system?
to produce batch or transaction-based (or
both) systems. 3 How might these challenges be overcome?
Real-time systems will usually be designed
using more specialised hardware and software.

Data processing
Hardware and software play a role in data collection.

Goals of data collection ID recognition

Accuracy of data input chip and pin RFID contactless
Data must be accurate, as invalid, QR code
smart card
inaccurate data will ruin the whole
data set.
magnetic ID
Speed of data input bar-code
ink (MICR)
Data must be able to be collected
quickly without sacrificing accuracy. voice ID magnetic touch ID
stripe biometric ID
Economy of data input
Data must be able to be collected
cheaply. More expensive input ID systems connect to a database to confirm the ID of
hardware pays for itself very a person or object and then autofill as many details as
quickly in mass data processing. needed.

Forms input Alternate human input

As computer systems become more powerful it
Secure Payment Page is possible to use more advanced forms of input
Card details that do not require a separate keying phase.
* Indicates a required field
Voice recognition software allows banks, building
*Card number societies and telecommunications companies to
*Security code answer the phone with a computer and allows the
*Expiry date A secure
user to answer questions with their voice. The
payment
*Cardholder’s name system echoes back the answer to ensure the
form.
voice command is not misunderstood.
As far as possible, manual input into data- This works best when the input is very structured
processing forms will be via forms. and context sensitive so that the voice can be
understood within a limited range of parameters.
As much as possible will be pre-filled so that
More advanced uses such as Apple SIRI and
fewer mistakes are made.
Amazon Alexa (Echo) and Google Assistant are
The form will have validated input fields: making this even more powerful.
• Fields such as the card number will only accept Optical character recognition (OCR) software
a valid credit card number. allows typed and even handwritten input to be
• The date field will only accept a valid date. read directly without being rekeyed. It is also
• The security code will only accept a three-digit digitised through pattern recognition. It again
number. works best when used in a constrained situation.
This ensures that the data has integrity and can Optical mark recognition (OMR) software differs
be processed sensibly. It does not absolutely in that it does not require pattern recognition
guarantee that what the user is entering is algorithms as it is used only to read marked areas
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entirely accurate. of a page such as tick boxes.

BioNRG uses an OMR reader to scan in the following How does this form improve on customers telling
forms collected in from its customers every 3 months. operators their reading on the phone? How could you
improve it?
BioNRG Gas meter reading form
Customer number: 1873944
Name = R. Black
Postcode = FT10 9JW

Data processing functions

Data processing captures and stores valid (validated) data and then performs functions on it to retrieve
information.

Analyse and aggregate Sort

Data analysis applies systematic statistical or Sorting can often help to understand a data
logical techniques (IF, >, <, >=, <=, <>) to the set.
data to categorise, compare or evaluate the data. Common sorting techniques include alphabetical
Aggregation is a special case of this in which data by name, ascending (a–z) or descending (z–a),
are summed, counted, averaged or put into ranges. by date, by number, by count.

analyse sort aggregate report convert

22 coloured squares, 4
5.5 per colour on average, 5
least in colour 4, 6 Schematic of the data-
most in colour 7 7 processing functions

The data-processing functions perform a variety of actions on data as shown in the schematic.

Convert Report
Converting is the change of the data from Reports are the standard means of displaying or
one form to another. This is a particularly printing the output of the data-processing system.
useful when aggregating, categorising or Data-processing software allows the user to specify
comparing items that were originally in the layout and format of the report in great detail,
different formats. tailored to its precise usage.
Web stores use conversion, for example, The same basic information could be used, for example,
to display prices in different currencies or for an order confirmation, an invoice and a delivery
shoe sizes in different country standards. note.

Data recovery procedures

The phases of data recovery are outlined below:
Repair the storage media:
• Repair the media so that it can be accessed.
Look back to page 55 for
Image the storage to a new drive or disk image file: Links
information on backup.
• Remove data from the damaged media to new media.
Logical recovery:
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• Retrieve files, partitions, MBR or file system structures.

Repair damaged files:
• Once files have been recovered some may need reconstituting or reconstruction.

BioNRG is a new clean energy supplier. It has about 100 000 customers from whom it collects gas usage
information every month.
Describe an example of how it might use each of the data-processing functions (analyse, aggregate, sort, convert and
report) in its monthly cycle.

Approaches to computer
architecture
The Von Neumann architecture is a common architecture and the basis of much modern computing.

Von Neumann architecture CPU components

The Von Neumann architecture allows a computer program to Control unit: decodes program
be stored in and fetched from memory, to be decoded and instructions into control signals and
executed by the CPU rather than having to be all hard wired. controls data movements to ALU and
A fundamental part of the architecture is the machine cycle: memory using control signals.
fetch an instruction; decode it; then execute it. ALU
CPU
Control unit RAM
Applications How input/
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU):
ALU (instructions output devices,
performs binary calculations (+−*/) and
and data) the CPU
comparisons (e.g. AND, OR, NOT) on
Registers its inputs and puts its results into an
MDR Utility programs and memory
(instructions communicate
accumulator (and sets a flag to show
MAR
and data) using the three
its status).
CIR
PC Operating buses. Clock: a device which issues an
Input and GP/ACC system electronic signal (a tick) to the control
output (instructions bus and fetches one piece of data or
devices Clock and data) decodes it or executes it for each
SYSTEM BUS tick. A computer running at 1 GHz can
Address bus
do this 1000 million times a second.
Data bus
Control bus One instruction can take >1 tick.

Registers Choice of architecture

Registers are super-fast memory on board the CPU used to model
manage the fetch, decode, execute cycle.
The computer design engineer will
Special purpose registers: weigh up:
• accumulator: name given to register to which ALU sends • performance requirements – the
the result of its operation more speed required the more
• instruction (CIR): holds the instruction currently being critical the architecture
executed • power and cooling requirements
• MAR (memory address): holds the address of the next – act as a constraint on complexity
data/instruction to be fetched • budget – lower budget will point
• MDR (memory data): holds data as they are moved to and to a simpler, more standard design
from memory • programmability – the more
• program counter (PC): holds the address of the next specialised the purpose of the
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instruction to be fetched – incremented automatically unless system the more specialised the
a jump instruction is executed, when it is overwritten. architecture can be.
General purpose registers: for general CPU use. When a
program is interrupted, for example, the state of the current
registers can be saved in general purpose registers.

The system bus

The system bus is the transport highway for the
system. It is a group of wires holding:
Name from memory the five special purpose
• address bus: holds address of memory (uni- registers, and three other essential CPU components.
directional from CPU to memory)
• control bus: holds current control signal
• data bus: holds data being transferred.
66

The fetch decode execute cycle

In the Von Neumann scheme there is a strict sequence: at each tick of the clock the CPU cycles round
first doing the steps of a fetch, decodes what has been fetched and executes, then starts again.

The fetch decode execute (FDE) cycle

FETCH DECODE EXECUTE

Copy instruction Load Contents of CIR

Load address in Decode
and/or data at MAR Increment PC instruction/data split into opcode and EXECUTE
PC into MAR instruction part
into MDR in MDR into CIR operand (if present)

The number of steps in the execute phase depends on the opcode and operands in the CIR:
• If a jump then the address part of CIR is copied to the PC ready for the next cycle.
• If an address is in operand part of CIR it is copied to MAR and then the opcode executed.
• If data is to be moved to or from memory then it is copied into MDR.

Interrupts Von Neumann bottleneck

An interrupt is an event (e.g. a keypress), RAM
exception or error (e.g. a ‘printer not ready’ Control unit GOTO ADDRESS Applications
flag) whose role it is to interrupt the CPU, to GET INSTRUCTION (instructions
AL unit and data)
allow execution of a higher priority or critical GOTO ADDRESS
process. While the system is on the CPU is always Registers GET DATA
Utility
performing the fetch decode execute cycle, unless MDR programs
EXECUTE INSTRUCTION ON DATA (instructions
it is interrupted by the interrupt handling system. MAR
CIR GOTO ADDRESS and data)
CPU Software PC WRITE DATA Operating
Hardware
exception/ exception/ GP/ACC system
IRQ
trap trap (instructions
Clock and data)
Suspend the FDE cycle
The problem is that for each (machine code) instruction
there may be a number of fetches and writes to and
Save state of special from memory for the data. This causes a bottleneck in
registers in GP registers execution with the faster CPU having to wait as it is
dependent on the bus transfer rate. Modern CPUs will
Run appropriate interrupt handler therefore go beyond the Von Neumann architecture and
include multiple cores, caches and pipelines.
Restore state of special
registers from GP registers Execution speed
The clock speed determines the time it takes to do
Resume FDE cycle one step in the fetch decode execute cycle. The
clock can be speeded up (overclocking), but it may
Instruction sets make the CPU hotter and more liable to fail. The
amount of instructions a computer can perform a
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The CPU instruction set is the complete set

second (MIPS) will depend on the number of steps
of instructions (in binary) that can be given to
in each phase of the FDE cycle. It will also therefore
the CPU. These run in a sequence precisely
depend on the size of the system bus (and thus the
synchronised with the CPU clock (and thus
address bus and data bus). For example, a 32 bit
have a precise breakdown into each step in
integer can be fetched in one step on a 32 bit bus,
the FDE cycle). Assembly language is a natural
but it takes four steps on an 8 bit bus.
language-like translation of this machine code.
Typical instructions (in English) would include Data bus carrying
1 1 01 1 1 00 0001 0001 10 10 1 1 01 01 1 1 00 1 1
instructions such as: LOAD, STORE, ADD, a 32 bit integer
COMPARE, JUMP, JUMP IF, IN and OUT.
An instruction will always include an opcode.
Depending on the opcode, there will be 0, 1 or In what format would a 16 bit opcode from the
more operands, for example, ‘Load a number’, instruction set look like to the CPU?
from an address.

Alternative architectures
There are alternatives to the Von Neumann architecture.

Harvard architecture
Instruction GOTO ADDRESS GOTO ADDRESS
RAM GET INSTRUCTION GET DATA
Applications Harvard Data RAM
(instructions CPU GOTO ADDRESS (data only)
only) WRITE DATA

The Harvard architecture splits instructions from data thus avoiding the Von Neumann bottleneck, but at
the expense of more difficult coding. Different bus widths can be optimised for data and instructions. In
practice it is very useful where there is a heavy processing load on a throughput of data such as for an
embedded CPU, early mobile phones, a graphics processing unit (GPU) or digital signal processor (DSP).

Hybrid architectures Pipelining

A modern CPU will pull CPU P F F D F E D
data and instructions Control unit Data Q E D F E D F
A three-stream pipeline
into separate caches AL unit
cache R D F E D F E
(on-board small and fast
memory areas) so that Registers Instruction cycles are broken down into
each instruction and the MDR steps and then, for example, when stream P
data is available when MAR is fetching an instruction, and the ALU would
required, thus effectively
CIR
Instruction
otherwise be idle, Q will be used to execute
PC and ideally R willl be used for decoding.
combining elements of the cache
GP
Harvard and Von Neumann This ensures that each element of the CPU
Instruction
architectures. stack
is being used as fully as possible. This was
always an essential part of superscalar
Modern CPU architecture suitable computers but now is used by most CPUs.
for microcomputer or server

A PC running a console game Superscalar CPUs

Emulator software Control unit Clock
Game console Game Quad core AL unit FP unit
program console native
instruction instruction A superscalar has
set set AL unit FP unit mulitple execution units
Inputs I/O map I/O map – not multiple cores.
Registers
Instruction for
quad core set A superscalar processor is able to execute multiple
instructions (from the one instruction stream) per clock
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CP CP
Output emulating cycle by issuing different instructions to different
game console CP CP execution units (such as an ALU or FPU) which are used in
Quad core combination with pipelines to achieve a form of parallelism.

Emulation
CPUs of one type can emulate a CPU of another,
using emulator software to translate all instructions
and data and I/O requests between the source and Virgame is a new start-up that has been asked by
target systems. More powerful chips can emulate a smartphone company if it is possible to write an
less powerful ones quite successfully. A perfect emulator for a Sony Playstation 4, with its multi-
emulator, if it existed, would allow all programs core processor architecture that will run on its
and devices used on the one system to be used phone that uses superscalar architecture.
on the other, albeit more slowly because of the Describe why this is not feasible, giving two reasons.
processing overhead for the translation.
68

Parallel computing
Parallel computing allows a computer system to run multiple tasks at the same time.
Multi-threading Multi-tasking

Task 1 Scheduler

Thread 1 Thread 2 Thread 3 Mail WP Paint

A single application is broken down into multiple The computer system is running multiple tasks
operations or threads which can be executed at the same time. In a single core (non-parallel)
in parallel. If one thread is stalled, for example processor this is achieved by switching between
waiting for input, any threads that are not tasks in an efficient and transparent manner. In a
blocked can carry on. Multi-threading can be multiple CPU or multi-core system the processes
implemented in parallel on multiple CPUs or using can be running in parallel, still controlled by a
pipelining on a superscalar single CPU. scheduler.

Distributed computing (non– Multi-processing (UMA)

uniform memory access, NUMA)
CPU CPU CPU
CPU CPU CPU CPU
Mail WP Paint
Network
A distributed system comprises a number of Multi-processing refers to the multiple CPUs
computers working together over a network. which can run multiple applications or services at
once and/or multiple threads at once. It can be
Advantages: set up on multiple computers all sharing the same
each CPU has access to its own and shared system resources or on a single chip such as, for
resources (e.g. memory-using NUMA) example, a dual core or quad core processor.
less conflict on resources
very scalable – just add new resource. Multi-core CPUs
Disadvantages: Core Core
CPUs such as the Intel Quad
Using distributed resources requires more Core have multiple processing Core Core
coordination and processing power. units on a single chip to
Using remote enable parallel processing A quad core
Core Core from that one chip. processor
resources (e.g.
memory) is slower FAST Bus SLOW
than using local UMA: Fast uniform memory
Local memory access to all memory, but CPU CPU
resources.
harder to coordinate and Bus
Distributed shared memory scale than NUMA
Local memory
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Cluster computing (distributed)

A cluster is a group of connected computers all running together to gain the performance advantages
of a very large system but with off-the-shelf hardware. Applications include complex simulations and
internet search and data warehousing where high performance and scalability are critical. Clusters of
captive PCs have also been used to mount major distributed denial of service attacks.

State the implications of a large data centre, such as Google’s at Berkeley in the USA, using a cluster approach for the
computer architecture.

Binary and number systems

Computers work with digital (binary) data.

Binary uses Analogue and digital and binary

real numbers
signed High Digital
text
integers
Analogue
Binary graphics Low
used for • Analogue data in the real world vary continuously,
with an infinite possible number of values.
integers video
• Digital data is either high or low, on or off. The
sound binary number models this perfectly (one or zero).

The denary (base 10) system The binary number system

The number system used everyday is called the The number system used by computers is called
denary system. It uses ten as its base. It uses the binary system. It uses two as a base. It
digits between 0 and 9 and then moves position uses digits 0 and 1 and then moves up by a
by a power of 10. power of 2.
10 000s 1 000s H T Units 8s 4s 2s Units
10 4
10 3
10 2
10 1
10 0
2 3
2 2
2 1
20
9 9 9 9 9 1 1 1 1
99 999 = 9 * 10 000 + 9 * 1000 + 9 * 100 + 1111 = 1 * 8 + 1 * 4 + 1 * 2 + 1
9 * 10 + 9 Denary number is 15.
Denary number is 99 999.

BCD – a hybrid number system Bits and bytes

• BCD is used in computer systems for legacy Name Bits Bytes Notes
systems and electronic devices such as
calculators with LCD displays. bit 1 1 wire
• It uses binary for each individual denary digit, Nibble 4 0.5 1 BCD digit
which is easy for humans to follow. Byte 8 1 e.g. 28
• It uses 4 bits (a nibble) for each digit. characters
• It is inefficient as the highest digit is 9 (1001). Word 16 2 e.g. 216 integers
Tens Units Word 24 3 e.g. 224 colours
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 Word 32 4 232
23 22 21 20 23 22 21 20 Kilobyte 1024 bytes or 210
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(kB)
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Megabyte one million or 220
Take the BCD number 1001 0111 (MB) kB
Stage 1: 1001 = 9, 0111 = 7 Gigabyte one billion or 230
Stage 2: 9 * 10 + 7 (GB) kB
The denary number is therefore 97. Terabyte one or 240
(TB) thousand
GB
Petabyte one or 250
(PB) thousand
1 How many wires are there in a 32 bit address bus? TB
2 How many different colours can be represented
by 24 bit colour?

Converting between number bases

You can convert between binary, denary and BCD numbers.

Binary to denary Denary to binary

Take the binary number: 1011 1010 • Take the number (N)
Create a table with the same number of bits.
• Divide by 2; write down the new number (N)
and the remainder (1 or 0)
Most significant bit (highest value bit) • Do this until you have divided 1 by 2.
Least significant bit (lowest value bit) • Copy the remainders out from last 1 (which
is the MSB) to first 1 (LSB).
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
• Check the binary number is correct.
For example: 17010 (170 in denary):
• Fill in the place values from LSB to MSB.
Start at 1 for LSB and multiply next by 2. N N÷2 Remainder
• The MSB will be 2no of bits − 1 170 85 0
• Enter the number under each place value. 85 42 1
• Where there is a 1 add the denary value. 42 21 0
For 1011 1010: 21 10 1
There are 8 bits so create an 8 bit table. 10 5 0
MSB will be 28 −1 = 27 = 128; the LSB is always 1. 5 2 1
2 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 128 = 186
2 1 0
1 2 1
Any binary number which 17010 = 1010 10102 = 128 + 32 + 8 + 2
is all 1s will be 2number of 1s − 1.
So 1111 = 16 − 1 or 15
1111 1111 = 256 − 1 or 255

BCD to denary Denary to BCD

Take the BCD number 1001 1000 0101 0011. Take the denary number 1256.

Translate each set of 4 bits in turn (from left to Translate each denary digit into its binary
right) from binary to denary. equivalent.
MSB LSB MSB LSB
8 4 2 1 Answer Denary 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 9 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 8 2 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 5 5 0 1 0 1
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0 0 1 1 3 6 0 1 1 0
The answer in denary is 9853. 125610 = 0001 0010 0101 0110

Perform the following conversions, showing your workings: It is conventional to puts bits into
(a) binary to denary: 1010 0001, 1111 1111 groups of 4 to make bit patterns
(b) denary to binary: 52, 148 easy to read, thus 111111 (63) will
usually be written as 0011 1111.
(c) BCD to denary: 1000 0010 0001 0001, 0101 0000
(d) denary to BCD: 92, 255

Calculating with binary

Binary numbers can be added or subtracted.

Types of number Two’s (2s) complement (signed

A computer system will store each number in a numbers)
fixed number of bytes. This has an impact on the
Signed numbers are usually stored using a system
range (minimum to maximum) of the number. In
called two’s complement. This uses MSB = 1 to
most computer programs, for example, integers
signify a negative number. It has the advantage
are stored in 2 bytes (16 bits) and thus can only
that if MSB = 0 the rest is a normal binary
store numbers between 0 and 65 535 (216 – 1).
number. That is, 0011 1111 = 63.
Even a 4 byte (32 bit) integer will only be able
−63= −128 + 65 so 2s complement of 63 is
to store numbers of less than 4.3 billion. If the
number could be negative then it must be less MSB LSB
than half that. −128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Typical number types
2s complement into denary:
Type Bits Range
Integer 8 0 … 255 (28 – 1) Take the number 1100 0001
(character) As MSB is 1, it is − so
Signed integer 8 −127 … +128 Convert rest of number 100 0001 = 65
(signed char) 65 − 128 −128 + 65 = 1 − 63
Integer 16 0 … 65 535 (216 – 1)
Denary into 2s complement
Signed integer 16 −32 767 … 32 768
Take the denary −55
Integer 32 0 … 4 294 967 295
(232 − 1) Ignore the sign 55
Floating (real) 32 ±3.4 × 1038 Convert to binary 0011 0111
(~7 dp) Reverse (NOT) digits 1100 1000
Double (real) 64 ±1.7 × 10 308 Add 1 1100 1001
(~16 dp)
Always check back:
1100 1001 = −128 + 73 = −55
Adding binary numbers
Essentially this is exactly the same as adding in Subtracting binary numbers
denary: Sum: 0 + 0 = 0; 0 + 1 = 1; 1 + 0 = 1; To subtract simply use two’s complement numbers
1 + 1 = 0, carry 1 and add them.
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 85 +a – b:
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 25 + 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 −43
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 110 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 25 +
1 1 carry 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 −18
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NOTE: 1 1 carry
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 127 –a – b:
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 130 + 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 −43
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 257 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 −25 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 −68
carry 1 0 1 1 1 carry
The answer is 1 if 1 byte word with an overflow of 1. This final 1 in the carry row is an overflow bit and can
If 2 bytes then 1 = 256 be discarded here.

Perform the following sums using two’s complement arithmetic, showing your workings:
(a) 24 − 12, (b) 127 − 125, (c) −2 − 1, (d) 8 + 9, (e) 127 + 3, (f ) 0000 0010 + 1000 0001
72

Working with numbers

Multiplication and division calculations can be performed with both binary and floating point numbers.

Binary multiply and divide Floating point numbers

Multiplication There are an infinite number of real numbers between
any two numbers, for example between 2.0 and 3.0 or
Multiplying in binary by hand follows exactly
between 2.01 and 2.02.
the same method as for denary, except
that only 1s and 0s are ever multiplied: Floating point numbers offer the best compromise
between size, speed and accuracy and thus have
32 16 8 4 2 1 become standardised on modern computer systems
0 1 0 1 5 using an IEEE format. This is based on an extended
0 1 1 0 6 × version of standard form.
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 Standard form
0 1 1 1 1 0 30 + • Very large numbers, for example
72 900 000 000 000 can be written as
Division
7.29 × 1013 (or 7.29 E+13).
Longhand binary division uses the identical
method to denary division. For example, to
• Very small numbers, for example 0.000 00022 can
be written as 2.2 × 10−7 (or 2.2 E−07).
divide 1110 by 10 (14/2):
• Negative numbers such as −123.252345 can be
0 1 1 1 written as −1.23252345 × 102.
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 Sign Mantissa Base Sign Exponent
1 1 + 7.29 10 + 13
1 0 + 2.2 10 − 7
1 0 − 1.23252345 10 + 2
1 0
Multiplying using standard form
Multiplying and dividing by powers of 2 Multiply mantissa and add exponents
can be done by shifting left or right. Either: 1.25 × 103 × 2.0 × 102 = (1.25 × 2) × 103 + 2
1110 * 10 = 11100; 1110/10 = 111 = 2.5 × 105
or: 1.5 E+3 × 2.0 E+3 = 3.0 E+6

Normalised numbers IEEE 754 Single precision format

1.234 * 103 is the same as 12.34 * 102 or +− Exp Mantissa Type
123.4 * 101. Normalising involves ensuring
1 8 23 single
there is one number in the mantissa in front of
the decimal point. Sign bit: 1 = −, 0 = +
In binary this number will always be 1. Exponent: base 2 known – raised to exp −127;
For example, 1.0010 × 26 or 1.11111110 × 2−12 Note: All 0s or all 1s is used for special cases
such as NAN, INF, overflow or underflow.
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In IEEE format, therefore, this 1 is assumed to

save storage space. Mantissa: 1 is assumed so stores bits to right of this
and gives the precision of the number.

Floating point numbers cannot represent IEEE format allows for different sizes of floating
all floating point numbers with total point number depending on the precision
precision (e.g. 10/3). required, for example, single, double extended.

(a) Normalise 1200.00 and 80 000 and write the answers in E notation.
(b) Multiply them together in E notation, showing your workings.

Text representation
Text, as with every other type of data, is represented by binary in a computer system as a character
set, where each character is represented by its own binary code.

What is ASCII? Understanding ASCII

ASCII is the American Standard Code for Char Character (1–26+) 25
Information Interchange. The original ASCII
Number/symbol Number etc. (0–9 +) 24
code used 7 bits for each character with a
parity bit to check that the data transmitted 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
was received correctly. 0100 0001 was A in 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
even-parity ASCII. This allowed for 27, that is P (parity): 1 bit.
128, different characters. Type: 2 bits (letters) or • 8 = parity
It catered essentially for the basic characters 3 bits (punctuation, numbers, • 7,6 = type of
found on a tele-typewriter with some additional control codes, etc. ) character (5 as well
characters to control the printing, such as to 10 × (65–96) upper case, etc. for numbers/symbols)
issue a line feed, carriage return or tab. 11 × (97–127) lower case, etc. • 5–1 = character (4–1
000 (0–31) control for symbols/numbers)
010 (32–47) punctuation
Extended ASCII 011 (48–64) numbers, operators, ?
8 bit, or Extended, ASCII replaced 7 bit 10 (64–95) lower case; 11 (96–127) upper case.
ASCII for local computer operations and Note: Where there are gaps they are filled with
it became possible to add another 128 punctuation, etc.
characters, such as umlaut (ö), circumflex Upper case A: 0 10 00001 (1st upper case)
(ô), acute and grave accents. Different Upper case B: 0 10 00010 (2nd upper case)
sets of 128 could be added in different Lower case c: 0 11 00011 (3rd lower case)
international areas such as Israel or Number 4 : 0 011 0100 (4th number)
Greece – in what was known as a code
page. See page 71 for converting
Links
binary to denary.

Unicode representation UTF-8 encoding

Unicode was devised as a means of UTF-8 is the most standard means of encoding
representing every character in all the Unicode characters for transmission and storage
world’s alphabets, rather than simply the on computer systems, used by the vast majority
Western ones in early Western computer of web developers and internet developers as it
systems. encompasses standard ASCII encoding within it.
It maps all characters to a number (called a The statement at the top of most web pages:
code point). This can use a varied number of Content-Type: text/plain; charset=“UTF-8”
bytes (up to 6 at present). It maintains the
is what tells the browser that the characters are in
original 1 byte ASCII within it so that legacy
UTF-8 format, and thus how to represent them on the
systems still all work, but now can contain
screen.
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almost infinite different characters.

Unlike the original ASCII the way the Encodings options
character number is stored on disk or
in memory depends separately on the There are hundreds of possible encodings including
encoding which specifies the byte order UTF7, 8, 16, 32, ANSI, and ISO 8859-1. Look at
(MSB … LSB or LSB … MSB) and other your browser’s View...Encoding menu item to see
factors. some.

The letter A in UTF-8 and ASCII is represented by the denary number 65 (0100 0001) and lower case a by 97
(0110 0001).
What is ‘Computer’ in denary and binary ASCII?

Image representation
Images can be represented by bitmaps and vectors.

Bitmap (or raster) images Vector graphics

Vector graphic of
a house design

A bit map maps a colour to a

pixel on a display or printer.

All images when displayed are displayed as bit Vector graphics are stored as a set of
maps, though they may be stored as compressed instructions that the vector software uses to
bitmaps or as vector images. Each pixel of a bit create the image as a bit map. They are suitable
map has a colour. When all the pixels are displayed for illustrations and line drawings, but not for
together the clarity of the final image depends on photographic type images. For example:
the size of the image versus the resolution and • rectangle (x1, y1, x2 ,y2, colour)
the colour bit depth. • triangle (x1, y1, h1, type, colour).
A bit map is stored as the height × width × The image is stored very economically as it can
colour depth. For example, a 100 × 100 bit map be stored as essentially a textual program and can
using 24 bit colour will take 10 000 × 3 (30 k) be recreated 100% accurately at larger and larger
bytes to store without compression. Images sizes as the image is remapped every time it is
stored as bit maps do not scale well, as can be scaled. It can also be plotted very accurately on a
seen from the extract of the photo above. high resolution plotter.

Image storage and compression Image resolution

Images are usually compressed when stored, Image resolution refers to the density of the pixels
though RAW images are sometimes stored. GIF in the image. This varies with the purpose of the
images are very economical because the colour image. The amount of resolution required or used
depth is only 8 bit, and thus compress very will depend on the image size needed and the dpi
well. It is not suitable for complex drawings (dots per inch) that can be displayed. To display a
but can handle transparency and animation. 3" × 2” photo on a website at 72 dpi will take 3
PNG can store any image but compresses line × 72 × 2 × 72 (31.1 k) pixels. To print a 10” × 8”
drawings best. JPEGs are optimal for complex photo at 600 dpi without upscaling would require
photographic-type drawings and illustrations as 28.8 megapixels. Smartphone displays can now
the trade-off between compression and quality, display at a resolution of up to 326 dpi.
and how much metadata is stored is chosen by
the user. compression.
Links See page 85 for more on
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Sample/bit depth
Bit depth is the number of bits used to specify a colour. 1 is for monochrome.
True colour is now expressed in 24 bits (8 bit red, 8 bit green and 8 bit
blue). The more bits used the better quality the image will be, but at the
expense of storage.

JSD has to create a 20” × 20” colour poster at 300 dpi for a new CAD package with a CAD drawing and advertising
text overlaid over a photo of a large house and garden
1 How many pixels will the final image require? 2 What file type will be required for the web version?

Data structures (1)

A data structure is a way of organising data so it can be processed efficiently. You need to understand
the following data structures.

Stack Queue
A stack is used for storing requests that need A queue is a list of jobs waiting to be processed
to be handled (e.g. a stack of bills that need (e.g. a printer queue or a queue at a bank).
to be paid). Characteristics of a queue include:
Characteristics of a stack include: • A queue is a first in first out structure.
• A stack is a last in first out structure. • It grows and shrinks as required.
• It grows and shrinks as required. • The front and back of the queue are visible.
• Only the top is visible at any time. • Two operations are possible: enqueue and
• Two operations are possible: push and pop. dequeue.
TIDE EDIT Enqueue Dequeue
Pop Push
‘m’ m a e r t S ‘S’
T The characters ‘E’,‘D’,‘I’,‘T’ Stream Stream
are pushed onto the
I stack one at a time.
They are popped off the Keyboard
D Items are put onto the queue at the buffer
stack in reverse order
back (enqueue) and are taken off the
(‘T’,‘I’,‘D’,‘E’).
E front in the same order (dequeue).
The characters ‘S’,‘t’,‘r’,‘e’,‘a’,‘m’
erse are put into the queue and are taken
Stack of letters to rev off later in exactly the same order.

List Array
A list is a flexible collection of items An array is an indexed (numbered normally)
(e.g. a shopping list). sequence of items of the same type.
Class list 0 1 2 3 4
1001 Sian Bing
Times Courier Arial Palatino Georia Font[2] is Arial
1002 Sam Carrot
1006 Susi Devon
1007 Alex Handy 1007 Alex Handy Looking up font[2]
1009 Zoe Meades
Inserting into a list of Characteristics of an array include:
students • Arrays are usually fixed in size.
• Every item is immediately accessible.
Characteristics of a list include: • Items can be read using the index number.
• It can grow and shrink as required. • Items can be added using the index number.
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• It has a first item, next items, and a last • Sorting an array can be complex.
item.
• Items can be unordered or ordered. The index in an array
• Items can be added to or removed from The index is the ‘key’ to the array
lists. Print (Font[3]) prints out ‘Palatino’.
• Lists can be searched and sorted. Font[2]=Helvetica changes Arial to Helvetica.

See page 58 for more

Links on input/output handling.

An operating system, for a single user computer system, will normally send print State which data structure
jobs to the printer to be printed in the order they are requested. Explain which you would use and say why.
data structure would be best used for the processes.

Data structures (2)

The way data is structured in a computer’s memory can be classified as dynamic or static.

Dynamic data structures

Contents H 2056 T 4096 H 0
Characteristics of a dynamic data structure:
• size of the structure can vary at run-time Address 2048 2049 2056 2057 4096 4097

• memory only allocated (and deallocated) as required A list of coin tosses (H or T)

• only uses storage space proportional to the data
(but requires extra memory to store pointers (links) to the next item in the list)
• fast to sort-only involves pointers.
Access to a list, queue and stack is provided in the following ways:
• list: access requires traversing the list of pointers from the start
• queue: direct access (to front and back)
• stack: very fast access (to top); often through a dedicated stack register.
An array of five coin tosses (H or T)
Static data structures (arrays)
Characteristics of static data structures: Element toss[0] toss[1] toss[2] toss[3] toss[4]

• size fixed at compile-time Contents H T H

• can waste storage space if the number of data Address 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028
items stored is less than amount allocated for
• normally stores data in consecutive memory Access to an array is provided very quickly as
locations data stored sequentially.
myArray[n] is at myArray + (n*size)
• sorting slow as involves moving data in cells.
(if storing an array of 2 byte integers at address
10 000, myArray[4] is at address 10 008)

Common applications of a stack Common applications

Function handling Data comms, e.g. of an array
Top
in programming the TCP/IP protocol stack An array is a basic collection
Parsing computer Depth first searching type implemented in
language syntax systems and software. Most
Recursion Backtracking problems,
programming languages offer
e.g. mazes, games, etc. an array as the standard built-
in collection type. They are
commonly used to implement
Common applications of a queue matrices. Where dynamic data
structures are not available,
Data comms: Operating systems: an array can also be used to
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e.g. buffering, task scheduling, simulate them.

streams (Netflix, Back Front print queues, buffers
Spotify, etc.)
Simulation software See also page 78 about
Links indices and matrices.

Common applications of a list

Application collections: Operating systems:
playlists, priority lists, Programmers can use lists or
photo collections, Start process lists arrays to simulate a stack if
contact lists, a stack data structure is not
Application software:
call lists available in the language.
lists of objects
Evaluate which would be
The list is so flexible that it is the basis of a great many preferable.
collections in programming and systems.
77

Indices and matrices

A matrix is a mathematical construct for a table of numbers. It is usually represented by an array in
computing.

Matrices and arrays

An array is a data structure that represents an indexed collection of data (such as a table or matrix).
An element is an individual item (e.g. a number) within an array or matrix. It can be identified by its index
(plural indices).
Arrays Matrices
Indices
0 100
A B 1 100
1 1 2 2 100 1 2 1a1 2b1 Indices
2 3 4 3 100 3 4 3a2 4b2

Elements Elements

One-, two- and multi-dimensional arrays

A one-dimensional array has one index (x) to identify each element. An element within two-dimensional
array has indices (x, y). A three-dimensional array has indices (x, y, z) to identify each element.
zz=1 0 1
0 1 zz=0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 4 1 2 4 1 2 4
2 9 2 3 9 2 3 9
3 16 3 4 16 3 4 16
x
One dimension (x) x,y
,
Two dimensions (x,y) x,y,z
, ,
Three dimensions (x,y,z)
number [2] = 9 number [2, 0] = 3 number [3, 0, 0] = 4

Solve the following:

4 2 1 3 5
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7 9 10 7 8
14 13 15 11 12

(a) number [0, 3] =

(b) number [2, 2] =
(c) number [1, 4] × number [2, 1] =

Mathematical operations using

matrices
Matrices can be added, transposed and multiplied.

Mathematical operations using matrices

If Jill and Mary are saleswomen in a clothing shop, you can calculate the total number of items they have
sold in January, February and March by adding the relevant matrices. To display the items vertically
instead of horizontally, you transpose the matrices. Finally, to calculate the total revenue in January,
February and March you can multiply the cost of each item by the number of those items sold in the
three months, using matrix multiplication.
Matrix operations can be performed using
standard mathematical operations as below
Jill Mary Total or by using spreadsheet matrix functions.
Number sold
Jan Feb Mar Jan Feb Mar Jan Feb Mar
T-shirts 12 14 15 8 6 9 20 20 24 12 14 15 8 6 9 20 20 24
Skirts 5 6 6 + 5 5 5 = 10 11 11 Add 5 6 6 + 5 5 5 = 10 11 11
Dresses 7 9 8 2 3 4 9 12 12 7 9 8 2 3 4 9 12 12

Cost in £ T 2 2 = 2 3 4
T S D S 3 Transpose 3
2 3 4 D 4 4
T

Total revenue
Jan Feb Mar Jan Feb Mar Jan Feb Mar
67 82 80 39 39 49 106 121 129 Multiply 2 3 4 * 12 14 15 = 67 82 80
5 6 6
7 9 8

Row-major and column-major order

A 2D array of pixels Row-major order s( x , y ) Column-major order s( y , x )
0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 3 0 1 6 11
1 1 4 5 6 1 2 7 12
2 2 7 8 9 2 3 8 13
3 3 10 11 12 3 4 9 14
4 4 13 14 15 4 5 10 15
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It is critical to know whether s(0,5) means s(row = 0, column = 5 ) (row-major) or means

s(column = 0, row = 5) (column major) as both orders are used.
When designing arrays, it is optimal to use the same order for traversing the array as the elements
are stored in memory, as traversing an array in sequence (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) is much faster than jumping
about the array (1, 6, 11, 2, 7, 12) to get the same information.

Calculate:
10 5 20
1 2 3 20 10 40
30 15 60
Show your workings.

Data communications channels

Devices can be connected to communicate and transmit data in a variety of methods.

Transmission modes Examples of usage

Full duplex Full duplex devices include:
• mobile phones
• phones
• standard network communications.
Can communicate in both directions at once Half duplex devices include:
Half duplex • walkie talkies or CB radios
• push to talk devices.
or Simplex devices include:
• baby monitors Satellites
Can communicate in either direction but only in • GPS
one direction at a time • satellite TV
• CCTV.
Simplex

Sender Receiver
Ground station Receivers

Simplex is from a sender

Can only communicate in one direction from a to a receiver only.
sender to a receiver

Point to point (PTP) Multi-drop and multi-point

This is a channel between two end points. These are communication channels with multiple
end points. The term multi-drop channel is usually
Point A Point B used for configurations with one master and
many slaves such as a mainframe with multiple
terminals, and the term multi-point for a standard
distributed network channel. Peripheral controllers
Any communication on a dedicated channel, such use multi-drop for PCI and PATA, etc.
as data sent over a telephone line between two
Point B
computers, or two PCs communicating over an
RS232 cable or a PC connecting to an ISP over
DSL is point to point. Peripherals such as hard
Point A Point C
disk controllers using, for example, SATA can
also communicate directly over a dedicated PTP
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channel.
Point D

General Hospital uses a pager system to call on-call doctors in the event of an emergency. They can use a walkie
talkie or mobile phone to ring in.
What types of channels are in use in these cases?

Types of transmission
Data transmission can be parallel or serial, synchronous or asynchronous.

Parallel Serial
1 1 01 1 1 00 0001 0001 10 10 1 1 01 01 1 1 00 1 1
Parallel Serial transmission
0100 0001 0100 0001
transmission over one line
over 32 lines
Serial transmission only requires, in theory, one
of a data bus
transmission line. The data is sent over 1 bit at a
1 1 01 1 1 00 0001 0001 10 10 1 1 01 01 1 1 00 1 1 time.
Parallel transmission is sending data over a Serial transmission is much more common than
number of lines at once. It is very fast but suffers parallel over anything but very short distances.
more from noise and it is difficult to synchronise Although serial transmission only transmits data
parallel lines over longer distances so is typically 1 bit at a time rather than 8, 16, 24, 32 or even
only used over very short distances. 64 it is much cheaper to implement than parallel.
Common uses are for: It is able to be used over much longer runs than
parallel transmission without error and thus can
• computer buses • HDMI cable be pushed a good deal faster over more than
• computer to display • short printer cables. very short distances.
cable

Synchronous Asynchronous
Asynchronous communication is more flexible as
Parity Stop Data Start it only needs to be synched when transmitting.
0 1 100 0001 1 0 1 100 0001 1 Each word includes a start bit to signal the start,
and an end bit to signal the end of the word, and
100 0001 parity if that has been agreed.
A data word with start, The receiver samples the dat
a (on the data
stop and parity bit bus) at every clock pulse (on
the control bus).

For synchronous transmission the speed of

transmission is synchronised with a clock signal on
a separate wire. Almost all parallel communication
is synchronous. It can be very fast.

Handshaking
Communication speed
Handshaking is the first part of a
communication between two devices. Bit rate The speed at which data is
It is the process by which two transmitted in bps.
communication devices agree the protocols Baud The number of times a signal changes
they will use to communicate: per second – often intermixed with
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• speed they can both work at (bps) bps but not quite the same.
• synchronous or asynchronous Bandwidth The maximum possible bit rate of
• half duplex or full duplex the medium – quoted by broadband
sellers when average bps can be a
• data coding (e.g. ASCII) good deal lower.
• error handling (e.g. parity)
bps Bits per second.
• compression.

Steve wants to send HDMI (HDMI is a parallel cable) between a TV in the garden shed and a satellite decoder in the
front room, about 30 metres away, but his cable does not work.
Explain this.

Data transmission protocols

The internet transmits data in packets, governed by standard protocols such as TCP/IP.

Protocols Physical and logical protocols

A protocol is a set of rules used by two devices to allow Physical protocols ensure that it is
them to communicate. On the internet these include: possible for two devices to communicate.
• TCP: controls how data is transmitted These include wired v wireless; CAT 6 or
Token Ring; microwave; copper cable or
• FTP: controls how files are uploaded/downloaded/
moved, etc. fibre optic.
• HTTP: controls how webpages are handled Logical protocols specify the format of
the data and control bits, the packet size
• HTTPS: controls how secure webpages, such as for and format, compression, encryption etc.
e-commerce, are handled.

Packets

Sequence
A network packet is the unit of
Stop!
data transmitted in a packet- Checksum User data Source Destination
switched network. It is also
0100 0001 1 0100 0001 0100 0001 1 152.12.2.1 155.12.2.1
sometimes called a datagram. It is
typically about 1–2 kilobytes. Trailer Payload Header

It comprises two main parts:

• the user data, or payload (the main part) Control information
• control information.

Packet switching Virtual circuit

Packets can be sent over the network using A
whichever route is free. The packets usually
contain a sequence number so that the packets B C D
can be reassembled in order at the destination.
A

B C D F
E G

For transmissions where there is packet order and

F no packet loss a virtual circuit can be established.
E G

Different packets can take entirely different routes See page 86 for more details
Links
through the network from device A to device G. on checksum handling errors.
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Sending and receiving packets

Packets are sent in order, but are received in any order.
Sent in order 155.12.2.1
What are the advantages
The network sends the data in packets and disadvantages of packet
switching?
1111 0011 1 The network 1 152.12.2.1 155.12.2.1
011101100 1 sends the dat 2 152.12.2.1 155.12.2.1
1111 0011 1 a in packets 3 152.12.2.1 155.12.2.1

152.12.2.1 received in any order

sends the dat
The network sends the data in packets The network
a in packets
82

Simple encryption ciphers

Encryption is a vital component of modern computer systems ensuring the security of data on local
computer systems and is a vital underpinning for e-commerce applications.

Substitution ciphers
Plaintext A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Offset 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C

Caesar cipher with a key of 3

Plaintext S E C R E T M E S S A G E
T A N K T A N K T A N K T
Offset 18 0 12 9 18 0 12 9 18 0 12 9 18
Ciphertext L E P B X T Z O L S N Q X

K’
Encryption stages using key ‘TAN

Using the Caesar cipher Using the Vigenère cipher

Stages when encrypting using a Caesar Stages when encrypting using a Vigenère cipher:
cipher:
Write the keyword against the message.
Use the key to find the starting
letter in the cipher alphabet.
Use the key to find offset (or find starting letter).
Look up the ciphertext
corresponding to plaintext. Look up the ciphertext corresponding to plaintext.
Features of Caeser cipher encryption: Features of Vigenère cipher encryption:
fast and easy to use, even manually more secure cipher than Caesar
easy to crack even manually using all 26 Caesar cipher alphabets potentially used
frequency analysis or heuristics
not immediately crackable using frequency analysis
trivial for a computer to crack using
can be cracked by finding patterns to calculate the
brute force.
key length and then using more conventional techniques.

The key Common cracking methods

The key may be presented in a number of ways: • Brute force analysis
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• Frequency analysis
A letter ‘F’: the starting letter
• Looking for patterns in the message or
A denary number ‘3’: the amount to shift by key

A binary number ‘0011’: the same in number

• Simple heuristics
code.

Encrypt the plaintext ANT using a standard Caesar cipher with a binary key of 0000 0011. You are advised to show
your working.

Encryption in modern
computer systems
Modern computer systems either make use of symmetric key encryption or public key encryption.

Symmetric key encryption

This is the basis for the majority of encryption on modern computer systems including encrypted file
storage, wireless network security (WPA/AES), web page encryption and more.

Secret key
ID, Credit card number, ID, Credit card number,
Expiry date, CVV, Amount, Expiry date, CVV, Amount,
Encrypted data
Date Date

Encryption Decryption
algorithms algorithms

Stages for encrypting data securely using a symmetric private key.

Features of symmetric key encryption

• The key is symmetrical because the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the message.
• It is fast, powerful and can be extremely secure.
• The ciphertext cannot be decrypted without knowing the private key, even if the encrypting algorithm
itself is known.
• The algorithm takes blocks of bits in the message and encodes these. The more bits in the block the
more secure it will be.

DES encryption (56 bit) was for many years the US government standard for encryption. This has
now been cracked. Now 64 bit, 128 bit and 256 bit encryption are commonly used. The current
government standard is AES 256 bit which is regarded as uncrackable given today’s technology.

Public key encryption

Public key encryption is used where a different person (or organisation or system) decrypts data
from the one that encrypts it. Essentially it solves the problem of how they can share a private key
securely over a wide area network such as the internet by using a public–private key pair . Public key
encryption is used to transmit data such as a symmetric key safely.
Features of public key encryption:
• The keys are asymmetrical because different keys (public and private) are used to encrypt and
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decrypt the message.

• Public key encryption is excellent for transmitting data securely between people who trust each other.
• It is relatively slow compared to symmetric key encryption.
• It is used more often for securing small items of data rather than pages of data.

Many types of application software allow ‘locked’ versions of files such as documents to be saved and shared with
other users. A password then has to be used to unlock the file before it can be edited or modified.
What form of encryption is this? Why is this not suitable when transmitting the file over a WAN?

Compression
Compression is the process of reducing the number of bytes in a file to make it faster to transmit and/or
take less storage space.

Lossless versus lossy Run length encoding , RLE

compression
No information is lost in the
process of compressing and
expanding (de-compressing) original
data using lossless compression.
It works by eliminating statistical
redundancy in patterns in the data.
The process is totally reversible. Simple bitmap graphics files (such as 8 bit GIF) can be encoded
Lossy compression, on the other using run lengths of colours. In this case the 10 bytes B34 R4
hand, irreversibly compresses W4 G4 B4 would encode the image from the top blue border
the file and the original cannot be down to the top line of the flag, which would take 90 bytes as
restored. a bitmap.

Dictionary (pattern) encoding Dictionary table

A well-known method of lossless encoding # Pattern n # Pattern n
is to pre-scan the input data and create 1 Everywhere 4 7 seen 1
a dictionary of patterns, and then use the
dictionary to encode the source data. 2 I 5 8 you 1
For example: analysing this extract of the 3 go 1 9 there 1
original poem, Everywhere: 4 have 3 A for 1
Everywhere I go 5 been 2 B me 1
everywhere I have been 6 know 2
everywhere I know Note: The idea is not
Simple encoded version: actually to compress
everywhere I have seen, I know
123124512612472684599AB words but patterns:
you have been there for me.
Original file size 113 bytes ‘Everywhere I’, for
This is the basis of many lossless compression Compressed data size 24 bytes example, would be
schemes including LZ compression. Dictionary size: 65 bytes preferred.
Total 89 bytes

Photo and video compression Audio compression

High-resolution, full-colour (24 bit) colour images Audio compression works in the same manner:
do not contain a good amount of repeating pattern. • Lossless algorithms such as FLAC look for
Even adjacent pixels of blue sky are likely to differ a patterns in the binary data (e.g. silence).
little. Compression is either therefore limited (as in Lossless algorithms compress by about
lossless PNG) or lossy (as in JPEG). 50% from RAW CD format.
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JPEG compression removes information by: • Lossy formats try to lose data that do not
• averaging pixel colour values over a block in make a good deal of difference to humans,
such a way that humans do not notice a large though there is some compromise between
degradation in quality quality and compression. It is possible to
• removing metadata such as lens, f-stop, location lose very high and very low frequency sound
etc. without suffering much loss of quality, as
most humans cannot hear these sounds.
The JPEG compression algorithm allows a trade-
An MP3 file will store a file in about 8 to
off between quality and compression. Very high
11 times less space than a CD whilst still
compression is possible with a larger loss in quality.
sounding near identical to the original user.

Explain why it is possible generally to compress text more than images or sounds in a lossless manner.

Error detection
Communication channels can be ‘noisy’, which can cause signals to be altered in transmission. Error
detection attempts to deal with this by noticing when an error has occurred. Methods used to detect
errors are outlined below.

Repetition Redundancy
data received Parity bit/word
0100 0011 0100 0001 0100 0011 Raw data XX Checksum/check digit
0100 0001 0100 0001 0100 0011 Cyclic redundancy check

The simplest form of error detection relies on Other forms of error detection rely on attaching
repetition. The same data is transmitted twice. If extra information to the raw data which is
it is not the same then it is an error and it can be calculated using an algorithm.
requested again. This is the basis of a good deal
of form verification.

Parity bit Check digits

Even parity: parity bit is calculated to make Many numbers, such as bar
an even number of ones in the word. codes (EAN and UPC),
ISBN, credit cards and
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 C
IBAN (international bank
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 A account number) have an
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 B extra digit(s) which verifies
Odd parity: parity bit is calculated to make the rest of the number.
Valid ISBN13 code
an odd number of ones in the word.
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 C 9 7 8 1 9 0 3 1 3 3 8 0 4
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 A The reader takes the sum of all the odd (blue) digits
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 B and adds 3 * the sum of the even (yellow) digits. If this
is evenly divisible by 10 (i.e. modulo 10) it is valid. If
Receipt of 1100 0001 on even parity is
not it is an error. The code above gives 44 + 3 * 12
definitely an error. It does not trap double
= 80, which is valid).
errors, however, as these cancel out, so it
is possible to have more than one parity bit. If a digit was transposed or otherwise misread, for
example, 9871903133804 then this would be an error.

Checksum Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)

Data received Fixed length block of data CRC
File of data 63621 0100 0011 0100 0001 0100 0011…1101 0001 110100
63621
Compute checksum A CRC is related to a checksum but relies on division
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

rather than summing. To compute a CRC the data are

A checksum is a more generalised form of a split into fixed-length blocks of binary data. A fast
check digit. It computes a number from the division, hardware-based (shift) algorithm is applied to
data in a file (usually by summing the digits in this data to compute the checksum. This is excellent
some manner) and appends it as a signature. at detecting accidental errors in transmission and is
The receiver re-computes the number and if thus commonly used when storing files to disk and
identical, the data has integrity, that is, it is transmitting them over networks. It is also used for
the same as sent. These are commonly used writing and checking updateable firmware, solid state
for local or remote data transmission. drives and other devices.

Are 9781903133781 and 9781405868052 valid ISBN13 numbers? Show your workings.

Error correction
When errors are detected when receiving data, error correction is the means of dealing with them.
Commonly used error correction systems are outlined below.

Automatic repeat request (ARQ) Forms ofARQ

Please Stop-and-wait ARQ
resend If the sender does not get an ACK within the
Damaged data
wait time it resends the packet. The receiver
therefore simply drops the damaged packets. It
The ARQ is in principle a simple concept. If
is slow as it sends one frame at a time and waits
the errors are detected, then the sender is
for ACK.
requested to resend data.
Go-back-N ARQ
Data
Sender Good data received The sender sends frames with a sequence number
AKC (frame 1, frame 2, etc.). The receiver discards
damaged frames and ones it does not expect
(e.g. repeats) and sends an ACK with the last
In practice, no actual request is needed,
correct one received. The sender will keep
but rather the absence of a positive
sending new sequences of frames starting after
acknowledgement (an ACK signal) after a certain
that one, dealing with latency but at the expense
amount of time has elapsed – a timeout.
of many dropped packets.
ARQ is used a lot on the internet. It does,
however, have latency (whilst waiting for time-out Selective repeat ARQ
signal) and needs a back channel for ACK signal The receiver buffers out-of-order frames and
and buffers to hold received data. ACKs them, rebuilding the sequence at the end.

Forward error correction (FEC) Parity words and RAID systems

Data ECC
RAID 3 and 5 systems are able to rebuild themselves
by using parity across drives. In this scheme the data
1100 0001 0001 1100
bits are XORed to provide the parity bits.
(1) 10101010 XOR (2) 11101010 = (3) 01000000
Data frame with error correcting codes
Now any broken drive can be rebuilt by XORing the
remaining drive:
In a FEC scheme, the data is sent with added (1) 10101010 XOR (3) 01000000 = (2) 11101010
error-correcting codes (ECC) that will allow This scheme works for any number of drives and
errors to be corrected automatically. There electronically is easy to implement.
is an overhead for the receiver computing
the original data from the total information,
but this is more than offset by not having to Hybrid ARQ
retransmit. in hybrid ARQ FEC codes and error detection
The number of ECC bits must be sufficient to codes are both added to the data. If the signal
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

identify the position in the whole data and ecc conditions are good enough the FEC codes will
bits of the error. That is, for 16 bits total of be good enough to keep the channel running, but
data + ecc, 4 bits (24) are needed. if conditions gets too bad then the system can
request a repeat. This is very effective but at the
expense of a slower throughput.

JPS use a RAID system.

The words on the data drives are 0100 0001 and 0110 1100. Compute the word on the parity drive.

Boolean logic
Boolean logic is at the heart of all computers. All circuits are designed using logic and made using some
form of logic gates. Boolean algebra can be used to simplify circuits.

The seven main logic gates, algebraic terms and truth table
INPUTS AND OR NOT NAND NOR XOR XNOR
Inputs to gate

A B A.B A+B ~A or A A.B A+B A B A B

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

Creating truth table inputs Creating the truth table outputs

Create a table with a header row + 2 number of inputs
Take each part of the expression and expand
rows below for the possible outputs: each part into a single column – performing one
If there are 2 inputs there are 22 or 4 outputs operation at a time and combining:
If there are 3 inputs there are 23 or 8 outputs For example, to create the truth table for
Create the input rows A . B + ~B:
A B C
in number order
0 0 0 Create A . B by using the AND operator.
(0, 1, 2, 3 … n )
For 2 inputs, in binary: 0 0 1
Create ~B by using the NOT operator.
(00, 01, 10, n). 0 1 0
Finally create A . B + ~B by using the OR
A B 0 1 1 operator.
0 0 1 0 0
A B A.B ~B A . B + ~B
0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1

Creating a circuit diagram Creating an expression from a

Take each part of the Boolean expression in the circuit A
same manner as for the truth table.
Trace from each
For example, to create the circuit for A . B + ~B: input to gate to B
the output.
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

AND gate for A . B A

B Put expression at
each input or output. C
NOT gate just for ~B A
B The final expression is ~A . B . C + B . C
~A
A ~A.B ~A.B.C
B C ~A.B.C+B.C
Combine the outputs A
into OR gate B
B

B
Note: It is possible to simplify this circuit. B.C
C C

Create the circuit and truth table for ~A . B . C + B . ~C

Simplifying expressions
When creating circuits it is often useful to simplify the circuit or change it to use the gates available.
Boolean algebra and truth tables can be used to achieve this.

Basic Boolean rules Two very useful identities

Precedence rules A + (A . B) = A
1 NOT 2 AND 3 OR
A 1 if A=1
Basic Boolean identities B

OR (+) AND (.) NOT A . (A + B) = A

A+0=A A.0=0 ~~A = A 1 if A=1
A
A+1=1 A.1=A B

A+A=A A.A=A
Both the same as: A
A + ~A = 1 A . ~A = 0

De Morgan’s theorem
(NOT A) OR (NOT B) = A NAND B (NOT A ) AND (NOT B) = A NOR B
A+B=A.B A A.B=A+B A
= =
B B

A B C D C OR D A B C D C AND D
A B NOT A NOT B A NAND B A B NOT A NOT B A NOR B
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

Applying De Morgan’s theorem Simplifying using algebra

Process: Apply identities and simplification rules to simplify:

Negate whole of expression. A

B
Switch operator (+ to . and . to +). Steps:
Negate each part of expression. A+A.B
Steps: A + A + B (using De Morgan’s theorem)
1 + B (using A is A + A)
A NAND B Negate Cancel
1 (using 1 is B + 1)
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A.B A.B A.B

A + A . B simplifies to 1.
Switch operator Negate parts Answer
A+B A+B Not A or Not B

Check using truth table

Truth table for A + A . B:
A B A.B A+A.B Simplify NOT(NOT A OR B), i.e. simplify A + B.
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
That is, whatever the input, the output is 1.
89

Boolean logic problems

Boolean logic can be used to solve real-world problems.

Breaking down a simple problem

Identify conditions. Draw the circuit.
Confirm with truth table.
Write the algebra.

Simplify, if possible.

The following examples show how you can break down problems and processes into distinct steps.

Case Conditions:
study
A: car approaches (y or n)
B: office is open (y or n)
F&N installs a new parking barrier that
lifts only when a car approaches when Algebra:
the office is open. Output = A AND B, i.e. A . B
Truth table Circuit:
The circuit is shown opposite.
A B A.B A
B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Case Implementing the Circuit

study
A . (B + C)
F&N decides the new parking barrier should lift only Diagram for the inner brackets first:
when a car approaches when the office is open and
(B + C)
a valid pass is entered or a valid code entered on the
B
numeric keypad. C

Conditions: Adding the outer expression:

C
Algebra:
Output: (A AND (B OR C)) AND D A

i.e. (A. (B + C)). D

A tablet screen will be blank if there is no recent activity, or there is recent activity Show the
but the off button is pressed. conditions, algebra,
simplifying and
Show the circuit. truth table.

Flow charts
A flow chart is a flexible diagram that can represent, explain and communicate a workflow, a system, a
program, a procedure or process in a logical, unambiguous and concise manner. In computing they can
be used to solve problems.

Basic flow chart symbols

Start/end Input/output Process Decision (y/n) Flow
There are other useful symbols but
these are all that are necessary.

Logical start Any input or What is to If (x) then y Directon

and end output data be done else z of flow

Rules for creating neat flow charts

Draw from top down or from left across. Write yes/no (or e.g. T/F) on out lines.

Have a logical start and end with one flow. Avoid crossing lines where possible.

One flow into process and one out. Use active verb for each process.

One flow into decision, two (y and n) out. Use a question for each decision.

Creating a flow chart

Case In Mr Nicholson’s smart home, if a motion sensor notices movement in front of the front
study
door it will send a message to his smartphone. A porch light will come on if it is dark.

Start and end with terminators: Start Combine and check:

End
Start
Motion Motion
sensor sensor

NO Was motion YES Send NO Was motion YES Send

detected? message detected? message

Map I/O, Is it after NO

condition:
Display
YES porch light
Display
porch light End

An EAN13 barcode has a built-in validation check digit (13th digit). One algorithm for checking that the barcode
has been scanned correctly is to read each number from the 1st to 13th. If the number is in an even position,
multiply it by three and add to the sum of digits. If in an odd position, then just add it.
Assuming it beeps for an error and looks up the barcode and displays the product if OK, create a flow chart to show
this process. Test your flow chart with a 13-digit barcode.

System diagrams
Systems diagrams are a good way to start building or understanding a system and to solve problems.
They are usually a fairly high level model of the system and do not require a specific methodology or
symbols.

Computer system Example system diagrams

diagram Generic open system
A computer system diagram can Input Process Output
model hardware, software, processes, Actual system
data flows and even ideas.
There is no one set diagram to Touch screen
Main processor
Touch screen
model this range of ideas; rather digitiser layers display
the models tend to vary according
to the detail required and the Generic closed system
cirumstances. They tend to be less
Target Input/sensor Process Output/actuator
formal (from pictorial to systematic),
but usually attempt to explain a
system by showing how the inputs Simple automated heating system
are transformed by processes into
outputs and how the data flows Temp= Boiler on/off
Heat sensor CPU
between these different parts. 22 actuator

What is crucial is that the model

explains the real world by simplifiying Feedback
it.

can explain open and closed systems

model a system using an
appropriate level of detail
consider/plan/prototype System
higher levels of a system understand or explain a system in terms
of inputs, outputs and processes

Representational model of screen Top level model of actions

A capacitive touch screen has The following system diagram outlines what happens
the following layers: when a capacitive touch screen is touched.

Protective and Touch detected Touch data processed

anti-reflective layers into commands
Pixel data changed to
xy
Capacitive (x,y)
reflect output of app in
layers (Input)
response to touch
Display layer
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(Output)

Give an advantage of having a simple model of the rear

a Power switch panel of the system rather than a labelled photo:
a d e b Guitar in
c Mike in (a) to the viewer of the model
b f g
d Plug socket (b) to the developer of the system.
c h e Reset switch
f Headphones
g Digital audio out
h Line level out

Your Unit 2 exam

Your Unit 2 exam will be set by Pearson and could cover any of the essential content in the unit. You can
revise the unit content in this Revision Guide. This skills section is designed to revise skills that might
be needed in your exam. The section uses selected content and outcomes to provide examples of ways
of applying your skills.

Question types
Command words are the key terms used in questions, for example ‘identify’, ‘explain’, ‘draw’. They
identify the approach you should take to answering the question.
Draw Give Identify, name, state
Complete Calculate
Demonstrate
Evaluate
Write
Command words Describe
Discuss Analyse Develop
Produce Explain

Check the Pearson website Exam checklist

The questions and sample response extracts in Before your exam, make sure you have:
this section are provided to help you to revise a black pen you like and a spare
content and skills. Ask your tutor or check the
Pearson website for the most up-to-date Sample a pencil, sharpener and eraser for
Assessment Material and Mark Scheme to get an drawing diagrams
indication of the structure of your actual paper and a calculator in case you are asked to
what this requires of you. The details of the actual perform calculations
exam may change so always make sure you are up to
date. double-checked the time and date of
your exam.

Jane is writing a two-player cross-platform network dice

and board type game that has 32 squares to land on, with This is an explain question. You need to
different actions possible for each square. show that you understand the topic and
give reasons to support your opinion or
Explain which data structure Jane should use for the board
argument. Make sure you give enough
squares. 4 marks
detail to justify your answer.
extract
Sample response
The size of an array is fixed. Make
The board has exactly 32 squares that don’t grow or sure you state the properties of
an array and explain why they are
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

shrink. The content can probably be filled at create time

and will not change. It will not require inserts or sorts. suitable for this application.
An array would be ideal as it is a static structure and it
is very fast when viewing stored contents.
Links Look at pages 76–77 to
revise the data structures.

This is a short-answer question. You

Explain why it is important to know whether the memory for the need to give two reasons.
screen display is stored in row-major or column-major order.
Revise row-major and column-
Links
major order on page 79.

Read and understand the questions

Here are some skills you could use to help you read and understand what a question is asking you to do.
This will help you to take the right approach to your answer
Essential skills
Read the scenario and the whole of each
question very carefully to understand what
Sally Gaines is a successful singer–songwriter it is asking of you.
who records and produces her own music on a Identify and highlight the command word
small computer system based around her laptop, which will tell you exactly what to do and
guitar, microphones and a digital mixer and drum how to do it.
machine. She posts it to Youtube, MySpace and Identify the topic that you are being tested
her own website where it is possible to stream and on.
buy her tracks. She stores the files on her website
in MP3 and AAC lossy formats and WAV and FLAC Look at the marks available for the question
lossless format and the Youtube videos in MP4. to confirm the level of detail required.

a) State what MIDI stands for. 1 mark

Musical Instrument Digital Interface State or name questions want a short,
direct answer.
b) Give a reason why a compressed video format is
more suitable for displaying on the web rather
than a raw uncompressed format. 2 marks
Raw uncompressed footage would take a Give indicates a fairly simple answer
great deal of storage and thus would be very as shown here, rather than a detailed
slow to load in an internet browser explanation to justify the use of the
MP4 format.
c) Describe two ways she could input her
guitar audio. 4 marks
1 Using microphones and an analogue to
digital convertor (usually built into the
laptop) In this describe question, the
2 Using MIDI input from the guitar which learner has made two points for
would need a MIDI convertor (with ADC) at each of the two parts.
the guitar end.

d) Identify two ways she could output her

It is important to identify that the topic is

compression. Then if you are not sure about
Analyse the implications of storing music in lossy formats FLAC, WAV, AAC use the following techniques:
such as MP3 and AAC rather than in a lossless format such 1 Discuss the implications of :
as FLAC (free lossless audio codec) or an uncompressed
• compressed versus non-compressed
WAV format.
• lossy versus lossless.
2 Adapt ideas from another relevant topic
When responding to this analyse question, such as graphics. The topic is similar and the
identify the elements of the issue, and the implications are mostly the same.
relevant topic and discuss pros, cons and
issues surrounding these.
Links Revise compression on page 85.

Short-answer questions
With short-answer questions, try to answer as quickly and concisely as possible.

Fletcher and Nicholson is building an e-commerce site to sell their

designer dresses. This will contain photos of models wearing the Questions that ask you to state
dresses and stylised illustrations of the dresses with transparent or identif y or give an answer only
colours and text over the lines of the garment. Its website designer require a short, straightforward
is storing some of the images as PNG and some as JPEG. answer. Do not over-elaborate, nor
repeat the question in the answer.
Identify which format is lossy compressed. 1 mark

extract
Sample response
This question requires one simple
The JPEG format is lossy. statement.

Explain which of these two file types you would choose for storing This explain question has two parts.
the photographs of models wearing the designer dresses This type of explanation question
and which the complex illustrations on the website. 4 marks typically requires you to give an
answer to each part and then
extract
Sample response expand the answer.

The photographs will be best stored in JPEG format. This

will allow a high compression rate while maintaining sufficient
image quality for a small-sized image.
The illustration should be stored as a PNG as this supports Use technical vocabulary
transparency and layers, albeit with less compression. A and explanations wherever
pure illustration (vector) format may not be compatible with possible, but make sure the
the web browser being used. explanation is clear.

This give question asks for two

factors – only two statements are
Give two other factors the web designer must take into account
required, even if there are more
when selecting image formats for the web. 2 marks possible answers.
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

extract
Sample response
1 Most browsers will only display JPEG, PNG or GIF files, s
Do not give more than two answer
thus these are the most sensible file formats to use. ans wer. Try to
nor over-elaborate the
2 JPEG files are known sometimes to contain viruses tho se for
use different answers from
and thus some systems with anti-virus software will previous questions, however.
automatically block them.

State one advantage of storing a complex image of Revise image representation on page 75
Links
a painting as a PNG and one of storing it as a JPEG. and compression on page 85.

Performing calculations
You may need to show that you can perform calculations.

Remember to show your workings. Even if

your final answer is incorrect, you may get
Add together the following unsigned binary integers: credit for your method. In the case of this
0100 1000 type of binary arithmetic this will mean you
1010 1000 show the carries.
1 1 1 1 0000
1 (carries) In most calculation problems it is useful to do
Carry out the following subtraction: a double check. Convert the binary numbers to
denary and do the calculation. In the addition
0112 (borrows)
example: 72 + 168 = 240. In the subtraction
1000 1100 example: 140 – 60 = 80. The double check
0011 1100
will confirm you have worked out the calculation
0 1 0 1 0000 2 marks
correctly.

Text can be encrypted using a Caesar cipher. Given

a plain text letter ‘J’ and a binary encryption key of
0000 1100 calculate the encrypted text. 4 marks
ed
In this case the workings are a little more involv
extract stag e.
Sample response so again it is important to spell out each

J is the 10th letter of the alphabet.

Spell out the final answer clearly at the end.
0000 1100 in binary is 12 in denary.
10 + 12 = 22
V is the 22nd letter of the alphabet. An alternative calculation could be: J is 74 in
The encrypted text is V. ASCII, 74 + 12 = 86, 86 in ASCII is V.

Calculate: 15 25 15 A London-based cryptography company uses a

2 3 simple Caeasar code on its website to demonstrate
4 5 4 3 marks how cryptography works. It displays the cipher
HEZK, stating that the key is 0000 0110 and asks
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

students to calculate the plaintext.

extract
Sample response Calculate the plaintext.

15 * 2 25 * 2 15 * 2
= 1 Calculate the offset.
+4 * 3 +5 * 3 +4 * 3
2 Write out the offset cipher alphabet
underneath the plaintext alphabet.
= 42 65 42 3 Read the original word by matching letters to
the cipher letters by position.

Each of the stages is spelled out in

detail. Even if you make a mistake in your
The final answer is
calculations you will gain some marks.
spelled out clearly.

Drawing diagrams
You may be asked to complete a diagram or draw one from scratch.

Use a ruler to draw lines.

Use a template for symbols if you have
Look at the partially completed logic diagram for a half adder. Add one.
the correct Boolean gate symbols inside the empty rectangles Use a pencil to draft the diagram (or
below. Connect the inputs of the gates to implement the following: draw in rough elsewhere) and go over
• Inputs x and y are each a binary digit. the diagram with a black pen.
• Outputs s and c are given by the truth table below:
x y s c 4 marks
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

x Circuit lines should where possible be

y
s drawn straight. It is clear from the truth
table that both gates have the same two
inputs. Show the lines branching from
each other for neatness.
c

This question tests

your knowledge
of concepts and
Burwick Estates uses an automated computer system to monitor and record all terminology (in this
vehicles entering and leaving its gated communities. case automated data
processing hardware
Complete the diagram by adding in the missing words at positions A, B, C, D, E. 5 marks and software). Use
ANPR appropriate terms in
Start database each case.

A Motion E Match NO End

YES vehicle characters

B YES details
CCTV
video C Entry
Numberplate image D Create record record Vehicle entry
image OCR performed on using details and
records
grabbed numberplate time and direction

Always fill in all the missing

gaps even if you are not sure.

When a proximity sensor senses there is a person in front of the lift it turns on a timer and illuminates the up and
down buttons for five seconds, then turns them off and resets the timer.

Draw this as a complete flow chart.

Longer-answer questions
Some questions want longer, more detailed answers. They require a related but slightly different
approach.

Read each question very carefully.

Fletcher and Nicholson is a designer fashion label who uses Longer-answer questions need special
e-commerce to sell its products, maintain e-commerce care. There are actually four separate
databases containing all of its product images, videos, parts to this question, to explain:
product descriptions and the back-office information such as
1 need for backup
stock, orders and customer account information.
2 need for archiving (a different thing)
Explain the need to back up and archive its data and the 3 procedure for backing up
procedures required to do this. 8 marks 4 procedure for archiving.

extract
Sample response
Fletcher and Nicholson will need to backup its data
Use technical vocabulary such as
so that it can be restored if the data is lost or
corrupted, virus, restored, offline, etc.
corrupted, through accidental mishap such as a
hard disk crash or a malicious act such as sabotage
or a virus. If data cannot be restored it could be
catastrophic to the firm’s trading.
Data is archived to keep copies of non-live data (such
as previous years’ products or accounting data) Examples help to reinforce an
available for future use. This frees up space on the explanation. Ensure they are relevant
running or live system whilst maintaining availability if and accurate, however.
required.
The procedure for backing up will include a schedule
for backing up incremental data such as new products
or customers or orders added at least daily and for
doing a full backup of all data periodically (perhaps Try to make about eight points in total
weekly). The data will be backed up to a separate spread among four separate parts.
storage medium, with one full copy to be held off site
on a removable disk or secure cloud storage.
Data are archived to a separate, probably slower and
cheaper, storage location, such as an offline disk or Use a coherent and logical
tape or DVDR. This can be done periodically but less argument which is related back to
often, perhaps at a quarter end or year end. the case.
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

A possible approachis to explain how a RAID 5

F.IT, the IT house that manages Fletcher and system works. Examine the advantages this gives.
Nicholson’s systems has suggested that the Examine any problems or relative disadvantages
company use a five disk RAID 5 system to of this system. Come to a balanced conclusion.
complement its backup strategy.
Analyse this use of a RAID 5 system. Revise RAID on page 55 and
Links
error correction on page 87.

‘Discuss’ questions
You may be asked to discuss a specific topic area or choice. You need to do more than list a number of
issues – try to link your points together with a solid chain of reasoning using examples relevant to the
case identified.

A multi-floor shopping mall intends to add custom-built interactive To answer this question, start with
information kiosks at strategic points in the centre. Discuss the type an introduction that includes a very
of user interface it should use. 4 marks brief summary of, or restatement
of the question and an indication
extract
Sample response of the range of ideas that you will
discuss.
The purpose of an interactive information kiosk in a
This may be in the form of a list
shopping centre is to provide shoppers with information
of the technical concepts you will
about the centre, and possibly to provide directions
discuss or, as here, a list of the
and advice. The type of user interface chosen will have
factors that will later be matched to
to take into account the the diverse range of users, the
the technical issues that will have to
requirement for system security, and the need for a very
be addressed.
fast response in order to answer queries quickly and be
compatible with the hardware used for the kiosk.
A command line interface (CLI) would not be at all
appropriate as it requires skill and experience to use and
potentially exposes the system to accidental error or Follow through your introduction
deliberate hacking. A graphical user interface (GUI) could with a number of points developing
be considered as it can be easy to use, but a forms-based your discussion in more detail, using
interface would be the most likely choice as it involves relevant technical terms wherever
little or no prior experience or skill and can deal with all possible.
the required functionality in a very easy to use and secure
manner.
A forms UI is fast and easy for the shopper to input
choices, such as ‘Directions to nearest WC’ or ‘Jewellers’
or ‘Coffee’ using items such as menu buttons and allows
text-based entry in search boxes.
A forms-based interface reduces the possibility of error You must relate the technical
and of the shoppers’ accessing unauthorised parts of the details to the specific case/
system as it restricts the choices that can be made, which content that you are discussing, in
could be a potential problem when using a GUI. this case an information kiosk for
a shopping centre. Use concepts
The simplicity of the forms interface means it can be
such as shopper, shop, café, WC and
very consistent and efficient to process and a very fast
short examples where possible to
response, thus minimising queues at the kiosk. A GUI may
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

illustrate the point you are making.

allow further functionality such as, for example, browsing
the internet, but this could cause hogging of the kiosk and
indeed potential for security breaches.
Finally, a forms-based interface is also fully compatible with
a touchscreen which is ideal for use in information kiosks.

Immersive Source is planning to introduce computer systems to help toddlers with behavioural issues in nurseries.
Discuss the factors it should consider when specifying the hardware for these systems.

‘Evaluate’ questions
Evaluate questions require you to weigh how effective, correct or worthwhile a decision or judgement is.

Fruitful Vegan Restaurant Chain is planning a large expansion across the UK under the direction of new
Commercial Director, Bill Fence. It has a single computer system in each branch which runs the whole branch
operation. The system uses open source software for all tasks, adapted by a local software house for the
company’s specific needs, running on a version of the open source BSD operating system. Although this system
works effectively, Bill has decided he wants to move to the most popular, proprietary operating system running
the standard office software he has always used and that he feels most new recruits will know and understand.

Evaluate Bill Fence’s decision. 6 marks

extract
Sample response It is useful to have an introduction
stating the basis of your argument
Bill Fence’s decision to change the operating system and and the main factors you will
software from an existing working open source system to a weigh.
proprietary system has a number of implications for Fruitful
regarding the compatibility of current hardware, current
software, training needs of existing as well as new staff, You need to consider all sides of
costs of implementation and handover and the lifetime cost an argument. A scenario is unlikely
of the new system, including licensing, support costs, etc. to be one-sided.
On the positive side the use of a proprietary system will
mean that many new staff will have some familiarity with
the basic file operations of the system and may have some
Use your technical knowledge
experience with the office software already. With a large
of the area and combine it with
expansion planned this could be very beneficial. On the
details of the specific case to
other hand, current staff are used to working with the
make the points towards your
current system.
argument.
One of the major issues for Fruitful will be compatibility
of their current hardware with the new OS. EPOS tills,
Ideally make a point and then
contactless card systems, etc. may need to be adapted or
explain it, perhaps using a concise
indeed changed.
example.
Bill Fence’s decision is, on balance, a risky one for Fruitful.
It will be changing from an existing, effective system to a
new system that will need some development, although it When evaluating a decision
is based on a well-known operating system and software. it is important to come
There will be training needs, development needs and extra to a conclusion about the
costs at each stage of the implementation, handover and appropriateness of that
during the lifetime of the product. A full feasibility study decision or perhaps make a
Copyright © 2017. Pearson Education Limited. All rights reserved.

may be the best option at this stage. recommendation. Do note that

even when recommending it is
best to use academic language
rather than say ‘I recommend…’

Each student at the John Snow School currently has to carry a You could explain the basic operation
photo ID card which features a magnetic strip carrying their ID. It and consider the advantages and
is swiped at the entrance to the school and class to register them. disadvantages. As it is an evaluate
It is proposed to replace these with new ID cards that contain RFID question, finish with a definite
chips to automate the class registration system. recommendation.
Evaluate this decision.

100

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