ABSTRACT

The tendency to use renewable energy resources has grown

continuously over the past few decades, be it due to fear over warnings
of global warming or because of the depletion and short life of fossil
fuels or even as a result of the interest which has developed among
researchers doing scientific research into it. This work can be considered
as joining any of these groups with an objective of giving electric light
to the poor population living in one of the poorest nations in the world.
The aim of the work is to investigate supplying electric energy from
solar-wind hybrid resources to remotely located communities detached
from the main grid line in India.
The presented methodology is applied to evaluate the potential of
photovoltaic – wind hybrid system to produce electricity for a
community and Institute. Through this hybrid system we have
reduce pollution and decrease the global warming. In this we have
analyzed the data of wind and solar energy and evaluated the
average energy. We have decreased the pollution by these resources
compare to non renewable resource. By using hybrid system we may
fulfill the energy demand in the future .
We have used the small storage capacity because maintenance cost
becomes high . In future we may install large solar and wind plant
which are cheaper as compared to small plants.
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................1
Review of early work ......................................................................
PART I: Basic Theory and Wind Energy Potential........
1.1 Basic Related Wind Theory.............................................
1.1.1 What is the source of wind energy?.........................................
1.1.2 Energy in the Wind..................................................................
1.1.3 Energy Output ........................................................................
1.1.4 Wind Speed Measurement......................................................
1.1.5 Turbine Siting..........................................................................
1.1.6 Brief Note on Wind Turbine Technology................................
1.1.7 Wind Turbine Generators .......................................................
1.2 Assessment of Wind Energy Potential............................
1.2.2 The Wind Energy Potential .....................................................
PART II: Basic Theory and Solar Energy Potential ......
2.1 Basic Related Theory .......................................................
2.1.1 Solar Energy ...........................................................................
2.2 Solar Energy Potential.....................................................
3 PART III: Basic Theory and the Hybrid System ...........
3.1 Basic Theory of the Hybrid System Components..........
3.1.1 Photovoltaics ...........................................................................
3.1.2 Diesel Generator......................................................................
3.1.3 Inverter ...................................................................................
3.1.4 Battery .....................................................................................42
4PART IV: Methodology Description………………..
4.1.1 Methodology
5 PART V : Design and Installation
5.1 Initial Study on Wind Capacity
5.2. Project Implementation

6 PARTVI : Conclusion
References
INTRODUCTON
Energy has been playing an important role in human and economic
development and world peace. At current energy consumption rate,
proven coal reserves should last for about 200 years, oil for
approximately 40 years and natural gas for around 60 years. With the
contradiction between rapid development and diminishing fossil fuel
resource, as well as to avoid pollutant emissions or other environmental
problems, and not to involve the resulting healthy hazard, we should
consider the manner in which we produce and consume energy for
sustainable development. Energy generated from solar, wind, biomass,
geo-thermal, hydropower and ocean resources, could increases diversity
of energy supplies and offer us clean energy beyond all doubt.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are electronic devices that are based on
semiconductor technology and can produce an electric current directly
from sunlight. The best silicon PV modules now available commercially
have an efficiency of over 25%.Wind power is electricity produced by a
generator, which is driven by a turbine according to aerodynamics in
flowing air. Wind power is one of the fastest growing renewable energy
technologies around the world. PV modules and wind turbine are now
widely used in developed countries to produce electrical power in
locations where it might be inconvenient or expensive to use
conventional grid supplies, while other homeowners who choose the
renewable energy sources prefer to connect their energy system to the
grid as a huge „battery‟ for some convenient grid-tied situation. In
contrast, in many developing countries, especially in rural areas
electricity grids are often non- existent or rudimentary, and all forms of
energy are usually very expensive. Here the PV modules and wind
turbine can be highly competitive with other forms of energy supply.
However, the fact that natural energy resources are intermittent and
storage batteries are expensive, has led to the utilization of so-called
hybrid renewable energy systems. Any power system that incorporates
two or more of the following is referred to as a hybrid power system: PV
panels, wind turbines, or diesel, propane, gasoline generators. For small
loads, the most common combinations are PV-wind hybrid system. PV
and wind is good match, because inland wind speeds tend to be lower in
summer, when solar energy can compensate, and higher in winter, when
sunshine falls to very low levels. In this paper ,a pv-wind hybrid system
is presented that can supply power to a remote locations, farm house and
a small company depending on the need at the site where used. The aim
of this study is to introduce the local PV-wind hybrid system‟s working
principle by reviewing one case where the system is connected to the
grid.
1.2.1 Review of Earlier Work
The following literature survey for the current report consists of
various papers on hybrid system published in the IEEE conferences
and the journals.
E.Muljadi, C.P Butterfied [1] presented a paper about that how wind
variable speed operation with pitch control .They also discussed
about control the maximum energy by minimizing the loads and the
medium speed the generator are control the wind turbine speed at
high speed the wind turbine control the power production. Two
method can be used to control the power first is pitch control and
second is generator control load. I t show that wind turbine operated to
optimizing energy capturing and used to control the various wind
speeds.
Meei-Song Kang [2] presented a paper about power system with
fuzzy wind generation into this paper he discussed how we can
calculate the demand of load of different consumer at different time.
We can also compare the cost of different plant and show the
profile of different load by consumer. We can avoid the generation
cost of wind energy by evaluating the load profile of consumer. It
is found that the wind power generation can economically and
effectively substitute the generation cost of the diesel power
plant and provide the partial power supply capability for the net peak
load demand.
T.Tanabert, T.Sato [3] discussed the control the system which can be
used to full fill the requirement. Each control system was verified to
be practical by simulations based on an actual network and data. Into
this we can determined the capacity of Battery which can be full fills
the requirement demand. They also discussed the scheduling of
generation by wind and other plants by controlling and direction and
speed of wind energy and how much energy we can get from the
system. A control system has been developed to meet the
technical requirements announced by the electric power company.
These requirements will extend the acceptable limit of connecting
wind power generation into the utility grid. However, these
requirements demand wind power generators for the additional
equipment to stabilize wind power fluctuations. By fulfilling these
requirements, the economic value of wind power
generation will be enhanced because the scheduled generation
will be practiced in wind farms. By feature extraction of
meteorological data using regression tree for wind power
generation we can compare the weather condition for the
production of power from wind energy.
 Takaaki Kai and Akio Tanka [4], in their paper
discussed a conventional power fluctuation smoothing system.
This system can use doubly fed generator to control the variable
speed and power factor of wind energy. This system is composed into
EDLC system. In this system there are two inverters-inverter A and
inverter B and also a capacitor is placed in between these inverters.
P1 Active power of the stator and P2 Active power of the rotor .The
sum of the wind power generation output power Pg and power
fluctuation system output is defined as the composite output power . In
a new wind power generation, the EDLC system is connected to the
DC circuit between inverters through a bi-direction DC/DC
converter, and the power fluctuation smoothing sequence is added to
the control of inverter A. The rated voltage of DC circuit between
Inverters is 1500V, and the capacitor of5.0F is connected to the
circuit. The EDLC system is composed by cell module 600S1 ( 2
series and 85 parallels). The rated voltage, the capacity and the
internal resistance of the cell are 150V, 4.7F and 0.55Q.
Hiroyuki Mori and Akira Await [5] presented a paper about
how wind energy is affected by different variable this method can
be used to detect the real data. The variable may be depending upon
the winter and summer condition and it is also depending upon the sea
level pressure and direction of air. Sea level pressure affected the
speed of wind.
Noriyuki Kimur a, Tomoynki Hamada [6] gave idea about
Suppression of current peak of PFC converter to induction generator
for wind power generation excited by voltage source converter. Into
this paper we can know about the combination of induction
generator with electronic equipments. The induction generator
cannot generate electricity at lower rotor wind speed. To
compensate this problem, expensive synchronous generators with
permanent magnets are sometimes used. The diode rectifier used
to convert the real power from the induction generator to dc
voltage. If we use induction generator with VSC, the cost of the
wind generation system is reduced. In this paper, we can also study
how we can reduce the output current of the VSC by using the
duty factor control of the PVC converter in this system. A low
cost cage induction motor is used instead of expensive synchronous
generator. Capacitors are used to compensate the reactive power.
Lu Yuegang, Xi Peiyu [7] deal with study the layer of wind
turbine system.
Two layers exist into system one is supervisory layer and
second one is control layer. First is based upon American company
and second based upon mat lab system generation wind turbine
system. They also discussed how we can control the constant-
frequency and var iable speed and wind power induction system.
By comparing these curves correctness and feasibility system are
provided. They also presented study the start-up wind speed
cutting in DFIC cutting model, rated wind speed, variable pitch
control.
Ming-Shun Lu, Wei-Jen Lee and Li Wang[8] presented a paper about
combining the
wind power generation system with energy storage equipments.
With the advance in wind turbine technologies, the cost of wind
energy becomes competitive with other fuel-based generation
resources. Due to the pr ice hike of the fossil fuel and the concern
of the global warming, the development of wind power has rapidly
progressed over the last decade. Since it is difficult to predict and
control the output of the wind generation, its potential impacts on the
electric grid are different from the traditional energy sources. At high
penetration level, an extra fast response reserve capacity is needed to
cover shortfall of generation when a sudden deficit of wind takes
place. To enable a proper management of the uncertainty, this
study presents an approach to make wind power become a more
reliable source on both energy and capacity by using energy storage
devices. Combining the wind power generation system with energy
storage will reduce fluctuation of wind power. Since it requires capital
investment for the storage system, it is important to estimate
reasonable storage capacities for desired applications. In addition,
energy storage application for reducing the output variation during the
gust wind is also studied.
Bongani Malinga Dr. John E. Sneckenberger, Dr. Ali Feliachi [ 9]
presented a paper which is a part of a research project to study
the dynamics and control of distributed resources (DRs) in the
deregulated electric power industry’. It reflects the need to look
at large wind farms as power plants, as a result of the increased
penetration of wind energy in the power systems many places in
the world. To obtain an optimal integration of high penetration of
wind energy in the system, the wind far ms must be able to replace
other power plants, i.e. he able to participate in the control and
stabilization of the power system. This research provided a
different approach to wind turbine modeling and control design
methodology. All the results were in close agreement with results
from other studies. The main strategy of the controller was to
regulate the rotor angular speed and the power demand to match the
required profiles. Continued research illustrates that the optimum
wind turbine has not yet been build and most of the remaining
work lies in how the wind turbine is controlled. Wijarn Wangdee,
Wenyuan Li, Wahshum [10] deals with the world the use of wind
energy increase because they different from another renewable source.
It play important role into overall energy .the wind generation is
depend upon the location and graphical condition into the hilly area
the speed of wind is more so into these area we can produce
the large amount of energy. The transmission of power which is
generated by wind generation is also play a important role into the cost
of wind power. For the trans mission be can consider the load
demand and transmission of power which is available for
transmit. We can use MECORE software which is a composite
generation and transmission system reliability analysis tool utilizing
a DC-based optimal power flow algorithm, was used I n the study. As
previously noted, the voltage stability is dominant to limit the
transfer capabilities of the system. A typical AC-based power flow
program was initially used to investigate the transfer limits under
system normal (N- 0) and contingency (N-1) situations.
After the transfer limits based on voltage stability
study .The voltage stability limit can be measure by MECORE
using DC based optimal power flow solution.The load duration
curve during winter period in which 1,000,000 samples were used in
all MECORE studies in order to achieve the coefficient of variation
and the tolerance error is less than 1.
Mohammad Zakir Hossain and A.K.M. Sadrul Islam [11] presented a
paper about PV-wind hybrid system modelling for remote rural
application. A PV-wind hybrid model has been developed to
simulate a stand-alone power system with battery storage. The model
has been applied to a typical consumer peak load of one kW at
a remote community in Bangladesh. Using the model, different
parameters are evaluated for one-year of full operation of the
system. An economic analysis has also been undertaken to assess
the feasibility of such a system at the location considered.

Mel George [12] presented a paper about As the worldwide use of

renewable energy in utility scale applications continues to increase, it
is important to assess the impact on the grid and conventional
generation. This report combines analysis of load and generation
characteristics, generation adequacy and base and peak load
variations to gain insights into the future role of wind generation. A
simulation of Tamil Nadu state in India which has a high
penetration of wind power (27% by installed capacity) has been
presented here. The savings achieved in conventional generation .due
to installation of wind power are quantified as the capacity credit,
using a power system reliability based approach.
Rickgonzalel,Rana Muke Ji [ 13] presented a paper about wind power
is growing as a generation resource in New York State. The number of
wind plants operating in the state has increased significantly over the
past two years. Wind- powered projects also comprise a dominant
portion of the proposed new generation projects in the New
York Independent System Operator ’s (NYISO) interconnection
queue.
Florin Lov,Poul Sor ensen [14] gave general overview and
description of the wind turbine models. A toolbox has been
developed dur ing the research project “Simulation Platform to
model, optimize and design wind turbines” and it has been used
as a general developer tool for other three simulation tools: The r
eport provides a quick overview over Matlab issues and then explains
the structure of the developed toolbox. The attention in the report is
mainly drawn to the description of the most important mathematical
models, which have been developed in the Toolbox.
Jiang Chang and Shu-Yun Jia [15] discussed the modelling and
application of wind-solar energy hybrid power generation system
based on multi-agent technology. Multi-agent system is an agent
society made up of several agents. By the collaboration of multi-agent,
it can optimize control system and enhance its intelligence and
reliability. Wind and solar energy hybrid power generation is a
novel and promising power system. Randomicity and complexity of
the climate make wind and solar hybrid power generation system
a complicated system. In this paper, we first introduce advanced
agent technology into wind and solar energy hybr id power generation
system, establish the wind and solar energy hybrid power gener ation
multi-agent system (WSHGMAS) and analyze multi agents’
collaboration relationship. At last, by the agent’ application in
WSHGMAS, it can realize sea -island, remote region, unmanned
operation’ wind-solar energy hybrid power generation system and
enhance power system’ intelligence and reliability.
V.J.Yeshwenth, R.Udhayaprakash and Naveen Krishna [16]
analysed a DC Connection for capacitor Energy Storage in Wind
power Generation System. First they analysed the performance of
connecting two wind power generation systems with the energy
storage at the dc side. Energy storage is desirable to be installed to
keep constant output from the wind power gener ation system. The DC
connection of two wind power generation system helps to exchange
power between the two systems and can suppress the disturbance of
the output power to the utility systems longer than the stand alone
system. The performance of connecting two wind generation
systems with the energy storage at the dc side has been
investigated by using the simulation. The wind power generation
system is modelled and simulated by MATLAB/Simulink and the
effectiveness of the dc connection of two systems is presented. This
effect is easily achieved and implemented without any additional
control. The controller measures only the common dc side capacitor
voltage of the local system. MATLAB/simulink simulation verifies the
better performance in a certain situation.
Lan Li and Guang-yu Xiong [17] discussed about the main problem
for var iable speed constant frequency wind power gener ation system
is how to improve the dynamic r espond as well as stability. In this
paper, according to mathematical model of wind power generator and
active power separate control str ategy with reactive power, PI
controller and fuzzy controller were used separately in the control link
of active power. And active power fuzzy controller was designed. In
MATLAB/Simulink, doubly-fed wind power generation systems
controlled by two kinds of controller were simulated and their
properties wer e compared, it is shown that wind power generation
system based on fuzzy controller has capacity to better dynamic
respond and disturb resistance.
H. Belmili, N. Matidji and fellows [18] presented a paper about
Sizing a (photovoltaic/wind) Hybr id System. Combining Solar
Photovoltaic systems with batteries can guarantee high supply
reliability, but in cloudy weather (weak irradiation) this strategy
requires large storage capacity and is expensive. It is cheaper to supply
peaks of demand and the demand during this period, with either an
additional wind generator. Under this objective different types of
(photovoltaic/wind) hybrid systems for supplying electricity have
been demonstrated in a large number of pilot and demonstrated
projects. In their context, the design of hybr id systems is a relevant
issue. An ideal system has to supply, at any given time in the year, an
instantaneous energy that equals the consumed energy by all system
loads. A sub-sized system obviously doesn’t satisf y the demand on
electric power and on the other hand, an over-sized system can be
completely prohibitive due to economical and financial indicators.
This work presented the different methods of sizing a small PV-
Wind hybrid system and the choice of the method that gives the
optimal technical-economic configuration.
John A. Castle, James M. Kallis, Sally M. Moite and Neil A.
Marshall [19] gave a paper about analysis of merits of Hybrid
Wind/Photovoltaic Concept for Stand-Alone Systems. Methods for
evaluating the merits of hybrid wind/photovoltaic systems for use in
stand-alone applications were developed. The optimum mix of wind
and photovoltaic power with an electrochemical storage system, with
or without fossil fuel generator backup, depends upon the individual
subsystem economics. A computer code was developed to calculate
the optimum subsystem-sizes that minimize the levelized energy
cost. The actual merits of a hybrid system over a pure
photovoltaic or wind system depend upon many factors: load
profile; wind regime; insulation; cost and availability of backup
power; the relative costs of wind rotor area, array area, and
storage; and subsystem efficiency factors. Examples of optimized
hybrid systems for a range of photovoltaic costs and estimated wind
and storage costs are shown for an Ely, Nevada application where
backup power is allowed to supply 5% of the total annual load.
CADDET Centre for Renewable Energy gave a project [20] on A
PV- Wind Hybrid System on Bullerö Island, Sweden. This report
give idea about The PV-wind power installation meets almost all
the island’s energy demand less than half the cost of installing grid
connection. Thus this method is a cost-effective use of renewable
energy in a remote situation.
C.A. Nwosu, M.Eng. and M.U. Agu [21] presented a paper about
power and energy balance in Wind-Solar Hybrid Power System.
In this paper, power and energy balance in a wind-solar hybrid
power system having battery and combined heat and power ( CHP)
sub-units as backups, is presented. A case study for winter and
summer seasons are conducted in an urban city in the Netherlands.
Load profiles for the periods of winter and summer over a period of
24 hours were developed from a load pattern program developed
through load research sampling (LRS). It is observed that within
the period under investigation, there exists an instant when the
generated energy from the wind-solar hybrid was below energy
demand of the load. The battery unit supplies this deficient energy
into the system so as to maintain steady power plant. This,
however, depends on the state of charge (SOC) of the battery. I f
the SOC of the two battery sub-units is below a set point,
combined heat and power (CHP) unit will be switched into the
system, in the context of global energy balance. In another instant,
excess ener gy from the hybrid after meeting the load demand, charges
the battery.
Xu Zhenchao, Moon Chaejoo, Chang Younghak, Lim Jungmin
and Kim Taegon presented [22] a paper about remote monitoring
of wind-photovoltaic hybrid generation system using mobile phone
and internet. I n this paper, a remote monitoring system of wind-
photovoltaic hybrid generation system using mobile phone and
internet has been developed. Many kinds of data can be acquired,
analyzed and saved automatically by this system. The hybrid system
is composed of 1[kW] PV with DC/DC converter, battery banks
and 5[kW] wind power system with power inductor and AC/DC
converter. In addition, wind monitoring sensors, voltage and current
meters, current transformers and potential transfor mers are used as
accessory instruments. All of these signals are fed into DAQ
(Data Acquisition) board after conver ting the data which have been
processed by many types of converters, dividing circuits and signal
conditioning circuits. These data can not only be displayed on a
computer, transmitted using the ser ver program to remote computer
and saved on a computer as a file day by day but also be sent as a
CDMA message. The monitored-data can be downloaded, analyzed
and saved from server progr am in real-time via mobile phone or
internet at a remote place. All of the programs were designed with Lab
VI EW software.
PART I: Basic Theory and Wind Energy Potential
1.1 Basic Related Wind Theory
1.1.1 What is the source of wind energy?
The regions around equator are heated more by the sun than the rest of
the globe. The warm colors, red, orange and yellow indicate the hot
areas in the infra-red image of sea surface temperatures (taken from a
NASA satellite, NOAA-7 in July 1984). Most renewable energy
ultimately comes from the sun and 1-2 % of the sun’s energy reaching
the earth is converted into wind [Danish wind, 2008]. Differences in air
pressure caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun
forces air circulation; and air flows from areas of high pressure to areas
of low pressure .

Figure 1-1 NASA satellite sea surface temperature image of the globe
As a result of temperature and pressure differences, and also the Coriolis
Effect, there are different global wind patterns at different latitudes.
Trade winds, prevailing westerlies, and polar easterlies are some of the
types that can be mentioned in this regard. The Coriolis force is the
apparent deflection of air from its path as it moves from high to low
pressure areas because of the rotation of the earth. Other wind resources
such as Geostrophic Winds, Surface Winds, Local Winds (as in Sea
Breezes), Mountain winds, etc. should also be noted [Danish wind,
2008].
1.1.2 Energy in the Wind
The calculation procedures for determining the power available in the
wind can be found in many standard text books on wind power. The
following basic relationships can be found, for example, in (Gasch R,
Twele J, 2002, , Manwell J.F, 2002,, Gipe P,1999) The energy the wind
transfers to the rotor of a wind turbine is proportional to the density of
the air, the rotor area, and the cube of the wind speed.

Figure 1-2 Air flow through a rotor area, A, at speed u m/s

where:
P - Power in the wind (W)
ρ - Density of the air (at normal atmospheric pressure and at 15° Celsius
air weighs some 1.225 kilograms per cubic meter)
A - Rotor Area (A typical 1,000 kW wind turbine has a rotor diameter
of 54 meters, i.e. a rotor area of some 2,300 square meters.)[Danish
wind, 2008]
u - The wind speed (m/s) It is to be noted that the mean wind speed
should not be simply inserted into Eq.1-1, as this will give an erroneous
result because of the fact that the mean of the cubes of wind velocities
will almost always be greater than the cube of the mean wind speed. The
most accurate estimate for wind power density is that given by Eq.1-2.

Where n is the number of wind speed readings and ρj and uj are the jth
readings of the air density and wind speed. For a known pressure and
temperature:

Where p r is air pressure (Pa) and R is the specific gas constant (287
Jkg-1 K-1) and T is air temperature in 0K. For the available temperature
data:

where Po is standard sea level atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), g is

the gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2); and z is the region's elevation (m)
[Oklahoma Wind power, 2008]. If pressure and temperature data is not
available, the following correlation may be used for estimating the
density [Oklahoma Wind power, 2008].:

1.1.3 Energy Output

The power available from a wind turbine is usually shown by the
machine’s power curves P (u) and a typical curve is shown in figure 1-3.

Figure 1 -3 Typical power curve for an 80 kW wind turbine (WES18,

18m rotor diameter) [HOMER, Ver. 2.19]

A Weibull distribution graph is usually used to describe wind variation

over a certain period of time at a particular site. Figure 1-4 shows a
typical distribution plot for wind speed data based on wind speed. As
can be seen in the graph, the mean wind speed is about 4 m/s. The mean
wind speed can be obtained by summing up the products of each wind
speed interval and the probability of getting that wind speed. The
Weibull probability density function (PDF) is given by equation Eq.1-6
[Manwell, 2002].

where: u = the wind speed,

k = a constant known as shape factor, as the value of k increases the
curve will have a sharper peak
c’ = a scale parameter in m/s; the larger the scale parameter, the more
spread out the distribution.
The area under the curve is always unity.
The power density can in this case be expressed by Eq.1-7. This is the
same equation as Eq. 1-1 but for a median (average of a series of
recorded wind speed) wind speed in which case the frequency of the
recording is considered.

where Vj is the median velocity in class j and fj is the frequency of

occurrence in the same class. For k = 2 the Weibull PDF is commonly
known as the Rayleigh density function in which case Eq. 1-6 may be
rewritten as in Eq.1-8.

1.1.4 Wind Speed Measurement

Among the various types of anemometer, such as the ultrasonic or laser,
the most common type is the cup anemometer, which is used for
measuring wind speeds. The wind direction is detected with a wind
vane, which is normally fitted together with the anemometer. A data
logger collects wind speed and wind direction data from the anemometer
and wind vane respectively. Wind speeds are usually recorded as a 10
minute average.
1.1.5 Turbine Siting
Finding a place for a wind turbine is one of the most challenging aspects
of using wind energy. If located too close to homes, in addition to the
uncomfortable noise it creates for surrounding families, the turbine
suffers building interference. If it is too far away, then the cost of
cabling and the burial of cables should not be overlooked. Rarely is there
an ideal site [Gipe P, 1999.]. With regard to the wind, nature itself is
usually an excellent guide for finding a suitable wind turbine site. The
inclination of trees and bushes reveals information about the prevailing
wind of the region. However, the best guide is Meteorology data
collected for more than 30 years and compiled in the form of wind rose
diagrams.
It is under such circumstances that observing the surroundings gives
significant clues about the wind regime of the area [Danish wind, 2008].
Furthermore, the site to be selected should be free of nearby obstacles
(such as trees, small houses or other buildings). It has to be wide and
open and of as low roughness as possible in the prevailing wind
direction. Such sites are quite common in the country. The surface
roughness causes wind shear close to the ground and suppresses the
wind’s speed within a certain distance. Wind speed increases with height
and therefore a higher tower captures more wind energy. Wind speed at
any height, before tapering off, can be estimated using equation 1-9, if
the wind speed (u (zr)) is known at a certain reference height (zr) above
a surface with a known roughness length (zo) [Danish Wind, 2008].
Figure 1-5 illustrates a typical wind speed profile for a surface roughness
length of 0.1.
Figure 1-5 A typical wind speed profile for a surface roughness length of
0.1 [HOMER, Ver. 2.19]
When selecting sites, infrastructural facilities, such as roads, should also
be considered.
Based on the literature survey and theoretical notes, such as those given
thus far, the wind energy potential of the four selected locations,
assumed to be models for most habitable parts of the country, is
investigated. 1.1.6 Brief Note on Wind Turbine Technology When
designing a wind turbine, there are several factors that must be taken
into consideration: the dynamic behavior, the strength, the fatigue
properties of the materials and the entire assembly. Hence,
manufacturers have developed a variety of turbines with this in mind, or
with other advantages and disadvantages.
In general, the wind turbine must be designed to:
• Withstand high wind loads; optimum robustness and solidity
• Compliant to accommodate shade loads
• Manage loads mechanically and/or electrically
The most important design variables are:
• Number of blades
• Power control system and
• generator types Regarding the number of blades,
three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines are currently the most
commonly used types for grid-connected wind turbines. Stability is the
most important reason for this.
Turbines with even number of blades give stability problems. The reason
is because of the fact that in the instant of time when the tip of one of the
blades passes the top most side and is forced to bend because of the
force of the wind the tip of the opposite side blade passes into the wind
shade in front of the tower. [Danish wind, 2008]. With regard to the
power control system, the power regulation mechanisms must be
implemented in such a way that power output is limited close to the
rated value, as wind turbines have their highest efficiency at the wind
speed they are designed for.
There are three commonly used types of power control in the industry.
• Stall Control
• Pitch Control
• Active stall regulation Using stalling regulation,
the aerodynamic design principle is to increase the angle at which the
relative wind strikes the blades (angle of attack) and to reduce the
induced lifting force at the moment the wind speed becomes too high.
This happens because of turbulence created on the side of the rotor blade
which is not facing the wind. Stall controlled wind turbines have their
rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The Pitch control
mechanism is usually hydraulically operated. An electronic controller,
which depends on the output power, sends a signal to the blade pitch
mechanism so as to turn the rotor blades out of the wind to the exact
degree required and to keep the rotor blades at the optimum angle for
maximized output at all wind speeds. In pitch control mechanism the
rotor blades are rotated around their longitudinal axis. With an active
stall regulation mechanism the machine is usually programmed to pitch
the blades much like a pitch-controlled machine at low wind speeds, so
as to get a reasonably large torque at low wind speeds. If the generator is
about to be loaded, then the machine also pitches its blades to increase
the angle of attack of the rotor blades forcing the blades to go into a
deeper stall thus wasting the excess energy in the wind [Danish wind,
2009]. In this control mechanism the machine can be run almost exactly
at rated power at all high wind speeds. There are also other control
mechanisms such as the use of ailerons (flaps) to alter the geometry of
the wings or yawing to turn the rotor partly out of the wind to decrease
power.
1.1.7 Wind Turbine Generators
Wind turbine generators are a bit different from other generating units in
that the input power to the generator shaft is taken from the wind turbine
rotor which fluctuates greatly in terms of mechanical power (torque).
The transmission system consists of the rotor shaft with bearings,
brake(s), an optional gearbox, as well as a generator and optional
clutches. There are two types of generator, synchronous and
asynchronous. Synchronous generators are more expensive compared to
asynchronous (induction) generators. Six-pole asynchronous generators
are the most commonly used types. The speed of the asynchronous
generator varies with the turning force (torque) applied to it. It has a
slightly softer connection to the network frequency than the synchronous
generator, as it allows a limited amount of slip, or variation, in generator
RPM. In the case of the synchronous generator, the speed is set by the
grid frequency and the number of pairs of poles of generators. The
generator runs at a fixed frequency (line frequency), and hence at a fixed
speed.
Equation 1-10 gives the relationship between the frequency and the
synchronous speed.

where n s is the synchronous speed,

f the line frequency and Pl the number of pole pairs.
That what has been discussed thus far regarding wind turbine technology
mainly applies to larger size wind turbines.
The design principles of smaller wind turbines are somewhat different to
the larger ones in that the distinctive purpose of small wind turbines is to
produce power frequently over short periods, e.g. for battery charging. It
is important that small turbines generate in weak winds and respond
quickly when harnessable winds occur. The rapid starting of the rotor
before the generator cuts in is a further requirement [Joliet; 2008]. Small
wind turbines often have direct drive generators (without a gearbox) and
give out direct current. Their blades could be aeroelastic types and
usually use a vane to point into the wind. Figure 1-6 shows the power
curve of a typical 20 kW wind turbine.

Figure 1-6 typical 20 kW wind turbine power curve [Joliet, 2008]

The wind turbine may have the following technical specification [Joliet,
2008]:
Rotor Diameter (m): 10
Start up wind speed (m/s): 2.5
Rated wind speed (m/s): 10
Cut out wind speed (m/s): 15
Max. output power (W): 25000
Output voltage (VDC): 360
Furling: 3 stage motorized yaw control
Noise level: 38.2db
1.2 Assessment of Wind Energy Potential

Figure 1-7 Monthly average wind speed of: the measured (A), of the
synthesized hourly data from the measured (B), the synthesized data
from the filtered out daytime data (C), and of the scaled down
synthesized data (D)
PART II:
Basic Theory and Solar Energy Potential
2.1 Basic Related Theory
2.1.1 Solar Energy
General information about solar power is found in the following
references [Duffie and Beckman, 1991] [Markvart, 2000]. The sun
radiates energy radially, from an effective surface temperature of about
5760 K, as electromagnetic radiation known as `solar energy' or
sunshine. The earth is situated at about 150 million km from the sun
with a total surface area of about 510 million km2, of which only about
21% is land. A substantial portion of the solar radiation, on its way to
reaching the earth’s surface, is attenuated due to atmospheric
interventions. Additionally, because of the sun-earth angle concept, the
solar radiation received at the earth's surface varies on hourly, daily, or
monthly basis. Hourly variation is due to the motion of the sun from east
to west, and also due to the presence of clouds, whereas daily variation
and monthly (seasonal) variation is due to the position of the sun.
Longitude and latitude give the location of a place on the earth's surface.
The Sun comes overhead twice a year in the tropical belt. Ethiopia is in
the equatorial region which is probably the most favorable region for
solar energy. According to the findings of this work, disregarding the
rainy season, July and August, the average daily duration of sunshine is
approximately 8-10 hours [Bekele and Palm, 2009a]. It is well known
that most developing countries do not have properly recorded radiation
data. What usually available is sunshine duration data. Solar radiation
data is the best source of information for estimating the 26 solar energy
potential of a certain location, which is necessary for the proper design
of a solar energy conversion system. Ethiopia is one of the developing
countries without properly recorded solar radiation data and, like many
other countries, what is available is sunshine duration data. However,
given a knowledge of the number of sunshine hours and local
atmospheric conditions, sunshine duration data can be used to estimate
monthly average solar radiation, with the help of empirical equation 2-1
[Duffie and Beckman, 1991].

where: H = the monthly average daily radiation on a horizontal surface

(MJ/m2)
H 0 = the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on a
horizontal surface (MJ/m2)
n = the monthly average daily number of hours of bright sunshine
N = the monthly average of the maximum possible daily hours of bright
sunshine (i.e. the day length of the average day of the month)
a and b are regression coefficients Solar radiation, known as
extraterrestrial radiation, H0, on a horizontal plane outside the
atmosphere, is given by equation 2-2.
where nd = the day number,
G SC = 1367 W/m2, the solar constant,
φ = the latitude of the location,
δ = the declination angle given as

ωs = is the sunset hour angle given as

The maximum possible sunshine duration N is given by

Equations (2-2) and (2-5) are used to calculate the extraterrestrial

radiation and the maximum possible daily hours of bright sunshine
respectively at the specified locations. The regression coefficients a and
b for M number of data points can be calculated from the following
equations (2-6) and (2-7).[Nguyen and Pryor, 1997]
Results estimated in this way can be further improved by comparing
them with data which can be obtained from sources such as NASA's
surface solar energy data set or the Meteonorm global meteorological
database for applied climatology. The comparison can be made using the
root mean square error (RMSE) formula given in equation 2-8.

where:

M = the total number of observation points and

Hob = the arithmetic mean value of the obtained data
NB. The subscript “obtained” refers to the data obtained from
Meteonorm [Meteonorm, Ver. 5.1x] and NASA [NASA, 2008] and also
the measured data for Addis Ababa, obtained from NMSA. The
correlation of the radiation levels calculated based on the different
models given by different authors is compared against the radiation level
obtained in this work. The correlation coefficient, r, by which the depth
of the correlation of the two radiation levels is compared is given by
another statistical formula (Eq. 2-10) [Nguyen and Pryor, 1997].
where:
He = the arithmetic mean value of the M estimated values of the solar
radiation and
H ob = the arithmetic mean value of the M obtained values of the solar
radiation
2.2 Solar Energy Potential
There are a couple of previous studies concerning solar energy
distribution across the country [ENEC, 1986] [Drake and Mulugetta,
1996]. They both provided a considerable set of results on a countrywide
basis. However, differences can be observed between these and the
results achieved in this study [Bekele and Palm, 2009a ]. This study, as
mentioned earlier, focuses on finding the solar energy potential of the
four selected locations. Unfortunately, as in the case of the wind, there is
no properly recorded radiation data available throughout the country,
except for one particular location, Addis Ababa. It is clear that the best
source of information for evaluating the solar energy potential of a given
location is radiation data. However, where no such data is available,
empirical relationships involving information on sunshine duration,
temperature and cloudiness can be used to determine the potential. The
data used as a basis for this study is sunshine duration data recorded by
NMSA for a period of more than 10 years at the selected locations. The
data was recorded relatively recently, from the early 1990s to 2003.
Radiation measurement is taken using an Eppley model pyranometer and
this is done at one of the sites, Addis Ababa. A Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder is used to measure the sunshine duration [Mulugeta,
1996]. This instrument is widely used in many countries and probably it
is the most common type of sunshine recorder in use today. The unit is
designed to record sunshine duration by burning a hole through a card.
The advantages of using this instrument are its simplicity and ease of
use. Furthermore, it requires less maintenance, as there are no moving
parts within the instrument. The disadvantage of this instrument is its
inability to burn a hole in the card when the sun is low in the sky. Thus,
it can be said that it only measures the amount of bright sunshine, not
visible sunshine. Reading the cards is another major problem, as the
presence and absence of clouds affects the amount of burn on the card.
Regression coefficients, developed by other authors for locations of
similar climatic conditions, together with equations related to solar
energy given earlier, Eq.2-1 to Eq.2-10, have been used to determine the
potential. 30 Furthermore, radiation data obtained from the Global
Meteorological Database for Solar Energy and Applied Meteorology
[Meteonorm, Ver. 5.1x] and the renewable energy resource web site,
sponsored by NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Earth-Sun System
Division, and Applied Sciences Program [NASA, 2008] have also been
checked against the results obtained. The deviations of the comparisons
have been evaluated using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)(Eq. 2-8).
The details of this work is explained thoroughly in the attached paper
[Bekele and Palm, 2009a]. Figure 2-1 shows the results obtained.
Regression coefficients relevant to each of the locations have also been
calculated using equations 2-6 and equation 2-7. In general, the findings
clearly indicate that the available solar energy potential is excellent .
Figure 2-1 Global solar radiation of the locations on a horizontal surface
PART III:
Basic Theory and the Hybrid System
As previously introduced, the hybrid system studied is one combining
solar and wind with diesel generator(s) and a bank of batteries, which is
included for backup purposes. Power conditioning units, such as
converters, are also a part of the supply system. It is conceivable that a
solar/wind hybrid system has numerous advantages. One of the
advantages is reliability; when solar and wind power production
resources are used together, reliability is improved and the system's
energy service is enhanced. What this means is that in the absence of
one type of energy another would be available to carry out the service,
and, as a result the size of the battery storage can be reduced. Illustrative
schematic diagram of the set up is given in figure 3-7 of section 3.2.1
Other advantages are the stability and immobility of the system (fewer
moving parts) and a lower maintenance requirement, thus reducing
downtime during repairs or routine maintenance. In addition to this, as
well as being indigenous and free, renewable energy resources also
contribute to the reduction of emissions and pollution.
The operational concept of the hybrid system is that renewable resources
are the first choice for supplying load and any excess energy produced is
stored in the battery.
The diesel generator is a secondary source of energy. Electronic
controller circuitry is used to manage energy supply and load demand.
The main actors, or elements, of the hybrid system are the wind turbine
and the PV generators. Diesel generator(s), a battery system, and an
inverter module are additional parts of the system. In the following
sections the basic principles of these components will be discussed. In
addition to the theoretical notes considered as a background literature
survey is also part and parcel of the foundation of this work. It is known
that researchers have been working in the area of standalone hybrid
system since long and numerous research results for a variety of 32
applications have been published. For this particular work attention is
given towards those concerning African countries. In one of African
countries, Cameroon, Off-grid generation options for remote villages
have been simulated for a load of 110 kWh/day and 12 kWp [Nfah EM,
et al, 2008]. In the research HOMER is used to simulate the energy cost
of the different design options. The study is based on solar, hydropower,
diesel generator, and battery sources. Using load data to which an hourly
and daily noise of 5 % is added and also based on hydro and solar
resources data, the levelized costs of energy for different renewable
energy options have been calculated and the levelized cost of energy
found was 0.296 Euro/kWh. This cost is for a micro-hydro hybrid
system comprising a 14 kW micro-hydro generator, a 15 kW LPG
(liquefied petroleum gas) generator and 36kWh of battery storage. In
another simulation comprising of photovoltaic (PV) hybrid systems, an
18kWp PV generator, a 15 kW LPG generator and 72kWh of battery
storage the levelized cost was also found as 0.576 Euro/kWh for remote
petrol price of 1 Euro/l and LPG price of 0.70 Euro/m3. The authors
concluded that both simulation options prove to be the cheapest
depending on where the location is within the country. In the same
country, Cameroon, another research is carried out by modeling
solar/diesel/battery hybrid power systems for typical rural households
and schools [Nfah EM, et al, 2007]. Based on hourly solar radiation
computed from the global horizontal solar radiation, the average daytime
temperature, and parameters of selected solar modules the monthly
energy production of the modules was computed. As a result, the
selected solar modules rated power in the range 50–180 Wp produced
energy in the range 78.5–315.2 kWh/yr. With the energy produced by
the solar module a hybrid power system comprising of
solar/diesel/battery to meet the energy demand of typical rural
households in the range 70–300 kWh/yr is modeled. The supply to the
secondary school has been found to be 2585 kWh/yr from 1440Wp solar
array and a 5kW single-phase generator operating at a load factor of
70%. In the study cost analysis is not treated. Another study conducted
in another part of Africa, Algeria, presents techno-economic assessment
for off-grid hybrid generation systems with an aim of achieving a share
of 10–12 % renewable energy sources in primary energy supply by 2010
[Himri Y, et al, 2008]. The model used to evaluate the energy
production, life-cycle costs and greenhouse gas emissions reductions is
HOMER. The aim of the study is to perform an economical feasibility
study of adding wind turbine to an existing grid- 33 connected diesel
power plant supplying energy to a remotely located village in order to
reduce the diesel consumption and environmental pollution. The authors
concluded that for wind speed less than 5.0 m/s the diesel power plant
would be feasible solution over the range of fuel prices used in the
simulation (0.05-0.179 $/L) and the wind diesel hybrid system becomes
feasible at a wind speed of 5.48 m/s or more and a fuel price of 0.162$/L
or more. This is for a case where the carbon tax is not taken into
consideration and subsidy is not abolished otherwise the hybrid system
will become feasible, according to the authors. A study by Magda
Moner-Girona proposes an alternative approach to the promotion and
support schemes of renewable energy technologies in isolated areas
based on the generation of renewable electricity [Magda Moner-Girona,
2009]. The study presents evaluation of the renewable energy premium
tariff (RPT) scheme, a locally adapted Feed-in Tariff modified for
decentralized grids of developing countries that motivates the operation
of renewable energy technologies by paying for renewable electricity
generated. In the study it is deduced that a good quality performance is
attainable as the support is given based on the renewable electricity
production and not on the initial capital investment. The support scheme
has been designed to provide a cost-effective method for the
introduction of renewable energy technologies to remote villages, to
provide sustainable and affordable electricity to local users, to make
renewable energy projects attractive to policy-makers, and concurrently
decrease financial risk to attract private sector investment. Energy
situation for Ruanda was published quite recently [Safari B, 2009].
Ruanda is a neighboring country with all the power shortage problems
similar to Ethiopia and has been experiencing energy crisis. According
to the article, the reason for that is lack of investment in the energy
sector. It also mentions that the population growth and increasing
industrialization in urban areas, existing hydro and thermal power plants
energy supply is increasingly scarce with high energy costs, and energy
instability. Just similar to Ethiopia, wood fuel is being the most
important source of energy in the country and the author predicts that the
dependence on it will continue to impact on the process of
environmental degradation.
The author states that India as rich in renewable energy resources such
as methane gas, solar, biomass, geothermal etc. which is more or less are
the same as resources in India and that the Government is working
towards the development of the rural energy through alternative energy
projects where access to national grid is still difficult.
The objective of the study is to electrify Institute and schools in remote
areas of Bhopal from Wind/Diesel/battery hybrid power system. The
wind resource used is of the period 2012-1015 and the diurnal pattern is
in the range 3–6 m/s from 9:00 to 15:00 for eight months. This is more
or less the objective of this study and the data also looks to be the same
for most regions of Ethiopia. In the study it has been found that two
wind turbines with power rating of 180 W and 290W were found to be
enough for the hybrid system for typical rural households energy needs
in the range 70–300 kWh per year. Another combination consisting of
two wind turbines rated as 290W and a 5 kW single phase generator
requiring only 106 generator hours/yr has been found to supply 2585
kWh/yr or 7 kWh/day load to a typical secondary school. Indeed the
load is much smaller than what has been suggested for this study
however the general idea of the design resembles a lot.
3.1 Basic Theory of the Hybrid System Components
3.1.1 Photovoltaics
The theoretical note under this subtopic is primarily based on the
reference material [Duffie and Beckman, 1991] [Markvart, 2000].
Photovoltaic (photo = light; voltaic = produces voltage) or PV systems
convert light energy directly into electricity using semiconductor
technology (see figure 3-1).

Figure 3-1 Light energy converted to electricity through PV system

The most basic power conversion unit of a photovoltaic (PV) system is
the solar cell. As shown in figure 3-1, sunlight strikes a PV cell and a
direct current (D.C.) is generated. An inverter inverts the D.C. to an
Alternating Current (A.C.) and by connecting the electric load to the
output terminals the current can be utilized. Currently, there are many
different types of solar cell available on the market with the proportion
given in figure 3-2
Figure 3-2 Proportion of PV technologies on the market [Markvart,
2000]
The intensity of light energy determines the amount of electricity
generated. In other words, the conversion of energy relies on the
quantum nature of light, whereby we perceive light as a flux of particles
- photons - which carry the energy, Eph, as given by equation 3-1.

where:
h = the Planck constant,
c = the speed of light (m/s), and

λ = the wavelength of light (m). On a clear day, approximately 4.4 x

1017 photons strike a square centimeter of the earth’s surface every
second. Those photons with energy in excess of the band gap energy of
the semiconductor material being used can be converted into electricity
by the solar cell. A rough estimate of the current that can be generated
by a solar cell is given by equation 3-2. Ignoring losses in the cell, and
assuming each photon produces one electron charge, for an electron
charge of 1.6 x 10- 19 coulomb, and 4.4 x 1017 photons striking a
square centimeter of cell area, the current density is approximately 70
mA/cm2.

where
N is the number of photons,
A the area exposed to light, and
q the charge in coulomb
The maximum voltage, V, that a solar cell can generate is equal to the
band gap of the semiconductor in use and is expressed in electronvolts.
This means that the separation of electrons and holes at the terminals of
the solar cell can only continue until the electrostatic energy of the
charges after separation, Eg, equals to the pair energy in the
semiconductor. Hence, the maximum voltage is given by equation (3-3).
In other words, the maximum voltage that can be generated by a solar
cell is numerically equal to the band gap of the particular semiconductor
in use expressed in electronvolts [Markvart, 2000].

A diagram of a typical solar cell is given in figure 3-3. The current

generated is extracted via contacts on the front and rear sides of the cell.
A thin layer of dielectric material, known as an anti-reflection coating or
ARC, covers the cell to minimize light reflection from the uppermost
surface.
Figure 3-3A typical silicon solar cell [Markvart, 2000]
The assessment of solar cell operation or the design of solar-cell-based
power systems requires and understanding of the electrical
characteristics or voltage-current relationship of the cell under various
temperature and radiation levels. A typical model or equivalent circuit
for a solar module is given in figure 3-4. For practical operation, solar
cells are usually assembled into modules consisting of several cells or an
array consisting of several modules.

Figure 3-4 A solar cell equivalent circuit [Duffie and Beckman,

1991]
The equation governing the I-V characteristics of the cell in the figure is
given by Eq.3-4.
where: ID = the diode current (A) ISh = the shunt resistance current (A)
I = the load current (A) IL = current produced by the cell (A) Io =
reverse saturation current of the diode (A) q = charge on an electron (C)
V = output voltage (V) K = Boltzmann's constant T = working
temperature of the cell in (K) m = the diode quality factor

Figure 3-5 I-V and P-V sketches for a typical PV module

Pmp is the maximum power that can be obtained from the module and it
corresponds to the maximum rectangular area under the I-V curve. Voc
increases logarithmically, whereas I sc increases almost in proportion to
the radiation as long as the current axis does not intersect the curved
portion of the I-V characteristic [Duffie and Beckman, 1991]. In the
figure it is worth taking a note of the effect of temperature upon the
current generated by the solar cell (module). PV cells are the
fundamental building blocks of PV systems. The power generated by a
PV cell is only enough to power small devices such as electronic
calculators. Each silicon solar cell produces about 0.5 volts. To meet
higher loads the PV cells must be connected in series and/or in parallel
depending on the magnitude of the voltage and current required.
Typically, 36 cells are connected in series to form a module which is
capable of producing enough voltage to charge 12 volt batteries and run
pumps and/or motors. It is important to note that losses of voltage occur
due to the temperature rise of the cells in the heat of the sun and also that
a 12 V battery typically needs about 14 V in order to be charged.
Modules are the basic building blocks of systems. For more voltage or
current modules are connected in series or in parallel respectively to
form a panel and then panels can be assembled into a group to form a
complete PV array. The power output of a PV system is given by
equation (3.5) [Duffie and Beckman, 1991].

where: Ac = the array area η mp = the maximum power point efficiency

of the array (≈14%) ηe = the efficiency of power conditioning
equipment (≈ 90%) GT = the incident solar radiation on the array PV
technology has numerous advantages: • the energy resource is free,
renewable, and inexhaustible everywhere 40 • it counterbalances
greenhouse gas and pollutant emissions from fossil fuel-based
generation, and toxic waste from nuclear generation • it produces energy
during the daytime when demand peaks, which is when power is
typically most expensive to produce • after the initial setup, the facilities
can operate with little maintenance • operating costs are extremely low
compared to other power technologies • it is highly reliable and
generates electricity at the actual point of use • PV systems are easily
expandable, allowing for initial set-up even with a small budget and the
addition of more modules in the future, when convenient. With regard to
the application of PV in a country such as Ethiopia and more generally
in the developing world, where there is abundant sunlight, a large rural
population and where there is no proper infrastructure nor resources to
develop an electrical grid, it should be a very attractive option.
Considering the case of Ethiopia, solar energy is available almost
everywhere across the country than other renewable resources, such as
hydro and/or wind. Where wind and hydro are available, they too are
good sources of energy, but only selected areas have good wind and
hydro power potential is not evenly distributed either. The impact that
water storage for hydropower may have on the already meager
availability of arable land is also a concern that needs to be addressed
before embarking on the process of harnessing this resource. 3.1.2
Diesel Generator A diesel generator is simply a normal electric
generator driven by a diesel engine (prime mover). An electrical
generator is an electromechanical system that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy through the interaction of electromagnetic
and electrostatic fields within the system. Figure 3-6 shows the per-
phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator driven by a prime
mover, which in this case is the diesel engine. T is the mechanical torque
of the prime mover, Ea is the internal voltage generated, Ia is the
armature current, Ra + jXs is the synchronous impedance, and Va is the
load voltage.

Figure 3-6 the per-phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

driven by a diesel generator (prime mover)
With the generator under load the voltage Va is given by equation 3-6.
The winding resistance, Ra, is generally much smaller than the
synchronous reactance, jXs. Hence, equation 3-6 can be rewritten as in
equation 3-7.

Equation 3-7 is the per-phase terminal voltage of the generator. The

electrical power output is given by equation 3-8. .

where:
m = the number of phases;
m=3 for a 3-phase generator
cos φ = the cosine of the angle between the voltage Va and the
current Ia.

3.1.3 Inverter
An inverter is an electrical device that converts DC power to AC
power at a desired output voltage or current. Its typical application is to
convert DC power from a battery or PV array into AC power for use
with conventional, utility-powered household appliances. Basically,
there are three kinds of DC-AC inverters; square wave, modified sine-
wave, and pure sine wave inverters. Of the three, the square wave type is
the simplest and least expensive, but with the poorest quality output
signal. The modified sine wave type is suitable for many load types and
is the most popular low-cost inverter. Pure sinewave inverters produce
the highest quality signal and are used for sensitive devices such as
medical equipment, laser printers, stereos, etc. The working principle of
most inverters is to use a low DC voltage input and to first step-up the
voltage to a level corresponding to that of the peak value of the desired
AC voltage and then generate the desired AC voltage by using a full-
bridge or half bridge electronic circuit configuration. The output voltage
of the inverter is controlled by electronic circuitry. 3.1.4 Battery
Batteries are a key component in a stand-alone renewable energy
system. Basically, a battery is a device that stores energy for later use. It
is a combination of electrochemical cells that can store chemical energy
that has the potential to be converted into electric voltage or, to put it
simply, it is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical
energy. Lead-acid battery is the type of battery commonly used in stand-
alone power systems. Batteries can be classified in two ways: by their
application (the way they are used) and their construction (how they are
built). The major construction types are flooded (wet), gelled, and AGM
(Absorbed Glass Mat). The construction aspect is beyond the scope of
this work. With regard to their applications, the major ones are
automotive (starting), marine, and deep-cycle. Deep-cycle batteries are
used in renewable energy applications. In terms of the automotive
(starting) type, it is designed to provide a large amount of current for a
short period of time. To achieve a sufficiently large amount of current,
car batteries use thin plates in order 43 to increase the surface area. Such
batteries are not suitable for storing the energy that PV or hybrid
systems produce. On the other hand, Deep Cycle batteries are designed
to be discharged as low as 80 % and recharged over and over again and
therefore have much thicker plates. It is important to note that
companies recommend that hybrid system batteries should not be
discharged beyond 50% of their capacity. Deep Cycle batteries deliver a
consistent voltage as the battery discharges. The Marine type is usually
hybrid and falls somewhere between the starting and deep-cycle battery
types. The plates may be composed of lead sponge, but it is coarser and
heavier than that used in starting batteries. With regard to the effect of
temperature on batteries, the battery capacity is reduced as the
temperature goes down, and is increased as the temperature goes up. The
standard rating for batteries is 25 0C. Battery Ah capacity drops to 50%
at approximately -27 0C. At freezing (≈0˚C), capacity is reduced by
20%.
4 PART:IV
Methodology Description
Before we begin the design of a PV-wind hybrid system we need to know
the following main available natural resources: wind profile and
solar radiation. In case we have suitable amplitudes of both
renewable energetic sources we can actually initiate the design of
the hybrid system. First of all we need to calculate the dimension of the
following elements: PV -system, wind-generator, diesel generator, CC-
CA converter and battery set.
4.1.1 Methodology
1) Calculate the PV-area and the wind-area needed for each month,
covering the monthly account the month’s average - APV and AW
and the correspondent standard deviations (sPV eW).This statistical
analysis is based on the probability density associated with each
natural resource. Where:
ES: Total energy supplied by the Hybrid System [ KWh] ,
PV specific PV- energy [kWh/m2],
EW: specific wind-energy [kWh/m2].
2) Resize the calculated dimension APV and AW
3) Calculate the number of standard PV- models and Wind-generators
according to the market availability, dividing the total power calculated
by the standard power unit available in the market.
4) Calculate the life-cycle costs associated with different
percentages of PV-wind composition, and optimize this cost function.
The optimal Hybrid system design corresponds to the Minimization of
the cost function referring now to the evaluation of the output power that
the hybrid system should deliver, this methodology accounts for the
following factors:
a) All known electric power needs (loads) have to be considered;
b) Power losses in the distribution network and in the inverter system are
considered;
c) The technical data supplied by PV-producers and wind-generator
producers as well as the site Measurements of wind profile and
solar radiation are the basis for the PV and wind specific energy
determination;
d) The maximum of the power load cur ve, added to the
calculated losses in the system, determines the size of: the generator
group, the power module, and the converter DC-AC.
e) Finally the battery set is designed according to the autonomy
required to the projected Hybrid System. The integration of the
power load curve for the projected autonomy time-period gives the
net output supply for the battery set. The determination of the
optimal composition PV- Wind. Hybrid system is made through the
fraction variation The optimal PV-Wind configuration, for PV
Wind, regarding the project associated costs with each a specific
site, minimum project cost as illustrated in this methodology was
applied to design a photovoltaic wind- hybrid system to produce
electricity for any place.
PART:V

Design and Installation Phases

The unit contains a 400 W wind turbine, installed on a 100 ft. (30.48 m)
tower at the campus. It is connected and synchronized in parallel to the
power grid as part of laboratory activities on wind power systems and
grid-tie interactions. The overall project block diagram is presented in
Figure 1.
Figure5.1 400W wind-solar power system on campus (at SURABHI).
The wind turbine was installed at the top of a new steel tower, at a
height of approximately 100 feet. The wind turbine depicted above is a
400W with a grid-tie inter-tie module called “Power Sink II,” and there
are twelve solar panels with a capacity of 50 W each. A best case
scenario of 12 X 50 W (a total DC power of 600 W) is hypothetically
available from the PV panels, although this would be equal or less than
600 W, due to the location of the solar panels. A 400W wind turbine was
selected because of its strong features, low maintenance, and safety
features. The output power of the selected wind turbine is 400W, based
on its rated speed of 13 m/s, or 29 mph. One of the important features of
the fiberglass wind blades is its blade deformations as the turbine
reaches its rated output. This feature allows the blade to change its
shape, causing the blades to go into a stall mode. This shape change
limits the speed of the generator, and prevents damage in strong winds.
An internal regulator in the wind turbine periodically checks the line
voltage and corrects for low voltage conditions. The photovoltaic
modules selected for this system were ultra-clear tempered glass, and
were manufactured for long-term durability. The power quality of the
inverters is very important due to sinusoidal waveform output distortions
that cause problems such as harmonic contaminations and poor voltage
regulation. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
explains and publishes standards on inverter efficiencies. The standard
states that a maximum of 3% to 4% total harmonic distortion is allowed
from inverter outputs. However, many inverter outputs—commonly
ones not approved by standardization agencies such as UL (underwriter
laboratories)—may exceed the allowed harmonic distortion. An inverter
with power rating of 2.5 kVA was selected for this energy system. For
the PV system, there are twelve lead-acid AGM batteries available that
are connected in series and parallel combinations. Figures5.2 a and b
show 6 block diagrams with illustrative pictorials.

Figure 5.2a. Illustrative pictorial of the new system.

 Figure 5.2b. Functional Block Diagram of PV Array Wireless
Monitoring.
For purposes of data acquisition and interfacing/instrumentation, two
Fluke power quality analyzers and permanently mounted AC and DC
digital panel meters were used to monitor and record power values,
including voltage, current, power, and harmonic contamination data.
A functional, pictorial block diagram of the existing 1.5 kW hybrid
wind-solar energy system is depicted in Figure 3. This system interacts
with the new system. The major differences between the existing and the
new energy systems are a larger output of wind power and wireless
communication integration, including wireless sensor nodes deployed
for data acquisition. The wireless system establishes a communication
between the wind turbines, the main computer, the PV array, the
inverter, and the charge controller. The advantages of this hybrid system
is that the reliability of power output for the overall system, due to the
solar array, generates power during the summer season, when less wind
is available to reach the expected power output from the overall system.
 Figure 5.3. Functional Block Diagram for Instrumentation and Data
Acquisition Purposes.

5.1 Initial Study on Wind Capacity

Using Iowa Energy Center’s wind assessment study [13-14], In the

following table, information was provided on average wind speed and
estimated annual energy output (kWh). An estimated energy amount of
18, 835 kWh of wind power was expected to be harnessed from the
hybrid wind-solar energy system, as shown in Table. Based on an initial
study, an estimated amount of 3,325 kWh of electrical energy would be
available from 2 kW PV arrays that were part of the wind-solar hybrid
power system.
Table Estimated output from a 400 W Wind Turbine at CAMPUS,

The following lab activities were completed.

 Power curve determination of the 400W wind turbine;

 Annual average energy production using data from an anemometer;

 Measurements of transient phenomena due to sudden load changes;

 Voltage, current, power (V, I, P) measurements at both DC and AC
buses;

 Measurements of V, I, and P transients due to sudden load changes at

AC power grid;

 Measurements of overall system efficiency measurement and

monitoring;

 Vibration monitoring using a NI9234 sensor module that includes

monitor vibrations on the turbine structure at the base and on the nacelle;

 Calculations of yearly wind speed, direction, temperature monitoring,

and data storage;

 Strain monitoring, which is a common technique for determining

structural health of the energy system. This information is becoming
increasingly more important in the wind turbine industry;
 Wind turbine noise impact measurements using NI sound and
vibration analysis software. This data is commonly used to ensure that
the wind system complies with standards such as IEC 61400-11:2002;

 Temperature measurements used for prevention and predictive

maintenance;

 Power quality monitoring: The system can degrade as a result of wind

speed, turbulence, and switching events. Therefore, power quality
monitoring includes monitoring peak power output, reactive power,
voltage fluctuations, and harmonics;

 Assessments of AC and DC power system interactions in case of

sudden source and load changes;

 Measurements of the impact of temperature changes to overall system

efficiency;

 Measurements of the impact of the wireless sensors network on the

overall system response during source and load fluctuations and sudden
wind changes. Any new control schemes developed as a part of
advanced senior (capstone) design projects can be used to monitor and
control the frequency and voltage of the AC grid.

The subjects taught as part of the objectives of a typical wind power

education project such as this, as it applies to a Baccalaureate degree
program, should include:
 basic mathematics,

 physics,

 statistical analysis,

 computer programming,

 electrical circuits,

 analog devices,

 digital electronics,
 conventional and renewable energy fundamentals,

 electrical machines,

 power electronics,

 programmable logic controllers (PLCs),

 electro-mechanics,

 measurement and protection fundamentals,

 power transmission lines,

 power system interactions, and

 instrumentation interface using wired and wireless sensors and

networks.

5.2. Project Implementation

Undergraduate and graduate students from Mechanical engineering

technology, were involved in this project from its beginning to its
completion. Pictures of different level of construction and installation
process are shown in Figures 4 through 8.
All pics during the Installation

5. Outcomes and Student Involvement

Student involvement and outcomes of the project include:

Power and Economy outcomes:
o The 400W wind turbine project saved an estimated annual total energy
of 13 KWh between January 2015 and January 2014.

o Economy savings were estimated according to the Institute Utility rate

charge, which was:
13 kWh X $0.1/kWh = $1300 per year.

Environmental outcomes:
o The proposed project helped reduce CO2 emissions at a rate of 1416
lbs per kWh:

o 13 kWh X 1416 pounds/kWh = 18408 lbs of CO2 emissions saved at

the Institute campus.
Educational Outcomes and Community Outreach:

o Provided a hands-on and a remote laboratory application through a

dynamic website.

o Generated several lab activities in solar-wind technology that were

used for educational and research purposes.

o Promoted wind and solar energy for middle school and high school
students.

o Promoted Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM)

education at Institute.

o 45 undergraduate Mechanical students worked on the project for about

one academic year and one additional summer semester. Their varying
responsibilities were in the areas of electrical, mechanical, and
instrumentation for the successful completion of three separate senior
design projects in the degree program.
Figure 5.4. Amount of energy generated graph.
The graphs shown in Figure 5.5 indicate the monthly energy production.
A random selection of three months are depicted in the figure.
 Figure 5.5. Wind power generation in selected three months.

6 PART:VI Conclusion

A complete 400W wind-solar power and instrumentation/data

acquisition system was completed and synchronized with the AC power
grid through undergraduate student involvement. The wireless sensors
collecting data on wind, temperature, vibration, sound, voltage, current,
power, and load changes at both wind and solar power systems
communicate with IN data acquisition hardware and the main computer.
A graphics-based instrumentation and data acquisition system provides
data to a dynamic website in real time. The website provides remote
access to the wind power system by all permitted institutions requesting
real-time data.

valuable hands-on experience in setting up a real-time data acquisition

system, specifically in grid-tied wind power systems. In terms of student
learning and satisfaction, the project was a success. With the increasing
importance of renewable energy resources in present and future energy
scenarios, an ability to design and analyze renewable energy systems is
essential for educators and students in engineering and technology. All
students in the project showed improved learning and understanding of
concepts about renewable energy sources by complementing theory-
based lectures with hands-on experimentation.
REFERENCES
[1] E.muljadi and C.P.butterfied, “Methodology for optimally
sizing the combination of a battery bank and PV array in a wind
–PV hybrid system”. IEEE Transaction on industry applications,
vol. 37, Page(s): 240 – 246, 2001.
[2] Meei Songkang, “Generation Cost Assessment of an Isolated Power
System With a Fuzzy Wind Power Generation Model”. IEEE
Transaction on energy, IEEE transactions on energy conversion, vol.
22, no. 2, Page(s): 397 – 404, June 2007.
[3] T.sato and T.tanabert, “Generation Scheduling for Wind Power
Generation by Storage Batter y System and Meteorological Forecas”.
IEEE Conference on Power and Energy society general meeting -
conversion and deliver y to electrical energy in the 21st century,
Page(s): 1 – 7, 20-24 July 2008.
[4] Takki Kai and Akio Tanka, “A Smooth scheme for power
fluctuation using of wind power generation with doubly
generator”. IEEE Inter national Conference on electrical machines
and systems, Page(s): 2390-2395, 2009.
[5] Hiroyoki Mori and Akira Awata, “Feature Extraction of
Meteorological Data Using Regression Tree for Wind Power
Generation”. IEEE International Conference on sustainable energy
technologies, Page(s): 1104-1107, 24-27 Nov 2009.
[6] Noriyuki Kimura , Tomoyuki Hamada, Makoto Sonoda ,
Toshimitsu Morizane Katsunori Taniguchi and Yasuyuki Nishida, “
Suppression of current peak of PFC converter connected to induction
 generator for wind power generation excited by voltage sources
converter”. IEEE 6th International Conference on power electronics
and motion control, Page(s): 2269-2274, 17-20 May 2009.
[7] Lv Yuegang, and Xi Peiyu, “Research of VSFC wind generation tr
aining system based on mat lab Lab view”. IEEE International
Conference on automation and logistics Page(s): 1592-1597, 2009.
[8] Ming-Shun Lu, Wei-Jen Lee and Li Wang, “Combining the
Wind Power Generation System with Energy Storage Equipments”.
IEEE Transaction on industry applications, vol. 45, Page(s): 2109 –
2115, 2009.
[9] Bongani Malinga Dr. John E. Sneckenberger, Dr. Ali Feliachi , “
Modelling and Control of a Wind Turbine as a Distributed Resource”.
Proceeding of 35th southeastern symposium on system theory, vol. 45,
Page(s) : 108 – 112, 2003.
[10] Wijarn Wangdee, Wenyuan Li, Wahshum, “Assessing Transfer
Capability Requirement for Wind Power Generation Using a Combined
Deterministic and Probabilistic Approach”. IEEE general meeting on
power & energy society, Page(s) :1 – 8, 26-30 July 2009.
[12] [http:wind power system] “Grid integration of wind power: a case
study of TSamil Nadu” available at www.itb.academia.edu/.../Grid-
Integration-of -Wind-Power--A-Case-Study-of-Tamil-Nadu.pdf