CBM370 Wearable Devices Lecture Notes 1
CBM370 Wearable Devices Lecture Notes 1
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Chapter 1
Wearable Systems- Introduction
Wearable technology is any kind of electronic device designed to be worn
on the user's body. Such devices can take many different forms, including
jewelry, accessories, medical devices, and clothing or elements of
clothing. The term wearable computing implies processing or
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communications capabilities, but in reality, the sophistication among
wearables can vary.
• Transmit
• Apply (Utilize)
Of course, the specifics of each function will depend on the application
domain and the
wearer, and all the processing may occur actually on the individual or at
a remote location
(e.g., command and control center for first responders, fans watching the
race, or viewers
enjoying the mountaineer’s view from the Mount Everest base camp).
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philosophy can also be used by an avid gamer who might change his
strategy depending on what “weapons” are available to him and how his
opponents are performing. Each of these scenarios requires personalized
mobile information processing, which can transform the sensory data into
information and then to knowledge that will be of value to the individual
responding to the situation. While wearables are being used in many
fields, as discussed, this chapter will focus primarily on wearables in the
healthcare domain. Wearables provide an unobtrusive way to
longitudinally monitor an individual – not just during the day but, over
the individual’s life-time. Such an expansive view of the individual will
be valuable in detecting changes over time and help in early detection of
problems and diseases leading to preemptive care and hence, a better
quality of life. Inferring the potential of wearables in other application
domains should be straightforward and can be accomplished by
instantiating the fundamental principles and concepts presented here.
Attributes of wearables
A sensor is defined as “a device used to detect, locate, or quantify energy
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or matter, giving a signal for the detection of a physical or chemical
property to which the device responds”. Not all sensors are necessarily
wearable, but all wearables, as discussed earlier and shown in Figure 2,
must have sensing capabilities. The key attributes required of an ideal
wearable are shown in Figure 4. From a physical standpoint, the wearable
must be lightweight and the form factor should be variable to suit the
wearer. For instance, if the form factor of the wearable to monitor the vital
signs of an infant prone to sudden infant death syndrome prevents the
infant from (physically) lying down properly, it could have significant
negative implications. The same would apply to an avid gamer – if the
form factor interferes with her ability to play “naturally,” the less likely
that she would be to adopt or use the technology. Esthetics also plays a
key role in the acceptance and use of any device or technology. This is
especially important when the device is also seen by others i.e., the
essence of fashion. Therefore, if the wearable on a user is likely to be
visible to others, it should be esthetically pleasing and, optionally, even
make a fashion statement while meeting its functionality. In fact, with
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1. Control
Wearable-specific microcontrollers are small, so as to be comfortable and
discrete. On the other hand, the distinctive shapes and colors can function
as a decorative element. Several of the boards available are hand-
washable (minus the power source). Read the documentation carefully.
2. Input/Output
In place of pins, these boards have metal eyelets which you can loop
conductive thread through to sew soft circuit connections. Some boards
also have snaps — or eyelets large enough to solder on snaps — for easy
removal.
3. Conductive Textiles
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A material containing metals, such as silver or stainless steel, through
which an electrical current can flow is said to be conductive. Wearable
systems can make use of these materials in a variety of ways, such as:
Thread for making circuits
Fabric for capacitive touch sensors
Hook-and-loop for switches
4. Sensors
Sensors gather information about the environment, the user, or both.
Examples of the former include light, temperature, motion (ACC), and
location (GPS). Examples of the latter include heart rate (ECG), brain
waves (EEG), and muscle tension (EMG). A few wearable
microcontrollers have basic sensors onboard. Other manufacturers offer a
range of external sensor modules that connect to the main board.
5. Power
When scoping out a wearable design one of the first things to consider is
the power requirement. Do you just want to illuminate a few LEDs, or do
you want to run a servomotor? Boards with an integrated holder for a
lithium coin battery are nice for low-power projects that need to be self-
contained. However, boards with a standard JST connector (with or
without a circuit to charge LiPo batteries) are more versatile.
6. Actuators
One generic way to describe a wearable system is: In response to X, where
X is the input from a sensor, Y happens. Actuators such as LEDs, buzzers
or speakers, and servomotors are what make things happen.
7. Networking
To communicate with smart devices, the internet, or other wearable
systems, you need wireless connectivity. In addition to Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, wearable-friendly options include:
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BLE, which has lower power consumption than classic Bluetooth, a
range of 50m, and a data transmission rate up to 1 Mbps
NFC, a radio frequency field with a range of approximately 20cm and
data transmission rate up to about 400 Kbps
1.Smartwatches:
Computer’ on your wrist because of the bundle of features that can use
through the touchscreen.
2.FitnessTrackers:
Jewelry no more acts like pieces of ornaments on your neck or hand, they
have become smart. Smart Jewelry are those wearables like necklaces,
wrist bands, bracelets, or rings that are tech-enabled to help you track your
steps, track monitor your heartbeat & sleep, and some even notify you of
incomingcalls.
4.GameSimulators:
The rise of VR in gaming has given rise to many wearable devices that
simulate an environment and make the experience more realistic,
engrossing, and adventurous. The devices include VR Headsets (also
called Head-Mounted Displays or HMDs) that create a visual simulation
and bands that come with built-in sensors to detect your movements.
These bands enable you to control your movements through hand
gestures.
5.SmartClothing:
6.SmartGlasses:
Ranging from simple smart glasses that are equipped with Bluetooth
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wireless music and hands-free calling to the glasses that can live stream
videos to take photos, to advanced smart glasses that are AR-enabled to
give you an immersive experience, these smart glasses are the of eyewear.
Smart glasses can enable the user to read text messages and reply to them
hands-free. Smart glasses by some companies are equipped with features
like internet access and browsing through voice commands.
7.HeartbeatTrackers&BloodPressureMonitors:
There are fitness trackers for a specific use case like monitoring the
heartbeat or regularly measuring the blood pressure. These devices help
track the metrics among the people who suffer from related diseases. The
fitness trackers record and provide the measurements to the wearer
regularly. Some devices are enabled to share the data with the physician.
8.SmartEarbuds:
9.SmartContactLens:
Smart Contact Lens is among the recent inventions made possible with
IoT. The smart contact lenses currently available in the market are helpful
for medical reasons. It helps monitor eyes for various diseases like
Diabetes, Glaucoma, and cataracts. It helps in the treatment of
farsightedness. Apart from medical reasons, some companies are working
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on smart contact lenses that are AR-enabled, work on solar power, and
capture and store images and videos. Smart lenses are among the
implantable devices.
Applications of wearables
Currently other applications within healthcare are being explored, such
as:
Sports and fitness. Sports use wearable athletic devices that are
either built into the fabric of the sports apparel or are incorporated
into sports equipment, such as bats and balls. The GPS and
Bluetooth-linked devices relay real-time data to coaches for analysis
through connected electronic devices such as laptops. Besides
wearable athletic devices, familiar wearable technology such as
Fitbit, Apple Watch, Garmin, Samsung Galaxy Watch and Polar are
systems, e.g. extraction of heart rate, respiration rate and activity level.
Activity classification and more advanced processing on e.g. heart signals
can be achievable exploiting miniaturization and low-power consumption
of the systems. Examples of data classification are[1, 2, 3]: classification
of movement patterns such as sitting, walking or resting by using
accelerometer data [4] or ECG parameters such as ST distance extracted
from raw ECG data [5, 3]; another example is the estimation of the energy
consumption of the body [6, 7]; in [8] the combined use of a triaxial
accelerometer and a wearable heart rate sensor was exploited to accurately
classify human physical activity; estimation of upper limb posture by
means of textile embedded flexible piezo resistive sensors [9]. Examples
of integrated systems for health monitoring are in [10, 11]. In the
following paragraphs, two classes of sensors which can be easily
integrated into wearable systems are reported and described. More
specifically, inertial sensors to monitor biomechanical parameters of
human body and sensors to capture physiological signs are addressed,
describing the operating principles and indicating the possible fields of
application. www.EnggTree.com
Sensors for Wearable Systems
Biomechanical Sensors
Biomechanical sensors are thought to be used to record kinematic
parameters of body segments. Knowledge of body movement and gesture
can be a means to detect movement disturbances related to a specific
pathology or helpful to contextualize physiological information within
specific physical activities. An increasing of heart rate, for example, could
be either due to an altered cardiac behavior or simply because the subject
is running.
Inertial Movement Sensors
Monitoring of parameters related to human movement has a wide range
of applications. In the medical field, motion analysis tools are widely used
both in rehabilitation and in diagnostics. In the multimedia field, motion
tracking is used for the implementation of life like videogame interfaces
and for computer animation. Standard techniques enabling motion
Inductive Plethysmography
The inductive plethysmography method for breathing monitoring consists
of two elastic conductive wires placed around the thorax and the abdomen
to detect the cross sectional area changes of the rib cage and the abdomen
region during the respiratory cycles. The conductive wires are insulated
and generally sewn in a zig-zag fashion onto each separate cloth band.
They can be considered as a coil and are used to modulate the output
frequency of a sinewave current produced by an electric oscillator circuit.
As a matter of fact, the sinewave current generates a magnetic field, and
the cross-sectional area changes due to the respiratory movements of the
rib cage and of the abdomen determine a variation of the magnetic field
flow through the coils. This change in flow causes a variation of the self-
inductance of each coil that modulates the output frequency of the
sinusoidal oscillator. This relationship allows for monitoring the
respiratory activity by detecting the frequency change in the oscillator
output signal. For accurate volumetric measurements using RIP, it is
assumed that the cross-sectional area within the rib cage and the abdomen
coil, respectively, reflectswww.EnggTree.com
all of the changes occurring within the
respective lung compartment, and further that the lung volume change is
the sum of the volume changes of the two compartments. Under optimal
situations, lung volume can be approximated with an error less than 10%.
Impedance Plethysmography
This technique consists of injecting a high frequency and low amplitude
current through a pair of electrodes placed on the thorax and measuring
the trans-thoracic electrical impedance changes [40]. As a matter of fact,
there is a relationship between the flow of air through the lungs and the
impedance change of the thorax. The measurements can be carried out by
using either two or four electrode configurations. Electrodes can be made
of fabric and integrated into a garment or,even, embedded into an
undershirt. It is worthwhile noting that by measuring the trans-thoracic
electrical impedance it is possible to non-invasively monitor, in addition
to breathing rate also tidal volume, functional residual capacity, lung
water and cardiac output.
and the centre of pressure (CoP) have been considered as factors in the
evaluation of walking gait. According to one study on slip type falls,
friction force was used to draw up important safety criteria for detecting
safe gait, so the transverse components of ground reaction force (GRF)
may provide important information for quantifying gait variability. Many
kinds of stationary systems such as force plates and instrumented
treadmill devices are available to measure CoP and triaxial GRF. Because
a stationary force plate cannot measure more than one stride, in studies of
continuous walking, a complex system consisting of many force plates
and a data fusion method must be constructed . Therefore, the force plate
technology probably imposes some constraints on our ability to measure
human movement and is not feasible for measurements in everyday
situations. An instrumented treadmill or dynamometric platform formed
by laying two force plates under a treadmill can overcome some
limitations of the system with distributed multiple force plates in
successive measurements of the GRF for gait evaluation. However, a
guide used to constrain the direction of the foot is necessary to ensure
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that subjects walk along a straight line, because if a human body segment
motion analysis system is not available for a simultaneous measurement
of the foot orientation, any technique based on force plates conventionally
requires subjects to walk along a pre-defined specific path. Although gait
variability can be assessed in straight walking , gait analysis
concentrating solely on straight-line walking or running may not
adequately interpret gait variability, because turning or walking direction
changes probably have effects on extrinsic gait variability . To overcome
such limitations of stationary devices in GRF measurement, many
researchers are developing wearable sensors attached to shoes . Pressure
sensors have been widely used to measure gaits and the distributed
vertical component of GRF and to analyze the loading pattern on the
plantar soft tissue during the stance phase of gait , but in these systems
the transverse components of GRF (friction forces) which are one of the
main factors leading to falling, have been neglected. By fixing two
externally mounted sensors beneath the front and rear boards of a special
shoe, researchers have developed an instrumented shoe for ambulatory
measurements of CoP and triaxial GRF in successive walking trials, and
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Wearability issues
Wearable devices and electronics present a unique interface of technology and
humanity, thus producing unique challenges that need to account both for technological
and human aspects of the problem. Human behavior may affect the operation of
wearable as much as the technology advance. The following aspects may be considered
as some of the challenges facing the field of wearables:
(a) Break-through applications of wearable electronics. From the dawn of history, the
evolution of wearables is driven by the practicality, utility, and convenience they
provide. The challenge of modern wearable electronics in discovering ubiquitous
applications, as its future growth is contingent on emerging applications in health,
wellness, and other personal needs. Novel applications of wearables may need to be
supported by extensions of sensing and data analytics capabilities, thus presenting a
compelling use case www.EnggTree.com
(b) Minimization of user burden and integration with everyday wear items. The
illustrations of wearable devices frequently include pictures of individuals
instrumented at every possible location on the body, such as arms, legs, torso, etc.
Practically, such a scenario represents an unrealistically high user burden and is
unfeasible. A related challenge is the seamless integration of wearable electronics in
everyday wear items, such as textiles clothing, footwear and accessories.
(c) Efficient and informative interpretation of data generated by wearable devices.
Wearable devices may generate an abundance of data, for e.g., health-related sensor
signals.The challenge lies in the interpretation of such data streams and connection
with health outcomes, using sensor data to guide behavioral interventions and health
education. Emerging methods of artificial intelligence carry a promise of solution to
the problem of data analysis and interpretation.
(d) Ultra-low power operation. A wearable device should ideally sustain a lifetime
operation without or minimal user interference. In terms of power, this implies
operation on a battery, energy harvested from the body, or a combination thereof.
This requires low-power operation both for analog and digital electronics of a
wearable. Wireless power delivery may be explored to seamlessly charge many
devices without need to connect each individual device to a charging circuit (for e.g.,
charging all socks in a drawer), biofuel cells and supercapacitors may need to be
utilized in the power subsystems.
(e) Flexible and stretchable electronics. Epidermal and body compliant electronic
devices may be considered a subset of wearables with additional requirements of
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The sensor such as 3-axis accelerometer can be used as body position sensor. This
sensor provides information of patient's position i.e. standing, sitting, supine, inclined,
left and right. Such accelerometer based sensor can easily be interfaced with any
microcontroller boards such as arduino uno, arduino mega etc.
Design for wearable BSNs focuses on specific and important issues for developing wearable
computing systems that take into account the physical shape of the sensors and their active
relationship with the human form.
Design for wearability requires unobtrusive sensor node placement on the human body based
on application-specific criteria.
Criteria for placement can vary with the needs of functionality and convenience.
Functionality criteria constrains node placement to regions where relevant data can be sensed. The
number of nodes required to capture all relevant data can vary based on the quality of
information sensed at individual locations. Convenience criteria include:(1) physical
interference with movement,(2) difficulty in removing and placing nodes,(3) social and
fashion concerns,(4) frequency and difficulty of maintenance(charging and cleaning)
For example, in continuous healthcare monitoring, patients will be expected to charge the sensors or
replace the batteries on a regular basis, as they do with cellphones and other
electronics.However, the frequent need to charge and the bulk of the battery can frustrate the users,
causing them to no longer wear the sensors. Furthermore, batteries are the heaviest component in
the system. By decreasing power usage, the size and weight of each sensor node can decrease,
thus increasing patient comfort and device wearability.
This makes energy usage a primary constraint in designing BSNs, limiting everything from data
sensing rates and link bandwidth, to node size and weight. Thus, one of the important goals in
designing BSNs is to minimize energy consumption while preserving an acceptable quality
of service. Energy consumption can be decreased by lower sampling frequency, decreasing
processing power, and simplifying signal processing.
Another effective technique is deactivating nodes thatare unnecessary for specific tasks.
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Technical challenges - sensor design and signal aquisation
As engineers seek to develop new and innovative wearable diagnostics, many are
focusing on smaller, more energy-efficient devices. In the process, respondents say they
are fighting the kind of typical constraints that factor into many of today’s product
development efforts, citing top among them the areas of cost (38%), durability (37%)
and power management (35%).
There are other unique challenges in designing diagnostic wearables to be used by a
patient, caregiver, or consumer in a non-medical setting. High user expectations around
ease of use, the need for intuitive user interfaces and complete documentation, as well
as the need to account for the vagaries of uncontrolled home care settings top the list of
challenges cited by engineers.
Data collection and connectivity represent another area for concern. Nearly one third
(30%) of respondents pointed to connectivity as a challenge. Over two thirds (82%)
agree that there isn’t a lot of clarify about how to effectively capture and use the data or
doing something medically effective with it once collected. Nearly all (94%) cited a
need to for ownership of data security and privacy.
Alkaline
Nickel-Metal-Hybrid (NiMH or Ni-MH)
Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) and Lithium-Ion Polymer (LiPo, LIP, Li-poly)
Alkaline batteries are tried-and-true — they’ve been around since the 1960s —
and are both safe to use and are easily replaceable. A few examples of alkaline
batteries are the AA and AAA.
Alkaline batteries are also available in the button cell (AKA: coin cell) form factor.
These batteries have a standard voltage of 1.5 V and a size of 11.6 mm in diameter
by 5.4 mm in height. However, when compared to lithium and silver oxide
batteries, alkaline batteries offer both the least energy capacity and stable voltage
— their voltage drops gradually with use rather than providing a steady and stable
voltage before experiencing a sharp drop-off at the end of life.
A Nickel-metal-hybrid (NiMH or Ni-MH) battery is a type of rechargeable
battery.
NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalently sized
nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd), and its energy density can approach that of a
lithium-ion battery.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and Lithium-ion polymer (LiPo, Li-Po, LIP, Li-poly)
batteries are the most popular batteries today for wearables. “For wearables today
mostly small LiPolymer cells or LiCoin Rechargeable cells are used.”
From lithium-ion batteries to coin cell batteries, and from battery life to size and
fit, there are many options of which battery technology best fits your needs.
Regardless of which battery is utilized, eventually it must either be replaced or
recharged. In a perfect world the battery would last forever, but although the world
is far from perfect, there is another option — energy harvesting. Of course solar
cells (they get their energy from sunlight) and thermoelectric generators (they
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produce electricity from a temperature gradient) have both been around for a while,
albeit neither technology would be practical for wearable devices because they
cannot guarantee a continuous supply of energy — sunlight is intermit and body
heat has a low thermoelectricity output. What is needed is an energy harvester that
both works continuously and allows for high levels of electrical energy generation.
Enter TENGs, or triboelectric nanogenerators. This energy-harvesting technology
was invented to generate electricity from ambient mechanical motion such as
rotary motion, vibrations, oscillating motion, and expanding/contracting motion.
No matter how wearables get their energy, it is expected that wearables will
become the “must-have” gadgets for both personal and professional use. According
to Intersil, “…wearables are such a hot trend that ABI Research forecasts the
category is growing at a CAGR of 56.1% and will reach 487 million units in
2018.”5 And given that we (consumers) all want products that are faster, better, and
Wearable devices have been increasingly popular in the past few years. Everything from
smartwatches as a fashionable, convenient extension of one’s smartphone to thin bands
for fitness tracking, wearable devices are rising in popularity. Such devices can add
value to everyday life by providing a way to access information more readily. These
electronic devices, however, are no help when they are dead. Minimizing charging
frequency is important for all portable devices, but arguably even more so for wearable
devices. If the goal is to always have a device readily available, extended battery life is
essential. Therefore, some companies have created wearable devices that can be
recharged using solar cells. This increases charge time potential while still being able
to wear and operate the device as intended without inconveniencing the user
Basics of Solar Cells
The most common photovoltaic cells are silicon-based. Understanding semiconductor
physics is critical to understanding the operation of solar cells. To create a solar cell,
silicon layers will be doped to have more electrons, an n-type layer, in one (or some)
layer(s) and others doped to have fewer, a p-type layer. P-type layers have an excess of
holes–effectively locations where electrons are missing. These types of doped materials
are configured so a p-type layer will be next to an n-type layer. The excess electrons
and holes flow between the layers. This flow of charge carriers and creation of ions
induce an internal electric field. Photovoltaic cells have this type of structure. When
sunlight hits a photovoltaic cell, absorption of sunlight will excite electrons, creating
holes in their place. The flow of the electrons creates electricity which can then be
harnessed. Silicon solar cells generally have an efficiency hovering somewhere around
20 percent. The performance of solar cells is highly dependent upon the duration
and intensity of the light they are exposed to.
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Solar Cells in Wearable Devices
While large solar panels installed on building roofs might be the first thing that comes
to mind when talking about photovoltaic cells, they can be produced for much smaller
applications. Garmin currently advertises a limited offering of solar-powered watches.
These smartwatches have impressive battery lives. They list their Instinct Solar watches
operating for 54 days on a single charge. Going off solar power alone and assuming 3
days outside at 50,000 lux, they claim unlimited battery life for their watch in battery
saver mode. Both the watch’s screen and a photovoltaic ring around the screen can
convert solar energy into electricity. Employing virtually the entire watch face for
capturing solar power maximizes the charging power from the sun.
PowerWatch is a company that also uses solar power to recharge their watches. It is
worth noting, however, that solar power is the secondary charging method. The primary
charging method is not conventional either, but is achieved through a thermoelectric
power sensor. Their MATRIX Prometheus sensor uses the thermal energy from the
wearer’s body and converts it to an electrical output that powers the watch. This is a
prime example of companies finding alternative methods for charging wearable
devices.
The group out of Nottingham is not the sole party interested in creating solar cells
conducive to being part of daily fashion. Researchers at Rice University have been
exploring flexible photovoltaic cells to be sewn into clothing or other wearable items.
They see the flexibility of the solar cells as a critical achievement as traditional solar
cells are far too rigid and brittle to be practical for clothing. Flexible solar cells are able
to bend with the movement of the fabric without damage to the solar cell itself while
maintaining the integrity of the garment. While their flexible cells are less efficient than
conventional solar cells (a difference of roughly 7%), the flexibility could be well worth
the deficit. The flexibility of the solar cells is achieved through using a material that is
made up of “sulfur-based thiol-ene reagents”. The researchers have reported that cells
with 20% thiol-ene content provide www.EnggTree.com
the prime combination of efficiency and flexibility.
Still other researchers have been creating flexible solar cells. Organic, ultrathin
photovoltaic cells have been developed at the RIKEN research center in Japan. These
solar cells were created by using an annealing process to improve the thin cell’s
durability while retaining flexibility. Their solar cells have an energy conversion ratio
of approximately 12%. Again, this is lower than the conventional silicon-based solar
cell’s energy conversion ratio by about 10%. However, their research does show
promising results with regards to the environments in which these ultrathin cells can be
operational. They say that the solar cells are remain stable even under high temperatures
and humidifies. This type of functionality and durability would indeed be beneficial for
use in wearable devices.
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Two promising factors in surmounting these obstacles are the versatility of piezoelectric
components and the fact that the efficiency of piezoelectric energy harvesting has
increased, while the power requirements for current wearable devices have been
reduced.
There are four different types of materials that can be used for piezoelectric energy
harvesting: ceramics, single crystals, polymers, and composites. Of these, ceramic is
the preferred material for this type of energy harvesting because of its low cost, effective
piezoelectric properties and easy incorporation into energy harvesting devices.
Piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting is the preferred method for use with wearable
devices since it is the most capable of producing the power level needed for small-scale
devices.
There are two kinds of mechanical energy that can be scavenged from the human body.
The first is related to continuous activity, such as breathing and heart beating; while the
other is related to discontinuous movements, such as walking and joint movements. Of
these, the process of walking produces the largest amount of power compared with other
body motions. It has been recorded that a 68kg man is able to generate 67W when
walking at a speed of two steps per second. The easiest way to harvest this energy is
through piezoelectric shoe inserts.
Body joints are also attractive locations for harvesting energy due to their high motion
amplitude, fast angular velocity, large impulse force, and high frequency of use in daily
human activities. For example, the knee joint produces high biomechanical energy since
it generates a larger torque in comparison to other human joints. Knee joint motions are
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often related to gait motion, where walking and running frequencies are normally in the
range of 0.5-5 Hz.
Even for relatively minor activities such as eye blinking, piezoelectric transducers have
effectively been used to convert motional energy into electricity. For example, a self-
powered sensor was developed for both energy harvesting and health rehabilitation
monitoring, which was based on polymeric piezoelectric nano/microfibers.
Furthermore, continuous energy can be harvested from the process of human breathing.
There are two kinds of energy that can be collected in this case. The first relies on
scavenging energy due to the intake and release of air, which can produce
approximately 1 W of power. The other relies on chest expansion, which requires a tight
band fixed around the chest of the user to generate around 0.83 W when breathing
normally.
Wearable Piezoelectric Applications
Piezoelectric components can be used for wearable technologies and other new
technologies. Their use presents vast possibilities across many industries. Human
comfort, convenience, health and safety have the potential to be greatly improved with
the availability and use of products containing piezoelectric components. Many of these
capabilities and products are already emerging in today’s society.
These include:
The ability to power monitoring and sensor devices in remote and dangerous
places (bridges, pipelines, etc.). This eliminates the risk to humans that arises
when batteries need charging or replacing
A vehicle driver’s seat that uses piezoelectric sensors to monitor and sense
driver’s heart rate and respiration. It uses vibration sensors to allow ventilation
and massage features to be automatically activated in the seat when driver stress
is detected
Wearable devices that can be charged by walking, running or other physical
activity
Some wearable sensors on the market today include fitness and activity wristbands and
monitors that observe distance, respiration, heart rate, and even sleep patterns. Wireless
blood pressure cuffs measure patient’s blood pressure through a phone app. Quartz
watches have been around for a long time and employ the natural piezoelectric property
of quartz to keep precise time. Monitors that detect and measure fetal heartbeats use
piezoelectric components to convert the vibration into a readable signal.
The use of “smart” fabrics is also gaining popularity. The flexible fabrics are infused
with piezoelectric materials that act as sensors to measure, monitor, and harvest energy.
A single pressure-sensitive layer is sandwiched between two conductive layers. These
sensors are currently being developed for use as shoe insoles, clothing, and wearable
devices that measure information such as pressure, steps, energy expended, etc. The
amount of energy created by the fabrics differs with factors such as the type of piezo
material used and the movement of the user.
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Material Choice
Textiles that have a greater elasticity perform at a greater efficiency when harvesting
piezoelectric energy. The greater elasticity of the material increases the stresses
occurring in the garment and, consequently, increases the elongation of piezoelectric
elements. In addition, the garment must be form fitting in order to increase the clothing
pressure and increase the piezoelectricity efficiency by increasing the strain exerted on
the harvester on the garment. However, with this increased tightness of the garment on
the user, this subsequently restricts the user’s movements and their ability to harvest
energy.
Durability
Energy harvesters are required to have high environmental durability and operational
reliability. However, in the case of piezoelectric energy harvesters, the material
properties may change during the manufacturing process, even if the piezoelectric effect
is caused by intrinsic physical properties such as the crystal structure of the material.
When a strain is repeatedly applied to a material, macroscopic cracks may occur
resulting in a drop in the amount of power generated. Clarifying the mechanism behind
the deterioration of materials that occurs during the conversion of kinetic energy into
electric energy and taking countermeasures are challenges for piezoelectric technology.
Operating Frequency
It is a well-known issue with piezoelectric energy harvesters that they do not harvest
energy efficiency at varying frequencies. These devices operate at a high frequency
whereas humans have an ultra-low frequency of around 1Hz. As the operating
bandwidth of piezoelectric energy harvesters is quite high, this significantly limits their
utility within real world applications in wearable devices. In addition, the motion range
of humans is usually much higher than the predetermined device size and so resonant
devices cannot render the advantage of powerful magnification. The operating
excitation frequency must fall in the resonant frequency range of harvester so as to
obtain the best results. Most commonly, the frequency up conversion technique is used
to overcome this hurdle. Mostly, mechanical plucking mechanism by using
piezoelectric bimorph was used for frequency-up conversion to power low-powered
electronics. However, these devices showed some drawbacks such as reduced longevity
due to direct contact between bimorph and plectra and noise. To overcome such
challenges, a prototype for piezoelectric knee-joint EH by replacing mechanical
plucking by the non-contact magnetic plucking device to perform the frequency-up
conversion and achieve a power output. In addition, piezoelectric vibrational EHs with
a flexible 3D structure fabricated by a microfabrication process can cover low
frequencies and achieve a large strain.
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Future Considerations and Complications for Wearable Technology in General
Before portable and wearable self-powered system can move toward large-scale
practical applications, there are still many problems that should be fully addressed soon.
Most wearable and portable self-powered systems are based on flexible materials,
which experience device performance degradation during long-term operation.
Therefore, in the future, we should study additional material and structural designs to
improve the stability of the system under long term work while ensuring the wearability
of the device.
Currently, portable wearable self-powered electronic devices are mainly desktop
laboratory devices, which only demonstrate a concept. Since there is no work to propose
a standardized manufacturing process for portable and wearable self-powered electronic
devices, it is impossible to achieve complete consistency with respect to the
performance of two different devices. Therefore, in the future, we need to consider the
issue of performance calibration between different devices, or we can develop
standardized processes for portable wearable devices that can be mass produced.
Hybrid energy harvesting technology that integrates multiple transduction methods is
most likely to act as a power source for future self-powered systems. However, the large
differences in the frequency, amplitude, and waveform of electrical power converted
through different transduction methods make it an unsolved problem to develop power
management technologies suitable for different energy harvesting methods.
Furthermore, an increasing number of functional modules are being integrated into self-
powered systems. We need to rationally design power management circuits to improve
the energy conversion efficiency and achieve energy distribution among various
functional modules. In addition, a wireless module is needed to realize the transmission
of information.
Human body as a heat source for power generation
Even in a scenario where the wearer is stationary and situated in a dark room (e.g.,
during sleep), energy can be produced. Lower ambient temperatures, the presence of air
convection, or increased activity of the wearer can drastically increase the amount of
accumulated energy. Because the voltages produced by thermal harvesting are typically
too low to power wearable electronics, you must include a high-efficiency dc-dc
converter into a wearable system.
power output and physical size required for a wearable sensor application. Plus, state-
of-the-art thermal harvesters may be too bulky and uncomfortable to achieve true
wearability.
Wearable devices have been used to monitor a variety of health and environmental
measures and are now becoming increasingly popular. The performance and efficiency
of flexible devices, however, pale in comparison to rigid devices, which have been
superior in their ability to convert body heat into usable energy.
Hybrid power devices are combinations of different power technologies. Hybrid power
plants often contain a renewable energy component such as photovoltaic (PV) that is
combined with wind power, thermoelectric power, solar thermal power, or a system like
battery storage or solar thermal storage. Thermoelectric generators are semiconductor
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devices that have no moving parts and convert heat directly into electricity. When
combined with thermal storage they can provide electricity round the clock at as low as
$0.06 per kilowatt-hour and could achieve 16% efficiency.
PV cells convert the UV and visible regions of the solar spectrum while the
thermoelectric modules use the infrared region to produce electrical energy. Thus,
combining both these systems in a hybrid system provides enhanced performance.
While PV panels convert up to 20% of solar energy into electricity, the solar thermal
collectors capitalise on the untapped heat energy of the PV system, thereby increasing
the energy production efficiency while occupying less space
Global energy demand is likely to increase by 48% in the next 20 years due to
population explosion. Currently 80% of energy needs are met by fossil fuels, which
emit greenhouse gases that lead to global warming and climate change. Their negative
environmental impact is leading to development of renewable energy sources like solar,
geothermal, and hydro.
Photovoltaics
semiconductor material like silicon, they release the electrons from its atoms, leaving
behind a vacant space called ‘hole.’ The stray electrons move around looking for a hole
to fill.
Generally, a PV cell is made up of two types of silicon. The silicon wafer that is exposed
to the Sun is doped with atoms of phosphorus, which has one more electron than silicon.
The back side of the cell is made of silicon doped with atoms of boron, which has one
less electron than silicon.
The sandwich thus constructed works like a battery. The layer that has surplus electrons
becomes the negative terminal (n) and the other side that has a deficit of electrons acts
as the positive terminal (p). An electric field is created between the two layers at the
junction.
On excitation by photons electrons are swept to the n-side by the electric field at the
junction, while the holes drift to the p-side. Both the sides are provided with metallic
electrical contacts to collect electrons and holes. Electrons then flow in the external
circuit in the form of electrical energy. Fig. 1 shows how a PV cell works.
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Fig. 1:
Working of a PV cell
Thermoelectricity, as the name suggests, stands for the conversion of thermal energy
(temperature difference) into electricity. It encompasses mainly two phenomena: the
Seebeck effect and Peltier effect.
Seebeck effect is the phenomenon that a potential difference will appear between the
two ends of a metal or semiconductor wire when they are kept at different temperatures.
The potential difference is proportional to the temperature difference and the material’s
property known as Seebeck coefficient.
All materials are made of atoms, and atoms contain positively charged nucleus with
negatively charged electrons moving around them. The electrons that are closer to the
nucleus are bound more strongly, whereas the outer ones are loosely bound. When the
temperature is uniform, the distribution of negative electrons is uniform and neutralises
positive ions everywhere in the material, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2:
Uniform distribution of neutral atoms
But when one end of the wire is heated and the other end is kept cool, electrons at the
hot end gain more energy and higher speed than those at the cool end, which is indicated
by the longer arrows in Fig. 3. So, at any instant more electrons move to the cold end
than those moving back. So, the hot end becomes positively charged and the cold end
becomes negatively charged, and current flows through the external conductor of a
thermoelectric generator (TEG).
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The power generated in a TEG is single-phase DC that equals I2RL, where I is the
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current and RL is the load resistance. The output voltage and output power are increased
either by increasing the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends or by
connecting several TEGs in series, as shown in Fig. 5.
Thermoelectric figure-of-merit
ZT=σS²T/k
where ZT is the thermoelectric figure-of-merit while σ, S, k, and T are electrical
conductivity, the Seebeck coefficient, the thermal conductivity, and the absolute
temperature, respectively.
The Seebeck coefficient of a material is the induced thermoelectric voltage per Kelvin
generated in response to a temperature difference across the material, as induced by the
Seebeck effect. It is often given in microvolts per Kelvin. The Seebeck coefficient
depends on factors like temperature, work functions of the two TE materials, electron
densities of the two components, and scattering mechanism with each solid.
Performance of a TEG is determined by the Seebeck coefficient of the pair of materials
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forming the TEG.
Peltier Effect
In a circuit, when DC current flows through two dissimilar material, say copper and
bismuth, the junction where the current passes from copper to bismuth would be hot
and the junction where current passes from bismuth to copper would be cold. This
effect, known as Peltier effect, is used to build devices like Peltier heater, solid-state
refrigerator, and heat pump.
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Fig. 6:
Conversion efficiency of improved BiTe material
With improved techniques, p-type BiTe TE material that has average ZT of 1.08 and
n-type BiTe with 0.84 ZT has been made. The significant enhancement in ZT could
be achieved through compositional and defect engineering.
Fig. 7:
Seebeck coefficient of improved Type I and Type II BiTe material
2. Lead telluride (PbTe) alloy: Low conversion efficiency is a big obstacle that
impedes large scale application of TE materials for power generation. Lead telluride
alloy is recognised as an excellent compound for power generation in the mid
temperature range of 500-800°K. It has highly symmetric rock salt crystal structure,
which is chemically and thermally stable. Lead telluride can be made either a p-type
or n-type semiconductor.
Recently researchers have enhanced the ZT of a sintered material to 1.8 (600°C)
using a nanostructure forming technology. Further, an electrode material has been
developed that contacts very well electrically and thermally with PbTe containing
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MgTe nanostructures, achieving a conversion efficiency of about 11% with hot side
at 600°C and the cold side at 10°C.
This breakthrough has made the way to convert waste heat and solar thermal power
to large scale practical application. Because the nanostructures formed in the PbTe
sintered material effectively scatter heat carrying phonons, but have no effect on the
charge carrier transport, there is dramatic improvement in the ZT.
The advantage of the newly developed nanocomposites is that its ZT values consistently
remain above 1 over high temperature range between 600°C and 1000°C. Hence, these
are the best TE materials for high temperature application for power generation by solar
radiation, radioisotope devices, and waste heat recovery system. Table 2 shows the ZT
values of bulk and improved nanostructured Si-Ge TE materials.
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Fig. 10: Block diagram of thermoelectric power harvesting system
A thermoelectric power generation system has low energy conversion efficiency.
According to the principle of maximum power transfer, the system would transfer the
maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the TEG.
Based on this principle, several maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms
may be selected with different control logic to harvest the maximum power from the
TEG. If a TEG is connected directly to the load, the load impedance will set the
operating point which might result in the TEG output being less than the maximum
output power.
It has been found that the output power is correlated with the geometry of the device.
By changing the leg height and the number of thermoelectric pellets to an optimum
value it is possible to maximise electric power or efficiency at given operating
conditions. There is interdependence between optimal leg geometry and the electrical
load resistance.
If number of legs is low, the energy conversion is low, because the load resistance (RL)
is not sufficient to obtain an adequate high voltage and vice versa. A reduction of the
leg length leads to a reduction of the electrical resistance, and an increase of the leg
length leads to the higher temperature difference across the TEG. If the geometric
parameters like leg length, number of semiconductor pellets, the base area ratio of the
semiconductor columns are optimised, the output power and thermal efficiency are
considerably improved.
The shape of the legs of TEG devices has considerable effect on the device performance.
The conventional rectangular leg shape found in commercial TEGs is not the optimal
shape for heat-to-power energy conversion. The hourglass shaped TE legs result in more
than double the electrical potential and maximum power compared to conventional
rectangular shape. The trapezoid leg with the largest cross-sectional area at the hot side
results in about double the electrical potential and a 50% increase in the power output
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compared to the conventional rectangular shape. The electrical output power values, if
optimised, can be 890% higher than a random value without optimisation.
Heat sink is required at the TEG when a high heat flow rate is applied on the hot side
of the TEG. In order to have quick heat dissipation at the cold side cooling radiators are
provided there, so that bigger temperature difference across the TEG can be obtained.
The fins attached to the heat sinks are very important for enhancing the heat transfer at
the hot and cold sides. The heat transfer increases when the number of fins are increased
and the fin height is more, due to more heat transfer area. However, increase of heat
transfer area is limited to an optimum value beyond which the change in the output
electrical power becomes less significant.
Aerogel
Aerogels are a class of synthetic porous materials derived from a gel, in which the liquid
component has been replaced with a gas without collapsing the gel structure by freeze-
drying. It can be made from silica, carbon, iron oxide, gold, copper, polymer, etc.
The final product is extremely porous (80-98% porosity) with very little solid material;
up to 99.8% of the aerogel may have nothing but air. It has a typical density of about
0.001gm cm–3. Its thermal conductivity is extremely low, about 0.017W/mK, which
makes the material an ideal insulator. It can be made transparent.
By reducing heat losses and simultaneously being transparent, aerogels allow a solar
plant to operate at higher temperature and at higher efficiency without using any
vacuum device. These advantages make an aerogel assisted solar thermal plant very
economical and eliminates lot of maintenance problems.
A solar thermoelectric generator (STEG) is a solid-state device that can convert solar
energy at around 15% efficiency.
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It has three sections: solar absorber, thermoelectric generator, and the thermal
management system comprising insulation, heat exchangers, and vacuum/aerogel
enclosure, etc.
There are no moving parts and there is no need of high-temperature operating fluids. Its
robustness in harsh temperatures makes it very useful for standalone power conversion
or making hybrid solar thermal power generator in conjunction with a PV system.
The efficiency of STEG depends on both the efficiency of solar absorber and on the
thermoelectric efficiency of the device. There are mainly two approaches to increase
the efficiency of STEG devices: increasing temperature difference between the hot and
cold ends and using improved materials with ZT more than 1. Recently, several
nanostructured materials have been developed that have higher ZT values suitable for
STEG.
There are two routes to increase the temperature difference in a STEG: first, optical
concentration of sunlight enabling to increase the heat flux at the absorber surface, and
second by providing thermal concentration where the area of a highly thermally
conducting absorber is greater than area of the thermoelectric legs increasing the heat
flux through the legs.
It is possible to construct a durable STEG device with more than 15% efficiency using
improved material consisting of a segmented n-type leg composed of skutterudite and
La1Te4 and p-type leg of skutterudite and Yb14MnSb11, and also using nanostructured
Bi2Sb3 based alloys (all these three types have an effective ZT of about 1.4 to 1.6 at
800K).
Fig. 13:
Transparent aerogel for insulating STEG
Aerogel, being transparent but an excellent insulator, allows sunlight to enter but blocks
the heat from escaping from the receiver of the STEG. It offers many advantages like
higher efficiency, minimises heat loss, boosts solar thermal conversion, eliminates
costly vacuum system and its maintenance cost. Due to efficient thermal transport
system provided by aerogels, most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the cermet
composite pad attached to the thermoelectric elements.
It is desirable to thermally insulate the TE legs to suppress lateral heat leaks that degrade
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of thermoelectric legs with aerogels prolongs the life
of TE devices.
Some solar absorbers are painted with black paint to increase the heat absorption and
are fabricated from metal dielectric multilayer cermet composites that are capable of
withstanding more than 950°C.
Solar light and its thermal energy can provide sufficient electricity to meet the global
energy demand. The range of wavelengths that photovoltaic materials generally use to
convert into electricity is between 400nm and 1200nm, the ultra-violet (UV) and visible
range. Excess solar radiation is wasted as heat, which decreases the efficiency of PV
cells and lowers their life.
TEGs are bidirectional devices that act as heat engines, converting the excess heat into
electricity through the thermoelectric effect. Thermoelectric devices utilise the IR
region of sunlight to generate electricity and reduce the amount of heat that PV cells
dissipate. It is possible to combine PV cells and TEGs to make a hybrid system that can
generate more energy. The overall power output of this system would be the sum of the
power output from the PV module and the TEG.
With reflective arrangement the spectral splitting method splits the solar spectrum into
two bands. The spectrum below the 800nm cut-off wavelength gets transmitted to the
PV module and above 800nm to the TEG. This system has a reflective component called
wavelength segregator or prism, where the PV module and the TEG are installed
perpendicular to each other. When sunlight passes through the prism, a part of the
sunlight is reflected at cut-off wavelength of approximately 800nm and is absorbed by
the solar cell. The radiation that is longer than the cut-off wavelength—above 800nm—
is reflected to the TEG, as shown in Fig. 14.
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used under 500K, lead telluride between 500-900K, and germanium silicon above 900K
operating temperatures.
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Fig. 15:
Hybrid PV/TEG system without reflective component
A technique that combines PV and solar thermal systems to efficiently convert solar
radiation to electricity for immediate use and store the remaining inexpensive thermal
energy (not utilised by PV) to convert to electricity on demand has been developed
recently. It is called hybrid electric and thermal solar (HEATS) system. The prototype
performs at 26.8% (with a potential to achieve 35.2%) solar to electricity efficiency and
81% dispatchability of electrical energy from thermal energy at an operating
temperature of 775K using silicon PV cell (gallium arsenide PV cell can also be used).
HEATS contains a PV module as well as a thermal absorber to utilise the best of both.
In this system photons in the PV band are directed to the PV cells whereas these are
most efficiently converted into electricity. Low-energy photons (long wavelengths) that
cannot be converted by PV cells and high-energy photons (short wavelengths), which
would be converted inefficiently, are directed to the thermal absorber instead of being
wasted.
This technique improves overall system efficiency and provides additional thermal
energy, which can be stored at low cost to be used for electricity generation or for
heating on demand. Dispatchability is the ratio of electricity generated from heat engine
and total electricity generated by both heat engine and the PV modules. The
arrangement of HEATS is shown in Fig. 16.
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The SSLP structure consists of a series of parallel fins attached to the heat collection
pipes carrying a heat transfer fluid like Therminol VP-1, which collects the thermal
energy absorbed by the SSLP. The SSLP structure is formed from parallel fins made of
a thermally conductive copper sheet substrate coated with a spectrally selective material
in multilayers.
The SSLP absorbs high and low energy photons as thermal energy, while directing the
mid energy photons to the PV module down below as shown in Fig. 16(B). Transparnt
aerogel on either side allows the light to pass through but does not allow the heat to
escape as it is an excellent insulator.
The aerogel layers serve to thermally insulate the SSLP from the PV module to keep
the latter cool. It ensures that the SSLP can be operated at a high temperature without
heat loss while the PV module and the glass cover remain at a safe low operating
temperature. The transparent silica aerogels used have high solar transmittance of about
96% and low thermal conductivity of about 0.055W/m/K. As aerogels are not very
strong, it is ensured that no load is transferred to it.
The advantages of hybrid PV-thermal system are mainly: (a) both solar thermal and PV
cells can be housed in the same module and operated simultaneously, (b) the solar
energy that would have been lost otherwise, if single PV module was used, can be
recuperated usefully, and (c) the amount of energy that is generated per unit area by this
tandem system is more and the payback period is less due to more energy extraction.
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Thermopile
A thermopile is a device that converts heat into electricity by using the thermoelectric
effect.
It consists of several thermocouples, which are pairs of wires made of different metals
that generate a voltage when exposed to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are
connected in series or sometimes in parallel to form a thermopile, which produces a
higher voltage output than a single thermocouple. Thermopiles are used for various
applications, such as measuring temperature, generating power, and detecting infrared
radiation. A thermopile works on the principle of the thermoelectric effect, which is the
direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa. This
effect was discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1826, who observed that a circuit made of
two different metals produced a voltage when one junction was heated and the other
was cooled.
Thermoelectric power is a measure of how much voltage a material generates per unit
temperature difference. The wires are joined at two junctions, one hot and one cold. The
hot junctions are placed in a region with higher temperatures, while the cold junctions
are placed in a region with lower temperatures. The temperature difference between the
hot and cold junctions causes an electric current to flow through the circuit, generating
a voltage output. www.EnggTree.com
The voltage output of a thermopile is proportional to the temperature difference across
the device and the number of thermocouple pairs.
The diagram below shows a simple thermopile with two sets of thermocouple pairs
connected in series.
The two top thermocouple junctions are at temperature T1, while the two bottom
thermocouple junctions are at temperature T2. The output voltage from the thermopile,
ΔV, is directly proportional to the temperature difference, ΔT or T1 – T2, across the
thermal resistance layer and the number of thermocouple pairs. The thermal resistance
layer is a material that reduces the heat transfer between the hot and cold regions.
Diagram of a differential temperature thermopile
T1
|\
|\
| \
| \
| \
| \ ΔV
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
------------------
Thermal
Resistance
Layer
------------------
| /
| /
| / www.EnggTree.com
| /
| /
| /
| /
| /
| /
| / ΔV
| /
| /
| /
| /
|/
|/
T2
Thermopiles can also be constructed with more than two sets of thermocouple pairs to
increase the voltage output.
Thermopiles can be connected in parallel as well, but this configuration is less common
because it increases the current output rather than the voltage output.
Therefore, they can be used to measure heat flux, which is the rate of heat transfer per
unit area. Heat flux can be calculated by dividing the voltage output by the thermal
resistance and the area of the device.
Thermopiles use infrared radiation as a means of heat transfer and are also used for non-
contact temperature measurement.
Thermopile sensors are based on non-contact measurement principles and have various
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advantages over contact-based sensors, such as higher accuracy, faster response time,
wider range, and lower maintenance.
and cold junctions, which are connected to individual infrared absorbers and heat
sinks. The sensor measures the voltage output from each thermopile separately,
which is proportional to the local infrared radiation absorbed by each absorber.
This type of sensor can create a two-dimensional image of the infrared radiation
distribution and can detect the position, shape, and movement of an object.
Pyroelectric thermopile sensor: This type of sensor combines a pyroelectric
material with a thermopile. A pyroelectric material is a material that generates
an electric charge when heated or cooled. The pyroelectric material is attached
to the hot junctions of the thermopiles, while the cold junctions are connected to
a heat sink. The sensor measures the voltage output from the thermopiles plus
the charge output from the pyroelectric material, which is proportional to the rate
of change of infrared radiation absorbed by the material. This type of sensor can
detect rapid changes in infrared radiation and can measure both static and
dynamic temperatures.
Applications of Thermopile Sensors
Thermopile sensors have various applications in different fields, such as:
Medical devices: Thermopile sensors are widely used in medical devices that
measure body temperature, such as ear thermometers, forehead thermometers,
tympanic thermometers, and thermal imaging cameras. Thermopile sensors can
provide accurate and non-invasive temperature measurements without contact
with the skin or mucous membranes.
Industrial processes: Thermopile sensors are used in industrial processes that
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involve high temperatures, such as metal processing, glass manufacturing,
plastic molding, welding, soldering, and laser cutting. Thermopile sensors can
provide fast and reliable temperature measurements without contact with hot
objects or surfaces.
Environmental monitoring: Thermopile sensors are used in environmental
monitoring devices that measure ambient temperature, humidity, air quality, soil
moisture, fire detection, and solar radiation. Thermopile sensors can provide
accurate and stable temperature measurements without interference from other
factors.
Consumer electronics: Thermopile sensors are used in consumer electronics
devices that require temperature sensing or infrared detection, such as
smartphones, tablets, laptops, cameras, remote controls, smart watches, gaming
consoles, and virtual reality headsets. Thermopile sensors can provide low-cost
and low-power solutions for various functions, such as face recognition, gesture
control, proximity sensing, biometric authentication, and thermal imaging.
Wireless monitoring through wearable devices could be useful for hospitalized patients,
particularly those who are unstable or at higher risk for serious complications such as critically
ill patients. This review aims at summarizing current evidence regarding the use of wireless
monitoring in the ICU setting.
Wireless sensor network (WSN) technologies have the potential to change our lifestyle with
different applications in fields such as healthcare, entertainment, travel, retail, industry,
dependent care and emergency management, in addition to many other areas. The combination
of wireless sensors and sensor networks with computing and artificial intelligence research
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have built a cross-disciplinary concept of ambient intelligence in order to overcome the
challenges we face in everyday life.
A number of wireless BAN communication technologies have been implemented based on the
existing radio technologies. However, if BAN technology is to achieve its full potential, it
needs a more specific and dedicated technology, which is optimized for BAN. For example,
solutions for monitoring people during exercise one or two hours a day, or a few days a week,
may not be suitable for 24/7 monitoring as a part of the Internet of Things (IoT) concept.
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need for frequent re-charging and disruptions in monitoring.
Design: The device must be elegant without the need to attach long wires and electrodes
from the device to the patient and from the device to the mobile gateway that transmits
data (to the remote medical care unit).
Cost: If a patient is required to purchase the unit, it should cost sub US$200 to be
affordable or for the hospital to give it away free as part of medical care.
Devices that fulfill these conditions can expect to become popular. Manufacturers will find that
users are able to easily integrate such devices into their daily lives for maximum benefit.
The typical set of parameters that the device must monitor include heart activity, fetal heart
rate, skin resistance, skin temperature, refractive index of blood etc. Based on what the device
is required to measure and monitor, its components would include:
Bio sensors: Application specific bio sensors that emit signals indicating measured
parameters
Analog-to-digital converters: Application specific analog front end to digitize the
sensor signals. The device may also be equipped with signal conditioning circuitry.
General purpose micro controller: To process signals for the device to function. Signals
could indicate battery levels, failure, etc. or signals received from accelerometer,
displays and switches, memory and connectivity solutions.
Wireless interface: In most instances, the device will connect to a mobile gateway over
a Body Area Network (BAN) or the newer Bluetooth LE (low energy) suitable for
continuous transfer of medical data.
Memory: In modern wearable devices, the data is sent in real-time to a mobile gateway
(smart phone or a tablet) and then to the patient’s remote health care provider. These
devices can also store data in off line mode, synchronizing the data when the device
goes online.
Power management: The device design must ensure that energy consumption is
minimized for longer uninterrupted device deployment and stand by time.
A. Energy Requirements: Since, most of the devices in WBAN are using the wireless
medium, therefore they are portable. Such devices are small in size and carry power
source too. Hence, the power is always limited. Wireless natures made them roam
free, meaning the devices are free to move. The power to the device of the network
is provided with the help of batteries. Things are not simplified by allowing the
power from battery but is encompasses some more challenges of power
management of the battery supplies especially in case of implants. Since the sensors
that are implanted in the body are so small that the battery cannot sustain more than
a month. Removing the implants and re-installation require even more management
of the complications generated. Different parameters that alter the power
consumption include communication bandwidth and processing power. There is
need to have better scheduling algorithm along with better power management
schemes.
many of the limitations in WBAN such as distance, mobility, coverage and channel
impairments.
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Sensor nodes/actuators represent essentially the wireless sensor network, and the sensor
node senses acoustic factors including temperature, pressure, sound, pulse rate, ECG, blood
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pressure, and heart rate of the human body. In healthcare, this form of sensor network is known
as a wireless body area network (WBAN)
Wireless body area networks consist of sensors, biological parameters, body control
unit, personal device assistant, transmission factor, and user access. Figure shows that the
wireless body area network along with the sensor senses the biological factors continuously in
order to obtain the human health information from the body control unit. The electrocardiogram
(ECG) sensor records the patient's electric impulse as it passes through the heart muscle. This
assists in monitoring the patient's heartbeat, which is used to track various movements such as
resting and moving. The temperature of the human body's ears, skin, and forehead are detected
by the body temperature sensor.
The pressure of blood as it travels through the arteries is measured by blood pressure
and the pulse wave is measured by the heart rate sensor as it pumps blood through the patient's
body. The saturation level of oxygen in the blood is measured with a pulse oximeter. The
airflow sensor can be positioned near the human body's nasal to assess the body's respiration.
The collected information will be transferred and stored in the personal device assistants (PDA)
and later transmitted to the base station. From the base station, the data will be transferred to
the respective user applications such as cloud databases, ambulances, family members, and
doctors via the Internet.
A cloud database's purpose is to store the patient's data on a server so that the doctor
can access it and then send the patient's information to the user via the internet. Star topology
is used in the body area network. The body control unit acts as a central node and then each
sensor will sense and communicate to the center node. The center node interfaces the human
body by using Bluetooth or ZigBee or Personal Device Assistants (PDA), and then the patient’s
information can be accessed by the doctors using the Internet.
The term “reliability” refers to the fact that health-care practitioners receive monitoring
data in a timely and accurate manner. WBAN sensors must be capable of viewing and detecting
essential active signs of human health; therefore, reliability is critical. WBAN sensors must be
capable of viewing and detecting essential active signs of human health; therefore, reliability
is critical
WBAN is designed with special purpose sensor which can autonomously connect with
various sensors and appliances, located inside and outside of a human body.
Below Figure demonstrates a simple WBAN architecture where the architecture is
divided into several sections. Here we have classified the network architecture into four
sections. The first section is the WBAN part which consists of several numbers of sensor nodes.
These nodes are cheap and low-power nodes with inertial and physiological sensors,
strategically placed on the human body. All the sensors can be used for continuous monitoring
of movement, vital parameters like heart rate, ECG, Blood pressure etc. and the surrounding
environment. There are vast monitoring systems are being used already based on wired
connections. Any wired connection in a monitoring system can be problematic and awkward
worn by a person and could restrict his mobility. So, WBAN can be a very effective solution
in this area especially in a healthcare system where a patient needs to be monitored
continuously and requires mobility.
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The next section is the coordination node where the entire sensor nodes will directly
connected with a coordination node known as Central Control Unit (CCU). CCU takes the
responsibility to collect information from the sensor nodes and to deliver to the next section.
For monitoring human body activities
there is no such wireless technology is fixed for targeting WBAN. Most popular
wireless technologies used for medical monitoring system are WLAN, WiFi, GSM, 3G,
4G,WPAN (Bluetooth, ZigBee) etc. . Except Cellular network standard all of these
technologies are commonly available for short distance communication. WMTS (Wireless
Medical Telemetry Service) and Ultra-Wide Band are another technology that could be used
for body monitoring system as they operate in low transmission power.
The third section is the WBAN communication which will act as a gateway to transfer
the information to the destination. A mobile node can be a gateway to a remote station to send
Mobile Message to a cellular network using GSM/3G/4G. A router or a PC can be a remote
node to communicate via email or other service using Ethernet which is shown in Figure.
The last section will be a control center consists of end node devices such as Mobile
phone for message, PC for monitoring and email and server for storing the information in the
database.
WBAN Requirements and Workflow
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Requirements for Wireless Medical Sensors in WBAN
Wireless medical sensors should satisfy the following main requirements such as
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weight of sensors are mainly determined by the size and weight of batteries . But, a battery’s
capacity is directly proportional to its size.
Reliability: Reliable communication in WBANs is of paramount importance for any
WBAN application. So the designer should target a reliable communication technique which
will ensure uninterrupted communication and optimal throughput. A careful trade-off between
communication and computation is very crucial for a reliable system design.
Security: Another important issue is the security of the network. All the wireless
medical sensors must meet the requirements of privacy and should ensure data integrity and
authentication.
Interoperability: Wireless medical sensors should allow users to easily build a robust
WBAN. Standards governing that interaction of wireless medical sensors will help vendor
competition and eventually lead to more accessible systems .
Monitoring Sensors
Wireless body area network is a system which can continuously monitor a person’s
activities. Based on the operating environments the monitoring sensors can be classified into
two types.
v Wearable sensor devices worked on the human body surface.
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v Implantable devices operated inside human body
Wearable sensor devices allow the individual to follow closely the changes in her or his
functions and in the surrounding environment and provide feedback for maintaining optimal
and instant status. For example ECG, EEG, Blood pressure sensor can be used to monitor a
critical patient, GPS sensor can be used to locate an area and different types of sensor that can
be used to measure the distance, temperature, movement etc.
To measure heath parameters, implantable sensors are planted in close contact with the
skin, and sometimes even inside the human body. Implantable biosensors are an important class
of biosensors based on their ability to continuously measure metabolite levels, without the need
for person interference and regardless of the person’s physiological state (sleep, rest, etc.) . the
implantable biosensors have great impact to diabetes and trauma care patients, as well as
soldiers in action (military). Figure focuses on the sensor nodes with wireless capabilities.
Traffic Types
In a WBAN traffic can be divided into three categories such as:
v Normal traffic
v Emergency traffic
v On-demand traffic
consumption. A typical Bluetooth network forms a Piconet where a Bluetooth device works as
a master and another seven Bluetooth devices
typical ZigBee network topology which consist of three kinds of devices or nodes such as
coordinator, router and end device. One coordinator exists in every ZigBee network. It starts
the network and handles management functions as well as data routing functions. End devices
are devices that are battery-powered due to their low-power consumption. They are in standby
mode most of the time and become active to collect and transmit data.
Bluetooth network.
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can be unsuitable for large-scale and real time WBAN applications. But, it can be very much
suitable for personal use like assisted living, health monitoring, sports, environment etc. within
a modest range between 50 - 70 meters
WiFi
WiFi is an IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless local area network (WLAN). Generally
WiFi technology comes with four standards (802.11 a/b/g/n) that runs in ISM band 2.4 and 5
GHz with a modest coverage of 100 meter. Wi-Fi permits users to transfer data at broadband
speed when connected to an access point (AP) or in ad hoc mode. Fig shows a WiFi network
where WiFi sensor nodes and users can transfer data using internet by standard WiFi router. In
some modified version, WiFi devices can be used in data acquisition applications that allow a
direct communications between the sensors and the smart phones/ PC even without an
intermediate router.
WiFi is preferably suitable for large amount of data transfers with high-speed wireless
connectivity that allows videoconferencing, voice calls and video streaming. An important
advantage is that all smart phones, tablets and laptops have Wi-Fi integrated; however the main
disadvantage of this technology is high energy consumption.
IEEE 802.15.6 WBAN
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IEEE 802.15.6 is the latest addition in WPAN which is known as WBAN standard that
provides various medical and non medical applications and supports communications inside
and around the human body. This standard supports communication inside and outside of
human body which can be used for different medical and non medical applications such as e-
Healthcare monitoring, sports, environment etc.
IEEE 802.15.6 standard is classified by three physical layer standards. Each standard
uses different frequency bands for data transmission with data rate 10 Mbps maximum. First
one is Narrowband (NB) which operates within the range of 400, 800, 900 MHz and 2.3, 2.4
GHz bands. The Human Body Communication (HBC) is another standard which operates at
range of 50 MHz. The Ultra Wideband (UWB) technology operates between 3.1 GHz to 10.6
GHz which supports high bandwidth in short range communication.
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) is becoming a special application of such technique.
WBAN differs with other wireless sensor networks (WSN) with some significant points. First
difference between a WBAN and WSN is mobility. In WBAN user can move with sensor nodes
with same mobility pattern whereas WSN is generally used to be stationary. Energy
consumption is much less in WBAN than other WSNs arrangement. In addition, WBAN sensor
devices are found cheaper than WSNs. For reliability, node complexity and density, WBAN
nodes are however traditional. WSNs do not tackle specific requirements associated with the
interaction between the network and the human body . The WBAN performs like Virtual
Doctor Server, by keeping the different responsibilities like- maintain the history of the patient,
giving advices to the patient in general/emergency (first aid help from second person) case etc.
To understand the communication approach of this emerging WBAN technology, we first need
to know the conceptual structure of WBAN so that, one can easily know the flow of
communication within the system and to the outside world, this has been achieved by the
demonstration of a simple WBAN communication architecture. Where this architecture is
mainly comprised with three different layers namely: Tier 1, Tier 2 and Tier3 and these are
further described better in the given figure
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"Smart textiles are the fabrics that have been developed with new technologies that provide
added value to the wearer"
Smart textile is the material which can react to the environment. These are the fabrics which
can enable digital components and electronics in itself. Pailes-Friedman of the Pratt Institute
states that "what makes smart fabrics revolutionary is that have the ability to do many things
that traditional fabrics cannot, including communicate, transform, conduct energy and even
grow". The smart textile can sense and react to environmental conditions or stimuli from
mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, magnetic or other sources. Smart textiles must
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contain three components i.e. sensors, actuators and control units. Smart textile presents a
challenge in several fields such as the medical, sports, military and aerospace.
Smart textiles can be divided into four types based on their functions.
1. Passive smart materials: These are the material which only senses the environmental
conditions or stimuli.
These are just sensors such as changing colour, shape, thermal and electrical resistivity.
2. Active smart material: These are the material which can both sense and respond to the
external conditions or stimuli.
If actuators are integrated into the passive smart textile, it becomes an active smart textile
as it may respond to a particular stimulus.
g. the shirt senses the surrounding temperature. It reacts in the form of rolling up of sleeves
when the temperature gets high.
3. Very smart materials: These are materials are able to execute triple functions; first there are
sensors which can receive signals, secondly, they are able to give reaction based on the received
singles; thirdly they can adapt and changes the shape, size, colour or act according to the given
function.
4. Materials with the even higher level of intelligence develop artificial intelligence to the
computers.
These kinds of materials are not fully achieved in the current investigation of human beings.
This may be achieved with research and development in the field of textile and electronics.
By using the smart fabrics or smart materials with advancement in computer interface this can
be possible.
Materials used
The materials which are used to manufacture products of wearable smart textile can interact,
communicate and sense.
Conductive threads are mainly used in technical areas like garments, military apparels, medical
application and electronic manufacturing. These conductive yarns and fibers are made by
mixing pure metallic or natural fibers with conductive materials. Stainless steel filament,
metallic silk, organza, special carbon fibers etc are used for manufacturing of fabric sensors.
Materials like metallic, conductive polymers, optical fibers supply electrical conductivity,
sensing capabilities and data transmission. These materials are resilient, light in weight,
flexible, inexpensive and easy to process.
Applications
1. Thermotron
Thermotron of UNITIKA is a particular fabric which is able to absorb sunlight and convert the
light energy into thermal energy. It stores heat without wasting it. Inside the thermotron, there
are microparticles of zirconium carbide which allow the fabric to absorb and filter sunlight.
The inner layer of the fabric holds the heat generated by the fabric and prevents it from going
in surrounding atmosphere, thus providing a favorable effect on the human body. It offers a
comfortable, waterproof yet breathable wearing experience.
2. Stone Island
Stone island is a jacket which is made to give information about surrounding temperature. It's
a liquid crystal heat sensitive coating. At 27 degree census, the molecules which are present in
the coating undergo a rotation which modifying the light course. As a result of the colour of
the garment gradually begins to change from the dark colour to the much lighter and brighter
colour of the fabric base. When the garment returns to its normal temperature, it recovers its
original dark coating colour.
3. Polar seal
Feeling cold would be the thing about past there's a product called polar seal which gives instant
heat at the touch of a button. There are three different warming levels high, med and low. There
are two heating zones one in the upper back and lower back so that we can feel warm in winter.
These are easy to use and are tested in alpine conditions. These are flexible, lightweight,
breathable and water resistant which makes them ideal for sports or outdoor. These can be worn
on gloves or inside shirts. These can keep warm up to 8 hrs in a single charge.
4. ZeroI
Zerol is a cap which is built-in with bone conduction speakers. We don't have to use earphones
to listen to music or to make phone calls. As it is a cap our ears are never blocked. It is water
resistant, because of which we can also use it while it's raining.
5. ORII
Orii is a ring, by using it we are able to have called. Orii is a voice assistant ring that turns our
finger into smartphone all through just a touch to the ear. It uses bone conduction and bone
conduction has been used in many medical grade devices. To adjust the ring there are silicon
pads incorporated in design which www.EnggTree.com
are durable and allergy proof. It has been packed in such a
way that it sends vibrations through your finger directly into your ear, so only you can hear. So
that allows you to talk and listen just through your finger. There is dual noise-canceling
microphone and bone conduction, we can hear and talk even in loud places. By using this we
are able to do things like navigation, alarms, translation, texting, weather, messaging, calling,
timer, map routes etc. it is water resistant. It has the custom notification, there are four LED
lights that can tell us what kind of messages are coming through.
6. Lumo Run
Self-motivation can be runners greatest assets but self-evaluation can be greatest challenge luco
run are for those who want to get trained by themselves. Luco run is a motion sensor that
collects data and provides motivation all while you run and it fits in a waistband of your shorts.
Luco run analyses running biomechanics then suggest judgments on your form that maximises
true potential by avoiding any injury. You can access data anywhere which gives full post
analyses on the smart phone. We don't need any goggles, smartwatch, wristband no cables.
7. AIO Sleeve
Aio sleeve is a sleeve which can be worn in one hand and gives information which only doctors
can give. It gives you self- analyses, sleep duration, quality of sleep on your mobile phone. It
can play your favorite music. While workout it measures heartbeat, ECG, steps/distance as well
as calories counter. While work it measures your stress level. All these things we are able to
see just on your smartphone anytime any place.
This also means that these fabrics don’t contain sensors or wires. They do not need to change
because of the conditions around them. All you need to do is wear a piece of clothing made
with a passive smart textile and know that it is working.
A passive smart textile’s functions are going to be much simpler than those of an active smart
textile. This is because the state of the fabric will never actually change. There are no
electronics involved in these fabrics whatsoever.
This means that all of its functions will allow it to remain in a static state the entire time it’s
worn.
On the topic of static, preventing static cling is one function that passive smart textiles can
have. There’s nothing more frustrating than pulling laundry out of the dryer to find out it’s all
stuck together by static cling. Anti-static textiles can help reduce this effect.
You might also have anti-microbial textiles. These fabrics aim to reduce how often you get
sick by preventing viruses and bacteria from remaining on your clothes. This helps promote
the health and well-being of the wearer.
In other words, these fabrics actively do something to make the wearer’s life more comfortable
or convenient, rather than the fabric itself being what makes it smart as a passive smart textile
does.
The applications of active smart textiles can be much more varied. This is because there are
many different ways that these fabrics can be changed and adjusted.
First of all, the healthcare industry may find some of these fabrics useful. Smart textiles can
monitor a patient’s heart rate, for example. This can alert nurses to any potential problems
earlier enough to help.
The military can also use some of these fabrics. They can use wires integrated into the fabric
to transport data from one place to another quickly. This means that military strategies can be
updated in real-time.
They can also be used for disaster relief. Some of these textiles can be used as power sources
for housing during natural disasters. This means that no matter what happens, people will have
a warm place to stay.
Finally, these fabrics can also be connected to the internet. This can help tell you all sorts of
things like heart rate and blood pressure right on your smartphone. But it can also be used for
fun activities, such as gaming.
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The term ‘smart textiles’ is used to describe materials that are advanced in their structure,
composition and ‘behaviour’ in special conditions. Their ‘intelligence’ is classified into three
subgroups:
•Passive smart textiles, which are sensors and can only sense the environment;
•Active smart textiles, which can sense stimuli from the environment and also react to them;
simultaneously with the sensor function, they also play an actuator role;
•Very smart textiles, which are able to adapt their behaviour to the circumstances.
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The textile structures which can conduct electricity are called conductive textiles. It may be
either made using conductive fibres or by depositing conductive layers onto non-conductive
textiles.
A conductive fabric can conduct electricity and made with metal strands woven into the
construction of the textile. It can be inhibited the static charge generated on fabric, to avoid
uncomfortable feelings and electrical shocks also.
1. Anti-static textiles
2. EM shielding textiles
3. E-textiles
4. Functional coatings
1. Anti-static textiles:
Static electricity can the build-up of electric charge on the surface of objects. Which can be
caused many problems for textile materials, manufacturing and handling the product. In dry
textile process, fibres and fabrics can tend to generate electro-static charges from friction.
When fibres and fabrics are moving at high speeds on different surfaces, (like: conveyer belts,
transport bands, driving cords, etc) causing fibres and yarns to repel each other. These static
charges can be produced electrical shocks and caused the ignition of flammable substances.
Two techniques are known to prevent static electricity in textiles. One is to create a conducting
surface and another is to produce a hydrophilic surface. In these ways antistatic textiles are
produced to avoid the potential hazards caused by static charge or, electricity.
2. EM shielding:
Electro Magnetic shielding (EMs) is the process of restricting the diffusion of electromagnetic
fields into a space. In this process, electrically or magnetically conductive barrier is used.
Shielding is common technique for protecting electrical equipment and human beings from the
radiating electro-magnetic fields. This barrier can be rigid or flexible. When an EM beam
passes through an object, the electro-magnetic beam interacts with molecules of the object and
this interaction may take place as absorption, reflection, polarization, refraction, diffraction
through the object. EM Shielding textiles materials can be found in the form of woven, knitted,
and nonwoven fabric also. The major components of these fabrics are fibres and yarns. To
achieve an effective shielding behaviour, these fibres should be electrically conductive.
Conductive yarns can be made by blending conductive fibres with conventional staple fibres,
twisting conductive or insulator filaments together. For example, conductive metallic yarn
(such as: silver, copper, etc.) can be wrapped with insulating textile materials to create hybrid
yarns. Which could be integrated www.EnggTree.com
into woven or knitted structures. Hybrid yarns or metallic
fibre can be integrated into these designs as warp. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of
the fabric decreased with the increase in fabric openness.
3. E-textiles:
Electrically conductive fibres and yarns have attracted great interest because of their
distinguished features including reasonable electrical conductivity, flexibility, electrostatic
discharge, and EM interference protection. Conductive textile fibres are the primary component
for wearable smart textiles introduced particularly for different applications such as sensors,
electromagnetic interference shielding, electrostatic discharge, and data transfer in clothing.
Therefore, the demand for electrically conductive fibres and yarns is ever-growing. The
development of novel conductive fibres becomes crucial with technological improvement in
wearable electronics such as wearable displays, solar cells, actuators, data managing devices,
and biomedical sensors. E-textiles play a critical role in selecting the conductivity of smart
textile electronics. Textile applications such as lighting, considerable current is necessary and
low ohmic fibres are preferred. On another hand, for certain sensing or heating applications
lower conductivity would work better. So, it requires fibres exhibiting lower electrical
conductivity. E-textiles need flexible and mechanically stable conducting materials to ensure
electronic capabilities in apparel.
4. Functional coatings:
For many applications, functional coating is the material interfaces and surfaces that provide
beneficial functionality over their intrinsic bulk characteristics. Hence, coatings provide a
versatile method of modifying textiles with conductive properties. Subsequently, the textile
fabric acts as a supporting structure or carrier material for the conductive finish. Conventional
methods such as dip coating or roll coating are typically used to apply bulk coatings in the form
of a saturation or lamination that covers the entire “surface” of the textile. However, as will be
presented herein, the advent of nano-technology in textile research, the development of novel
process techniques, and the advancement of inks and coating formulations affords the
opportunity to apply coatings to increasingly finer structures.
Physical properties:
Low weight,
High strength,
Flexibility,
Durability,
Elasticity,
Heat insulation,
Water absorbency,
Dyeability,
Drape,
Soft handling,
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method has been used for fibres, yarns and fabrics that are highly porous with a
complex structure of microfibrils, such as cellulosic fibres. These inks and dyes make
use of several types of conductive materials, such as aluminium18, carbon
nanotubes19, and graphene20, and have been in the base of demonstrations of
wearable and stretchable electronics, including integration onto surfaces of live plants
and insects21, 22. One of the limitations of this methodology is that such multifilament
fibres and fabrics, compared to fibres coated prior or during manufacturing, tend to
lose the conductive filling more easily if not completely encapsulated, and can pose
end-of-life environmental concerns.
A more practicable emerging strategy to prepare conductive textile fibres is to coat
insulating fibres with conductive atomically thin two dimensional layers such as
graphene23. Graphene, a monoatomic carbon layer, is the strongest known material,
the best electrical and thermal conductor which is also mechanically flexible and
transparent24. Thus, it represents a radical alternative to conventional technologies
as it can bend, stretch, compress, twist and deform into complex shapes while
maintaining the same levels of performance and reliability25. There are already
several examples of graphene-based textiles with different functionalities and for
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different applications26. The coating we propose is performed by electrostatic
adhesion of graphene at the surface of monofilament fibres and does not involve
impregnating an agglomerate of fibres. The adhesion of the graphene coating to the
textile fibres is strong and durable, and a straightforward passivation can be achieved
by encapsulation with an insulating polymeric layer. This method was developed for
tape-shaped polypropylene (PP) and bio-based polylactic acid (PLA) fibres, two
polymers with widespread use in the textile industry27. This approach depends on the
size of the graphene sample, usually in the centimetre range, and although this might
not be suitable for electronic wiring, it is appropriate to build electronic devices directly
on textile fibres.
In this work, we demonstrate that graphene can be transferred to a large variety of
thermoplastic monofilament textile fibres of different types and shapes. To further
advance the development of this technique, it is important to understand the various
factors that can influence the conductivity achieved by coating textile fibres with
graphene. Surface topography and chemical nature seem to be determinant in the
conductivity achieved. On the other hand, cracks and tears in the graphene coating
will result in a decrease in conductivity, and therefore it
is important to establish their origin. Thus, our present study aims at: (1) establishing
how the above-mentioned factors actually influence the quality of the graphene
coverage and how it correlates with the resulting conductivity; and (2) explore the
suitability of our coating method for different materials, sizes and shapes.Raman
spectra of fibres of the three materials (PP2, PE and PLA2), before and after the
graphene transfer, are shown in Fig. 1e. For all graphene-coated fibres it was possible
to identify the graphene G band at 1585 cm−1 . The
2D peak was clearly visible for graphene-coated PP1 and PLA2, at 2685 cm−1
, as well as a small D peak for PE and PLA2. These values match those found for G
and 2D bands of the same type of graphene transferred to SiO2 (see Supplementary
Fig. S2; more extended Raman spectra of the graphene-coated fibres is shown in
Supplementary Fig. S3, along with details of the G and 2D peaks and corresponding
integrations for PP2, PE and PLA2).
To study the factors that lead to the observed differences in sheet resistance, it is
important to understand the influence of the topography of the fibres on the
effectiveness of the graphene coating. A non-contact optical method was used to
determine the macroscopic surface parameters of the untreated fibres. The images
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obtained are shown in Supplementary Figs S4, S5 and S6, and the parameters are
listed in Supplementary Table S1. Figure 2 shows the Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
amplitude and topography for 5×5μm images of the PP fibres before coating and
corresponding height profiles taken at the highlighted lines parallel to the extrusion
axis. Compared to PP1, PP2 fibres show considerable differences in terms of AFM
topography. PP2 does indeed have a smoother height profile (Fig. 2a, right) with less
pronounced height differences than PP1 (Fig. 2a, left). The UVO treatment created a
fine roughness throughout the whole surface, which seems to create more points
where the graphene sheet can effectively adhere to the surface of the fibre (Fig. 2a,
middle). The same conclusions are valid for larger and smaller AFM scanning areas
(30×30 μm and 1×1 μm images, see Supplementary Fig. S7). Although in terms of
overall thickness and surface features, PP1 and PP2 are very similar (see
Supplementary Table S1), in a smaller scale AFM shows that PP2 has areas with less
pronounced features than PP1, which is also in accordance with the smaller Kurtosis
value in PP2. A similar study was performed for the PLA-based fibres PLA1 and
PLA2 (Fig. 2b and Supplementary Fig. S8), showing that the changes in polymer
source grade do not have a substantial impact on the surface morphology in the AFM
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Self-powered biomonitoring textiles via biomechanical, body heat, and biochemical energy
conversion are discussed in this work. Platform technologies, including piezoelectric
nanogenerators (PENGs), triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), and magnetoelastic
generators (MEGs) for biomechanical energy conversion, thermoelectric generators (TEGs)
for boy heat energy conversion, and biofuel cells (BFCs) for biochemical energy conversion,
are systematically introduced and discussed in a textile form. Working in a self-powered
manner with greatly improved wearing comfort, the smart biomonitoring textiles pave a
compelling road to personalized healthcare.
Highlights
Textiles, which have been a part of human civilization for thousands of years, are made from
both natural materials such as silk and cotton, and synthetic materials such as polyamide and
polyester. These materials can be made into textile bioelectronic devices via
scalable weaving, knitting, braid, printing, and electrospinning, showing great wearing comfort
and breathability. Conventional fiber fabrication techniques include coating, spinning, and
thermal drawing. These various types of fibers can also be arranged into different architectures
and structures in textiles endowing them with excellent flexibility, breathability, abrasion
resistance, and material integration. An increasing number of platform technologies, including
electroluminescent piezoresistive thermoelectric and photovoltaic platforms have been utilized
to develop smart healthcare textiles Among them, self-powered biomonitoring textiles that rely
on piezoelectric triboelectric magnetoelastic and electrochemical approaches offer unique and
compelling features that have attracted significant attention. Self-powered textiles have the
capability of sustainably converting the renewable energy from the human body such as
biomechanical, body heat, and biochemical energy into electrical signals for healthcare
purposes. They not only weaken the dependance of wearable bioelectronics on power supply,
but they also provide highly sensitive and real-time information to monitor human
physiological states. Additionally, self-powered textiles are also environmentally friendly,
simple to manufacture, inexpensive, which can be effectively integrated into daily wear such
as clothing, masks, wristbands, and other garments for continuous monitoring.
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We will begin by briefly discussing the physiological signals that can be monitored. Then, we
will present the progress of self-powered biomonitoring textiles which utilize the on-body
renewable energy sources: biomechanical, body heat, and biochemical energy (Fig. ). We will
illustrate the mechanisms of each of these self-powered textiles and describe how they can
monitor various physiological parameters. Finally, we will discuss the challenges within the
community of self-powered biomonitoring textiles. This review provides a critical analysis of
the current advances in smart biomonitoring textiles and the insights into remaining challenges
and future directions.
ECG Respiration
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Wearable light textiles are gaining widespread interest in application for measurement and
monitoring of biophysical parameters. Fiber optic sensors, in particular Bragg Grating (FBG)
sensors, can be a competitive method for monitoring of respiratory behavior for chest and
abdomen regions since the sensors are able to convert physical movement into wavelength
shift. This study aims to show the performance of elastic belts with integrated optical fibers
during the breathing activities done by two volunteers. Additionally, the work aims to
determine how the positions of the volunteers affect the breathing pattern detected by optical
fibers. As a reference, commercial mobile application for sensing vibration is used. The
obtained results show that the FBGs are able to detect chest and abdomen movements during
breathing and consequently reconstruct the breathing pattern. The accuracy of the results varies
for two volunteers but remains consistent.
Wireless devices have pushed forward medical science to an advanced level in which people
have access to a personalized drug delivery, a remote healthcare including simple diagnostics
and data-logging operations outside of hospitals, and a continuous monitoring of biophysical
parameters such as blood pressure, body temperature, breathing rate, etc. Low-cost miniature
technologies help to prevent sudden infant death syndrome, heart-related diseases and provide
minimal invasive continuous monitoring.
For example, Skrzetuska and Wojciechowski studied the ability of T-shirts equipped with a
printed respiratory rate sensor to monitor the breathing pattern of two volunteers and the
influence of the environmental humidity and temperature on the output of the sensor. The
authors have tried several configurations of printed sensor and identified the most optimal
shape and size of the sensor. The breathing of volunteers were monitored during physical
activities and rest. The sensing technology were able to identify breaths but the external climate
conditions were found to have an effect on the accuracy of the results.
Joyashiki and Wada proposed to monitor breathing pattern by a body-conducted sound sensor
placed on the neck. The performance of the sensor was compared with two other sensors,
namely air-coupled microphone and acceleration sensor. A data analysis technique based on
signal processing was developed. The authors came to the conclusion that body-conducted
sensor performs better in four different types of the experiments. Schatz et al. studied the
application of five different types of depth sensors for breathing rate monitoring and usage of
this data for the sleep apnea identification. All of the sensors output were compared with the
reference sensor and two of the five sensors have been found appropriate for sleep apnea
determination.
The aim of the experiments is to study the feasibility of the FBGs arrays for breathing pattern
monitoring application. The breathing pattern is measured at the two locations of the body
(abdomen and chest) by two arrays of 5 FBGs.This allows to apply a diversity technique, which
is used in communication systems to achieve better accuracy of detection by combining the
outputs from several different sensing points. The breathing pattern has been measured in four
different positions of the volunteers (sitting, lying, staying or running). Two volunteers have
participated in the initial experiments: 23-years old woman, height 165 cm, weight 52 kg and
24-years old man, height 171 cm, weight 72 kg. The volunteers wore T-shirts with two
specially designed belts located on the abdomen and chest regions. They have been asked to
breath for 23 seconds in different positions: staying, sitting, lying and running. The results of
the the strain change detected by FBGs have been compared with the output of a reference
sensor, which is a mobile application for acceleration and vibration measurement. The mobile
phone with the application has been www.EnggTree.com
attached to the upper belt.
The experimental setup, which is illustrated in Figure, consists of the (1) I-MON interrogator
connected to (2) PC with evaluation software, (3) T-shirt with two belts each equipped with an
array of 5 FBGs, (4) mobile phone with VibSensor application.
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impose high economic burdens. Therefore, different strategies are required for the
monitoring and diagnosis of such diseases and an effective strategy in this regard is
HWDs. Wearable devices are defined as devices, which are worn on the human body
or on clothing. They consist of a target receptor and a transducer. A receptor
recognizes the target analyte and responds accordingly. The transducer then convert
the receptor’s response into a useful signal. Several studies have reported
applications of wearable devices in different fields; as a result, these devices have
shown promising results in the field of healthcare due to their ability of deformability
and compliance. These HWDs provide a better understanding of the changes inside
a human body and can help in preventing and treating diseases.
Biosensors were initially used as invasive devices for controlled lab settings before
their integration into wearable sensors. In 1956, Leland C. Clark, known as the
“father of biosensors”, was the first to use electrodes for the detection of the level of
oxygen in blood. This device was meant for the continuous and real-time detection
of oxygen in operating room settings during the cardiovascular surgery. The
introduction of electrodes for healthcare purposes later led to the discovery of
potentiometric biosensor for the detection of urea in 1969 by Guilbault and
Montalvo, Jr. The introduction of electrodes for healthcare lead to the
commercialization of the first glucose analyzer in 1975 based upon Leland C.
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Clark’s electrochemical biosensor. With the miniaturization of electronics that leads
to the micro and nanoelectronics and advancements in material sciences, integrated
HWDs came into existence. These HWDs consists of electronic devices for the
acquisition, processing and sharing of data. Conventional rigid and heavy electronic
devices, for example, Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are not a suitable choice for
HWDs therefore, significant advancements have been made in recent years in
electronic devices in terms of their material, fabrication techniques, processing
circuits and transceivers to enhance their compliance with HWDs. Recent
advancements in HWD materials include biocompatible flexible materials for
example, polyethylene naphthalate, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Ecoflex, and
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), silicone-based materials, and thin film polymers for
example, parylene2,7,8. These materials have high flexibility and stretchability,
which makes them suitable substrates for HWDs. Ecoflex and PDMS have
elongation limits of 900% and 400%, respectively, where Ecoflex has Young’s
modulus close to human skin. In comparison to conventional devices, these flexible
electronic devices are not only low cost but are also power efficient in their
consumption, which allow uninterrupted acquisition of data over long time. With
emergence of communication modules like Bluetooth, Near Field Communication
(NFC), Wi-Fi and Wireless body area networks (WBAN), visualization and sharing
of the data in real time has become possible with HWDs. These HWDs help in
The POC wearable devices have revolutionized the healthcare system by decreasing
the load on hospitals and by providing more reliable and timely information. For this
purpose, different types of wearable devices have been employed, e.g., epidermal-
based wearables, flexible wearables, and textile-based wearables. Wearables can be
employed for different body parts, e.g., head-based wearables, eye-based wearables,
and wrist-based wearables. These wearables monitor different psychological and
physiological parameters that can be used for the diagnoses of different diseases13.
In fact, wearable devices can be integrated with different sampling platforms for
sensing different chemical parameters from bodily fluids e.g., saliva, blood, urine,
sweat, etc. Additionally, these HWDs can be used for the delivery of drugs in a more
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controlled and efficient manner in comparison to traditional drug delivery systems
Textile-based HWDs
Textiles have been around for centuries and are readily available. Traditionally,
textiles and clothing have been perceived as keeping humans warm and for esthetics.
Due to their accessibility and comfortability, they can be used for sensing important
parameters, such as body temperature, heart rate, and respiration rate. Such HWDs
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are commonly known as electronic textiles or e-textiles. E-textiles are clothes
embedded with sensors and conductive materials. The stretchable nature and large-
scale skin contact make textiles an optimal medium for HWDs. With the emergence
of graphene, carbon nanotubes, and nanowires, a number of efforts have been made
to incorporate sensors into clothing for continuous monitoring. One such effort is by
Yapici et al. who have developed an intelligent textile-based HWD for the
monitoring of ECG. Traditionally, ECG is monitored by using gel-based Ag/AgCl
electrode cables, which are not comfortable for the wearer. For textile-based ECG
monitoring, graphene functionalized cloth has been embedded with ECG sensors.
Graphene has been used for this purpose because of its excellent material properties
and high correlation with conventional gel-based ECG monitoring. A comparison of
the traditional Ag/AgCl electrodes with the ECG HWD . It can be seen that graphene
functionalized textile electrodes highly correlates with the conventional Ag/AgCl
ECG electrodes with a maximum correlation of 97.0%. However, the graphene
functionalized e-textile electrodes for ECG has higher electrode-skin impedance
(87.5–55 kΩ) than the conventional Ag/AgCl electrodes (50.9–20 kΩ), which
distorts the ECG and requires additional components like buffer amplifiers and
adaptive filters23. Similarly, Arquilla et al. have tested textile electrodes for ECG
monitoring using HWDs. They have developed a chest-based ECG system by
sewing ECG electrodes into the textile instead of using gel electrodes. This sensor
system has been applied on eight different subjects (five males and three females) to
validate the accuracy of textile-based ECG with the traditional gel-based ECG
electrode. Differences between the heart rate and R–R intervals of ECGs from both
systems were minimal and are shown in Fig. 2b–d. The statistical parameters for
differences in heart rate are t = −0.70 and p > 0.5 and t = 1.43 and p > 0.1 for R–R
interval and with a high correlation coefficient of 0.94. However, this ECG sensor
has not been tested during movement, which imposes considerable challenges in
maintaining the skin-electrode contact and hence is mandatory for continuous ECG
monitoring.Moreover, Wicaksono et al. have also developed an electronic textile
comfortable suit (E-TeCS). The E-TeCS provides temperature sensing of skin with
a precision of 0.1 °C as well as heart and respiration rates at a precision rate of
0.0012−2 using inertial sensing. Additionally, washability and degradability tests
were also conducted for the E-TeCS and high rigidity along with confirmation for
no flakes or discoloration up to ten cycles of washing were observed, which makes
it suitable for everyday use. Likewise, the use of HWDs can also be extended for
other bipotential signals like EEG and EOG, which are required to be monitored for
the treatment and diagnosis of different diseases. Gao et al. have developed a
multisensory textile-based HWD for the simultaneous detection of EEG from the
forehead and sweat rate. This wearable utilizes silver (Ag) as a conductive material
embedded inside the textile electrode to record an EEG. The multisensor wearable
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consists of an EEG recording module and SHT20 chip for the relative humidity
measurement. It has eight channels that allow independent recording of the EEG
using different electrodes and the relative humidity is used to for the indirect
measurement of the sweat rate. The multisensory HWD was compared with
traditional Ag based wet electrodes used for EEG measurement and was highly
correlated. Alpha rhythm is a standard electrical brain response with frequencies
ranging from 8 to 15 Hz and usually more evident while eyes are closed. Correlation
coefficients of 93.04% and 81.69% between the two electrodes have been found, in
closed and opened eyes conditions, respectively. However, the skin-electrode
impedance of the multisensory HWD decreases in the presence of sweat from 30–
20 to 6 kΩ in comparison to standard Ag wet electrodes that maintains small skin-
electrode impedance irrespective of sweat. Moreover, electrodes embedded inside
the textile can also be used for EMG, which measures the electrical activity of
muscles in response to nerve stimulation and is used for the detection of muscle or
motor neuron abnormalities. Pino et al. have proposed a wearable shirt to monitor
EMG that provides essential feedback during exercise30. The wearable shirt is
shown in the These EMG signals are then sent to monitoring system using Bluetooth
for signal processing.
Traditionally, tattoos have been perceived as a form of body art because of its
pliability and compliance. These properties can be used for monitoring and
diagnostic purposes. Currently, e-skins are widely used for the detection of electrical
and physical parameters such as ECG, EEG, and EMG. Of these, the ECG is easiest
to detect because of its high amplitude, of the order of ~1 mV. This allows an
accurate, noninvasive detection of heart signals through the skin. In cardiovascular
arrhythmias like tachycardia and bradycardia, ECG is the first point of reference for
diagnosis and treatment. As mentioned, earlier, conventional ECG monitors require
the attachment of gel-based electrode cables along with external electronic
instrumentations for signal acquisition and can be uncomfortable for the wearer.
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Furthermore, these ECG monitors are mostly used in controlled lab or hospital
settings and therefore cannot be carried with the wearer at all times. Many patients
suffering from heart disease would benefit from continuous monitoring of their heart
rhythm but a daily visit to a hospital poses an economic and scheduling burden.
Moreover, tattoo-based ECG monitoring systems can resolve the instability and
sensitivity issues of textile-based ECG monitors, due to their miniaturization and
stretchability. They are also more flexible and comfortable for the wearer. A notable
example of a tattoo-based HWDs ECG monitor is described by Ameri et al. It
consists of miniaturized electronic components built on a
graphene/polymethylmethacrylate (Gr/PMMA) bilayer substrate. The graphene
electronic tattoo (GET) is fabricated using a wet transfer, dry patterning method and
has 463 ± 30 nm thickness with ~85% optical transparency and more than 40%
stretchability. The high stretchability and optical transparency make it light enough
to be embossed on skin, like a tattoo. It binds to the skin using Van der Waals forces,
which makes it mechanically invisible for the wearer. The GET is a comprehensive
epidermal electronic system that is effective for different biopotentials like ECG,
EMG, and EEG. This HWD reports a clean ECG with high signal to noise ratio,
comparable to conventional bulk gel-based electrodes. The module also works for
other electrophysiological parameters, for example, EEG and EMG by embossing it
on different parts of the body. Moreover, it has low skin impedance, comparable
with Ag electrode, for 52 h, however, 96 h after its application, crack starts to appear
during the test, which increases its skin impedance, making it unsuitable for further
use
Moreover, Dae et al. used a self-powered piezoelectric sensor for the continuous and
real-time monitoring of the arterial pulse34. The arterial pulse is a measure of heart’s
contraction rate, which is a component of cardiac output (heart rate × stroke
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volume)34,35. A piezoelectric sensor converts the pressure created due to arterial
pulses into electrical pulses. In-time detection of the abnormalities in atrial pulses
could lead to the prevention of serious cardiac diseases. Monitoring arterial pressure
may potentially help in the diagnosis of cardiac and blood diseases36,37. This self-
powered tattoo-based HWDs is POC in nature and mitigates the high-power
consumption required by conventional arterial monitors. Moreover, data are shared
wirelessly in case of any abnormality detected in arterial pressure signals using
smartphone modality. It utilizes BaTiO3 and Pb [Zrx, Ti1- x] O3 (PZT), active
materials for the microelectromechanical sensors, due to their high piezoelectric
coefficients. A thin layer of plastic was covered with PZT using laser lift-off
technique (ILLO), which is an inorganic based technique for transferring polymers
on surfaces38. The ultrathin layer of PZT adheres to the epidermis and responds to
changes in arterial pulses. The self-powered PZT sensor was used for the detection
of arterial pulses before and after the exercise. Before exercising, Vpp of the arterial
pulse is 81.5 mV whereas after exercising its amplitude is 100 mV, an increase of
~22% due to the increase in heart rate after the exercise. The same wearable was
used for experiments in monitoring human respiratory activities, trachea movement
and heart rhythm. These experiments have shown a sensitivity of ≈0.018 kPa −1 and
response time of ≈60 ms with excellent mechanical stability. However, the self-
powered tattoo requires biocompatible piezoelectric material for clinical trials34.
Other competitive skin-based HWDs including wearable vests, smart rings, and
earphones
There are other skin-based biosensors, which are not textile or tattoo based. Various
wrist bands, such as smartwatches, wearable vests, skin patches, and implantable
HWDs, use different monitoring biomarkers. Schreiner et al. and Leonard et al. have
monitored respiratory rate, an essential parameter for many respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases by using alternative wearable technologies35,44. Schreiner
There are also HWDs for use in the oral cavity. Kim et al. have developed a
mouthguard for the monitoring of saliva uric acid57. Similarly, Mannoor et al. have
developed an oral cavity HWDwww.EnggTree.com
for the detection of bacteria on tooth enamel58. The
HWD is based on graphene because of its high strength (42 Nm−1) and Young’s
Modulus (~1 TPa)59. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) were probed on graphene for
the detection of bacteria at a single cell level. Moreover, the resonant coil excludes
the need of an external power source making it miniaturized and power efficient.
Results have been reported for the Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacterium, a foodborne
infection. E. coli is commonly found in the intestines of humans and warm blooded
animals60. If food is contaminated with E. coli, it can cause severe diseases such as
gastroenteritis (food poisoning)61. The graphene-based nanosensor is attached to the
tooth and can remotely monitor respiration and bacteria from the saliva based upon
the change in its resistance58. Odorranin-HP AMP has been probed for the detection
of E. coli because of its strong activity towards this organism. As soon as E. coli
binds with the AMP immobilized graphene, the resistance of graphene decreases and
helps in detecting E. coli with a limit of detection of 1 bacterium μL [−1 58. Results
are justified with fluorescent images for the presence of E. coli. Similar experiments
were performed for the detection of helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a gram-negative
bacterium usually found in saliva, and stomach. H. pylori is one of the leading cause
for over 90% of stomach cancers and duodenal ulcers62,63. The lower limit for the
detection of H. pylori is ~100 H. pylori cells using tooth enamel HWD and shows
linear relation with its logarithmic concentration.
Biofluidic-based HWDs
Body secretions like sweat, saliva, tears, and urine contain important biomarkers that
are essential for monitoring and diagnostic purposes. HWDs can be used directly or
through their integration with other platforms, for example, microfluidic platforms
can be integrated for the extraction of useful information from different biofluids79.
Microfluidic platforms of different materials can be used in HWDs for example,
polymer-based microfluidic devices, paper-based microfluidic devices, and micro-
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sized needles known as microneedles80 ,
81. The following sections highlight recent
efforts in biofluidic-based HWDs classified according to the type of biofluids.
Sweat-based HWDs
Epidermal biofluids like sweat is an important indicator of changes taking place
inside human body and hence can serve as an important parameter for the chemical
and biological sensing. Sweat is composed of different biomarkers, for example,
metabolites (e.g., glucose, lactate, urea etc.), proteins, nucleotides, and electrolytes
such as chlorine, sodium etc. which have important diagnostic implications32. Sweat
is readily available for chemical sensing and is distributed across the skin with more
than 100 glands cm−2 32. Therefore, sweat can be used for the extraction of different
chemical and biological parameters using HWDs to provide monitoring and
diagnostics in POC settings82. Koh et al. have developed a flexible, soft, and
stretchable device, based on microfluidics, for the colorimetric sensing of sweat
biomarkers as shown in Fig. 5a83. This HWD is capable of quantifying electrolytes,
like chloride and hydronium ions, that are essential for monitoring in cystic fibrosis,
a chronic inherited disease that affects the respiratory and digestive systems, by
forming a thick mucus that can block lungs and can obstruct the pancreas84. People
with cystic fibrosis tend to have a shorter life span than healthy individuals85. The
microfluidic HWD can also provide quantification of glucose and lactate levels,
which are essential for diabetic patients along with the loss of pH, sweat rate, and
total sweat loss. When the perspiration starts, the sweat is transferred into
microfluidic reservoirs, where chromogenic reagents, like a mixture of glucose oxide
and horseradish peroxide (HRP) for glucose level, respond to aforementioned
biomarkers. Images of the change in color of the chemical analytes can be captured
using a smartphone for the quantification of the concentration of chloride,
hydronium ions, glucose, and lactate levels, as shown in Fig. 5b83,86,87. The HWD
continuously measures the concentrations of aforementioned electrolytes in
excellent agreement with the laboratory analysis of the sweat. They have
demonstrated the flexible microfluidic HWD for human studies on the fitness cycle
in a controlled environment and for long distance bicycle racing in outdoor settings,
to justify the absence of the leakage of fluid and any discomfort due to the
microfluidic HWD during real life arid conditions. The microfluidic device is
fabricated using the soft lithographic technique with PDMS as a material83. Soft
lithography offers high resolution, of the order of submicrometers, and due to its
simplicity and flexibility it has been a widely used technique for fabricating
biosensors83,88,89. However, it is a labor intensive and manually operated
process88.
A similar soft microfluidic based HWD was developed by Choi et al. that uses
microreservoirs for the detection of sodium, potassium, and lactate concentrations
from sweat along with their temporal variations90. This wearable is a skin-like soft
microfluidic platform that takes 1.8 μL volume of sweat from an area 0.03 cm2 of
skin in 0.8 min of sweating at 0.60 μL min−1 rate as shown in Fig. 5c. The
Fig. 5d shows different concentrations of sodium, potassium, and lactate at different
body locations and at different chambers of the wearable. Concentrations of these
analytes show variations at different times and at different spatial positions on the
body and propose optimal spatial positions for the attachment of the wearable for
sweat analysis. Paper-based microfluidic devices, commonly known as microfluidic
paper-based analytical devices (µPADs), are another promising technique for
fabricating biofluidic-based HWDs. µPADs are biocompatible, low cost and offer
high capillary action91,92. The multisensing patch for sweat monitoring by
Anastasova et al. is a µPADs91. The patch consists of microneedles of 50 μm
diameter and measures the concentration of lactate, pH using sodium ions and
temperature using amperometric sensing. The HWD demonstrates sensitivity of
71.90 ± 0.8 mV unit−1 and 56 ± 1 mV unit−1 for pH and sodium ions respectively
with a response time of around ~90 s. The wearable transmits data wirelessly for
real-time monitoring of sweat in home-based settings. Moreover, the HWD ensures
user compliance with overall thickness of as low as 180 µm with double sided
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adhesion to ensure firm adhesion of the patch to skin. Another notable µPADs is a
Smart Wearable Sweat Patch (SWSP) sensor92. SWSP consists of paper substrates,
fluorescent sensing probes and microchannels92. The microchannels are made up of
cotton to absorb sweat from the skin and to transport them to sensing probes to
quantify analytes. The HWD measures the concentrations of glucose, lactate, and
chloride ions from the sweat by quantifying the intensity of the fluorescent from
each analyte, using a smartphone92. The device offers excellent statistical results for
the identification of aforementioned analytes from sweat with limit of detection of
7 μm, 0.4 mM, and 5 mM and correlate coefficients of 0.990, 0.988, and 0.994 for
glucose, lactate, and chloride ions, respectively. The device is low cost (~$0.3) but
cannot be used to measure concentrations of aforementioned analytes in real time92.
Tears-based HWDs
Tears are another important biofluid for the purpose of diagnosis and monitoring of
different diseases. One such disease is diabetes and a number of HWDs have been
developed for its diagnosis. Diabetes is a chronic metabolic diseases, with elevated
levels of glucose or blood sugar, which can lead to serious damage to the heart, eye,
kidneys, nerve, and blood vessels93. Globally, patients with diabetes have increased
from 108 million to 463 million in 2020 and if necessary interventions are not taken
As discussed, microfluidic based devices offer low cost and suitable platforms for
biofluidic-based HWDs; however, they have inherent limitations99,100. These
limitations include fluid leakage, contamination, and blockage due to debris and
limited flexible materials make them inconvenient for the wearer99. However, with
more flexible materials along with adequate flow rate optimization, these challenges
can be overcome to fabricate low-cost microfluidics based HWDs.
Similarly, Kim et al. have developed a touch actuated transdermal delivery (TATD)
wearable for controlled drug delivery105. The TATD provides quantitative
permeation control of the drug delivery in accordance with the force exerted by the
touch on a wearable patch. The HWD consists of drug reservoirs that are refillable
in nature, strain sensors for force detection, and microneedles for drug release as
shown in Fig. 6d105. With mathematical models between the force exerted and the
quantity of drug released, a controlled drug delivery has been observed, which
enables a real-time drug regulation. Similarly, Di et al. have also developed a
mechanical force based drug delivery system106. This HWD consists of a
stretchable elastomer with drug reservoirs in the form of polymeric nanoparticles
loaded with drugs. These nanoparticles can be loaded with antibacterial drugs or
anti-inflammatory drugs. Likewise, the HWD produces encouraging results with
anticancer therapy. The drug is released in a controlled manner by applying tensile
strain on the elastomer and the rate of release of drug is per Poisson’s ratio. The
HWD is a skin mountable device and can be administered by the motion of muscles
or joints, tendons or by external force using hands.
Moreover, T. Ly et al. have utilized the Bluetooth technology for the controlled
release of insulin107. The Bluetooth enabled insulin pump is tubeless in nature and
can hold up to 200 units of U-100 insulin. It consists of cannula insertion and
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automated priming along with a personalized diabetes manager, portable for the
remote control of insulin delivery. In another report, Keum et al. have developed a
smart contact lens for the detection of glucose levels from tears and for delivering
drug for diabetic retinopathy therapy97. The contact lens is 14 mm in diameter,
200 μm in thickness with 8.0 mm radius curvature is based upon an ultrathin,
biocompatible polymer and contains miniaturized electrical circuits along with a
microcontroller chip for the continuous monitoring of glucose level from a tear. The
contact lens as shown in the Fig. 6e, consists of an electrochemical biosensor, a drug
delivery system, a resonant inductive coupling to copper for wireless transfer of
power from an external transmitter coil, an integrated microcontroller chip and a
radio frequency (RF) system for communication. The biosensor contains three
electrodes: Reference Electrode (RE), Working Electrode (WE), and Counter
Electrode (CE) for the detection of glucose. Results in Fig. 6f show a comparison of
glucose levels in blood and tears between healthy and diabetic individuals and it can
be seen that at all times the difference in the level of glucose in both diabetic and
healthy individuals, for both tears and blood, are high enough to diagnose diabetes
from tears. Moreover, the contact lens has an integrated drug delivery system that
allows an on-demand, controlled delivery of an antidiabetic drug. The delivery of
the drug is controlled by on/off control of voltage. Drug delivery is electrically
controlled using a gold (Au) membrane. Drug reservoirs are covered with Au anode
As discussed, ECG is a vital sign that plays an important role in diagnosing and
preventing cardiovascular diseases. A number of smart wearables have been
introduced in the market for ECG monitoring of ECG. ePatch is an FDA approved,
commercially available ECG patch. ePatch is a 3 lead ECG sensor that consists of a
sensor housed inside an adhesive patch119. The patch can store ECG recordings
continuously for 72 hours and results can be analyzed on computer software
transmitted using a USB cable119. However, the recent advancements in ECG
monitors are in leadless acquisition of ECG and LifeTouch sensor is a one such
HWD119,120. It offers continuous measurement of respiration rate, heart rate, and
ECG for verification purposes. Moreover, Savvy is another leadless HWD
commercially available HWD for the real-time monitoring of ECG121. It is POC in
nature and consists of a sensor that attaches with the skin with two adhesive
electrodes119. These two electrodes are used for measuring ECG during
measurement mode and for charging the sensor in charging mode. The battery life
of Savvy is up to 20 days119. The HWD is housed inside a biocompatible and
flexible plastic covering for enduring user’s movement. The ECG from the Savvy
can be visualized in real time on a mobile application (MobECG), which also allows
a summary of the ECG that can be stored or shared with the patient’s medical
provider119. Similarly, ZIO XT and SEEQ are two other important commercially
available HWDs for the monitoring of ECG119. However, unlike Savvy, ZIO XT,
and SEEQ cannot be reused and do not have rechargeable batteries. ZIO XT does
not report results in real time; however, it stores data for 14 days after which the
ECG patch is returned to the company for data analysis. Similarly, SEEQ, does not
report data in real time but instead data is transmitted with the company’s cloud and
the ECG reporting time depends on the processing time by the company.
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Table 2 shows some of the commercially available HWDs for ECG monitoring.
Considering the growing market of patients with diabetes, a number of HWDs have
been introduced for the continuous monitoring of glucose. Such devices are
generally known as CGM, continuous glucose monitor122. Notable CGMs are
Dexcom G6, Abbott’s FreeStyle Libre System, and Medtronic Guardian
Connect123,124,125. Dexcom G6 consists of a sensor, transmitter, and a
receiver122,123. With an automatic applicator, the sensor wire is inserted just under
the skin of wearer where sensor measures the glucose readings. However, Dexcom
G6 takes 2 hours of calibration after insertion. Readings from the G6 CGM are
transmitted to the receiver where they can be visualized by the user in real time on
the Dexcom mobile application. However, the application is only compatible with
selected mobile devices. Dexcom G6 is one of the few CGMs commercially
available along with Abbott’s FreeStyle Libre System to measure accurate glucose
readings if the patient is taking acetaminophen. Acetaminophen is an analgesic
medicine that interferes with CGS and causes inaccurate glucose readings122,126.
Abbott’s FreeStyle Libre comes with a sensor and a reader where sensor is a small
minimally invasive device to measure glucose from blood and sends data to the
reader where the glucose levels can be visualized. Abbott’s CGM placement can
only work accurately if placed at the back of the upper arm and unlike Dexcom G6
it takes 12 h to calibrate122,124. Similarly, Medtronic Guardian connect is another
CGM which like aforementioned CGMs consists of a sensor but does not contain a
reader. The sensor takes 12 h for calibration and can send data directly to a mobile
application instead of a reader device. An important feature about Guardian Connect
is its Sugar IQ122. Sugar IQ helps user in understanding the glucose patterns based
on their daily glucose trends along with insulin intake. It is the only CGM to send
predictive notifications 10–60 min beforehand. It can be seen that these CGMs are
costly in comparison to the widely used invasive blood-based glucose meters and it
is recommended to follow blood-based glucose meters in case CGMs readings do
not match with the symptoms.
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Medical Monitoring:
In medicine, monitoring is the observation of a disease, condition or one or several
medical parameters over time.
It can be performed by continuously measuring certain parameters by using
a medical monitor (for example, by continuously measuring vital signs by a bedside
monitor), and/or by repeatedly performing medical tests (such as blood glucose
monitoring with a glucose meter in people with diabetes mellitus).
Transmitting data from a monitor to a distant monitoring station is known
as telemetry or biotelemetry.
Classification by target parameter
Monitoring can be classified by the target of interest, including:
Childbirth monitoring
Body temperature monitoring through an adhesive pad containing
a thermoelectric transducer.
Cancer therapy monitoring through circulating tumor cells[1]
Vital parameters
Monitoring of vital parameters can include several of the ones mentioned above, and
most commonly include at least blood pressure and heart rate, and preferably
also pulse oximetry and respiratory rate. Multimodal monitors that simultaneously
measure and display the relevant vital parameters are commonly integrated into the
bedside monitors in critical care units, and the anesthetic machines in operating
rooms. These allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being
continuously informed of the changes in general condition of a patient. Some
monitors can even warn of pending fatal cardiac conditions before visible signs are
noticeable to clinical staff, such as atrial fibrillation or premature ventricular
contraction (PVC)
Besides the tracings of physiological parameters along time (X axis), digital medical
displays have automated numeric readouts of the peak and/or average parameters
displayed on the screen.
Modern medical display devices commonly use digital signal processing (DSP),
which has the advantages of miniaturization, portability, and multi-parameter
displays that can track many different vital signs at once.
Old analog patient displays, in contrast, were based on oscilloscopes, and had one
channel only, usually reserved for electrocardiographic monitoring (ECG).
Therefore, medical monitors tended to be highly specialized. One monitor would
track a patient's blood pressure, while another would measure pulse oximetry,
another the ECG. Later analog models had a second or third channel displayed on
the same screen, usually to monitor respiration movements and blood pressure.
These machines were widely used and saved many lives, but they had several
restrictions, including sensitivity to electrical interference, base level fluctuations
and absence of numeric readouts and alarms.
Communication links
Several models of multi-parameter monitors are networkable, i.e., they can send
their output to a central ICU monitoring station, where a single staff member can
observe and respond to several www.EnggTree.com
bedside monitors simultaneously. Ambulatory
telemetry can also be achieved by portable, battery-operated models which are
carried by the patient and which transmit their data via a wireless data connection.
Digital monitoring has created the possibility, which is being fully developed, of
integrating the physiological data from the patient monitoring networks into the
emerging hospital electronic health record and digital charting systems, using
appropriate health care standards which have been developed for this purpose by
organizations such as IEEE and HL7. This newer method of charting patient data
reduces the likelihood of human documentation error and will eventually reduce
overall paper consumption. In addition, automated ECG interpretation incorporates
diagnostic codes automatically into the charts. Medical monitor's embedded
software can take care of the data coding according to these standards and send
messages to the medical records application, which decodes them and incorporates
the data into the adequate fields.
Long-distance connectivity can avail for telemedicine, which involves provision
of clinical health care at a distance.
Other components
A medical monitor can also have the function to produce an alarm (such as using
audible signals) to alert the staff when certain criteria are set, such as when some
parameter exceeds of falls the level limits.
Mobile appliances
An entirely new scope is opened with mobile carried monitors, even such in sub-
skin carriage. This class of monitors delivers information gathered in body-area
networking (BAN) to e.g. smart phones and implemented autonomous agents.
Interpretation of monitored parameters
Monitoring of clinical parameters is primarily intended to detect changes (or absence
of changes) in the clinical status of an individual. For example, the parameter
of oxygen saturation is usually monitored to detect changes in respiratory capability
of an individual.
Change in status versus test variability
When monitoring a clinical parameters, differences between test results (or values
of a continuously monitored parameter after a time interval) can reflect either (or
both) an actual change in the status of the condition or a test-retest variability of the
test method. www.EnggTree.com
In practice, the possibility that a difference is due to test-retest variability can almost
certainly be excluded if the difference is larger than a predefined "critical
difference". This "critical difference" (CD) is calculated as:
, where
possibility that the change is completely caused by test-retest variability may need
to be considered in addition to considering effects of, for example, diseases or
treatments.
Examples and applications
The development cycle in medicine is extremely long, up to 20 years, because of the
need for U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals, therefore many of
monitoring medicine solutions are not available today in conventional medicine.
Blood glucose monitoring
In vivo blood glucose monitoring devices can transmit data to a computer that can
assist with daily life suggestions for lifestyle or nutrition and with the physician can
make suggestions for further study in people who are at risk and help
prevent diabetes mellitus type 2 .
Stress monitoring
Bio sensors may provide warnings when stress levels signs are rising before human
can notice it and provide alerts and suggestions. Deep neural network models using
photoplethysmography imaging (PPGI) data from mobile cameras can assess stress
levels with a high degree of accuracy (86%).
Serotonin biosensor
Future serotonin biosensors may assist with mood disorders and depression.
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Continuous blood test based nutrition
In the field of evidence-based nutrition, a lab-on-a-chip implant that can run
24/7 blood tests may provide a continuous results and a computer can provide
nutrition suggestions or alerts.
Psychiatrist-on-a-chip
In clinical brain sciences drug delivery and in vivo Bio-
MEMS based biosensors may assist with preventing and early treatment of mental
disorders
Epilepsy monitoring
In epilepsy, next generations of long-term video-EEG monitoring may
predict epileptic seizure and prevent them with changes of daily life activity
like sleep, stress, nutrition and mood management.
Toxicity monitoring
Smart biosensors may detect toxic materials such mercury and lead and provide
alerts.
blood pressure monitor, while those with diabetes will need to keep an eye on their
blood glucose levels.
1. Remote Patient Monitoring Blood Pressure Monitors
Blood pressure monitors are RPM devices that help individuals with hypertension
ensure their blood pressure stays within a healthy range. Hypertension is a major
risk factor for many chronic diseases like heart failure and stroke. Clinicians can
identify complications early and provide prompt treatment by effectively keeping
track of a patient’s blood pressure between visits. A blood pressure monitor will
display systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate.
The top number is the systolic blood pressure measurement. This indicates the
amount of pressure in the arteries when your heart is beating. According to
the American Heart Association, any reading above 130 mmHg is considered
hypertensive. The second number is the diastolic blood pressure measurement. This
is the amount of pressure in between heartbeats. Any reading above 80 mmHg is
considered hypertensive.
How to Use
Most top RPM digital blood pressure monitor devices are very user-friendly, making
them ideal for remote use. Tenovi’s BPM works right out of the box, eliminating the
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hassle of device setup.
For the best results, encourage your patients to:
Relax for about 5 minutes before
Sit comfortably and avoid crossing their legs
Keep their arm rested on top of a table or armrest
Empty their bladder
Measure around the same time every day
Avoid eating, exercise, caffeine, and alcohol for at least half an hour before
Take the measurement twice, about a minute apart, to ensure accuracy, and
then average the numbers
To use a blood pressure monitor, wrap the cuff around the upper arm (ensure the
cuff is on bare skin, not clothing) and press the middle button. The cuff will start
inflating, take the blood pressure measurement, and then automatically send the data
to the RPM platform.
2. Remote Patient Monitoring Scales
Weight gain of 3 or more pounds in a single day can indicate congestive heart failure.
Congestive heart failure occurs when the heart cannot efficiently pump blood
throughout the body. At-risk individuals typically experience shortness of breath,
tightness in the chest, and dizziness. While it is entirely normal for weight to
fluctuate, weight gain in at-risk patients can serve as a precursor to more serious
conditions. By monitoring a patient’s body weight, clinicians can quickly identify
signs of heart failure and focus on early management.
How to use
All the patient has to do is step on the scale to turn it on and wait for the reading.
The information will automatically send to the clinician, and the RPM device will
turn off on its own.
For the most accurate results, advise patients to:
Weigh themselves at the same time every day (preferably the morning)
Avoid eating or drinking right before the weigh-in
Wear the same clothing for each weigh-in or weigh without clothes on
Regular bodyweight measurements can help healthcare providers evaluate the
effectiveness of a patient’s management plan and, if necessary, quickly make
adjustments to better control fluid retention.
3. Remote Patient Monitoring Blood Glucose Meters
Diabetes is the 7th leading cause of death in the United States and the 4th most
common cause of physician visits.www.EnggTree.com
If poorly managed, diabetes can cause kidney
failure, heart attack, stroke, and blindness. By utilizing a blood glucose meter to
remotely monitor blood sugar levels, clinicians can better assess whether a patient’s
treatment management plan is working and make adjustments to optimize care.
How to Use
Tenovi’s Blood Glucose Meter is a top-line FDA-cleared RPM device. It includes a
cell-enabled meter, lancet, and custom test strips that make measuring blood sugar
very simple.
Gather all the materials and perform the following steps with clean hands:
1. Insert the test strip into the meter
2. Wipe your finger with an alcohol pad and let dry
3. Gently prick the side of the finger with the lancet
4. Place a drop of blood onto the test strip and wait for the reading
Most patients should aim for blood glucose levels between 80-130mg/dL before a
meal or below 180 mg/dL in about 2 hours after a meal. If patients’ blood glucose
levels are too high, they may need to adjust their diet or medications.
4. Remote Patient Monitoring Peak Flow Monitors
Learning to use a peak flow meter for asthma care offers several advantages. One of
the most significant benefits is the ability for physicians and patients to evaluate and
pinpoint the causes of asthma flare-ups and determine the most effective treatment
options for the specific lung condition. Remote monitoring of peak flow enables
healthcare providers to identify if medication or treatment adjustments are required
promptly.
How to Use
To begin using the Tenovi peak flow meter, relax for a few minutes before closely
following these 3 easy steps.
1. Turn it on. Press the power button for 3 seconds and wait for the Gateway to
start flashing yellow.
2. Take a reading: Take a deep breath, then exhale quickly into the peak flow
meter.
3. Data transfer: PEF and FEV1 data will automatically transfer to the Tenovi
cloud or clinician portal.
PEF and FEV1 data will automatically transfer to the Tenovi cloud or clinician
portal.
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5. Remote Patient Monitoring Pulse Oximeters
Another remote patient monitoring device in healthcare that is useful for assessing
lung disease is a pulse oximeter. A pulse oximeter measures heart rate and oxygen
saturation in a patient’s red blood cells. Patients with conditions that affect blood
oxygen levels, like heart attack, heart failure, COPD, anemia, lung cancer, asthma,
and pneumonia, may benefit from regular pulse oximetry.
How to Use
Pulse oximetry is typically tested at the fingertips to measure how well oxygen is
being sent to areas of your body furthest from the heart. This RPM is simple to use.
To use the Tenovi Pulse Oximeter, all the patient has to do is:
Turn on the device. Place a finger inside the slit, and wait for the reading. A
pulse oximeter uses light to measure the amount of oxygen in your blood at a
given point.
Pulse oximeters will show blood oxygen saturation level (SpO2) and pulse
rate.
Patients should seek medical attention if their reading indicates:
Neural Recording:
In neuroscience, single-unit recordings (also, single-neuron recordings) provide a
method of measuring the electro-physiological responses of a single neuron using
a microelectrode system. When a neuron generates an action potential, the signal
propagates down the neuron as a current which flows in and out of the cell through
excitable membrane regions in the soma and axon. A microelectrode is inserted into
the brain, where it can record the rate of change in voltage with respect to time.
These microelectrodes must be fine-tipped, impedance matching; they are primarily
glass micro-pipettes, metal microelectrodes made of platinum, tungsten, iridium or
even iridium oxide. Microelectrodes can be carefully placed close to the cell
membrane, allowing the ability to record extracellularly.
Single-unit recordings are widely used in cognitive science, where it permits the
analysis of human cognition and cortical mapping. This information can then be
applied to brain–machine interface (BMI) technologies for brain control of external
devices.
There are many techniques available to record brain activity—
including electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG),
and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)—but these do not allow for
single-neuron resolution. Neurons are the basic functional units in the brain; they
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transmit information through the body using electrical signals called action
potentials. Currently, single-unit recordings provide the most precise recordings
from a single neuron. A single unit is defined as a single, firing neuron whose spike
potentials are distinctly isolated by a recording microelectrode.
The ability to record signals from neurons is centered around the electric current
flow through the neuron. As an action potential propagates through the cell, the
electric current flows in and out of the soma and axons at excitable
membrane regions. This current creates a measurable, changing voltage potential
within (and outside) the cell. This allows for two basic types of single-unit
recordings. Intracellular single-unit recordings occur within the neuron and measure
the voltage change (with respect to time) across the membrane during action
potentials. This outputs as a trace with information on membrane resting potential,
postsynaptic potentials and spikes through the soma (or axon). Alternatively, when
the microelectrode is close to the cell surface extracellular recordings measure the
voltage change (with respect to time) outside the cell, giving only spike
information. Different types of microelectrodes can be used for single-unit
recordings; they are typically high-impedance, fine-tipped and conductive. Fine tips
allow for easy penetration without extensive damage to the cell, but they also
correlate with high impedance. Additionally, electrical and/or ionic conductivity
allow for recordings from both non-polarizable and polarizable electrodes. The two
primary classes of electrodes are glass micropipettes and metal electrodes.
Electrolyte-filled glass micropipettes are mainly used for intracellular single-unit
recordings; metal electrodes (commonly made of stainless steel, platinum, tungsten
or iridium) and used for both types of recordings.
Single-unit recordings have provided tools to explore the brain and apply this
knowledge to current technologies. Cognitive scientists have used single-unit
recordings in the brains of animals and humans to study behaviors and functions.
Electrodes can also be inserted into the brain of epileptic patients to determine the
position of epileptic foci. More recently, single-unit recordings have been used in
brain machine interfaces (BMI). BMIs record brain signals and decode an intended
response, which then controls the movement of an external device (such as a
computer cursor or prosthetic limb).
Electrophysiology
The basis of single-unit recordings relies on the ability to record electrical signals
from neurons.
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Neuronal potentials and electrodes
When a microelectrode is inserted into an aqueous ionic solution, there is a tendency
for cations and anions to react with the electrode creating an electrode-electrolyte
interface. The forming of this layer has been termed the Helmholtz layer. A charge
distribution occurs across the electrode, which creates a potential which can be
measured against a reference electrode. The method of neuronal potential recording
is dependent on the type of electrode used. Non-polarizable electrodes are reversible
(ions in the solution are charged and discharged). This creates a current flowing
through the electrode, allowing for voltage measurement through the electrode with
respect to time. Typically, non-polarizable electrodes are glass micropipettes filled
with an ionic solution or metal. Alternatively, ideal polarized electrodes do not have
the transformation of ions; these are typically metal electrodes. Instead, the ions and
electrons at the surface of the metal become polarized with respect to the potential
of the solution. The charges orient at the interface to create an electric double layer;
the metal then acts like a capacitor. The change in capacitance with respect to time
can be measured and converted to voltage using a bridge circuit. Using this
technique, when neurons fire an action potential they create changes in potential
fields that can be recorded using microelectrodes. Single unit recordings from the
cortical regions of rodent models have been shown to dependent on the depth at
which the microelectrode sites were located.
Intracellularly, the electrodes directly record the firing of action, resting and
postsynaptic potentials. When a neuron fires, current flows in and out through
excitable regions in the axons and cell body of the neuron. This creates potential
fields around the neuron. An electrode near a neuron can detect these extracellular
potential fields, creating a spike.
Experimental setup
The basic equipment needed to record single units is
microelectrodes, amplifiers, micromanipulators and recording devices. The type of
microelectrode used will depend on the application. The high resistance of these
electrodes creates a problem during signal amplification. If it were connected to a
conventional amplifier with low input resistance, there would be a large potential
drop across the microelectrode and the amplifier would only measure a small portion
of the true potential. To solve this problem, a cathode follower amplifier must be
used as an impedance matching device to collect the voltage and feed it to a
conventional amplifier. To record from a single neuron, micromanipulators must be
used to precisely insert an electrode into the brain. This is especially important for
intracellular single-unit recording.
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Finally, the signals must be exported to a recording device. After amplification,
signals are filtered with various techniques. They can be recorded by
an oscilloscope and camera, but more modern techniques convert the signal with
an analog-to-digital converter and output to a computer to be saved. Data-
processing techniques can allow for separation and analysis of single units.
Types of microelectrodes
There are two main types of microelectrodes used for single-unit recordings: glass
micropipettes and metal electrodes. Both are high-impedance electrodes, but glass
micropipettes are highly resistive and metal electrodes have frequency-dependent
impedance. Glass micropipettes are ideal for resting- and action-potential
measurement, while metal electrodes are best used for extracellular spike
measurements. Each type has different properties and limitations, which can be
beneficial in specific applications.
Glass micropipettes
Glass micropipettes are filled with an ionic solution to make them conductive;
a silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrode is dipped into the filling solution as an
electrical terminal. Ideally, the ionic solutions should have ions similar to ionic
species around the electrode; the concentration inside the electrode and surrounding
fluid should be the same. Additionally, the diffusive characteristics of the different
ions within the electrode should be similar. The ion must also be able to "provide
current carrying capacity adequate for the needs of the experiment". And
importantly, it must not cause biological changes in the cell it is recording from. Ag-
AgCl electrodes are primarily used with a potassium chloride (KCl) solution. With
Ag-AgCl electrodes, ions react with it to produce electrical gradients at the interface,
creating a voltage change with respect to time. Electrically, glass microelectrode tips
have high resistance and high capacitance. They have a tip size of approximately
0.5-1.5 µm with a resistance of about 10-50 MΩ. The small tips make it easy to
penetrate the cell membrane with minimal damage for intracellular recordings.
Micropipettes are ideal for measurement of resting membrane potentials and with
some adjustments can record action potentials. There are some issues to consider
when using glass micropipettes. To offset high resistance in glass micropipettes,
a cathode follower must be used as the first-stage amplifier. Additionally, high
capacitance develops across the glass and conducting solution which can attenuate
high-frequency responses. There is also electrical interference inherent in these
electrodes and amplifiers.
Metal electrodes
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Metal electrodes are made of various types of metals, typically silicon, platinum, and
tungsten. They "resemble a leaky electrolytic capacitor, having a very high low-
frequency impedance and low high-frequency impedance". They are more suitable
for measurement of extracellular action potentials, although glass micropipettes can
also be used. Metal electrodes are beneficial in some cases because they have
high signal-to-noise due to lower impedance for the frequency range of spike
signals. They also have better mechanical stiffness for puncturing through brain
tissue. Lastly, they are more easily fabricated into different tip shapes and sizes at
large quantities. Platinum electrodes are platinum black plated and insulated with
glass. "They normally give stable recordings, a high signal-to-noise ratio, good
isolation, and they are quite rugged in the usual tip sizes". The only limitation is that
the tips are very fine and fragile. Silicon electrodes are alloy electrodes doped with
silicon and an insulating glass cover layer. Silicon technology provides better
mechanical stiffness and is a good supporting carrier to allow for multiple recording
sites on a single electrode. Tungsten electrodes are very rugged and provide very
stable recordings. This allows manufacturing of tungsten electrodes with very small
tips to isolate high-frequencies. Tungsten, however, is very noisy at low frequencies.
In mammalian nervous system where there are fast signals, noise can be removed
with a high-pass filter. Slow signals are lost if filtered so tungsten is not a good
choice for recording these signals.
Applications
Single-unit recordings have allowed the ability to monitor single-neuron activity.
This has allowed researchers to discover the role of different parts of the brain in
function and behavior. More recently, recording from single neurons can be used to
engineer "mind-controlled" devices.
Cognitive science
Noninvasive tools to study the CNS have been developed to provide structural and
functional information, but they do not provide very high resolution. To offset this
problem invasive recording methods have been used. Single unit recording methods
give high spatial and temporal resolution to allow for information assessing the
relationship between brain structure, function, and behavior. By looking at brain
activity at the neuron level, researchers can link brain activity to behavior and create
neuronal maps describing flow of information through the brain. For example,
Boraud et al. report the use of single unit recordings to determine the structural
organization of the basal ganglia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Evoked
potentials provide a method to couple behavior to brain function. By stimulating
different responses, one can visualize what portion of the brain is activated. This
method has been used to explore cognitive functions such as perception, memory,
language, emotions, and motor control.
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Brain–machine interfaces
Brain–machine interfaces (BMIs) have been developed within the last 20 years. By
recording single unit potentials, these devices can decode signals through a computer
and output this signal for control of an external device such as a computer cursor
or prosthetic limb. BMIs have the potential to restore function in patients
with paralysis or neurological disease. This technology has potential to reach a wide
variety of patients but is not yet available clinically due to lack of reliability in
recording signals over time.
Gait analysis:
Human gait depends on a complex interplay of major parts of the nervous,
musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems.
Definitions
GaitAnalysis -
An analysis of each component of the three phases of ambulation is an es
sential part of the diagnosis of various neurologic disorders and the asses
sment of patient progress during rehabilitation and recovery from the effe
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cts of neurologic disease, a musculoskeletal injury or disease process, or
amputation of a lower limb.
Gait speed
o The time it takes to walk a specified distance, usually 6 m or less.
Slower speeds correlate with an increased risk of mortality
in geriatric patients.[2]
o Normal walking speed primarily involves the lower extremities,
with the arms and trunk providing stability and balance.
o Faster speeds - body depends on the upper extremities and trunk for
propulsion, balance and stability with the lower limb joints
producing greater ranges of motion.
Step time - time between heel strike of one leg and heel strike of the
contralateral leg.
The demarcation between walking and running occurs when periods of double
support during the stance phase of the gait cycle (both feet are simultaneously in
contact with the ground) give way to two periods of double float at the beginning
and the end of the swing phase of gait (neither foot is touching the ground)
1. Registration and activation of the gait command within the central nervous
system.
2. Transmission of the gait systems to the peripheral nervous system.
3. Contraction of muscles.
4. Generation of several forces.
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5. Regulation of joint forces and moments across synovial joints and skeletal
segments.
6. Generation of ground reaction forces.
The normal forward step consists of two phases: stance phase; swing phase,
The Stance phase occupies 60% of the gait cycle, during which one leg and
foot are bearing most or all of the bodyweight
The Swing phase occupies only 40% of it [4], during which the foot is not
touching the walking surface and the bodyweight is borne by the other leg
and foot.
In a complete two-step cycle both feet are in contact with the floor at the
same time for about 25 per cent of the time. This part of the cycle is called
the double-support phase.Gait cycle phases: the stance phase and the swing
phase and involves a combination of open and close chain activities.
1. Initial Contact
2. Loading Response
3. Midstance
4. Terminal Stance
5. Pre swing
6. Initial Swing
7. Mid Swing
8. Late Swing.
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Short period, begins the moment the foot touches the ground and is the first phase
of double support.
Involves:
30° flexion of the hip: full extension in the knee: ankle moves from
dorsiflexion to a neutral (supinated 5°) position then into plantar flexion.
After this, knee flexion (5°) begins and increases, just as the plantar flexion
of the heel increased.
Plantar flexion is allowed by eccentric contraction of the tibialis anterior
Extension of the knee is caused by a contraction of the quadriceps
Flexion is caused by a contraction of the hamstrings,
Flexion of the hip is caused by the contraction of the rectus femoris.
Midstance
Heel Off
Early Swing
Hip extends to 10° and then flexes due to contraction of the iliopsoas
muscle 20° with lateral rotation.
Knee flexes to 40-60°
Ankle goes from 20° of plantar flexion to dorsiflexion, to end in a neutral
position.
Mid Swing
Hip flexes to 30° (by contraction of the adductors) and the ankle becomes
dorsiflexed due to a contraction of the tibialis anterior muscle.
Knee flexes 60° but then extends approximately 30° due to the contraction
of the sartorius muscle. (caused by the quadriceps muscles).
Late Swing/declaration
Gait Disorders
Gait Descriptions
Neuropathic Gaits. High stepping gait to gain floor clearance often due to
foot drop
Musculoskeletal Causes
Pathological gait patterns resulting from musculoskeletal are often caused by soft
tissue imbalance, joint alignment or bony abnormalities affect the gait pattern as
a result. www.EnggTree.com
Hip Pathology
Hip Adductor Contracture. During swing phase the leg crosses midline
due to the weak adductor muscles, this is known as ‘scissor gait’ [18]
Weak Hip Extensors will cause a person to take a smaller step to lessen
the hip flexion required for initial contact, resulting in a lesser force of
contraction required from the extensors. Overall gait will be slower to
allow time for limb stabilisation. Compensation is increased posterior
trunk positioning to maintain alignment of the pelvis in relation to the
trunk [18]
Hip Flexor Weakness results in a smaller step length due to the weakness
of the muscle to create the forward motion. Gait will likely be slower and
may result in decreased floor clearance of the toes and create a drag
Knee Pathologies
Ankle Pathologies
length, and excessive knee and hip flexion during swing phase to ensure
floor clearance.
Foot Pathologies
Hallux Rigidus results in a lack of dorsiflexion of the great toe. The MPJ
uses the windlass effect to raise the arch and stiffen the foot during
dorsiflexion of the hallux. This stiffness increases the efficiency of the
propulsion portion of the gait cycle. To be efficient in creating stiffness,
the hallux should be able to dorsiflex at least 65 degrees.
Antalgic Gait
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Antalgic gait due to knee pain presents with decreased weight bearing on
the affected side. The knee remains in flexion and possible toe weight-
bearing occurs during stance phase [15]
Antalgic gait due to ankle pain may present with a reduced stride length
and decreased weight bearing on the affected limb. If the problem is pain
in the forefoot then toe-off will be avoided and heel weight-bearing used.
If the pain is more in the heel, toe weight-bearing is more likely. General
ankle pain may result in weight-bearing on the lateral border [15][18].
Antalgic gait due to hip pain results in a reduced stance phase on that side.
The trunk is propelled quickly forwards with the opposite shoulder lifted
in an attempt to even the weight distribution over the limb and reduce
weight-bearing. Swing phase is also reduced
Gait Analysis
Subjective
Sports medicine
Sports medicine is a branch of healthcare. It deals with the diagnosis, treatment and
prevention of Injuries related to participation in sports and/or exercise.
difficult to carry a sportsperson performance at apex level. There are following scope
of sports medicine:
e) To aware the sports person & athlete about the different kinds of injury in respect
of different games.
SportsInjury
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Physical Preparation
Lack of proper training
Sports injuries are those which are common in the field of games and sports. During
training, competition or practice, any player can be injured. Perhaps there will not
be any player who has not been injured during his career.
g) Players should be careful and alert during practice, training and competition.
Abrasion is a key injury generally occurs due to friction with certain equipments or
a fall over the area where bone is very close to skin. It may be caused by a fall on
hard surface. As someone falls or slides on the ground, friction causes layers of the
skin to rub off.
Bruises are not clearly seen as upper skin remains undamaged and inner blood
vessels are damaged and collect beneath the skin. A fresh bruise may actually be
reddish and after a few hours it turns to blue or dark purple.
A laceration is a wound that is produced by tearing of soft body tissue.
Contusion is a muscle injury. A direct hit with or without any sports equipment can
be the main cause of contusion. Contusion can also be due to minor accidents to the
skin such as falling, bumping into something or being hit or kicked. In contusion
blood vessels in muscles are broken and sometimes bleeding may occur in the
muscles which may cause bruise. Stiffness and swelling are common features at the
site of contusion.
Management:
Cold compression should be used immediately. Ice or cold water should not
be used for more than 40 minutes persistently.
The cold compression should be performed 5 to 6 times daily.
If there is more swelling at the sight of contusion, the anti-inflammatory
medicine should be given.
If the swelling persists, consult the Doctor immediately.
For the purpose of rehabilitation, flexibility exercises should be performed.
Causes of sports injuries
To effectively diagnose, rehabilitate and ultimately prevent subsequent injuries, a
sport therapist
Anatomical Factors: These are related to make up of the body. Leg length
differences a n d cause injury to ankle, hip and back.
Age related causes as the body ages, it changes. It is less able to produce force,
recovers slower and soft tissues lose the ability to stretch. Therefore, it is more
prone to injury.
Training related cause’s Excessive repetitive loading of the tissues is needed
for successive adaptation. However, without suitable recovery, tissues never
have the chance to adapt and can fail.
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Equipment selection factors These are related to the suitability of equipment.
An instance is incorrect footwear, which will not protect the foot and ankle
adequately. It also will not distribute forces effectively. Thus it increases the
risk of injury.
Impact and contact causes Impact or contact can be with objects, surfaces or
other people. These injuries are common in contact sports like football, rugby,
hockey etc. Also they are common in more dangerous sports like motor racing,
boxing and skiing.
Types of dislocation
a) Dislocation of lower jaw: it occurs when the chin strikes to any other object. It
may occur if mouth is opened excessively.
the socket. In face when your shoulder dislocates, a strong force, such as a sudden
blow to your shoulder. Pulls the bones in your shoulder out of place.
Preventions:
a) Adequate warming-up should be performed prior to any activity.
h) Perform regular exercise around your shoulder, hip, and wrist joints etc.
Causes of fracture
Fracture usually occurs due to a high impact on the bone. It can be causes by overuse.
The most common causes of fracture are:
f) Osteoporosis.
Management of Fracture
a) Elevate the extremity and rest while bone heals itself.
e) After removal of swelling begin to put partial weight on the affected area.
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f) Crutches or walking stick may be used in the beginning. After two weeks start
putting normal weight.
g) For 6 to 8 weeks, avoid the activity that caused stress fracture. Then start doing
the activity slowly.