EDUC 201 CHAPTER 5

COGNITIVE
PERSPECTIVE
FERMIN | FRONDA | GABRIEL | GARCIA | LABASAN | LAGONILLA
BSED ENGLISH - 2B
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the fundamental Explore the role of cognitive

01 principles of cognitive
psychology. 02 processes and models in shaping
human behavior and decision-
making.

Analyze the application

03 of cognitive theories to
real-world contexts.
A. GESTALT
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the
cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation
of the cognitive perspective to learning. It
opposed the external and mechanistic focus of
behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and
products of perception.

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to

behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory
wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.
The term gestalt means "form’ or "configuration."
A core belief in Gestalt psychology is holism, or
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
This school of psychology has played a major role in
the modern development of the study of human
sensation and perception.
PROPONENTS

Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt

Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or
learners) are not passive, but rather active.
They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is
but they actively process and restructure data in order to
understand it. This is called the perceptual process.

Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past

experiences, needs, attitudes and one's present situation can affect
their perception.
B. GESTALT
PRINCIPLES
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we
form our perceptions are guided by certain
principles or laws. These principles or laws
determine what we see or make of things or
situations we meet.
I. LAW OF PROXIMITY

Elements that are

closer together
will be perceived
as a coherent
object.
II. LAW OF SIMILARITY

Elements that look

similar will be
perceived as part of
the same form.
III. LAW OF CLOSURE

We tend to fill the gaps

or “close”the figures we
perceive. We enclose a
space by completing a
contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.
IV. LAW OF GOOD CONTINUATION

Individuals have the tendency

to continue contours whenever
the elements of the pattern
establish an implied direction.
People tend to draw a good
continuous line.
V. LAW OF GOOD PRAGNANZ

The stimulus will be

organized into as good a
figure as possible. In
this example, good refers
to symmetry, simplicity,
and regularity.
VI. LAW OF FIGURE / GROUND

We tend to pay attention

and perceive things in
the foreground first. A
stimulus will be
perceived as separate.
C. INSIGHT
LEARNING
INSIGHT LEARNING
Gestalt psychology adheres to the
idea of learning taking place by
discovery or insight. The idea of
insight learning was first developed
by Wolfgang Kohler in which he
described experiments with apes
where the apes could use boxes and
sticks as tools to solve problems.
 THE STORY OF
SULTAN THE APE

In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee's

cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on and
jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler's apes (Sultan) could solve this
problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of
boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack
one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a
stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake
food into the cage: Sultan, Kohler's very intelligent ape, was able to
master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the
other in order to reach the food.
INSIGHT LEARNING

In each of these problems, the important aspect of

learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of
thinking to create new organizations (of materials)
Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or
discovery learning.
D. LIFE SPACE
BY LEWIN
PROPONENT

He expounded the
gestalt psychology and
his theory is focusing
on "life space".
LIFE SPACE
Life space or Field is the psychological
representation of the individual’s environment.
LIFE SPACE
Life space or Field is the psychological
representation of the individual’s environment.

Inner forces- includes motivation, attitudes and

feelings.
LIFE SPACE
Life space or Field is the psychological
representation of the individual’s environment.

Inner forces- includes motivation, attitudes and

feelings.

Outer forces- includes the attitude and behavior

of the teacher and classmates.
 MARIO POLITO
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that
occurs in the here and now. It considers with interest the life
space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in the
complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but
accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates
learning as experience and the experience as a source of
learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning that we
attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a
continious organisation and rearrangement of information
according to needs, purposes and meanings: It asserts that
learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight.
Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by teacher.
The time necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and
existential remodelling is respected. The contact experience
between teachers and students is given value: an authentic
meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.
 E.
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
THEORY
HISTORY

It was develop by American psychologists including

George Miller in the 1950's. Information
Processing Theory has in recent years compared the
human brain to a computer. The ‘input’ is the
information we give to the computer – or to our
brains – while the CPU is likened to our short-
term memory, and the hard-drive is our long-term
memory.
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
It is a cognitive theoretical framework that
focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in
and is retrived from our memory. It is one of the
most significant cognitive theories in the last
century and it has strong implications on the
teaching-learning process.
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
 TYPES OF
KNOWLEDGE
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
General Vs. Specific

This involves whether the

knowledge is useful in many
tasks, or only in one
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
Declarative

factual knowledge
relate to the nature of
how things are
may be in a form of a word
or an image
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
Procedural

includes knowledge on how to

do things.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
Episodic

memories of life events.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
Conditional

about “knowing when and why”

to apply declarative or
procedural strategies.
 STAGES OF
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
 3 PRIMARY STAGES OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING

ENCODING

Information is sensed,
perceived, and attended to.
 3 PRIMARY STAGES OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING

STORAGE

Information is stored for

either a brief or extended
time.
 3 PRIMARY STAGES OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING

RETRIEVAL
Information is brought back
at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use of a
current task.
MEMORY MODEL/SYSTEM

SENSORY MEMORY
(DECAY)
recall what you see
MEMORY MODEL/SYSTEM

SHORT-TERM MEMORY
(FORGETTING)
currently thinking
working memory
MEMORY MODEL/SYSTEM

LONG-TERM MEMORY
(RETRIEVAL)
extended period until needed
 FORGETTING

DECAY
eroded or an information is
not used for a while
 FORGETTING

DISPLACEMENT
an information is pushed out
of memory by other
information.
H. Gagné’s
Conditions
of Learning
Introduction
In his theory, Gagne specified several different
types or levels of learning. He stressed that
different internal and external conditions are needed
for each type of learning, thus his theory is called
conditions of learning. He also provided nine
instruction events that serve as basis of sequencing
of instruction.
Who is Robert M. Gagné?
Robert Mills Gagné (August
21, 1916 – April 28, 2002)

an American educational
psychologist best known for
his Conditions of Learning
He went on to develop a
series of studies and works
that simplified and
explained what he and others
believed to be "good
instruction."
I. Categories
Of Learning
Verbal Information

Verbal information, or declarative

knowledge, is seen when the learner is
able to declare or state what he or she
has learned.
Intellectual Skills

Intellectual skills, formerly known as

procedural skills, is the most clear-cut
way to identify the learner’s
preparedness. They include concepts,
rules and procedures.
Cognitive Strategies

Gagné defines cognitive strategies as

enabling learners to “exercise some
degree of control over the processes
involved in attending, perceiving,
encoding, remembering, and thinking”
(Gagné, 1984).
Motor Skills

This learning involves seeing how the

learner is able to carry out steps of a
motor performance, or procedure, in proper
order; it is the combining of part-skills ,
or hands on nursing skills.
Attitude

Attitudes are inferred internal states that

cannot be observed directly and sometimes
described as having emotional and cognitive
components; they influence behavior (Gagné,
1984).
J. Events of
Instruction
1. Gaining Attention (Reception)
Distractions are the enemy of learning.
Use a strong and noticeable auditory,
visual or verbal cue to signal the start
of the training session, grab your
learners’ attention and shift focus from
what’s going on around them.
2. Informing learners of the objectives
(Expectancy)
Place a value on your training and drive
motivation by making it clear what your
learners will achieve: personally,
professionally, and as part of a wider
team.
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
(Retrieval)
Learning is a process consisting of many
steps where each new piece of
information is built upon the last.
Prior experiences facilitate the
learning process because they allow
information to be stored meaningfully.
4. Presenting the stimulus (Selective
perception)
After drawing on prior knowledge, the
content is then presented to each
learner. Information should be presented
in various ways in order to meet
everyone’s learning style.
5. Providing learning guidance
(Semantic encoding)
For learning to be effective, it has to
have meaning above and beyond words on a
page or bullet points in a presentation.
Bringing learning to life by
illustrating your message in different
ways supports better recall and
retention of information.
6. Eliciting Performance (Responding)

It is now the learner’s turn to direct

the next event by practicing the skill
taught. The learner will demonstrate
their understanding with a performance,
which will further cement their
knowledge on the topic. However, the
role of the instructor is still
valuable.
7. Providing feedback (Reinforcement)
Feedback is a valuable tool used to keep
students on track towards the learning
goal. Personal and timely guidance from
the instructor allows students to modify
their performance in order to meet the
objective. Feedback from their peers is
also valuable, as it may help answer
their questions during the learning
process.
8. Assessing performance (Retrieval)

Assessing student performance is usually

demonstrated in the form of a summative
assessment; whether the learner is able
to meet the objectives without prompting
or support.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
(Generalization)
One way to support retention of skills
is by practice. This event is often the
least favored by students as they find
the repetition rather tedious.
Ausubel’s Meaningful
Verbal Learning/
Subsumption Theory
 David Paul Ausubel
He was an American Psychologist born
in New York.

His most significant work in the

fields of educational psychology,
cognitive science, and science
education was on the development and
research on the advance organizers.
Introduction
The main theme of David Paul Ausubel’s Theory is
that knowledge is hierarchically organized.

New information is meaningful to the extent that

it can be related to what is already known.

Instead of just memorizing the information, the

learners must manipulate the ideas to ensure
meaningful learning.
 Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
1. The most important factor influencing learning is
the quantity, clarity and organization of the
learner’s present knowledge.
2. Meaningful Learning takes place when an idea to
be presented is related to the ideas that the
learner already possesses.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is

anchored on the principle of subsumption.

Subsumption is a process by which new material is related

to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure.
Four Processes for Meaningful Learning
Derivative Subsumption.
This describes the situation in which the new
information you learn is an example of a concept
that you have already learned.

Correlative Subsumption.
In order to accommodate the new information, you
must expand or change your existing knowledge.
Four Processes for Meaningful Learning
Superordinate Learning.
In this process, the learner already knows a lot of
examples of the concept but does not know the
concept itself until it was taught.

Combinatorial Learning.
This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with
prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both
concepts.
Those are all
Vegetables.
 ADVANCE
ORGANIZERS
The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by
Ausubel. The advance organizer, gives. you two benefits:

(1) You will find it easier to connect new information with what
you already know about the topic, and

(2) you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are
related to each other.

As you go about learning about the topic and go through the four
learning processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new
learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers
facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your
cognitive structure.
 Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with
overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are
presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the
rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge
between new learning material and existing related ideas.
TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
1. Expository
- describes the new content.

2. Narrative
- presents the new information in the form of a story to
students.

3. Skimming
- is done by looking. over the new material to gain a basic overview.
4. Graphic Organizer
- visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may
include. pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns,
concept maps.

ADDITIONAL
5. KWL Charts
- dividing the page into three columns. The first column is for
the information that they know (K). Second column is for the
informatiion that they want (W) to know. And for the third
column is the knowledge that they have learned (L)

6. Analogies
- comparisons of two things that are alike in some way
 SPIRAL
CURRICULUM
Jerome Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to
boosting cognitive development. Students will not understand the
concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher's
level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the
learners' cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is
to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate
to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum
should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student
continually builds upon what they have already learned.
In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by
teaching the same content in different ways depending on
students' developmental levels. This is why certain topics are
initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for
grade schoolers, and then the same topic is tackled in high
school, but on a much deeper ·level. Sometimes a topic can be
revisited within the same semester or school year.
R.A. 10533 Sec. 5 Curriculum Development
"The curriculum shall use the spiral. progression approach to
ensure mastery of knowledge. and skills after each level."
 In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again
and again as you go up the Grades. This supports mastery of
concepts.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and
contexts that make the student willing. and able to learn
(readiness).

2. Instruction must. be structured so that it can be easily

grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and

or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
To further understand, let’s give an example.
Reed-Kellogg Diagramming

Past Perfect Continuos, Present Perfect

Continuous, Future Perfect Continuous
Ex: I had been studying, I have been studying,
I will have been studying

Past Continuos, Present Continuous, Future

Continuous
Ex: I was studying, I am studying, I will be
studying

Past Perfect, Present Perfect, Future Perfect

Ex: I had studied, I have studied, I will have
studied

Past Simple, Present Simple, Future Simple

Ex: I studied, I study, I will study
 THANKS!
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